crime cause essay

Law and Crime

What are the "causes" of crime, it's important to differentiate between cause and opportunity..

Posted March 16, 2022 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan

• For decades, there has been a futile search for "root causes" of crime, citing nearly any adversity as causal to criminal conduct.
• There is a difference between an environmental cause and providing an "opportunity" for crime to occur.
• Critical to understanding criminal behavior are basic personality makeup and thinking patterns.

The perennial search continues to identify causes of criminal behavior. Nearly everything but the federal deficit has been identified as playing a causal role. The term “root cause” is still used to describe what are considered critical environmental factors. The earliest citation of a link between poverty (long considered a “root cause”) and crime has been attributed to Roman emperor and philosopher Marcus Aurelius (121-180 A.D.) who stated, “Poverty is the mother of crime.” In some quarters, crime is even considered to be a normal and adaptive response to economic disadvantage.

Unanticipated setbacks and hardship have been regarded as critically important to “pushing over the edge” into crime people who have been law-abiding throughout their lives. A woman in jail told me that when her boyfriend deserted her and her baby, she had no money even to purchase diapers. Out of desperation, she started selling drugs (eventually to an undercover police officer). She asserted that she is not a “criminal,” but just wanted to care for her infant. One might wonder the following: What does her choice of boyfriend say about her? Why did she not seek help to receive financial assistance? What, if any, was her prior connection to drugs and how did she find her way into the drug market? As was the case with this woman, there is always more to the story about the person committing a crime versus resolving her dilemma in a more responsible way.

Hardship does not "cause" criminal behavior

Let’s take three recent examples in which a particular hardship has been seen as causing people to turn to crime.

According to a Wall Street Journal column of December 6, 2021, Jen Psaki, the White House press secretary, stated that the COVID-19 pandemic is “a root cause [of a surge in crime] in a lot of communities.” The Washington Post reported that the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in “a growing subset of Americans who are stealing food.” A young woman explained to a reporter, “People are being forced to steal when they shouldn’t have to.” Another said, “I don’t feel too bad about taking $15 or $20 of stuff from Whole Foods when Jeff Bezos [owner of Whole Foods Market] is the richest man on earth.” The statements made by the two thieves clearly are after the fact justifications. One might wonder why one of them chose to shop at Whole Foods when it is one of the most expensive grocery chains. Next to this article was another that focused on a very different response to the pandemic— generosity by Black Americans despite their own hardships.

Millions of people have been struggling through the pandemic while suffering loss, illness, isolation, and financial pressures. There is no evidence that the pandemic has turned responsible people into criminals.

Recently, The Los Angeles Times (3/10/22) reported, “Concerns about gas thefts from cars rise as prices soar.” Citing a warning from the American Automobile Association, the Times stated, “There is a possibility that people are looking for crimes of opportunity [and] gasoline for their own vehicles.” Consequently, they are punching holes in gas tanks. However, most motorists are trying to become more economical and find ways to reduce gasoline consumption. Inflated prices do not “cause” criminal behavior.

Crime results from the way a person thinks

It is time to eliminate the term “root cause” because it turns out to be meaningless. Twelve years ago, a Christian Science Monitor article concluded with a simple statement, “The root cause of crime is the opportunity to commit it.” Opportunities present themselves, but only a small number of people exploit those opportunities in a criminal manner.

Making improvements to the environment can reduce opportunities for criminals to strike. However, such changes do not transform a criminal into a responsible person. Attributing criminal behavior to external circumstances perpetuates a deterministic view that ignores the role of choice and tends to absolve people of personal responsibility.

Crime results from the way a person thinks. One must look at the overall personality of the individual and his thinking patterns to understand the genesis of criminal behavior. Writing about juvenile crime in 1966, sociologist Robert MacIver stated, “To ask why delinquency occurs is like asking why human nature is what it is.”

Gerard Baker, "Biden Finds a Culprit for America's Crime Wave: Covid-19," The Wall Street Journal , 12/6/21

"More Americans are shoplifting among pandemic," The Washington Post, 12/13/20, p. G1

"While Black Americans have less, they give more," The Washington Post , 12/13/20, p. G1

"Concerns about gas theft from cars rise as prices soar," The Los Angeles Times , 3/10/22

Tim Worstall, "The root cause of crime? It's Simple," The Christian Science Monitor , 2/22/10

Robert M. McIver. The Prevention and Control of Delinquency , NY: Atherton Press, 1966, p. 41

Stanton Samenow, Ph.D. , an expert in criminal behavior, was the author of many books including Inside the Criminal Mind .

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Sample Essay on Rising Crime Rates

Posted by David S. Wills | Nov 21, 2022 | Model Essays | 0

There are many common IELTS topics that you frequently see in task 2 of the writing test, and one of those is the topic of crime. Today, we are going to look at a sample essay relating to this subject and I’ll point out some useful ideas in terms of vocabulary and structure.

Analysing the Question

Before you start any IELTS essay, you should spend a moment thinking about the question. This is important because sometimes they can be trickier than they initially appear.

Here’s our question for today:

In many countries, the level of crime is increasing and crimes are becoming more violent. Why do you think this is and what can be done about it?

Fortunately, this is not a difficult question. The meaning is pretty straightforward and I think most people could grasp what they need to do. Ultimately, you need to do two things:

• Say why crime is increasing in frequency and level of violence
• Suggest some solutions to this problem

This is what’s known as either a “ cause and solution essay ” or “problem and solution essay.” Either way, you have two parts – either a cause or a problem and then a solution to that problem.

It is important you don’t focus only on one part. Also, in this particular question, don’t overlook the fact that it’s about both rising crime levels and rising violence levels.

Generating Ideas

This isn’t the easiest question to answer. Actually, it took me a while to think of some good ideas for it because, to the best of my knowledge, crime (and especially violent crime) has actually been decreasing in recent decades! Look at this line graph:

Of course, that’s just for Western Europe, and in some parts of the world the opposite trend can be observed. Here, we can see that some places have, sadly, seen a rise in homicides (that means the same as murder):

Considering the question, I had to think creatively. In those places that I don’t really know about, what factors could have caused rising crime levels and in particular rising violent crime rates?

To answer questions like this, it’s not enough just to be good at English. You need to have a good general knowledge and that means you should read widely, listen to podcasts, watch the news, and become an informed world citizen.

I have a whole article on learning to generate great ideas for IELTS essays.

Structuring your Essay

When it comes to cause and solution essays, I typically structure them like this:

There may be other great ways to structure your essay, but this is my preference. It allows me to write sample answers quickly and effectively, putting forth my position as clearly as possible in a very short time.

Think about it: You have two things to write, so why not put one in each of your body paragraphs? Simple!

I will structure this essay as follows:

In this sort of essay, it can be hard to write an introduction and in particular an essay outline . That’s because you aren’t putting forth any opinion and instead you’re hinting at the ideas that you will explain later.

I want to make clear in my essay that this is not an easy situation to explain and that it will also be hard to fix! Don’t worry. You can be honest. It’s better to give a nuanced explanation than to simply say, “We need the government to solve it.” That is simplistic and lacks intelligence.

Finally, remember to include a conclusion that summarises your ideas without repeating them.

Vocabulary about Crime

I have a whole article on the IELTS topic of crime and punishment . It gives lots of vocabulary and even includes a helpful video that can make learning more interesting!

In this essay, I will use the following words and phrases:

Remember that you can always learn more crime-related vocabulary by searching on Google News or just reading the newspaper each day. I highly recommend that you check out websites such as BBC News and The Guardian . You will see a lot of articles about crime there.

Sample Band 9 Answer

In some parts of the world, crime rates are increasing and the types of crime are becoming more violent. This can be attributed to urbanisation and the deterioration of traditional values and, in order to fix it, societies will need to work to give people more opportunities.

Whilst crimes rates are plummeting in most parts of the world, in some places they are on the rise. Obviously, the reasons for this depend on the individual location, but generally it seems to happen because people are moving from traditional ways of living to big cities. The problem is that, in small communities, people have purpose and accountability. In other words, a young man would be known by all the people in his village and have a job to do in order to contribute to that society. However, when the village disbands and he goes to the big city, it is not easy to make a good living. He might become part of a gang or become addicted to drugs. Without accountability and in the comparatively anonymous environment of the big city, he could easily become engaged in desperate and violent crimes.

Fixing this sort of problem is never easy, but there are various approaches. Certainly, it helps to improve policing but perhaps the problem can be stopped at its root if people are given more education and opportunity. These people would likely not turn to crime if they were supported as part of a community. Again, this is not an easy thing to facilitate, but it is possible through different approaches. Ultimately, the aim needs to be maintaining social values and giving people a sense of responsibility and purpose. When people have these things, they are much less likely to engage in violent crimes.

In conclusion, there are myriad reasons for crime rates increasing but perhaps urbanisation and the loss of traditional values are to blame. Giving people purpose and making them accountable for their own actions could counteract this.

As I mentioned above, I felt surprised that this question talked about rising crime rates but it does make sense when you think that certain countries or parts of countries are indeed experiencing this problem. Thus, I tried to put my feelings forward with careful explanations.

You will see that my body paragraphs are quite complex. That’s because this is not a simple topic. I don’t feel it’s possible to get a band 9 for Task Response without explaining just how complex the causes and solutions to crime are. It is not an easy issue to discuss.

You will see that I’ve avoided any bizarre vocabulary. Long-term readers of this blog will know that such an approach is not helpful. The best thing is to use the right word, whatever that may be. Aim for accuracy rather than obscurity.

About The Author

David S. Wills

David S. Wills is the author of Scientologist! William S. Burroughs and the 'Weird Cult' and the founder/editor of Beatdom literary journal. He lives and works in rural Cambodia and loves to travel. He has worked as an IELTS tutor since 2010, has completed both TEFL and CELTA courses, and has a certificate from Cambridge for Teaching Writing. David has worked in many different countries, and for several years designed a writing course for the University of Worcester. In 2018, he wrote the popular IELTS handbook, Grammar for IELTS Writing and he has since written two other books about IELTS. His other IELTS website is called IELTS Teaching.

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Essay on Crime

Students are often asked to write an essay on Crime in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Crime

Understanding crime.

Crime refers to acts that violate the law. They are considered harmful and punishable by a governing authority. Crimes can range from theft to murder.

Types of Crimes

There are various types of crimes. Violent crimes include actions like assault, while theft falls under property crimes. White-collar crimes involve fraud or embezzlement.

Consequences of Crime

Crimes have severe consequences. They can lead to imprisonment, fines, or even death penalties. Moreover, they harm communities and individuals, causing fear and damage.

Preventing Crime

Preventing crime involves law enforcement, education, and community programs. Everyone can contribute to a safer society by obeying laws and reporting suspicious activities.

250 Words Essay on Crime

Introduction.

Crime, a pervasive aspect of society, is an act that violates a law and is punishable by the state. It disruptively breaches societal norms, creating a sense of insecurity and fear. This essay delves into the nature of crime, its causes, and the role of law enforcement.

The Nature of Crime

Crime is a complex phenomenon, varying across cultures and societies. It ranges from minor offences like theft to severe ones like homicide. The nature of crime reflects societal values, as what is considered criminal is determined by the prevailing legal and moral code.

Causes of Crime

The causes of crime are multifaceted, involving biological, psychological, and sociological factors. Biological theories suggest genetic predispositions towards criminal behaviour. Psychological theories focus on the individual’s mental processes and their interaction with the environment. Sociological theories, on the other hand, emphasize societal structures and inequalities as major crime contributors.

Law Enforcement and Crime

Law enforcement agencies play a crucial role in maintaining order, preventing crime, and ensuring justice. They function as a deterrent, keeping potential criminals in check. However, their effectiveness is contingent upon their ability to adapt to evolving criminal tactics.

In conclusion, crime is a societal issue with deep roots in individual and social structures. Understanding its nature and causes is key to formulating effective strategies for prevention and control. As society evolves, so too must our approach to understanding and combating crime.

500 Words Essay on Crime

Crime, a social and legal concept, has been a part of human society since its inception. It refers to the actions that violate the norms and laws of a society, leading to harm or potential harm to individuals or the community. The study of crime, its causes, effects, and prevention, is a crucial aspect of sociology, psychology, and criminology.

Crime is a complex phenomenon, varying across societies and times. It is not static but evolves with societal norms and legal frameworks. What may be considered a crime in one society may not be in another, and similarly, what was a crime in the past might not be so today. For instance, homosexuality was once criminalized in many societies, but it is now widely accepted and decriminalized.

Types of Crime

Crimes are generally categorized into personal crimes, property crimes, inchoate crimes, statutory crimes, and financial crimes. Personal crimes involve direct harm or threat to an individual, such as assault or robbery. Property crimes involve interfering with another person’s property, like burglary or theft. Inchoate crimes are those that were started but not completed, while statutory crimes are violations of specific statutes. Financial crimes, such as fraud or embezzlement, involve the illegal conversion of property ownership.

