literature review on effects of internet on students in philippines

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Title: Assessing the Impact of Emerging Technology Integration on Knowledge and Skills Acquisition of K-12 Students in the Philippines: A Systematic Literature Review

This systematic literature review aims to assess the impact of emerging technology integration on the knowledge and skills acquisition of K-12 students in the Philippines. Through a comprehensive search of relevant databases and publications, the study identifies and synthesizes existing research on technology integration in the Philippine education system, focusing on the K-12 curriculum. The study examines the impact of various emerging technologies, including artificial intelligence, social media, e-learning, and others, on student learning outcomes, and identifies the challenges and opportunities in the integration of these technologies in education. The findings of this study can contribute to the improvement of technology integration in the K-12 curriculum in the Philippines, and inform future research on the topic.

Related Papers

Prioritization, Implementation and Integration of ICT Among NOPSSCEA Schools

Cheryl E . Dublar PhD

ICT PRIORITIZATION, IMPLEMENTATION, INTEGRATION OF ICT Abstract This paper presents findings on the level of prioritization, implementation, and integration of ICT among NOPSSCEA schools as perceived by administrators, faculty members, and students, specifically in the education program. A total of 320 students, 66 faculty members, and 16 administrators from seven (7) NOPSSCEA school members responded to the survey questionnaire. Employing the quantitative method, t-test and ANOVA were applied and the level of significance was set at 0.05l. When taken as a whole, results for administrators and students were high, while faculty was average. These findings imply that out of three categories, faculty members claimed that prioritization, implementation, and integration of ICT were not given due emphasis and NOPSSCEA schools vary in their perceptions. Therefore, the null hypothesis stated in this regard was rejected in all aspects. The researcher, therefore, recommended that the ICT Integration Framework that was developed based on the National ICT Competency Standard (NICS) for teachers must be implemented to enhance the faculty ICT pedagogy. Teachers’ intensive training, well-resourced school technology infrastructure, empowerment of ICT department, administrators’ consistent support, and students’ active participation in the ICT implementation process were also highly recommended.

Myra Villanueva

researchgate.net

Joseph Carreon

There is a need for embracing change that creates a transformative educational landscape resulting in highly innovative, engaging instruction and improved 21st-century competencies. Administrators are driving force behind these initiatives capable to create an engaging environment for active teaching-learning mechanisms and a vision of fostering lifelong learners with a global perspective. This descriptive method of research was conducted to determine the Information Communication Technology profile capabilities and management competencies of 30 school administrators in the selected schools in the Division of Imus City. The findings of the study showed that the availability of electrical service supports the entire schools which have sufficient, but unstable technology tools and equipment. School administrators were highly proficient in utilizing funds for teachers' training despite inadequate funding to maintain technology resources. Schools were highly capable of utilizing available technology and other instructional media in designing activities appropriate for diverse learners. However, school administrators were moderately capable of ICT leadership management and ICT instructional management with a mean of 3.34. Despite limited financial resources, administrators were highly capable of their blended learning fiscal management with a mean of 3.44. Meanwhile, this paper presents a development framework that underscore the ICT resource mechanisms geared towards the 21st century management competencies of school administrators which encompass the quality pedagogy and assessment; curriculum support system; propagation of digital tools; and finance allocation for rational internet connectivity and equitable access to technology resources in school-community that increasingly employed to ensure the sustainability of the ICT capability and competence.

Dave E Marcial

Information and communication technology (ICT) plays a vital role in teaching and learning. This paper presents the landscape of ICT competency of faculty in the teacher education institutions in the central region of the Philippines. Specifically, the study investigates the ICT competency level in institutions of higher learning offering teacher education programs in the four provinces in Central Visayas, Philippines. A total of 383 survey responses was analyzed in the study. Respondents are all faculty handling any professional and/or specialization courses in the teacher education. The ICT competency level is measured empirically in terms of work aspects described in the UNESCO's ICT Competency Standards for Teachers. The instrument used in data gathering was a survey questionnaire.This study reveals that the ICT competency level of the respondents is in the knowledge deepening level. The result implies that the teacher educators are integrative, student-centered and collabor...

Randy D . Sagun

Isiah Kobe H Policarpio

The current trend of educational technology in classroom affects the learning environment of the students considering different factors that affect the integration of technology.

Alberth Alberth , Emil Wiramihardja

Social media as a by-product of Web 2.0 has had significant implications, both theoretically and practically, on teaching and learning in the digital era. This paper critically discusses the potential of integrating Facebook into the teaching and learning of English as a Foreign Language (EFL). It will begin by identifying classical challenges associated with EFL classrooms across different cultural contexts (with particular emphasis on Asian countries), and subsequently argue how such challenges could potentially be addressed by integrating Facebook into such classrooms. Contemporary learning theories will be critically discussed to demonstrate the use of Facebook is inherently compatible with these theories. In particular, we will argue that social interaction mediated by technology is critical to both language learning and language acquisition. Some ideas on how to use Facebook in the EFL classroom, in terms of the learning activities, will also be presented and discussed and the interconnectivity between these activities and contemporary learning theories will be explored. Finally, whilst the discussion throughout this paper focuses primarily on the teaching and learning of English as a Foreign Language, the argument and ideas presented may also be relevant across different subjects (page 616).

Benilda Butron

1College of Graduate Studies and Teacher Education Research Philippine Normal University, City of Manila 1000 Philippines 2Faculty of Science, Technology, and Mathematics Philippine Normal University, City of Manila 1000 Philippines 3Department of Education Tanauan City J.P. Laurel Highway, Tanauan City, Batangas 4232 Philippines 4Science Department, Panipuan High School Panipuan, City of San Fernando, Pampanga 2000 Philippines

JPAIR Multidisciplinary Journal

Estela Itaas

CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research - Zenodo

Julieta A. Villanueva

RELATED PAPERS

Hilary Hollingsworth

Michael Canares

Scientia Pedagogica Experimentalis, 56(1), 3-32

Kiran Budhrani

mohammad wasil

Lester Laurente

nurul ikhsan

Students Internship Project as One of Learning Experiences

natalia damastuti

Esi Amonoo-Kuofi

Manuel Caingcoy

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Jem Cloyd Tanucan

Mohd Hazwan Mohd Puad

Bangladesh Teacher Education Journal (BTEJ), volume -02, number-01

Tahmina Sharmin

Leo Peter Dacumos

Country Profiles - English as a subject in basic education (ESBE) in Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam: Recommendations for policy and research

MARILU RAŇOSA MADRUNIO

Fernan Tupas

Cyril Cabello

corazon morilla

writer help

Rivika Alda

International Academic Forum

Adrián Arroyo Pérez

Alvin Vista

Universal Journal of Educational Research

Jovito Anito

khaliq bashar

Joselito Ereño

JET (Journal of English Teaching)

Adrian Marababol Abarquez

Sustainability

Gamaliel Gonzales

Information Technologies and Learning Tools

Michelle Pamela G . Ansayam

Celina P Sarmiento , Thaddeus Owen Ayuste

Asia-Pacific Science Education

Dane Leonardo

ICT4D: Global Perspectives, Asian Initiatives

Alexander Gonzalez Flor , Benjamina Flor

Ela Mae Reyes

American Journal of Education and Technology

minie bulay

Julcon Araiz

Technology Innovations in Statistics Education

Enriqueta D Reston

Edmer Pasion

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

The Social Media Usage and Its Impact on the Filipino Learners' Academic Performance Amidst the Online Education

Usage metrics.

• Educational psychology
• Educational technology and computing
• Other education not elsewhere classified
• Secondary education
• Sociology of education
• Early childhood education
• Teacher education and professional development of educators
• Higher education
• Special education and disability
• Primary education
• Physical education and development curriculum and pedagogy
• Environmental education and extension
• Education systems not elsewhere classified
• Education assessment and evaluation

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Child Health Nurs Res
• v.27(1); 2021 Jan

Empathy, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization among Filipino adolescents

Tadena shannen.

1 Graduate Student, School of Nursing, Hallym University, Chuncheon, Korea

Shin-Jeong Kim

2 Professor, School of Nursing, Research Institute of Nursing Science, Hallym University, Chuncheon, Korea

Jungmin Lee

3 Lecturer, School of Nursing, Hallym University, Chuncheon, Korea

The purpose of this study was to gain insights into empathy, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization among Filipino adolescents.