The causes of crime are multifaceted, often interwoven with societal, psychological, and economic factors. Poverty, lack of education, substance abuse, and family violence are some common societal factors leading to crime. Psychological factors include personality disorders, low self-control, and aggression. Economic factors, such as unemployment or income inequality, also contribute significantly to crime rates.

Effects of Crime

Crime prevention strategies are as diverse as the causes of crime. They include social strategies, such as improving education and employment opportunities, and legal strategies, such as effective law enforcement and fair judicial systems. Psychological interventions, like counseling and therapy, can also play a significant role in crime prevention.

Understanding crime is essential to creating a safe and harmonious society. By examining its nature, types, causes, effects, and prevention, we can develop effective strategies to reduce crime rates and mitigate its impact on individuals and communities. It is a collective responsibility that requires the concerted efforts of individuals, communities, and governments.

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

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Beyond Policing: The Problem of Crime in America

José luis morín.

1 John Jay College of Criminal Justice, CUNY, New York City, NY, USA

Photo by Francois Polito. Sculpture by Carl Fredrik Reuterswärd.

In 2020, the United States experienced the sharpest one-year rise in homicides on record. 1 In 2021, hate crimes also surged to their highest level in twelve years, with the largest increases being anti-Black crimes followed by anti-Asian crimes. 2 Pundits and politicians on the right have been quick to cite bail reform and “defunding” of police as reasons for the national rise in crime. Yet, the best available evidence points to other causes—among them, the massive social and economic dislocation resulting from the Covid-19 pandemic and the nationwide proliferation of guns along with the spread of racial and ethnic hatred and the violence it has roused.

While violent crime today [is] much lower . . . than in 1991, when [it] reached its highest point in recent history, public anxiety about crime is high.

While violent crime today registers at much lower levels than in 1991, when violent crime reached its highest point in recent history, 3 public anxiety about crime is high. Yet, more police and a redoubling of get-tough measures, however alluring, have not proven to be as effective as they appear. An examination of what is not driving the recent spike in crime as well as what probably is driving it—and revisiting the role that policing and the criminal justice system has played in U.S. society in reproducing racial, social, and economic inequalities—may move us closer to arriving at effective public safety solutions.

Starting with What Is Not: Bail Reform and Defunding the Police

The purpose of bail is to “provide reasonable assurance of court appearance or public safety,” 4 but, a 2022 briefing report by the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights suggests that the current cash bail system is also associated with producing deleterious racial disparities and economic inequities that undermine the presumption of innocence and worsen public safety. 5 The Commission report points out that low-income persons and people of color are disproportionately detained as a result of their inability to make bail, and persons of color are more often assigned higher bail amounts and considered more “dangerous” than whites. 6 To persons jailed simply because they could not afford bail, jail can result in severe trauma: loss of employment, housing, custody of a child; and economic hardship. 7 The think tank, Prison Policy Initiative, issued a report in 2016 documenting that cash bail “perpetuates an endless cycle of poverty and jail time.” 8 Nevertheless, with crime rates on the rise in 2020, bail reform became a political cudgel, and New York State’s law became a focal point of harsh condemnation from the GOP and conservative media outlets nationwide. But analyses of bail reform show no clear link between bail reform and spikes in crime. 9

To reduce unnecessary pretrial detention and ameliorate the harms associated with cash bail, New York State passed a bail reform law in 2019, ending cash bail for certain misdemeanors and most non-violent felony cases. Changes to the original law in 2020 and 2022 gave judges the ability to impose cash bail in more situations. 10 To date, research on the law shows no significant impact on crime rates. One study by the Times Union of Albany found that, of almost 100,000 cases, only a minimal number (2 percent) of individuals faced rearrest for a violent felony. As a result, as many as 80,000 people may have avoided incarceration while posing no documented threat to public safety. 11 And, looking at the national picture, the Brennan Center for Justice, a progressive law and public policy institute, points out that crime surged nationally, even in states that did not enact bail reform. 12

Another report—this one from the Office of New York City Comptroller Brad Lander—covered three calendar years and revealed that “pretrial rearrest rates remained nearly identical pre- and post-bail reform.” 13 The Comptroller’s report also warned that rollbacks to New York State’s bail reforms would “syphon money” from low-income communities. Indeed, families unable to make cash bail often turn to for-profit bail bond companies that require a non-refundable premium of 10 to 15 percent, even if no wrongdoing is found. Some form of collateral—such as a car or house—is also required. As the bail bond industry has become increasingly lucrative, growing numbers of indigent persons and their families face steep financial risks. 14 Critics of bail reform, by contrast, have produced little to no empirical evidence to support their position. Outspoken in its condemnation of bail reform, the New York Police Department has fallen short in backing up its assertions that bail reform was causing increases in gun violence. In 2021, when challenged by Albany legislators, NYPD Commissioner Dermot Shea, failed to provide any hard data to support his contention that bail reform is driving up crime. In the end, he was forced to retract his statements. 15

The term “defunding the police” has been variously understood. For the purpose of this discussion, I define the term not as a movement to eliminate police budgets, but as a call to lessen encounters with police by shifting funds away from aggressive and militarized forms of policing toward social services—such as mental health, addiction, education, and housing. In its most literal meaning, “defunding the police” is frequently cited as a reason for the surge in crime. As with bail, hard evidence to support this allegation has not materialized. Of twelve Democratic-led cities (including Austin, Louisville, Rochester, and St. Paul) cited by Republicans as examples of where crime purportedly rose due to police defunding, criminal justice scholars find no discernible link between defunding and crime. In fact, not all twelve cities defunded police; most did not substantially reduce police funding, and some actually increased their police budgets. 16

Funding quality educational programs, by comparison, has proven to be successful in diminishing crime. 17 For example, two studies—one in North Carolina and one in Michigan—showed that increased expenditures on primary schools helped to reduce adult crime by improving student academic success, which in turn provides a greater opportunity for socio-economic mobility. 18

Examining What Is: Covid-19, Guns, and the Rise in Hate

Prior to the Covid-19 pandemic, crime rates were relatively low. As the graph in Figure 1 demonstrates, the rate of violent crime offenses declined from a peak in 1991 of 758.2 per year to 398.5 per year in 2020. 19 The rate of homicide over the same period also dropped significantly, from its highest level in 1991 compared with 2020. 20 But the crime rate shows an uptick with the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020.

Rate of violent crime offenses by population in the United States: 1985-2020.

Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Trend of Violent Crime from 1985 to 2020,” Crime Data Explorer, accessed September 19, 2022, https://crime-data-explorer.fr.cloud.gov/pages/explorer/crime/crime-trend .

Note. Rate per 100,000 people, by year.

The pandemic is widely understood as the cause of immense social and economic dislocation, disproportionately disadvantaging children, communities of color, immigrants, LGBTQIA+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning, intersex, asexual, and more) youth, and persons with disabilities. 21 The pandemic also exposed and aggravated deeply entrenched inequities in health care, poverty, education, housing, and racial segregation. Its impact on mental health and psychosocial well-being, substance abuse, and domestic violence has become a focus of attention in relation to the rise in crime. All these factors are related to the rise in crime.

As gun violence became a major driver of crime nationwide, hate crimes also spiked. During the pandemic, reports of hate crimes reached a twelve-year high.

The proliferation of guns and gun violence nationwide appears to have contributed greatly to the spike in homicides. Sharp increases in gun purchases coincided with the start of the pandemic in 2020 and continued well into 2021. 22 The increased supply of guns as well as the types of guns—high-powered semi-automatic weapons, for instance—has been linked to the surge in gun violence. 23 Criminologists Philip J. Cook and Jens Ludwig deem gun violence and the fear of gun violence as devastating to the lives of children and families around the country, most especially in low-income neighborhoods and communities of color. In their estimation, public safety begins with addressing the needs of communities most vulnerable to gun violence, and that includes investments in social policies, such as summer jobs for teens, cleaning vacant lots, and spending more on social programs—all of which have been shown to reduce homicide rates. 24

As gun violence became a major driver of crime nationwide, hate crimes also spiked. During the pandemic, reports of hate crimes reached a twelve-year high (see Figure 2 ). 25 While anti-Black incidents topped the list of hate crimes based on race, people of Asian descent experienced a steep rise in anti-Asian violence and crime, with a 169 percent increase in reports of anti-Asian hate crimes in fifteen of America’s largest cities and counties in the first quarter of 2021 when compared with the first quarter of 2020. 26

Hate crimes in the United States: 1995-2020.

Source: Hate Crime in the United States Incident Analysis, 1995 to 2020,” Crime Data Explorer, accessed October 6, 2022, https://crime-data-explorer.fr.cloud.gov/pages/explorer/crime/hate-crime .

. . . [I]t is no surprise that the earliest form of policing in the United States was the slave patrol, established in 1704.

Even before the pandemic, former President Donald Trump’s xenophobic, racially inflammatory rhetoric and policies were understood as green-lighting racial and ethnic violence. But unfortunately, this is not unique in our history. Hate groups of different types—white nationalists, neo-Nazis, and anti-government paramilitary organizations—historically have played a major role in the spread of hatred and violence.

Policing: The Historical Context

The history of policing in the United States may help us determine the best policies and practices to advance public safety without subjecting communities to abusive police practices.

The institution of slavery—and its continuance—was integral to the founding of the nation. So, it is no surprise that the earliest form of policing in the United States was the slave patrol, established in 1704. 27 The patrols were designed to maintain the system of slave labor and to capture runaway slaves. Patrollers, often armed, used violence to terrorize slaves and deter rebellions. In 1787, the apprehension of slaves was codified in the U.S. Constitution in Article IV, Section 2, commonly referred to as the “Fugitive Slave Clause.” The intent of the clause, which passed unanimously, was “to require fugitive slaves and servants to be delivered up like criminals.” 28 The clause was nullified by passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865. Slave patrols were also disbanded after the Civil War, only to be replaced by other forms of policing Black lives. These included the Ku Klux Klan and the institution of Jim Crow, which was maintained in Southern states by police who often used intimidation and terror to maintain a brutally oppressive system. 29

By the 1990s, the acquisition of military equipment by police forces across the country became ubiquitous . . .

Over time, police and other law enforcement agencies helped preserve and reproduce race and class inequality, as in the 1918 massacre of fifteen Mexican men in Porvenir, Texas and the 1921 Tulsa, Oklahoma massacre that resulted in destruction of a prosperous Black neighborhood. 30 Business and economic elites—such as Andrew Carnegie and Henry Clay Frick—also relied on police or private law enforcement agencies to employ deadly force against workers and union organizers. The massacre of strikers at the Homestead Steelworks in 1882 is one example; the 1897 massacre of coal miners in Lattimer, Pennsylvania is another. 31

The militarization of policing arose in the 1960s, amid cries for a “war on crime” and a “war on drugs.” In Los Angeles, Daryl F. Gates, then head of the Los Angeles Police Department, spearheaded an effort to outfit local police departments with military-grade armaments and equipment to handle emergencies, such as hostage situations and sniper shootings. By the 1990s, the acquisition of military equipment by police forces across the country became ubiquitous through a federal program that encouraged the militarization of law enforcement. 32 But, as a report from the American Civil Liberties Union documents, militarization, too, frequently came at the expense of individual civil liberties, particularly in Black and Latinx communities. 33

Police practices—including chokeholds, stop and frisks, and “broken windows” tactics—have come into question as the victims of police brutality have come into sharp focus. From George Floyd and Breonna Taylor to Eric Garner and Freddy Gray, their names are now familiar and—for some—synonymous with policing in the United States. Yet, despite the bright light shone on these cases, fatal police shootings continue to rise. According to the Washington Post , “2021 was the deadliest year for police shootings” since the newspaper began tracking such incidents in 2015. 34

Centering Communities to Advance Public Safety

Following incidents of excessive police force, municipalities commonly opt for police retraining. However, as some analysts observe, retraining is too often inadequate or ineffective in resolving or mitigating a recurrence of police misconduct. 35 Similarly, while there is merit to hiring police officers who resemble members of the communities they serve, a diverse police force does not necessarily decrease incidents of brutality against persons of color. Regrettably, research shows that a Black officer may be more inclined to use force in encounters with Black community members than white officers. 36 These officers often face the dilemma of how to fit into a police culture that commonly takes an “us against them” approach when patrolling communities. Aggressive behavior can be one way to prove that they belong. 37

Ensuring public safety requires attention to non-violent as well as violent situations. In the context of rising crime, expectations that police officers can resolve a wide array of concerns are high. Police are often called to aid unhoused people, assist individuals experiencing emotional difficulties, or settle domestic disputes. The police are not trained to handle such matters. Social workers or other trained professionals are much better equipped to deal with problems of this nature.