The participants were 168 junior high school students in the 7th to 10th grades at a public high school in Cavite Province, Philippines. Data were collected on demographic characteristics, the Basic Empathy Scale, and Revised Cyber Bullying Inventory-II scores. The data were analyzed in SPSS using descriptive statistics (frequency and mean), the independent t-test, bivariate correlation, and one-way analysis of variance.

The degree of empathy did not show a statistically significant relationship with cyberbullying (r=−.07, p =.359) but did show a significant relationship with cybervictimization (r=.18, p =.025). Furthermore, cyberbullying had a statistically significant association with cybervictimization (r=.60, p <.001).

Although empathy does not necessarily affect cyberbullying, higher levels of empathy were found among cyberbullying victims. However, an alarming result of this study is the possibility that victims may become cyberbullies. Therefore, we should highlight empathy as part of efforts to prevent cyberbullying and to solve various cyber-related problems. Since cyberbullying and cybervictimization are closely related, it is important to focus on this relationship and to make multilateral efforts to ensure that cyberbullying does not lead to other negative issues.

INTRODUCTION

Cyberbullying is more harmful than other types of violence because a negative post or comment can reach a limit-less number of social media (SM) users, thereby increasing the opportunity of prolonged exposure and permanency [ 1 , 2 ]. Furthermore, younger generations currently tend to embrace the use of SM [ 1 ]. A term related to “cyberbullying” is “cybervictimization’, which refers to the experience of being victimized through the use of electronic information on the internet [ 2 ]. Cyberbullying is considered to be a form of violent behavior; therefore, it is expected that cyberbullying causes detrimental effects for both the victim and the perpetrator.

The use of the internet for SM has steadily grown over time. As of January 2020, the estimated number of active SM users worldwide was 3.8 billion, reflecting an increase from the number of 3.4 billion in January 2019 [ 3 ]. In particular, during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, there has been an increase in the number of digital platform users [ 4 ]. Individuals are now actively posting their new achievements during the pandemic lockdown and expressing their opinions more vocally than before, as SM is now the most frequently used communication method for most individuals [ 4 ]. One study showed that as SM use increases, students who are prone to bullying are more likely to face cyberbullying [ 4 ]. There can be a limitless exchange of information among the SM users, and this information can sometimes be used in negative ways that may cause harm or make someone feel harassed. The act of harassing or harming someone via the use of SM is called cyberbullying. Cyberbullying can happen by sending harassing messages, posting derogatory comments on SM sites, posting humiliating pictures, and threatening someone electronically [ 5 ].

Victims of cyberbullying usually report feelings of depression, anger, frustration, and even suicidal thoughts. Cyberbullying has been found to be linked to low self-esteem, family problems, academic problems, violence, and delinquent behaviors [ 1 , 4 ]. In general, the estimated number of adolescents experiencing cyberbullying is around 10%-40%, although the percentage depends on age and the definition of cyberbullying used in the study [ 1 , 2 ]. In the United States, among a sample of 5,700 middle to high school students, 33.8% admitted to being cyberbullied, while 11.5% admitted to being perpetrators of cyberbullying [ 1 ]. In South Korea, 10.8% of 50,000 elementary to high school students experienced cyberbullying [ 6 ]. In a survey conducted in the Philippines, it was found that 80% of 1,143 respondents aged 13-16 years experienced cyberbullying [ 7 ].

A psychological factor related to the development of violent behavior is having a low empathy level. Empathy can be defined using two dimensions: cognitive and affective. Cognitive empathy is the ability to communicate, tolerate, recognize, and perceive emotions, while affective empathy refers to the ability to perceive and share both the positive and negative emotions of other people [ 8 ]. A study showed that lower levels of empathy increased the development of violent or aggressive behaviors, while a higher level of empathy decreased the development of violent or aggressive behaviors [ 9 ]. Since cyberbullying is considered to be a violent behavior, it is possible that empathy influences cyberbullying.

Adolescence is an important developmental stage when adolescents transition from childhood to adulthood. The changes experienced by adolescents also affect their roles in their family, with friends, and in their communities. Thus, it is vital to pay special attention to adolescents [ 10 ]. The parents of Filipino adolescents set the expectation that they are to be aware of their actions and the consequences corresponding to those actions [ 11 ]. Camaraderie is a factor valued by Filipino adolescents, which is why it is natural for them to be friendly, resulting in the expectation that they know how to empathize with someone [ 11 ]. Nonetheless, little research has discussed Filipino adolescents’ characteristics, and although favorable characteristics have been mentioned, there has been an increase in cases of cyberbullying in the Philippines [ 7 ].

It has been reported that inhabitants of the Philippines spend an average of 4 hours a day using SM, exceeding the values reported for other countries [ 3 ]. Since prolonged exposure to SM can increase victimization, Filipinos may be exposed to the harmful effects of SM for a longer time than others [ 1 ]. Although there has been an increase in the number of cases of cyberbullying in the Philippines, little research has tackled this issue. Because of the detrimental effects of cyberbullying, it is important for adolescents to be aware of its seriousness and the importance of putting an end to this violent behavior. Since adolescence is a vital stage of life, it is important to properly guide adolescents throughout this period. To the researchers’ knowledge, no published study has yet investigated empathy among Filipino adolescents and its possible influence on cyberbullying and cybervictimization.

The purpose of this study was to investigate empathy, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization among Filipino adolescents, with the following specific goals:

• To identify the degree of empathy, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization among junior high school students.
• To identify differences in empathy, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization according to participants’ general characteristics.
• To identify the relationships among empathy, cyberbullying, and degree of cybervictimization.

2. Theoretical Framework

Two theoretical frameworks were used to support the study: the social learning theory developed by Albert Bandura [ 12 ] and the general strain theory developed by Robert Agnew [ 13 ] ( Figure 1 ).

Empathy, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization framework.

Social learning theory [ 12 ] reflects the understanding that a person learns and develops attitudes, behaviors, and emotional reactions by observing others’ actions. It combines cognitive and behavioral learning theory. Cyberbullying incidents and SM may influence ones’ empathy due to what a person observes or experiences through SM. Along with other factors that may also affect someone’s empathy, a person might, or might not, engage in cyberbullying.

General strain theory [ 13 ] supports the assumption that negative experiences can lead to strain or stress. Victimization is considered a stressful experience, and according to this theory, experiences of stress or strain may cause a person to perform a positive or negative action to decrease the stress or strain. Within this framework, the study used general strain theory to investigate whether cybervictimization increased victims’ likelihood to engage in cyberbullying as a response to the strain that they experienced.

1. Study Design

This research is a descriptive study using a questionnaire to investigate empathy, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization among Filipino adolescents.

2. Participants

The participants were junior high school students who were currently enrolled in a public secondary school in Cavite Province, Philippines. Junior high school is the term used in the Philippines to describe grade 7 to 10 students, whereas in South Korea, the term middle or high school is used. The participants were students from grades 7 to 10 who were aged 12 to 19 years old and used SM applications. The school was selected using convenience sampling. The sample size for the correlation was calculated using G*Power 3.1.9.2. The results indicated that 164 participants were needed for an effect size of .25, a significance level of .05, and a test power of .95. Anticipating an 80% response rate, 201 participants were recruited. Responses from 168 participants were analyzed after excluding uncompleted questionnaires.

3. Measurements

The Basic Empathy Scale was developed by Jolliffe and Farrington [ 14 ] and validated among 363 adolescents (grade 10) in the United Kingdom. The scale is a 20-item instrument with two subscales (cognitive empathy with 9 items, Cronbach’s α = .79; affective empathy with 11 items, Cronbach’s α = .85). It is a 5-point Likert-type scale (strongly disagree=1, disagree=2, neutral=3, agree=4, and strongly agree=5). Eight items are reverse-scored. A higher score indicates a higher empathy level [ 14 ]. For the current study, four items were omitted to obtain a more acceptable Cronbach’s α. Each of the eight items was used to measure cognitive empathy and affective empathy. Cronbach’s α values of .67 for the complete empathy scale, .51 for cognitive empathy, and .52 for affective empathy were recorded. Cronbach’s α values ranging from .50 to .75 are generally accepted because these values indicate moderate reliability [ 15 ]. The researcher conducted a pilot study without omitting the four questions and recorded a Cronbach’s α of .79 for the complete empathy scale, .67 for cognitive empathy, and .65 for affective empathy. After omitting the four questions, Cronbach’s α values of .81 for the complete empathy scale, .80 for cognitive empathy, and .66 for affective empathy were recorded.