National data on homicide “clearance rates”—the rate at which homicide cases are resolved—also raise questions about the effectiveness of policing. In 2020, the clearance rate was just under 50 percent, representing a historic low and “a long, steady drop since the early 1980s, when police cleared about 70 percent of all homicides.” 38 The pandemic and the spike in violent crimes may help to explain the fall in clearance rates, but the data still beg the question of whether policing itself is sufficiently effective in meeting the public safety needs of contemporary society.

In determining the best approaches moving forward, the intractability of problems related to policing cannot be ignored. Policing remains a leading cause of death for young men in the United States. 39 People of color are most vulnerable, with Black men facing a one in one thousand risk of being killed by police. As we have seen, violent encounters with the police have profound effects on whole communities and neighborhoods, affecting the health and the life chances of individuals in those communities.

Community concerns about crime are real, especially in the most vulnerable communities of color. But the alternative of aggressive policing and mass incarceration has resulted in tremendous harm and cannot be the ultimate solution.

The high rate of recidivism—the rate at which persons released from prison are rearrested—does not point to a system that works well. The most recent Bureau of Justice Statistics covering a ten-year period (2008-2018) shows that “about 66 percent of prisoners released across 24 states in 2008 were rearrested within three years, and 82 percent were arrested within ten years.” 40 Recidivism rates this high should call into question the adequacy of the criminal justice system. It should also raise the issue of whether a system, focused on retribution rather than rehabilitation and public health, is actually serving the cause of public safety. These questions have found resonance with advocates of prison abolition. These abolitionists include scholars Angela Davis, Gina Dent, Ruth Wilson Gilmore, and Alex Vitale. In their view, the current structure of policing and incarceration is profoundly connected to systems of oppression. What is required, they believe, is a system that operates within a social-justice framework—one that substantively engages communities in maintaining their own safety. Such a system, they believe, would reaffirm the values of self-determination and community empowerment. 41 Rather than simply replicating punitive approaches that disproportionally and discriminatorily harm communities of color, abolitionists look to broader social solutions to the problem of crime—remedial measures such as restitution, reconciliation, rehabilitation, and restorative justice.

While a complete transformation of policing and the criminal justice system may not be on the immediate horizon, a variety of initiatives in recent years have sought to address the basic human needs of communities while minimizing negative interactions with police. In a 2021 experiment in Brooklyn, for example, the Brownsville Safety Alliance—a community-based organization—arranged for precinct police to disengage from their usual assignments in a two-block area for five days. In their place, trained violence interrupters and crisis management groups were charged with securing public safety. Although limited in duration, this pilot program has been praised by New York City officials as well as members of the community as “a model for the future.” 42 A range of other crime-reduction strategies that do not involve the deployment of police have also produced promising results. These include improvements in street lighting, clean-up of empty lots, provision of quality mental health and drug treatment services, and expansion of Medicaid services. 43

Community concerns about crime are real, especially in the most vulnerable communities of color. But the alternative of aggressive policing and mass incarceration has resulted in tremendous harm and cannot be the ultimate solution. The best, most promising option is to center communities and underlying social and economic inequality as the means to advance public safety.

Author Biography

José Luis Morín is a professor at John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York.

1 Jeff Asher, “Murder Rose by almost 30% in 2020: It’s Rising at a Slower Rate in 2021,” New York Times , September 22, 2021, updated November 15, 2021, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/22/upshot/murder-rise-2020.html .

2 Federal Bureau of Investigation, “FBI Releases 2020 Hate Crime Statistics,” August 30, 2021, available at https://www.fbi.gov/news/press-releases/press-releases/fbi-releases-2020-hate-crime-statistics ; See also, Christina Carrega and Priya Krishnakumar, “Hate Crime Reports in US Surge to the Highest Level in 12 Years, FBI Says,” CNN , October 26, 2021, available at https://www.cnn.com/2021/08/30/us/fbi-report-hate-crimes-rose-2020/index.html .

3 Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Trend of Violent Crime from 1985 to 2020,” Crime Data Explorer, available at https://crime-data-explorer.fr.cloud.gov/pages/explorer/crime/crime-trend .

4 Timothy Schnacke, “Fundamentals of Bail: A Resource Guide for Pretrial Practitioners and a Framework for American Pretrial Reform,” National Institute of Corrections, September 2, 2014, available at https://s3.amazonaws.com/static.nicic.gov/Library/028360.pdf .

5 U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, “Civil Rights Implications of Cash Bail,” Briefing Report, Washington, DC, available at https://www.usccr.gov/reports/2021/civil-rights-implications-cash-bail .

6 U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 10.

7 Adureh Onyekwere, “How Cash Bail Works,” Brennan Center for Justice at NYU Law, December 10, 2019, updated February 24, 2021, available at https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/how-cash-bail-works#:~:text=Cash%20bail%20is%20used%20as,is%20forfeited%20to%20the%20government ; See also, U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 6-8.

8 Bernadette Rabuy and Daniel Kopf, “Detaining the Poor: How Money Bail Perpetuates an Endless Cycle of Poverty and Jail Time,” Prison Policy Initiative , May 10, 2016, available at https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/DetainingThePoor.pdf .

9 Ames Grawert and Noah Kim, “The Facts on Bail Reform and Crime Rates in New York State,” Brennan Center for Justice at NYU Law, March 22, 2022, available at https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/facts-bail-reform-and-crime-rates-new-york-state .

10 Taryn A. Merkl, “New York’s Latest Bail Law Changes Explained,” Brennan Center for Justice at NYU Law, April 16, 2020, available at https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/analysis-opinion/new-yorks-latest-bail-law-changes-explained ; See also, Jon Campbell, “NY Lawmakers Pass $220B Budget that Changes Bail Reform, Approves Buffalo Bills Stadium Funding,” Gothamist, April 9, 2022, available at https://gothamist.com/news/ny-lawmakers-pass-220b-budget-that-changes-bail-reform-approves-buffalo-bills-stadium-funding?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=nypr-email&utm_campaign=Gothamist%20Daily%20Newsletter&utm_term=https%3A%2F%2Fgothamist.com%2Fnews%2Fny-lawmakers-pass-220b-budget-that-changes-bail-reform-approves-buffalo-bills-stadium-funding&utm_id=88591&sfmc_id=2849872&utm_content=202249 .

11 Grawert and Kim, “Bail Reform and Crime.”

12 Grawert and Kim, “Bail Reform and Crime.”

13 Office of New York City Comptroller Brad Lander, “NYC Bail Trends Since 2019,” available at https://comptroller.nyc.gov/reports/nyc-bail-trends-since-2019/ .

14 Gillian B. White, “Who Really Makes Money Off of Bail Bonds?” The Atlantic , May 12, 2017, available at https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/05/bail-bonds/526542/ ; See also, Onyekwere, “How Cash Bail Works”; Rabuy and Kopf, “Detaining the Poor.”

15 “During Questioning in Albany, NYPD Commissioner Shea Backtracks on Bail Reform Law as Big Reason for Gun Violence,” CBS New York , October 14, 2021, available at https://www.cbsnews.com/newyork/news/bail-reform-nypd-commissioner-dermot-shea-assembly-hearing/ .

16 Daniel Funke, “Fact Check: No Evidence Defunding Police to Blame for Homicide Increases, Experts Say,” USA TODAY , January 28, 2022, available at https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/factcheck/2022/01/28/fact-check-police-funding-not-linked-homicide-spikes-experts-say/9054639002/ .

17 See, for example, Brian Bell, Rui Costa, and Stephen Machin, “Why Does Education Reduce Crime?” Journal of Political Economy 130, no. 3 (2022): 732-65.

18 David J. Deming, “Better Schools, Less Crime?” Quarterly Journal of Economics 126 (2011): 2063-115; See also, E. Jason Baron, Joshua M. Hyman, and Brittany N. Vasquez, “Public School Funding, School Quality, and Adult Crime,” National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 29855, available at http://www.nber.org/papers/w29855 .

19 FBI, “Trend of Violent Crime from 1985 to 2020.”

20 FBI, “Trend of Homicide from 1985-2020,” Crime Data Explorer, available at https://crime-data-explorer.fr.cloud.gov/pages/explorer/crime/crime-trend .

21 Charles Oberg, H.R. Hodges, Sarah Gander, Rita Nathawad, and Diana Cutts. “The Impact of COVID-19 on Children’s Lives in the United States: Amplified Inequities and a Just Path to Recovery,” Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care 52, no. 7 (2022): 1-17.

22 Sabrina Tavernise, “An Arms Race in America: Gun Buying Spiked during the Pandemic. It’s Still Up,” New York Times , May 29, 2021, updated May 30, 2021, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/29/us/gun-purchases-ownership-pandemic.html .

23 Tavernise, “An Arms Race in America.”

24 Philip J. Cook and Jens Ludwig, “Gun Violence Is THE Crime Problem,” Vital City . March 2, 2022, available at https://www.vitalcitynyc.org/articles/gun-violence-is-the-crime-problem .

25 Carrega and Krishnakumar, “Hate Crime Reports in US Surge”; FBI, “Hate Crime in the United States Incident Analysis, 1995-2020,” Crime Data Explorer,” accessed October 6, 2022, https://crime-data-explorer.fr.cloud.gov/pages/explorer/crime/hate-crime .

26 Center for the Study of Hate & Extremism at California State University, “Report to the Nation: Anti-Asian Prejudice & Hate Crime 2021,” (2021), available at https://www.csusb.edu/sites/default/files/Report%20to%20the%20Nation%20-%20Anti-Asian%20Hate%202020%20Final%20Draft%20-%20As%20of%20Apr%2028%202021%2010%20AM%20corrected.pdf .

27 Chelsea Hansen, “Slave Patrols: An Early Form of American Policing,” National Law Enforcement Museum , July 10, 2019, available at https://lawenforcementmuseum.org/2019/07/10/slave-patrols-an-early-form-of-american-policing/ ; See also, Jill Lepore, “The Invention of the Police: Why Did American Policing Get so Big, so Fast? The Answer, Mainly, Is Slavery,” The New Yorker , July 13, 2020, available at https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/07/20/the-invention-of-the-police .

28 Library of Congress, “The Fugitive Slave Clause,” Constitution Annotated, available at https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/artIV-S2-C3-1/ALDE_00013571/ [“clause”].

29 Hansen, “Slave Patrols.”

30 Zinn Education Project, “Massacres in U.S. History,” available at https://www.zinnedproject.org/collection/massacres-us/ .

31 Gary Potter, “The History of Policing in the United States, Part 3,” EKU Online . Eastern Kentucky University. July 9, 2013, available at https://ekuonline.eku.edu/blog/police-studies/the-history-of-policing-in-the-united-states-part-3/ ; See also, Paul A. Shackel, “How a 1897 Massacre of Pennsylvania Coal Miners Morphed from a Galvanizing Crisis to Forgotten History,” Smithsonian Magazine , March 13, 2019, available at https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-1897-massacre-pennsylvania-coal-miners-morphed-galvanizing-crisis-forgotten-history-180971695/ .

32 Radley Balko, Rise of the Warrior Cop: The Militarization of America’s Police Forces , (New York: Public Affairs, 2021).

33 American Civil Liberties Union, “War Comes Home: The Excessive Militarization of American Policing” (2014), available at https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/assets/jus14-warcomeshome-report-web-rel1.pdf .

34 The Marshall Project, “How Policing Has—and Hasn’t—Changed since George Floyd,” August 6, 2022, available at https://www.themarshallproject.org/2022/08/06/how-policing-has-and-hasn-t-changed-since-george-floyd .

35 See, for example, Alex S. Vitale, The End of Policing (London: Verso Books, 2017), 4-11.

36 Vitale, The End of Policing , 11-13; See also, “Does Diversifying Police Forces Reduce Brutality against Minorities?” NPR , June 22, 2020, available at https://www.npr.org/2020/06/22/881559659/does-diversifying-police-forces-reduce-brutality-against-minorities .

37 Vitale, The End of Policing ; See also, José Luis Morín, Latino/a Rights and Justice in the United States: Perspectives and Approaches , 2nd edition (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2009), 106-15; Balko, Rise of the Warrior Cop .

38 Weihua Li and Jamiles Lartey, “As Murders Spiked, Police Solved about Half in 2020,” The Marshall Project , January 12, 2022, available at https://www.themarshallproject.org/2022/01/12/as-murders-spiked-police-solved-about-half-in-2020 .

39 Frank Edwards, Hedwig Lee, and Michael Esposito, “Risk of being Killed by Police Use of Force in the United States by Age, Race–Ethnicity, and Sex,” PNAS 116, no. 34 (2019): 16793-8.

40 Leonardo Antenangeli and Matthew R. Durose, Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 24 States in 2008: A 10-Year Follow-up Period (2008–2018), Bureau of Justice Statistics NCJ Number 256094 September 2021, available at https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/recidivism-prisoners-released-24-states-2008-10-year-follow-period-2008-2018 .