2) Cyberbullying and cybervictimization

The Revised Cyber Bullying (Cyber Victim) Inventory-II is the second revision of the tool developed by Topcu and Erdur-Baker [ 16 ] and validated among 1,803 high school students attending public high school in Ankara, Turkey. The purpose of the revision was to update and eliminate specific technology names. Consisting of 10 items, participants rate each item twice (once for reporting cyberbullying experience and once for reporting cybervictimization) on a 4-point rating scale (1=never, 2=once, 3=twice or three times, 4=more than three times). Scores are added to achieve the total score in each form. A total score of 10 means being not involved in cyberbullying or cybervictimization, respectively, whereas a higher score indicates more frequent engagement in cyberbullying and cybervictimization. The Cronbach’s α coefficients were .80 for the cybervictimization part and .79 for the cyberbullying part [ 17 ]. In this study, Cronbach’s α values of .80 for cyberbullying and .75 for cybervictimization were recorded. A pilot study recorded a Cronbach’s α of .88 for the entire questionnaire, .57 for the cyberbullying subscale, and .92 for the cybervictimization subscale.

3) Content validity index

The modified questionnaire used in this study to measure empathy was reviewed and approved by a group of experts, including two professors from the child and adolescent department and three nurses who had both worked in a pediatric unit at a university hospital for over 5 years and had doctoral degrees in nursing. The content validity index was .91 using the rating of item relevance.

4. Data Collection Method

After receiving approval to conduct the study from the Institutional Review Board of Hallym University, the researcher coordinated with a teacher at a public secondary school in the Philippines. The researcher was endorsed by the school principal, and a letter describing the timetable for gathering data, the research tools, the purpose of the study, and permission to conduct the study was personally given. After receiving permission to conduct the study, endorsement letters, student and parental consent forms were distributed to the students and were signed by both the student and parents as proof that they agreed to participate in the study. After receiving the consent forms, a pilot study was conducted among two students from each grade level to assess the validity of the tool. After validation, the researcher collected data by distributing the questionnaires, giving instructions, and remaining in the classroom for the duration of questionnaire completion be able to respond to any questions or clarification from the participants. It took around 15 minutes for each class to complete the questionnaires. The collected questionnaires were kept and locked in the cabinet of the corresponding author’s research room and were not accessible to any other researchers.

5. Ethical Considerations

The two instruments used in this study were approved for use by the original authors through email. In addition, the study was conducted after receiving approval from the Institutional Review Board of Hallym University (HIRB-2019-092). The study was conducted at a public secondary school. The researcher explained the purpose and procedure of the research to the participants who agreed to participate by completing an informed consent form. Assurance was given that the results of the study would only be used for the current study and that the anonymity of the participants would be maintained. Participants were provided snacks worth about $1 per person as compensation.

6. Statistical Analysis

Data were analyzed using SPSS for Windows version 25 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Participants’ demographic characteristics were analyzed in terms of percentage, frequency, and mean±standard deviation. The Shapiro-Wilk hypothesis test and the Levene test for equality of variance were performed to confirm the normality of the distribution and within-group normality. The t-test and analysis of variance were conducted to identify differences in empathy, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization according to participants’ characteristics. The Duncan multiple range test was used to determine specific differences between pairs of means. Bivariate correlation analysis was conducted to assess the relationships among empathy, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization

1. Descriptive Characteristics of the Participants

The descriptive characteristics of the participants are shown in Table 1 . Of the 168 participants, 44.0%(n=74) were male and 56.0%(n=94) were female, and their ages were 12-19 years old, with a mean of 14.3±1.4 years. Forty-four (26.2%) of the participants were in the 10th grade, followed by 25.6 % (n=43) in eighth grade, 24.4% (n=41) in seventh grade, and 23.8% (n=40) in the ninth grade. The most commonly utilized SM platform by the participants was Facebook (98.8%; n= 166). The average time of SM usage per day was 296.1±266.1 minutes (4.93 hours or almost 5 hours). Among the 168 participants, the majority used SM applications more than seven times per day (n=57, 34.3%), followed by three to four times (n=46, 27.7%), five to six times (n=39, 23.5%), and one to two times (n=24, 14.5%). The cell phone was the primary device used to check SM platforms (n=154, 91.7%). The predominant purpose of using SM was to watch videos (n=121, 72.0%), while the least common purpose was to read articles (n=62, 36.9%).

Demographic Characteristics of Participants ( N =168)

SM, social media; SNS, social networking site.

2. Degree of Empathy, Cyberbullying, and Cybervictimization

The content, mean score, and standard deviation of the Basic Empathy Scale and Revised Cyber Bullying Inventory-II are presented in Table 2 . The total mean score for empathy was 3.4±0.4 out of 5, indicating a high level of empathy among the participants. The item with the highest mean score was “I can understand my friend’s happiness when she/he does well at something” (3.7±1.1). Followed by “When someone is feeling ‘down’ I can usually understand how they feel” (3.6±1.2), “I often become sad when watching sad things on or in films” (3.6±1.3), “I can often understand how people are feeling even before they tell” (3.7±1.1), and “I can usually work out when people are cheerful” (3.6±1.1). The item with the lowest mean score was “I find it hard to know when my friends are frightened” (2.8±1.1). The average score was divided by 10 which is the number of items. Thus, for cyberbullying was 1.6±0.5, and that for cybervictimization was 1.7±0.6 out of 4, which indicated the existence of cyberbullying and cybervictimization, with a slightly higher score for the latter. “Insulting someone [on the internet]” was the item with the highest average score (1.9±1.0 for cyberbullying and 2.1±1.1 for cybervictimization), followed by “taking over the password of someone’s account [on the internet]”(1.8±0.9 for cyberbullying and 1.8±0.9 for cybervictimization). “Creating a humiliating website [on the internet]” showed the lowest mean score (1.1±0.5 for cyberbullying and 1.2±0.6 for cybervictimization).

Empathy, Cyberbullying, and Cybervictimization of the Participants ( N =168)

3. Differences in the Level of Empathy, Cyberbullying, and Cybervictimization According to Participants’ General Characteristics

Patterns in empathy, cyberbullying and cybervictimization according to participants’ general characteristics are shown in Table 3 . Total empathy, cognitive empathy, and affective empathy were significantly higher among female participants than among male participants (t=3.82, p <.001, t=2.19, p =.030, and t=4.05, p =.001, respectively). However, there were no significant differences in cyberbullying and cybervictimization by gender (t=0.20, p =.838, and t=0.35, p =.724, respectively).

Differences in Participants’ Empathy, Cyberbullying, and Cybervictimization According to Their Characteristics ( N =168)

There was a statistically significant difference in total empathy and both cognitive and affective empathy according to grade level (F=3.90, p =.010, F=3.80, p =.012, and F=3.45, p = .010, respectively). Empathy was significantly higher among grade 10 students than among students of the other grade levels, but the Duncan post hoc test showed no significant difference in the mean scores. In addition, participants’ grade showed a statistically significant association with cyberbullying (F=3.03, p =.031). Cyberbullying was significantly more common among students in grade 8 than among students of the other grade levels, but the Duncan post hoc test showed no significance. In addition, cybervictimization showed a statistically significant difference according to grade level (F=7.66, p <.001), and was also higher in grade 8 participants, but the Duncan post hoc test showed no significance.

Statistically significant differences in total empathy and both cognitive and affective empathy were found according to participants’ age (t=2.86, p =.005, t=2.67, p =.008, and t=2.51, p =.013, respectively). There were no significant differences in cyberbullying or cybervictimization by age (t=0.59, p =.558, and t=1.13, p =.262, respectively). Finally, there were no significant differences in any dependent variables according to the daily use of SM.

4. Correlations among Empathy, Cyberbullying, and Cybervictimization

Cybervictimization was significantly correlated with participants’ total empathy (r=.18, p =.025) and cognitive empathy (r=.17, p =.030), but not with affective empathy (r=.12, p =.114). Total empathy was not significantly correlated with cyberbullying (r=−.07, p =.359). Cyberbullying was significantly correlated with cybervictimization (r=.60, p <.001) ( Table 4 ).