41 See, for example, Ruth Wilson Gilmore, Golden Gulag: Prisons Surplus, Crisis, and Oppression in Globalizing California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007); Vitale, The End of Policing ; Derecka Purnell, Becoming Abolitionists: Police, Protests, and the Pursuit of Freedom (New York: Astra House, 2021); Mariame Kaba, We Do This ’Til We Free Us: Abolitionist Organizing and Transforming Justice (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2021); Angela Y. Davis, Gina Dent, Erica R. Meiners, and Beth Richie. Abolition. Feminism. Now (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2022).

42 Yoav Gonen and Eileen Grench, “Five Days without Cops: Could Brooklyn Policing Experiment Be a ‘Model for the Future’?” The City , January 3, 2021, available at https://www.thecity.nyc/2021/1/3/22211709/nypd-cops-brooklyn-brownsville-experiment-defund-police .

43 Shaila Dewan. “‘Re-fund the Police’? Why It might Not Reduce Crime,” New York Times , November 8, 2021, updated November 11, 2021, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/08/us/police-crime.html .

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Essay Samples on Crime

Even if you are not majoring in Criminology, Law, or Forensic studies, dealing with the subject of crime can be inevitable. It’s always helpful if you can start your writing through the lens of legislation. It will help your readers understand more about the crime. See our free crime essay examples that will address numerous issues and disciplines. For example, some assignments below also focus on a cultural part of the crime like wearing a hoodie and dealing with racial prejudice. You will find several historical crime topics included to help you cover a wider range of things. If you would like to address similar topics, these free samples will help you choose a subject. You can use these as a template for your writing. These are also helpful as you learn how to structure essays on crime. See how each introduction tends to provide a brief explanation before resulting in a thesis statement. If you are working with a case study or court hearings, you can seek similar case studies to help yourself compare things. You must choose your topic first and then look through our free samples on crime to see how things have been approached in practice.

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Sexual hormones have proven to be a dangerous influencer in the body of human beings. It can affect everything from an individual’s mood, behavior, and countless other things. The environment that a person lives in and the people that person surrounds themselves with, these sexual...

• Jeffrey Dahmer
• Serial Killer

The Murder Spree of Jeffrey Dahmer

Jeffrey Dahmer was born to Lionel and Joyce Dahmer on May 21, 1960 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. His mother described him as a beautiful baby, and he was considered a healthy child by both parents. He was fascinated by the bones of animals and how they...

Dissecting the Trial of the Serial Killer, Jeffrey Dahmer

Jeffrey Dahmer surprised, sickened, captivated, and puzzled the nation when he was detained in 1991 for atrocious crimes that comprised the homicide, mutilation, rape, and cannibalism of 17 men. He was finally convicted and sentenced to fifteen uninterrupted life terms for the offenses, then murdered...

The Serial Offender's Profile of Jeffrey Dahmer

Jeffrey Dahmer is one of the most well-known serial killers in America. As a boy, Dahmer struggled growing up, but his family was unaware of what was happening at the time. Growing up Jeffrey was a loner and a poor student; in his adolescent years...

Jeffrey Dahmer: The Childhood and Capture of the Infamous Killer

Jeffrey Dahmer, the infamous maneater, was the killer of 17 young men and boys. He enjoyed raping them, dismembering their bodies, having sex with their corpses, and building altars with their skulls. Though he can be described to have a normal childhood, Jeffrey Dahmer’s soul...

Children Are Not Criminals: Lowering the Age of Responsibility

The Philippine government is proposing a new law regarding the lowering of age on criminal liability from fifteen years old to nine years old, however, children at the time of the commission of the offense shall be exempted from criminal liability because they are just...

• Age of Responsibility
• Juvenile Crime
• Juvenile Justice System

The Reformation of the Age of Responsibility in England and Wales

In the 19th Century with the introduction of reformatories and industrial schools in England and Wales, there have been many transformations in order to deal with young people who offend. There has been continuous political turmoil and uncertainty over the most appropriate solution to best...

Do Violent Video Games Cause Behavior Problems

A very big debate about video games has been going on where people argue about whether video games cause behavioral problems or not. I claim that video games don’t cause problems because they improve brain capacity rather than causing behavioral problems, Video games unite people...

• Impact of Video Games
• Violence in Video Games

Why Juveniles Should Not Be Tried As Adults

Furthermore, children that commit crimes are products of their environment in which they live. For example, when children constantly get sexually abused, it causes immense amounts of trauma and a false sense of love. Often a traumatic experience for all is an offense punishable by...

Drugs and Drug Policy In America: Relationship Between Drugs and Crime

The assortment of crimes that remain affiliated with drug use span from aggressive (such as homicide and aggravated assault) to greed (burglary, counterfeit, and deception) to distinct drug-law violations. Also, crimes such as bribery and corruption stay related to drug use as a result of...

• Criminal Law

Expressive Art: Is Graffiti Art Or Vandalism

 Throughout time graffiti has received both overwhelming support and intense backlash. Some view it as a form of expressive art while others consider it a complete destruction of property. However, despite the amount of differentiation, charisma and personality graffiti can bring into cities, it is...

• Visual Arts

Death Penalty As a Cruel and Unusual Punishment

George Walker Bush, a former U.S. president, and governor of Texas, once spoke, “I don’t think you should support the death penalty to seek revenge. I don’t think that’s right. I think the reason to support the death penalty is because it saves other people’s...

• American Government
• Death Penalty

Sexual Harassment In The Workplace, Does It Exist In Lebanon

What is sexual harassment in the workplace? What actions count as sexual harassment? Is it considered a crime? What legitimate conducts can be applied if someone was exposed to sexual harassment? Sexual harassment does not necessarily mean sex. It is about having control over the...

• Workplace Violence

Death Penalty: The Issue of Cruel and Unusual Punishments

You are sitting in a chair, waiting, about to be executed. You’re innocent, but that doesn’t matter now. You’re injected with a needle, which has a dangerous mixture of illegal drugs. You feel like fire is shooting through your veins, but you’re unable to speak...

My Pro-Life Position: Abortion is Murdering

Abortion is a topic that has captivated American citizens for years now, and there is considerable evidence that shows how abortion is murdering a human being. I want to show you that rape isn’t a reason for aborting a child, women should not be able...

• Individual Rights
• Pro Life (Abortion)

Death Penalty: The Cruelty of American Penal System

Imagine your loved ones or yourself going through capital punishment.. being sentenced to death creating fear in an individual's mind. It is said by Roger Hood, “Capital punishment is also known as the death penalty execution of an offender sentenced to death after conviction by...

Are Video Games Doing More Harm Than Good

Video games are one of the most popular sources of entertainment in today’s world, there are many different types of games made for people of different ages. As technology gets more advanced, these games get better and more interesting. Some people believe that video is...

• Youth Violence

Death Penalty Should not Be Abolished

Given the global tragedies and massacres which have occurred in today’s society, where do you stand on the death penalty? This option is still accessible in 31 out of 50 states. For more than 50 years no one in the united states has been executed...

Why Guns Shouldn't Be In College

In this generation, shootings are just another ordinary event that happens every week or every month. More and more people are feeling unsafe everywhere they go because of how outrageous people act. Sometimes if people get frustrated or angry, they take out their aggression on...

Why Guns Should Be Banned In America

You are standing on a bloody battlefield, just like somewhere in Afghanistan. But as you look closer, you realize that this is no battlefield this is the neighborhood where you live in. How has this happened? It is all because a random person was able...

Why Guns Should Not Be Banned

Living in a world with nonstop rivalries, political unrest, and uneasiness, the topic of gun ownership remains one of the most controversial topics. Our world can argue right or wrong, politically left or right, and yes or no, but safety and security is wanted throughout...

• Crime Prevention

The Problem Of Sexual Harassment In U.S. Army

One major concern that’s spiking up in the United States Army is sexual harassment and sexual assault. Soldiers and family members from all over the world are facing some type of unwanted desire, whether it’s verbal, non-verbal, or physical. Female green suitors are at a...

• United States Army

The Negative Impact Of Video Games On Children

Video games are the games played by electronically manipulating images produced by a computer program on a monitor or other display (Oxford advance learner’s dictionary, 1948). The Scholars mentioned that violent video games cause short-term or long-term increases in aggression and violent behavior of children with different...

Objectification Of Women: A Problem That Keeps Growing

Sexualization of women has been the longest ongoing war that the female world has been fighting against and it shows no sign of letting up. Women, not only in America but all over the world, for many years, have been used and referred to as...

• Gender Discrimination

Mental Illness In The Criminal Justice System

The rising population of inmates with mental illness is steadily rising, 'Today, some 283,800 state and local inmates are identified as having a mental illness, representing 16% of the inmate populations”. The rising epidemic of prisoners with a mental illnesses is beginning to complicate many...

• American Criminal Justice System
• Mental Illness

Effects Of Violent Video Gaming On Human Behavior

There are many various kinds of games and consoles within the world and vying worldwide. Video play has become a very common trade all over the world and has been growing exceptionally throughout the past twenty years. Gamers that are obsessed with online play are...

Somali Piracy: How To Protect Ships

Piracy is an illegal activity that is done through boats by assaulting other boats to steal cargo and other expensive goods on coastal areas. It is believed that sea piracy was established when human started using the sea for trading. Piracy consists of kidnapping for...

• Somali Piracy

The Concept of Mortifying and Scarring Experience for the Victim

I will be diving into the chilling theme of 'spiking' as it is called nowadays and how it can be a mortifying and scarring experience for the victim. I will delve into the mind of a person that feels the need to do these unlawful...

• Victimization Categories

Factors to Prevent Piracy Issues in Maritime Industry

The problem of piracy has had a negative impact on both commercial and humanitarian aid shipping, as a result of rising commodity prices, income from commercial activities are being disrupted, and caused delays in the delivery of humanitarian assistance and increased costs. The economic impact...

Classicism Beliefs and Crime With Rational Punishment

“The criminal commits it” will be reviewed under Classicism. Classism originated from the belief that crime was a product of free will, which resulted in many classical theorists assuming a Rational Choice Theory perspective. The forefront of Classicism is to link crime with rational punishment,...

Corporal Punishment: Main Concepts and Structure of Problem Analysis

Currently, to alleviate the negative consequences that arise from corporal punishment, some countries have implemented certain laws to ban the act of corporal punishment. For example, on 27 June 2019, Kosovo has passed a bill with article 24 of the law being implemented on child...

• Child Welfare
• Corporal Punishment

The Mexican Drug War: Main Problems

In 2007, the Mexican Drug Cartel controlled 90% of the Cocaine brought to the United States. Cocaine, however, doesn’t come without its close relatives, violence and death. The Mexican War on Drugs is as much a concern to the United States as it is to...

• Drug Trafficking
• Mexican War

Revolutionization of Criminal Procedure in U.S. Supreme Court Under Earl Warren

Who sits at the nerve center of society makes all the difference and A great man is the one who represents a great ganglion in the nerves of that society, or, to vary the figure, a strategic point in the campaign of history and part...

• Criminal Procedure

Beliefs and Thoughts Over the Death Penalty

There are a lot of mixed opinions surrounding the idea of the death penalty. In the 1990’s, nearly 80% of the public approved Capital Punishment, while about 5% of were undecided and the other 15% opposed it. Is it fair to those who have done...

• Capital Punishment

The Cyberbully in the Harassment and Bullying

Bullying has long been an issue and experienced by many people at some point in their lives. Bullies frequently, and ironically, target the perceived weakest person. Often times, people who are being bullied are told to just walk away or ignore the bully, but what...

Capital Punishment as an Effective Way to Prevent Crime

In the United States, as in almost every other country, there is a punishment or consequence to every crime. Capital punishment is the legally authorized killing of someone as punishment for a specific crime. In other words, capital punishment, also known as the death penalty,...

Safe Sex and Complex Social Issue of Sex Work

Prostitution, or the more correct term, “sex work”, is defined as “the consensual provision of sexual services for money or goods” by the World Health Organization. Sex work is a complex social issue that is constantly changing in terms of social perceptions and legal frameworks....

• Prostitution

A Provision for Clemency of Capital Punishment in India

Crime is as old as human civilization. Since time immemorial crime has been with us in different degrees. Every society has a pattern of suitable conduct and some human beings in every society fallen outside this configuration. It is the reality which we can accept...

Notorious American Gangster Al Capone and Great Depression

The Great Depression created a tremendous amount of difficulties to many families during the early 1900s. With unemployment skyrocketing, homes were being lost and these families were left with barely enough to get by. Some packed up and journeyed West in pursuit of new opportunities,...

• Great Depression

Unsolicited Electronic Communication and Child Pornography

In today's world, people cannot live without technologies such as televisions, mobile phones, and computers. These technologies have slowly taking the essential part in people's daily lives and being without the use of the gadgets would be unimaginable for some. The invention of technology was...