Correlations among Empathy, Cyberbullying, and Cybervictimization ( N =168)

The Philippines has a total population of 108 million, of whom 73 million are active SM users [ 3 , 18 ]. In the current study, Facebook was the most used SM application used by adolescents. In 2020, Facebook had approximately of 2.4 billion monthly users worldwide, thus making it the most popular SM application [ 3 ]. In the Philippines, Facebook is currently the most popular SM application, with at least 70 million users, and most SM users use cellphones to access SM; this trend was also found in a study conducted among Filipino adolescents [ 18 ]. The Philippines have had the longest average daily time of SM use for 4 consecutive years, which reached 4 hours in 2020 [ 3 ]. This finding is in line with the current study, which recorded an average of almost 5 hours of SM use. Most respondents used SM to watch videos (n=121) and for communication (n=106). Watching videos and communication were also the top 2 purposes of using SM in an earlier study [ 18 ].

Filipinos have been observed to value camaraderie and find it natural to be friendly to others, for which reason they place considerable importance on interpersonal relationships [ 11 ]. The importance placed on friendship may be interpreted as reflecting a high level of empathy among Filipino adolescents. The existence of cyberbullying and cybervictimization was evident according to the findings of the study. Even with the increase in cyberbullying in the Philippines, some undocumented cases may exist due to victims’ fear of their situation being publicized. Some schools also tend to under-report cyberbullying due to fears of tarnishing the school’s reputation [ 19 ].

Demographic characteristics are believed to possibly influence empathy, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization. A significant relationship was found between empathy and gender in the current study, with female adolescents scoring higher for empathy than male adolescents. This may result from gender expectations in Filipino culture between the two genders. Female adolescents are expected to help their mothers with chores and to take care of their siblings, which fosters nurturing characteristics and helps them to understand different emotions. In contrast, male adolescents are trained to be logical and independent, and to keep their emotions to themselves [ 20 ]. This may explain why the female participants in this study had a higher degree of empathy than the male participants. However, no significant relationship was found between cyberbullying or cybervictimization and gender, similar to another study conducted in the Philippines [ 21 ]. These results show that when considering factors influencing empathy, other demographic characteristics such as age, educational level, and economic level must also be considered, as well as gender. Thus, further research is needed to predict the variables that affect Filipino adolescents’ empathy regarding cyberbullying and cybervictimization.

The current study established a significant relationship between age and empathy. Another study also reported a similar result, and this relationship reflects the development of empathy, which grows with age until it reaches full development in adolescence [ 22 ]. However, some studies have reported a decrease in cognitive empathy and an increase in affective empathy in the elderly. A decrease in cognitive empathy may be related to reduced activity in brain areas associated with cognitive function [ 23 ].

No significant relationship was found between age and cybervictimization or cyberbullying in this study. This finding is similar to a study conducted among Filipino university students, where it was found that cyberbullying and cybervictimization experiences of students were not significantly related to their age [ 24 ].

There is scarce evidence regarding the relationships among grade level, empathy, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization. The current study identified a significant relationship between grade level and empathy, as well as with cyberbullying and cybervictimization. A study among grade 7-12 students found that the cognitive empathy of victims of cyberbullying was high [ 25 ]. However, in a comparison of cognitive empathy in cyberbully-victims (a term for victims who also engaged in cyberbullying) and bystanders, lower grade levels had higher levels of cognitive empathy than other groups, while higher grade levels had higher levels of cognitive empathy only among cyberbully-victims, but not bystanders. Furthermore, it was found that victimization increased after grade 7 and continued through grade 12 [ 25 ].

Empathy has consistently shown a negative relationship with antisocial behavior [ 15 ], implying that empathy may have a possible influence on cyberbullying. A study investigating the relationship between cyberbullying and empathy found out that a low level of both cognitive and affective empathy predicted cyberbullying [ 26 ]. The current study found no significant relationship between empathy and cyberbullying. The same result was found in another study, and a possible explanation for this result is that even though the participants had a high empathy level, which may make them sensitive to others’ emotions, they may have viewed cyberbullying as a normal phenomenon [ 27 ]. As such, it is crucial to provide Filipino adolescents with the necessary information to protect themselves against cyberbullying. In addition, active interest and participation of parents and teachers are needed for the development of programs, practices, and policies to protect and support this population from this problem.

Few studies have reported a relationship between empathy and cybervictimization. It was found that cybervictims scored higher than cyberbullies and uninvolved students or bystanders in both cognitive and affective empathy [ 28 ]. One study reported higher affective empathy among cybervictims [ 29 ]. Another study reported significant relationships of both cognitive and affective empathy with cybervictimization [ 30 ]. In the current study, total empathy and cognitive empathy, but not affective empathy, had significant relationships with cybervictimization. This finding of distinct relationships of cognitive and affective empathy with cybervictimization was not found in previous research. The significant relationship between cybervictimization and cognitive empathy may be explained by cybervictims’ capability to understand the perspective of others, while still having problematic social relationships, as shown by the lack of a significant association between affective empathy and cybervictimization. Furthermore, affective empathy is important in establishing social relationships [ 27 ].

Taking revenge is a possible response of a cybervictim to his or her bullies. The desire to take revenge may lead a cybervictim to engage in cyberbullying [ 30 ]. Another explanation is the application of general strain theory, which was developed by Agnew [ 13 ]. Greater exposure or experiences of cyberbullying may increase the likelihood that cybervictims will engage in cyberbullying to release their stress. This is an example of a negative response to strain. A study conducted in the Philippines and Turkey reported a positive relationship between cyberbullying and cybervictimization [ 21 ]. The current study yielded a significant relationship between cyberbullying and cybervictimization.

Several limitations were found in this study. The first is the length of the duration of data collection, which resulted in a small sample of participants from a single school. The second is that the researcher used convenience sampling to choose where to conduct the study and the participants to be included. Participants were picked by the teachers due to their availability and knowledge regarding SM use. The third is the use of a self-report survey. There is a possibility that students over-reported or misreported some data (e.g., SM time usage per day and the reasons for SM usage). The questionnaires used may have made the students feel discomfort, anxiety, and fear due to the questions. The fourth is the scarcity of articles about empathy, cyberbullying, cybervictimization, and characteristics of Filipino adolescents. The fifth is the reliability of the Basic Empathy Scale. This study recorded Cronbach’s α values of .67 for the total Basic Empathy Scale, .51 for the cognitive empathy subscale, and .52 for the affective empathy subscale. This is considered a low reliability score, but according to a book by Hinton et al. [ 15 ], a Cronbach’s α value ranging from .50 to .75 is accepted because it indicates moderate reliability.

Despite the limitations of this study, it still made a pertinent contribution to the study of empathy, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization.

The findings of this study shed important light on the issues of cyberbullying and cybervictimization, which could become more problematic in the COVID-19 pandemic. Empathy was not found to be negatively associated with cyberbullying. This can be explained by a lack of self-awareness, because some SM users post or send whatever they want without thinking about whether the content can harm others [ 1 ]. It is also possible that cyberbullying was viewed as a normal phenomenon, especially as SM use has increased over time. Cognitive empathy, but not affective empathy, was significantly associated with cybervictimization. It is possible for cybervictims to understand the emotions of others but still have difficulty in establishing social relationships or feeling the emotions of other people. The finding of this study that cyberbullying was significantly associated with cybervictimization is alarming. This relationship may be explained by the stress that cybervictims experience and their desire to take revenge on the perpetrators, especially since SM can be anonymously.

We expect that the findings of this study may contribute to the prevention of cyber-related problems among adolescents as it offers basic guidelines. Since adolescence can be a confusing period due to changes and transitions from childhood to adulthood, adolescents deserve special attention and guidance from people surrounding them. It is vital for parents, teachers, and even guardians to establish open and good communication with adolescents to properly guide them towards betterment. At this time, with one’s capacity to empathize, it is possible to become a bystander or a defender of a victim, for which reason we should highlight empathy in efforts to prevent and solve various types of cyber-related problems. We also suggest that as cyberbullying and cybervictimization are closely related, it is important to focus on this relationship and to make multilateral efforts to ensure that cyberbullying does not lead to other negative problems.

Acknowledgments

Conflict of interest

No existing or potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

Data availability

Please contact the corresponding author for data availability.