• Pornography
• Sex Offender

Automation: Stealing Jobs or Creating Them

In 1722, the lathe -the mother of machines- was invented. This invention lit the spark of automation in general and the western industrial revolution specifically. From that time till this day, thousands of machines and tools have been created and invented to optimize and facilitate...

Loads of Different Social Engineering Attacks

When you are talking about social engineering, you are referring to the act of someone deceiving another. Tricking the victim into divulging information or opening themselves up to a security threat, without them even realizing. This attack is carried out through a person to person...

• Social Engineering

Gangs and Victimization in the Community

In this essay we explain about the effects of gangs to the people and community. Gangs by and large have been observed to be at expanded danger of exploitation, in spite of the fact that the purposes behind this relationship have not completely been investigated....

Stanford Prison Experiment Violent Behavior

Discuss what may drive people toward violent behavior against others based on Milgram's experiment and Stanford prison experiment. A particularly alarming trend of increasing violence is observed in modern society. In recent years, the whole world literally swept a wave of violence. It penetrated into...

• Stanford Prison Experiment

Prevention of Car Accidents and Road Injury

Road injury is the most undesirable matter to occur to a street user, even though they occur quite frequently. The unfortunate thing is we do not learn from our errors on street. The majority of the street users are very well aware of the overall...

• Car Accident
• Road Accidents

A Number of Definitions Take In Bullying as a Practice of Harassment

Bullying and harassment are equally terms that are used interchangeably by most individuals, and a number of definitions take in bullying as a practice of harassment. Bullying could reflect as spiteful or insulting behaviour, offensive, an exploitation or mistreatment of authority over means that demoralise,...

Psychological Crime Causations in Al Capone’s Criminal History

Various schools of crime causation including the classical and neoclassical school of crime causation, Biological, Psychobiological, Psychological, and Sociological schools have been used to determine the causes. Classical and Neoclassical crime causations dictated that crime is caused by an individuals own free will and prevention...

Social Isolation, Violence and Relationship Breakdown

Mental disorder or psychopathy are terms accustomed refer psychological pattern that happens in an exceedingly very private and is often associated with distress or disability that's not expected as part of normal development or culture. In line with DSM-IV, a upset is additionally a psychological...

• Social Isolation

Purview of The Bureau’s Examination of Al Capone

The investigative purview of the Bureau of Examination amid the 1920s and early 1930s was more constrained than it is presently, and the group fighting, and thefts of the period were not inside the Bureau’s investigative specialist. The Bureau’s examination of Al Capone emerged from...

• Criminal Profiling

Laziness as an Enemy of Caution and Security

A great enemy of caution and security is laziness. The lazy person can never arrange his own success and security because he cannot use the right opportunity to work due to the nature of his laziness and remains lazy throughout life. Crooks and sly people...

• Social Security

The Polygraph for Modern-Day Police Work

In times of stressful or scary situations, humans tend to have a fight or flight response to whatever is happening to them and that response is exactly what polygraphs were invented to measure. The first recorded machine that is similar to the modern-day polygraph used...

• Criminology

Best topics on Crime

1. Addressing the Rape Crisis: Advocacy, Awareness, and Empowerment

2. Community Service is the Best Form of Punishment

3. Why Assault Weapons Should Be Banned

4. Causes and Effects of Cyber Crime: Unraveling the Digital Threat Landscape

5. Cause and Effect of Domestic Violence: Unveiling the Impact on Individuals and Society

6. Cause and Effect of Cyberbullying for Individuals and Society

7. What is Cyberbullying in Social Media: Understanding the Digital Threat

8. Poverty is the Mother of Crime: Understanding the Claim

9. Examining the Pros and Cons of Gun Control

10. Cyber Crime: Navigating the Digital Underworld

11. The Auckland Mass Shooting: a Tragedy at the Women’s World Cup 2023

12. Tragedy on the Subway: Examining the Death of Jordan Neely

13. The Shooting of Ralph Yarl: Unraveling the Racial Dynamics and Gun Violence

14. Terror and Unity: The Aftermath of the Brooklyn Day Mass Shooting in Baltimore

15. Tragedy and Resilience: the Juneteenth Shooting in Willowbrook, Illinois

• Child Abuse
• Drunk Driving
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What the data says about crime in the U.S.

A growing share of Americans say reducing crime should be a top priority for the president and Congress to address this year. Around six-in-ten U.S. adults (58%) hold that view today, up from 47% at the beginning of Joe Biden’s presidency in 2021.

We conducted this analysis to learn more about U.S. crime patterns and how those patterns have changed over time.

The analysis relies on statistics published by the FBI, which we accessed through the Crime Data Explorer , and the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), which we accessed through the  National Crime Victimization Survey data analysis tool .

To measure public attitudes about crime in the U.S., we relied on survey data from Pew Research Center and Gallup.

Additional details about each data source, including survey methodologies, are available by following the links in the text of this analysis.

With the issue likely to come up in this year’s presidential election, here’s what we know about crime in the United States, based on the latest available data from the federal government and other sources.

How much crime is there in the U.S.?

It’s difficult to say for certain. The  two primary sources of government crime statistics  – the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) – paint an incomplete picture.

The FBI publishes  annual data  on crimes that have been reported to law enforcement, but not crimes that haven’t been reported. Historically, the FBI has also only published statistics about a handful of specific violent and property crimes, but not many other types of crime, such as drug crime. And while the FBI’s data is based on information from thousands of federal, state, county, city and other police departments, not all law enforcement agencies participate every year. In 2022, the most recent full year with available statistics, the FBI received data from 83% of participating agencies .

BJS, for its part, tracks crime by fielding a  large annual survey of Americans ages 12 and older and asking them whether they were the victim of certain types of crime in the past six months. One advantage of this approach is that it captures both reported and unreported crimes. But the BJS survey has limitations of its own. Like the FBI, it focuses mainly on a handful of violent and property crimes. And since the BJS data is based on after-the-fact interviews with crime victims, it cannot provide information about one especially high-profile type of offense: murder.

All those caveats aside, looking at the FBI and BJS statistics side-by-side  does  give researchers a good picture of U.S. violent and property crime rates and how they have changed over time. In addition, the FBI is transitioning to a new data collection system – known as the National Incident-Based Reporting System – that eventually will provide national information on a much larger set of crimes , as well as details such as the time and place they occur and the types of weapons involved, if applicable.

Which kinds of crime are most and least common?

Property crime in the U.S. is much more common than violent crime. In 2022, the FBI reported a total of 1,954.4 property crimes per 100,000 people, compared with 380.7 violent crimes per 100,000 people.  

By far the most common form of property crime in 2022 was larceny/theft, followed by motor vehicle theft and burglary. Among violent crimes, aggravated assault was the most common offense, followed by robbery, rape, and murder/nonnegligent manslaughter.

BJS tracks a slightly different set of offenses from the FBI, but it finds the same overall patterns, with theft the most common form of property crime in 2022 and assault the most common form of violent crime.

How have crime rates in the U.S. changed over time?

Both the FBI and BJS data show dramatic declines in U.S. violent and property crime rates since the early 1990s, when crime spiked across much of the nation.

Using the FBI data, the violent crime rate fell 49% between 1993 and 2022, with large decreases in the rates of robbery (-74%), aggravated assault (-39%) and murder/nonnegligent manslaughter (-34%). It’s not possible to calculate the change in the rape rate during this period because the FBI  revised its definition of the offense in 2013 .

The FBI data also shows a 59% reduction in the U.S. property crime rate between 1993 and 2022, with big declines in the rates of burglary (-75%), larceny/theft (-54%) and motor vehicle theft (-53%).

Using the BJS statistics, the declines in the violent and property crime rates are even steeper than those captured in the FBI data. Per BJS, the U.S. violent and property crime rates each fell 71% between 1993 and 2022.

While crime rates have fallen sharply over the long term, the decline hasn’t always been steady. There have been notable increases in certain kinds of crime in some years, including recently.

In 2020, for example, the U.S. murder rate saw its largest single-year increase on record – and by 2022, it remained considerably higher than before the coronavirus pandemic. Preliminary data for 2023, however, suggests that the murder rate fell substantially last year .

How do Americans perceive crime in their country?

Americans tend to believe crime is up, even when official data shows it is down.

In 23 of 27 Gallup surveys conducted since 1993 , at least 60% of U.S. adults have said there is more crime nationally than there was the year before, despite the downward trend in crime rates during most of that period.

While perceptions of rising crime at the national level are common, fewer Americans believe crime is up in their own communities. In every Gallup crime survey since the 1990s, Americans have been much less likely to say crime is up in their area than to say the same about crime nationally.

Public attitudes about crime differ widely by Americans’ party affiliation, race and ethnicity, and other factors . For example, Republicans and Republican-leaning independents are much more likely than Democrats and Democratic leaners to say reducing crime should be a top priority for the president and Congress this year (68% vs. 47%), according to a recent Pew Research Center survey.

How does crime in the U.S. differ by demographic characteristics?

Some groups of Americans are more likely than others to be victims of crime. In the  2022 BJS survey , for example, younger people and those with lower incomes were far more likely to report being the victim of a violent crime than older and higher-income people.

There were no major differences in violent crime victimization rates between male and female respondents or between those who identified as White, Black or Hispanic. But the victimization rate among Asian Americans (a category that includes Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders) was substantially lower than among other racial and ethnic groups.

The same BJS survey asks victims about the demographic characteristics of the offenders in the incidents they experienced.

In 2022, those who are male, younger people and those who are Black accounted for considerably larger shares of perceived offenders in violent incidents than their respective shares of the U.S. population. Men, for instance, accounted for 79% of perceived offenders in violent incidents, compared with 49% of the nation’s 12-and-older population that year. Black Americans accounted for 25% of perceived offenders in violent incidents, about twice their share of the 12-and-older population (12%).

As with all surveys, however, there are several potential sources of error, including the possibility that crime victims’ perceptions about offenders are incorrect.

How does crime in the U.S. differ geographically?

There are big geographic differences in violent and property crime rates.

For example, in 2022, there were more than 700 violent crimes per 100,000 residents in New Mexico and Alaska. That compares with fewer than 200 per 100,000 people in Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire and Maine, according to the FBI.

The FBI notes that various factors might influence an area’s crime rate, including its population density and economic conditions.

What percentage of crimes are reported to police? What percentage are solved?

Most violent and property crimes in the U.S. are not reported to police, and most of the crimes that  are  reported are not solved.

In its annual survey, BJS asks crime victims whether they reported their crime to police. It found that in 2022, only 41.5% of violent crimes and 31.8% of household property crimes were reported to authorities. BJS notes that there are many reasons why crime might not be reported, including fear of reprisal or of “getting the offender in trouble,” a feeling that police “would not or could not do anything to help,” or a belief that the crime is “a personal issue or too trivial to report.”

Most of the crimes that are reported to police, meanwhile,  are not solved , at least based on an FBI measure known as the clearance rate . That’s the share of cases each year that are closed, or “cleared,” through the arrest, charging and referral of a suspect for prosecution, or due to “exceptional” circumstances such as the death of a suspect or a victim’s refusal to cooperate with a prosecution. In 2022, police nationwide cleared 36.7% of violent crimes that were reported to them and 12.1% of the property crimes that came to their attention.

Which crimes are most likely to be reported to police? Which are most likely to be solved?

Around eight-in-ten motor vehicle thefts (80.9%) were reported to police in 2022, making them by far the most commonly reported property crime tracked by BJS. Household burglaries and trespassing offenses were reported to police at much lower rates (44.9% and 41.2%, respectively), while personal theft/larceny and other types of theft were only reported around a quarter of the time.

Among violent crimes – excluding homicide, which BJS doesn’t track – robbery was the most likely to be reported to law enforcement in 2022 (64.0%). It was followed by aggravated assault (49.9%), simple assault (36.8%) and rape/sexual assault (21.4%).

The list of crimes  cleared  by police in 2022 looks different from the list of crimes reported. Law enforcement officers were generally much more likely to solve violent crimes than property crimes, according to the FBI.

The most frequently solved violent crime tends to be homicide. Police cleared around half of murders and nonnegligent manslaughters (52.3%) in 2022. The clearance rates were lower for aggravated assault (41.4%), rape (26.1%) and robbery (23.2%).

When it comes to property crime, law enforcement agencies cleared 13.0% of burglaries, 12.4% of larcenies/thefts and 9.3% of motor vehicle thefts in 2022.

Are police solving more or fewer crimes than they used to?

Nationwide clearance rates for both violent and property crime are at their lowest levels since at least 1993, the FBI data shows.

Police cleared a little over a third (36.7%) of the violent crimes that came to their attention in 2022, down from nearly half (48.1%) as recently as 2013. During the same period, there were decreases for each of the four types of violent crime the FBI tracks:

• Police cleared 52.3% of reported murders and nonnegligent homicides in 2022, down from 64.1% in 2013.
• They cleared 41.4% of aggravated assaults, down from 57.7%.
• They cleared 26.1% of rapes, down from 40.6%.
• They cleared 23.2% of robberies, down from 29.4%.

The pattern is less pronounced for property crime. Overall, law enforcement agencies cleared 12.1% of reported property crimes in 2022, down from 19.7% in 2013. The clearance rate for burglary didn’t change much, but it fell for larceny/theft (to 12.4% in 2022 from 22.4% in 2013) and motor vehicle theft (to 9.3% from 14.2%).

Note: This is an update of a post originally published on Nov. 20, 2020.

• Criminal Justice

John Gramlich is an associate director at Pew Research Center .

Fewer than 1% of federal criminal defendants were acquitted in 2022

Before release of video showing tyre nichols’ beating, public views of police conduct had improved modestly, violent crime is a key midterm voting issue, but what does the data say, u.s. public divided over whether people convicted of crimes spend too much or too little time in prison, what we know about the increase in u.s. murders in 2020, most popular.

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Crime - List of Free Essay Examples And Topic Ideas

Crime refers to acts or the commission of acts that are forbidden or the omission of required acts that are punishable by law. Essays on crime could delve into the societal, economic, and psychological factors contributing to crime, various types of crime, and the impact of crime on communities and nations. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of Crime you can find at Papersowl. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Gender Equality and Crime

The court and the Judiciary, in general, are guided by the basic principles of justice to all. Judges usually give rulings based on the rule of law with the intention of protecting the public, deterring crime, rehabilitating law offenders, punishing offenders and offering reparation to the victim. The principles of justice mean fairness, protecting the rights of all regardless of gender, race or religion. However, gender equality has been a significant issue for many years, and there has been a […]

Gender and Crime

Gender has been attributed as one of the key factors that act a significant role in the crime patterns and the criminal justice systems. For a very long time, it has become a fact that women and men differ in their rates of committing crimes as well as their victimization pattern experience. However, from this report, we find that the victimization risk of violence among the male adults almost equal to that of female adults. My perception, however, is different […]

Corruption of the Criminal Justice System

There is a long history report of police violence against civilians in the United States which has resulted in creating laws by the government so that citizens may find a way to find a possible solution when their rights are violated. Section 242 of the constitution allows police officers to be fined or even imprisoned for any law enforcer who deprives a person of their rights on the basis of their colour or race (Kevin). The corruption investigations done by […]

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How the Media Portray Crime and the Criminal Justice System?

Crime has become one of the most consumed topics in America media. Since the U.S citizens greatly believe, rely, and get fooled on whichever the media spit out to them mostly with anything regarding crime, therefore, they do not take a moment to find, think, and analyze what they have heard, watched, or read from the media to compare with statistical facts. Rather, they digest any news that is being released from the media as true and credible. In fact, […]

Source of Information about Crime

Violent wrongdoings (otherwise called violations against people) rule the vast majority's contemplations of wrongdoing and wellbeing. Regardless of criminal justice experts explanations that an individual's probability of being victimized little depends on him avoiding certain places, for instance, street gangs and drug peddler spots (Koper, Taylor, & Woods, 2013). This accumulation characterizes brutal violations as murder, persuasive assault, burglary, and irritated assault. Property violations are wrongdoings that are arranged as offenses against property. This incorporates robbery, theft, thievery, pyromania, misappropriation, […]

Three Problems of the Criminal Justice System and how to Fix them

The criminal justice system has an important role in society to maintain order and to ensure that law is equal and fair; no matter age, ethnicity, race, sex, or social economical status. Unfortunately, this is not true within the current judicial system. Racial discrimination, youth incarceration, and health related infirmities result from incarceration (Simonson, 2017). Three Problems of the Criminal Justice System and How to Fix Them There are many problems that plague our current criminal justice system. The problems […]

Crime Cases in Canada

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IELTS Cause/Effect Essay Sample 1 – Crime

In this post, we will look at a cause/effect essay example from the IELTS writing task 2 test. Students often ask if the questions are repeated year after year and the answer is no, but the topics are. There are so many questions written each year, you may find your practice answering various questions on different topics. For example, you could write essays to answer questions about education or the environment, which benefits you because you learn vocabulary associated with those topics and develop ideas that can help you in your writing test.

If you would like to learn how to structure a cause/effect essay  please click the button below >

Numerous ex-convicts re-offend soon after they have been freed from jail. This essay will first discuss why this is happening and secondly the negative impact it has on society.

On the other hand, this has a detrimental effect on society, because new offences will be committed and the taxpayers will keep paying for these criminals. This will also indicate the need to have bigger prisons to accommodate prisoners, which furthermore affects the budget of a city. If more prisons are required, taxes will rise and the community will pay for these people to stay incarcerated. For example, in 2016, the Caloocan City municipality reported that they allocated 80 million pesos to extend their city jails, and this was funded by taxpayers.

The following video will give you contains sample Essay in audiovisual format.

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Article contents

Violence, media effects, and criminology.

• Nickie D. Phillips Nickie D. Phillips Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice, St. Francis College
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.013.189
• Published online: 27 July 2017

Debate surrounding the impact of media representations on violence and crime has raged for decades and shows no sign of abating. Over the years, the targets of concern have shifted from film to comic books to television to video games, but the central questions remain the same. What is the relationship between popular media and audience emotions, attitudes, and behaviors? While media effects research covers a vast range of topics—from the study of its persuasive effects in advertising to its positive impact on emotions and behaviors—of particular interest to criminologists is the relationship between violence in popular media and real-life aggression and violence. Does media violence cause aggression and/or violence?

The study of media effects is informed by a variety of theoretical perspectives and spans many disciplines including communications and media studies, psychology, medicine, sociology, and criminology. Decades of research have amassed on the topic, yet there is no clear agreement about the impact of media or about which methodologies are most appropriate. Instead, there continues to be disagreement about whether media portrayals of violence are a serious problem and, if so, how society should respond.

Conflicting interpretations of research findings inform and shape public debate around media effects. Although there seems to be a consensus among scholars that exposure to media violence impacts aggression, there is less agreement around its potential impact on violence and criminal behavior. While a few criminologists focus on the phenomenon of copycat crimes, most rarely engage with whether media directly causes violence. Instead, they explore broader considerations of the relationship between media, popular culture, and society.

• media exposure
• criminal behavior
• popular culture
• media violence
• media and crime
• copycat crimes

Media Exposure, Violence, and Aggression

On Friday July 22, 2016 , a gunman killed nine people at a mall in Munich, Germany. The 18-year-old shooter was subsequently characterized by the media as being under psychiatric care and harboring at least two obsessions. One, an obsession with mass shootings, including that of Anders Breivik who ultimately killed 77 people in Norway in 2011 , and the other an obsession with video games. A Los Angeles, California, news report stated that the gunman was “an avid player of first-person shooter video games, including ‘Counter-Strike,’” while another headline similarly declared, “Munich gunman, a fan of violent video games, rampage killers, had planned attack for a year”(CNN Wire, 2016 ; Reuters, 2016 ). This high-profile incident was hardly the first to link popular culture to violent crime. Notably, in the aftermath of the 1999 Columbine shooting massacre, for example, media sources implicated and later discredited music, video games, and a gothic aesthetic as causal factors of the crime (Cullen, 2009 ; Yamato, 2016 ). Other, more recent, incidents have echoed similar claims suggesting that popular culture has a nefarious influence on consumers.

Media violence and its impact on audiences are among the most researched and examined topics in communications studies (Hetsroni, 2007 ). Yet, debate over whether media violence causes aggression and violence persists, particularly in response to high-profile criminal incidents. Blaming video games, and other forms of media and popular culture, as contributing to violence is not a new phenomenon. However, interpreting media effects can be difficult because commenters often seem to indicate a grand consensus that understates more contradictory and nuanced interpretations of the data.

In fact, there is a consensus among many media researchers that media violence has an impact on aggression although its impact on violence is less clear. For example, in response to the shooting in Munich, Brad Bushman, professor of communication and psychology, avoided pinning the incident solely on video games, but in the process supported the assertion that video gameplay is linked to aggression. He stated,

While there isn’t complete consensus in any scientific field, a study we conducted showed more than 90% of pediatricians and about two-thirds of media researchers surveyed agreed that violent video games increase aggression in children. (Bushman, 2016 )

Others, too, have reached similar conclusions with regard to other media. In 2008 , psychologist John Murray summarized decades of research stating, “Fifty years of research on the effect of TV violence on children leads to the inescapable conclusion that viewing media violence is related to increases in aggressive attitudes, values, and behaviors” (Murray, 2008 , p. 1212). Scholars Glenn Sparks and Cheri Sparks similarly declared that,

Despite the fact that controversy still exists about the impact of media violence, the research results reveal a dominant and consistent pattern in favor of the notion that exposure to violent media images does increase the risk of aggressive behavior. (Sparks & Sparks, 2002 , p. 273)

In 2014 , psychologist Wayne Warburton more broadly concluded that the vast majority of studies have found “that exposure to violent media increases the likelihood of aggressive behavior in the short and longterm, increases hostile perceptions and attitudes, and desensitizes individuals to violent content” (Warburton, 2014 , p. 64).

Criminologists, too, are sensitive to the impact of media exposure. For example, Jacqueline Helfgott summarized the research:

There have been over 1000 studies on the effects of TV and film violence over the past 40 years. Research on the influence of TV violence on aggression has consistently shown that TV violence increases aggression and social anxiety, cultivates a “mean view” of the world, and negatively impacts real-world behavior. (Helfgott, 2015 , p. 50)

In his book, Media Coverage of Crime and Criminal Justice , criminologist Matthew Robinson stated, “Studies of the impact of media on violence are crystal clear in their findings and implications for society” (Robinson, 2011 , p. 135). He cited studies on childhood exposure to violent media leading to aggressive behavior as evidence. In his pioneering book Media, Crime, and Criminal Justice , criminologist Ray Surette concurred that media violence is linked to aggression, but offered a nuanced interpretation. He stated,

a small to modest but genuine causal role for media violence regarding viewer aggression has been established for most beyond a reasonable doubt . . . There is certainly a connection between violent media and social aggression, but its strength and configuration is simply not known at this time. (Surette, 2011 , p. 68)

The uncertainties about the strength of the relationship and the lack of evidence linking media violence to real-world violence is often lost in the news media accounts of high-profile violent crimes.

Media Exposure and Copycat Crimes

While many scholars do seem to agree that there is evidence that media violence—whether that of film, TV, or video games—increases aggression, they disagree about its impact on violent or criminal behavior (Ferguson, 2014 ; Gunter, 2008 ; Helfgott, 2015 ; Reiner, 2002 ; Savage, 2008 ). Nonetheless, it is violent incidents that most often prompt speculation that media causes violence. More specifically, violence that appears to mimic portrayals of violent media tends to ignite controversy. For example, the idea that films contribute to violent crime is not a new assertion. Films such as A Clockwork Orange , Menace II Society , Set it Off , and Child’s Play 3 , have been linked to crimes and at least eight murders have been linked to Oliver Stone’s 1994 film Natural Born Killers (Bracci, 2010 ; Brooks, 2002 ; PBS, n.d. ). Nonetheless, pinpointing a direct, causal relationship between media and violent crime remains elusive.

Criminologist Jacqueline Helfgott defined copycat crime as a “crime that is inspired by another crime” (Helfgott, 2015 , p. 51). The idea is that offenders model their behavior on media representations of violence whether real or fictional. One case, in particular, illustrated how popular culture, media, and criminal violence converge. On July 20, 2012 , James Holmes entered the midnight premiere of The Dark Knight Rises , the third film in the massively successful Batman trilogy, in a movie theater in Aurora, Colorado. He shot and killed 12 people and wounded 70 others. At the time, the New York Times described the incident,

Witnesses told the police that Mr. Holmes said something to the effect of “I am the Joker,” according to a federal law enforcement official, and that his hair had been dyed or he was wearing a wig. Then, as people began to rise from their seats in confusion or anxiety, he began to shoot. The gunman paused at least once, several witnesses said, perhaps to reload, and continued firing. (Frosch & Johnson, 2012 ).

The dyed hair, Holme’s alleged comment, and that the incident occurred at a popular screening led many to speculate that the shooter was influenced by the earlier film in the trilogy and reignited debate around the impact about media violence. The Daily Mail pointed out that Holmes may have been motivated by a 25-year-old Batman comic in which a gunman opens fire in a movie theater—thus further suggesting the iconic villain served as motivation for the attack (Graham & Gallagher, 2012 ). Perceptions of the “Joker connection” fed into the notion that popular media has a direct causal influence on violent behavior even as press reports later indicated that Holmes had not, in fact, made reference to the Joker (Meyer, 2015 ).

A week after the Aurora shooting, the New York Daily News published an article detailing a “possible copycat” crime. A suspect was arrested in his Maryland home after making threatening phone calls to his workplace. The article reported that the suspect stated, “I am a [sic] joker” and “I’m going to load my guns and blow everybody up.” In their search, police found “a lethal arsenal of 25 guns and thousands of rounds of ammunition” in the suspect’s home (McShane, 2012 ).

Though criminologists are generally skeptical that those who commit violent crimes are motivated solely by media violence, there does seem to be some evidence that media may be influential in shaping how some offenders commit crime. In his study of serious and violent juvenile offenders, criminologist Ray Surette found “about one out of three juveniles reports having considered a copycat crime and about one out of four reports actually having attempted one.” He concluded that “those juveniles who are self-reported copycats are significantly more likely to credit the media as both a general and personal influence.” Surette contended that though violent offenses garner the most media attention, copycat criminals are more likely to be career criminals and to commit property crimes rather than violent crimes (Surette, 2002 , pp. 56, 63; Surette 2011 ).

Discerning what crimes may be classified as copycat crimes is a challenge. Jacqueline Helfgott suggested they occur on a “continuum of influence.” On one end, she said, media plays a relatively minor role in being a “component of the modus operandi” of the offender, while on the other end, she said, “personality disordered media junkies” have difficulty distinguishing reality from violent fantasy. According to Helfgott, various factors such as individual characteristics, characteristics of media sources, relationship to media, demographic factors, and cultural factors are influential. Overall, scholars suggest that rather than pushing unsuspecting viewers to commit crimes, media more often influences how , rather than why, someone commits a crime (Helfgott, 2015 ; Marsh & Melville, 2014 ).

Given the public interest, there is relatively little research devoted to exactly what copycat crimes are and how they occur. Part of the problem of studying these types of crimes is the difficulty defining and measuring the concept. In an effort to clarify and empirically measure the phenomenon, Surette offered a scale that included seven indicators of copycat crimes. He used the following factors to identify copycat crimes: time order (media exposure must occur before the crime); time proximity (a five-year cut-off point of exposure); theme consistency (“a pattern of thought, feeling or behavior in the offender which closely parallels the media model”); scene specificity (mimicking a specific scene); repetitive viewing; self-editing (repeated viewing of single scene while “the balance of the film is ignored”); and offender statements and second-party statements indicating the influence of media. Findings demonstrated that cases are often prematurely, if not erroneously, labeled as “copycat.” Surette suggested that use of the scale offers a more precise way for researchers to objectively measure trends and frequency of copycat crimes (Surette, 2016 , p. 8).

Media Exposure and Violent Crimes

Overall, a causal link between media exposure and violent criminal behavior has yet to be validated, and most researchers steer clear of making such causal assumptions. Instead, many emphasize that media does not directly cause aggression and violence so much as operate as a risk factor among other variables (Bushman & Anderson, 2015 ; Warburton, 2014 ). In their review of media effects, Brad Bushman and psychologist Craig Anderson concluded,

In sum, extant research shows that media violence is a causal risk factor not only for mild forms of aggression but also for more serious forms of aggression, including violent criminal behavior. That does not mean that violent media exposure by itself will turn a normal child or adolescent who has few or no other risk factors into a violent criminal or a school shooter. Such extreme violence is rare, and tends to occur only when multiple risk factors converge in time, space, and within an individual. (Bushman & Anderson, 2015 , p. 1817)

Surette, however, argued that there is no clear linkage between media exposure and criminal behavior—violent or otherwise. In other words, a link between media violence and aggression does not necessarily mean that exposure to violent media causes violent (or nonviolent) criminal behavior. Though there are thousands of articles addressing media effects, many of these consist of reviews or commentary about prior research findings rather than original studies (Brown, 2007 ; Murray, 2008 ; Savage, 2008 ; Surette, 2011 ). Fewer, still, are studies that specifically measure media violence and criminal behavior (Gunter, 2008 ; Strasburger & Donnerstein, 2014 ). In their meta-analysis investigating the link between media violence and criminal aggression, scholars Joanne Savage and Christina Yancey did not find support for the assertion. Instead, they concluded,

The study of most consequence for violent crime policy actually found that exposure to media violence was significantly negatively related to violent crime rates at the aggregate level . . . It is plain to us that the relationship between exposure to violent media and serious violence has yet to be established. (Savage & Yancey, 2008 , p. 786)

Researchers continue to measure the impact of media violence among various forms of media and generally stop short of drawing a direct causal link in favor of more indirect effects. For example, one study examined the increase of gun violence in films over the years and concluded that violent scenes provide scripts for youth that justify gun violence that, in turn, may amplify aggression (Bushman, Jamieson, Weitz, & Romer, 2013 ). But others report contradictory findings. Patrick Markey and colleagues studied the relationship between rates of homicide and aggravated assault and gun violence in films from 1960–2012 and found that over the years, violent content in films increased while crime rates declined . After controlling for age shifts, poverty, education, incarceration rates, and economic inequality, the relationships remained statistically non-significant (Markey, French, & Markey, 2015 , p. 165). Psychologist Christopher Ferguson also failed to find a relationship between media violence in films and video games and violence (Ferguson, 2014 ).

Another study, by Gordon Dahl and Stefano DellaVigna, examined violent films from 1995–2004 and found decreases in violent crimes coincided with violent blockbuster movie attendance. Here, it was not the content that was alleged to impact crime rates, but instead what the authors called “voluntary incapacitation,” or the shifting of daily activities from that of potential criminal behavior to movie attendance. The authors concluded, “For each million people watching a strongly or mildly violent movie, respectively, violent crime decreases by 1.9% and 2.1%. Nonviolent movies have no statistically significant impact” (Dahl & DellaVigna, p. 39).

High-profile cases over the last several years have shifted public concern toward the perceived danger of video games, but research demonstrating a link between video games and criminal violence remains scant. The American Psychiatric Association declared that “research demonstrates a consistent relation between violent video game use and increases in aggressive behavior, aggressive cognitions and aggressive affect, and decreases in prosocial behavior, empathy and sensitivity to aggression . . .” but stopped short of claiming that video games impact criminal violence. According to Breuer and colleagues, “While all of the available meta-analyses . . . found a relationship between aggression and the use of (violent) video games, the size and interpretation of this connection differ largely between these studies . . .” (APA, 2015 ; Breuer et al., 2015 ; DeCamp, 2015 ). Further, psychologists Patrick Markey, Charlotte Markey, and Juliana French conducted four time-series analyses investigating the relationship between video game habits and assault and homicide rates. The studies measured rates of violent crime, the annual and monthly video game sales, Internet searches for video game walkthroughs, and rates of violent crime occurring after the release dates of popular games. The results showed that there was no relationship between video game habits and rates of aggravated assault and homicide. Instead, there was some indication of decreases in crime (Markey, Markey, & French, 2015 ).

Another longitudinal study failed to find video games as a predictor of aggression, instead finding support for the “selection hypothesis”—that physically aggressive individuals (aged 14–17) were more likely to choose media content that contained violence than those slightly older, aged 18–21. Additionally, the researchers concluded,

that violent media do not have a substantial impact on aggressive personality or behavior, at least in the phases of late adolescence and early adulthood that we focused on. (Breuer, Vogelgesang, Quandt, & Festl, 2015 , p. 324)

Overall, the lack of a consistent finding demonstrating that media exposure causes violent crime may not be particularly surprising given that studies linking media exposure, aggression, and violence suffer from a host of general criticisms. By way of explanation, social theorist David Gauntlett maintained that researchers frequently employ problematic definitions of aggression and violence, questionable methodologies, rely too much on fictional violence, neglect the social meaning of violence, and assume the third-person effect—that is, assume that other, vulnerable people are impacted by media, but “we” are not (Ferguson & Dyck, 2012 ; Gauntlett, 2001 ).

Others, such as scholars Martin Barker and Julian Petley, flatly reject the notion that violent media exposure is a causal factor for aggression and/or violence. In their book Ill Effects , the authors stated instead that it is simply “stupid” to query about “what are the effects of [media] violence” without taking context into account (p. 2). They counter what they describe as moral campaigners who advance the idea that media violence causes violence. Instead, Barker and Petley argue that audiences interpret media violence in a variety of ways based on their histories, experiences, and knowledge, and as such, it makes little sense to claim media “cause” violence (Barker & Petley, 2001 ).

Given the seemingly inconclusive and contradictory findings regarding media effects research, to say that the debate can, at times, be contentious is an understatement. One article published in European Psychologist queried “Does Doing Media Violence Research Make One Aggressive?” and lamented that the debate had devolved into an ideological one (Elson & Ferguson, 2013 ). Another academic journal published a special issue devoted to video games and youth and included a transcript of exchanges between two scholars to demonstrate that a “peaceful debate” was, in fact, possible (Ferguson & Konijn, 2015 ).

Nonetheless, in this debate, the stakes are high and the policy consequences profound. After examining over 900 published articles, publication patterns, prominent authors and coauthors, and disciplinary interest in the topic, scholar James Anderson argued that prominent media effects scholars, whom he deems the “causationists,” had developed a cottage industry dependent on funding by agencies focused primarily on the negative effects of media on children. Anderson argued that such a focus presents media as a threat to family values and ultimately operates as a zero-sum game. As a result, attention and resources are diverted toward media and away from other priorities that are essential to understanding aggression such as social disadvantage, substance abuse, and parental conflict (Anderson, 2008 , p. 1276).

Theoretical Perspectives on Media Effects

Understanding how media may impact attitudes and behavior has been the focus of media and communications studies for decades. Numerous theoretical perspectives offer insight into how and to what extent the media impacts the audience. As scholar Jenny Kitzinger documented in 2004 , there are generally two ways to approach the study of media effects. One is to foreground the power of media. That is, to suggest that the media holds powerful sway over viewers. Another perspective is to foreground the power and heterogeneity of the audience and to recognize that it is comprised of active agents (Kitzinger, 2004 ).

The notion of an all-powerful media can be traced to the influence of scholars affiliated with the Institute for Social Research, or Frankfurt School, in the 1930–1940s and proponents of the mass society theory. The institute was originally founded in Germany but later moved to the United States. Criminologist Yvonne Jewkes outlined how mass society theory assumed that members of the public were susceptible to media messages. This, theorists argued, was a result of rapidly changing social conditions and industrialization that produced isolated, impressionable individuals “cut adrift from kinship and organic ties and lacking moral cohesion” (Jewkes, 2015 , p. 13). In this historical context, in the era of World War II, the impact of Nazi propaganda was particularly resonant. Here, the media was believed to exhibit a unidirectional flow, operating as a powerful force influencing the masses. The most useful metaphor for this perspective described the media as a “hypodermic syringe” that could “‘inject’ values, ideas and information directly into the passive receiver producing direct and unmediated ‘effects’” (Jewkes, 2015 , pp. 16, 34). Though the hypodermic syringe model seems simplistic today, the idea that the media is all-powerful continues to inform contemporary public discourse around media and violence.

Concern of the power of media captured the attention of researchers interested in its purported negative impact on children. In one of the earliest series of studies in the United States during the late 1920s–1930s, researchers attempted to quantitatively measure media effects with the Payne Fund Studies. For example, they investigated how film, a relatively new medium, impacted children’s attitudes and behaviors, including antisocial and violent behavior. At the time, the Payne Fund Studies’ findings fueled the notion that children were indeed negatively influenced by films. This prompted the film industry to adopt a self-imposed code regulating content (Sparks & Sparks, 2002 ; Surette, 2011 ). Not everyone agreed with the approach. In fact, the methodologies employed in the studies received much criticism, and ultimately, the movement was branded as a moral crusade to regulate film content. Scholars Garth Jowett, Ian Jarvie, and Kathryn Fuller wrote about the significance of the studies,

We have seen this same policy battle fought and refought over radio, television, rock and roll, music videos and video games. Their researchers looked to see if intuitive concerns could be given concrete, measurable expression in research. While they had partial success, as have all subsequent efforts, they also ran into intractable problems . . . Since that day, no way has yet been found to resolve the dilemma of cause and effect: do crime movies create more crime, or do the criminally inclined enjoy and perhaps imitate crime movies? (Jowett, Jarvie, & Fuller, 1996 , p. 12)

As the debate continued, more sophisticated theoretical perspectives emerged. Efforts to empirically measure the impact of media on aggression and violence continued, albeit with equivocal results. In the 1950s and 1960s, psychological behaviorism, or understanding psychological motivations through observable behavior, became a prominent lens through which to view the causal impact of media violence. This type of research was exemplified by Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll studies demonstrating that children exposed to aggressive behavior, either observed in real life or on film, behaved more aggressively than those in control groups who were not exposed to the behavior. The assumption derived was that children learn through exposure and imitate behavior (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1963 ). Though influential, the Bandura experiments were nevertheless heavily criticized. Some argued the laboratory conditions under which children were exposed to media were not generalizable to real-life conditions. Others challenged the assumption that children absorb media content in an unsophisticated manner without being able to distinguish between fantasy and reality. In fact, later studies did find children to be more discerning consumers of media than popularly believed (Gauntlett, 2001 ).

Hugely influential in our understandings of human behavior, the concept of social learning has been at the core of more contemporary understandings of media effects. For example, scholar Christopher Ferguson noted that the General Aggression Model (GAM), rooted in social learning and cognitive theory, has for decades been a dominant model for understanding how media impacts aggression and violence. GAM is described as the idea that “aggression is learned by the activation and repetition of cognitive scripts coupled with the desensitization of emotional responses due to repeated exposure.” However, Ferguson noted that its usefulness has been debated and advocated for a paradigm shift (Ferguson, 2013 , pp. 65, 27; Krahé, 2014 ).

Though the methodologies of the Payne Fund Studies and Bandura studies were heavily criticized, concern over media effects continued to be tied to larger moral debates including the fear of moral decline and concern over the welfare of children. Most notably, in the 1950s, psychiatrist Frederic Wertham warned of the dangers of comic books, a hugely popular medium at the time, and their impact on juveniles. Based on anecdotes and his clinical experience with children, Wertham argued that images of graphic violence and sexual debauchery in comic books were linked to juvenile delinquency. Though he was far from the only critic of comic book content, his criticisms reached the masses and gained further notoriety with the publication of his 1954 book, Seduction of the Innocent . Wertham described the comic book content thusly,

The stories have a lot of crime and gunplay and, in addition, alluring advertisements of guns, some of them full-page and in bright colors, with four guns of various sizes and descriptions on a page . . . Here is the repetition of violence and sexiness which no Freud, Krafft-Ebing or Havelock Ellis ever dreamed could be offered to children, and in such profusion . . . I have come to the conclusion that this chronic stimulation, temptation and seduction by comic books, both their content and their alluring advertisements of knives and guns, are contributing factors to many children’s maladjustment. (Wertham, 1954 , p. 39)

Wertham’s work was instrumental in shaping public opinion and policies about the dangers of comic books. Concern about the impact of comics reached its apex in 1954 with the United States Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency. Wertham testified before the committee, arguing that comics were a leading cause of juvenile delinquency. Ultimately, the protest of graphic content in comic books by various interest groups contributed to implementation of the publishers’ self-censorship code, the Comics Code Authority, which essentially designated select books that were deemed “safe” for children (Nyberg, 1998 ). The code remained in place for decades, though it was eventually relaxed and decades later phased out by the two most dominant publishers, DC and Marvel.

Wertham’s work, however influential in impacting the comic industry, was ultimately panned by academics. Although scholar Bart Beaty characterized Wertham’s position as more nuanced, if not progressive, than the mythology that followed him, Wertham was broadly dismissed as a moral reactionary (Beaty, 2005 ; Phillips & Strobl, 2013 ). The most damning criticism of Wertham’s work came decades later, from Carol Tilley’s examination of Wertham’s files. She concluded that in Seduction of the Innocent ,

Wertham manipulated, overstated, compromised, and fabricated evidence—especially that evidence he attributed to personal clinical research with young people—for rhetorical gain. (Tilley, 2012 , p. 386)

Tilley linked Wertham’s approach to that of the Frankfurt theorists who deemed popular culture a social threat and contended that Wertham was most interested in “cultural correction” rather than scientific inquiry (Tilley, 2012 , p. 404).

Over the decades, concern about the moral impact of media remained while theoretical and methodological approaches to media effects studies continued to evolve (Rich, Bickham, & Wartella, 2015 ). In what many consider a sophisticated development, theorists began to view the audience as more active and multifaceted than the mass society perspective allowed (Kitzinger, 2004 ). One perspective, based on a “uses and gratifications” model, assumes that rather than a passive audience being injected with values and information, a more active audience selects and “uses” media as a response to their needs and desires. Studies of uses and gratifications take into account how choice of media is influenced by one’s psychological and social circumstances. In this context, media provides a variety of functions for consumers who may engage with it for the purposes of gathering information, reducing boredom, seeking enjoyment, or facilitating communication (Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1973 ; Rubin, 2002 ). This approach differs from earlier views in that it privileges the perspective and agency of the audience.

Another approach, the cultivation theory, gained momentum among researchers in the 1970s and has been of particular interest to criminologists. It focuses on how television television viewing impacts viewers’ attitudes toward social reality. The theory was first introduced by communications scholar George Gerbner, who argued the importance of understanding messages that long-term viewers absorb. Rather than examine the effect of specific content within any given programming, cultivation theory,

looks at exposure to massive flows of messages over long periods of time. The cultivation process takes place in the interaction of the viewer with the message; neither the message nor the viewer are all-powerful. (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, Singnorielli, & Shanahan, 2002 , p. 48)

In other words, he argued, television viewers are, over time, exposed to messages about the way the world works. As Gerbner and colleagues stated, “continued exposure to its messages is likely to reiterate, confirm, and nourish—that is, cultivate—its own values and perspectives” (p. 49).

One of the most well-known consequences of heavy media exposure is what Gerbner termed the “mean world” syndrome. He coined it based on studies that found that long-term exposure to media violence among heavy television viewers, “tends to cultivate the image of a relatively mean and dangerous world” (p. 52). Inherent in Gerbner’s view was that media representations are separate and distinct entities from “real life.” That is, it is the distorted representations of crime and violence that cultivate the notion that the world is a dangerous place. In this context, Gerbner found that heavy television viewers are more likely to be fearful of crime and to overestimate their chances of being a victim of violence (Gerbner, 1994 ).

Though there is evidence in support of cultivation theory, the strength of the relationship between media exposure and fear of crime is inconclusive. This is in part due to the recognition that audience members are not homogenous. Instead, researchers have found that there are many factors that impact the cultivating process. This includes, but is not limited to, “class, race, gender, place of residence, and actual experience of crime” (Reiner, 2002 ; Sparks, 1992 ). Or, as Ted Chiricos and colleagues remarked in their study of crime news and fear of crime, “The issue is not whether media accounts of crime increase fear, but which audiences, with which experiences and interests, construct which meanings from the messages received” (Chiricos, Eschholz, & Gertz, p. 354).

Other researchers found that exposure to media violence creates a desensitizing effect, that is, that as viewers consume more violent media, they become less empathetic as well as psychologically and emotionally numb when confronted with actual violence (Bartholow, Bushman, & Sestir, 2006 ; Carnagey, Anderson, & Bushman, 2007 ; Cline, Croft, & Courrier, 1973 ; Fanti, Vanman, Henrich, & Avraamides, 2009 ; Krahé et al., 2011 ). Other scholars such as Henry Giroux, however, point out that our contemporary culture is awash in violence and “everyone is infected.” From this perspective, the focus is not on certain individuals whose exposure to violent media leads to a desensitization of real-life violence, but rather on the notion that violence so permeates society that it has become normalized in ways that are divorced from ethical and moral implications. Giroux wrote,

While it would be wrong to suggest that the violence that saturates popular culture directly causes violence in the larger society, it is arguable that such violence serves not only to produce an insensitivity to real life violence but also functions to normalize violence as both a source of pleasure and as a practice for addressing social issues. When young people and others begin to believe that a world of extreme violence, vengeance, lawlessness, and revenge is the only world they inhabit, the culture and practice of real-life violence is more difficult to scrutinize, resist, and transform . . . (Giroux, 2015 )

For Giroux, the danger is that the normalization of violence has become a threat to democracy itself. In our culture of mass consumption shaped by neoliberal logics, depoliticized narratives of violence have become desired forms of entertainment and are presented in ways that express tolerance for some forms of violence while delegitimizing other forms of violence. In their book, Disposable Futures , Brad Evans and Henry Giroux argued that as the spectacle of violence perpetuates fear of inevitable catastrophe, it reinforces expansion of police powers, increased militarization and other forms of social control, and ultimately renders marginalized members of the populace disposable (Evans & Giroux, 2015 , p. 81).

Criminology and the “Media/Crime Nexus”

Most criminologists and sociologists who focus on media and crime are generally either dismissive of the notion that media violence directly causes violence or conclude that findings are more complex than traditional media effects models allow, preferring to focus attention on the impact of media violence on society rather than individual behavior (Carrabine, 2008 ; Ferrell, Hayward, & Young, 2015 ; Jewkes, 2015 ; Kitzinger, 2004 ; Marsh & Melville, 2014 ; Rafter, 2006 ; Sternheimer, 2003 ; Sternheimer 2013 ; Surette, 2011 ). Sociologist Karen Sternheimer forcefully declared “media culture is not the root cause of American social problems, not the Big Bad Wolf, as our ongoing public discussion would suggest” (Sternheimer, 2003 , p. 3). Sternheimer rejected the idea that media causes violence and argued that a false connection has been forged between media, popular culture, and violence. Like others critical of a singular focus on media, Sternheimer posited that overemphasis on the perceived dangers of media violence serves as a red herring that directs attention away from the actual causes of violence rooted in factors such as poverty, family violence, abuse, and economic inequalities (Sternheimer, 2003 , 2013 ). Similarly, in her Media and Crime text, Yvonne Jewkes stated that U.K. scholars tend to reject findings of a causal link because the studies are too reductionist; criminal behavior cannot be reduced to a single causal factor such as media consumption. Echoing Gauntlett’s critiques of media effects research, Jewkes stated that simplistic causal assumptions ignore “the wider context of a lifetime of meaning-making” (Jewkes, 2015 , p. 17).

Although they most often reject a “violent media cause violence” relationship, criminologists do not dismiss the notion of media as influential. To the contrary, over the decades much criminological interest has focused on the construction of social problems, the ideological implications of media, and media’s potential impact on crime policies and social control. Eamonn Carrabine noted that the focus of concern is not whether media directly causes violence but on “how the media promote damaging stereotypes of social groups, especially the young, to uphold the status quo” (Carrabine, 2008 , p. 34). Theoretically, these foci have been traced to the influence of cultural and Marxist studies. For example, criminologists frequently focus on how social anxieties and class inequalities impact our understandings of the relationship between media violence and attitudes, values, and behaviors. Influential works in the 1970s, such as Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the State, and Law and Order by Stuart Hall et al. and Stanley Cohen’s Folk Devils and Moral Panics , shifted criminological critique toward understanding media as a hegemonic force that reinforces state power and social control (Brown, 2011 ; Carrabine, 2008 ; Cohen, 2005 ; Garland, 2008 ; Hall et al., 2013 /1973, 2013/1973 ). Since that time, moral panic has become a common framework applied to public discourse around a variety of social issues including road rage, child abuse, popular music, sex panics, and drug abuse among others.

Into the 21st century , advances in technology, including increased use of social media, shifted the ways that criminologists approach the study of media effects. Scholar Sheila Brown traced how research in criminology evolved from a focus on “media and crime” to what she calls the “media/crime nexus” that recognizes that “media experience is real experience” (Brown, 2011 , p. 413). In other words, many criminologists began to reject as fallacy what social media theorist Nathan Jurgenson deemed “digital dualism,” or the notion that we have an “online” existence that is separate and distinct from our “off-line” existence. Instead, we exist simultaneously both online and offline, an

augmented reality that exists at the intersection of materiality and information, physicality and digitality, bodies and technology, atoms and bits, the off and the online. It is wrong to say “IRL” [in real life] to mean offline: Facebook is real life. (Jurgenson, 2012 )

The changing media landscape has been of particular interest to cultural criminologists. Michelle Brown recognized the omnipresence of media as significant in terms of methodological preferences and urged a move away from a focus on causality and predictability toward a more fluid approach that embraces the complex, contemporary media-saturated social reality characterized by uncertainty and instability (Brown, 2007 ).

Cultural criminologists have indeed rejected direct, causal relationships in favor of the recognition that social meanings of aggression and violence are constantly in transition, flowing through the media landscape, where “bits of information reverberate and bend back on themselves, creating a fluid porosity of meaning that defines late-modern life, and the nature of crime and media within it.” In other words, there is no linear relationship between crime and its representation. Instead, crime is viewed as inseparable from the culture in which our everyday lives are constantly re-created in loops and spirals that “amplify, distort, and define the experience of crime and criminality itself” (Ferrell, Hayward, & Young, 2015 , pp. 154–155). As an example of this shift in understanding media effects, criminologist Majid Yar proposed that we consider how the transition from being primarily consumers to primarily producers of content may serve as a motivating mechanism for criminal behavior. Here, Yar is suggesting that the proliferation of user-generated content via media technologies such as social media (i.e., the desire “to be seen” and to manage self-presentation) has a criminogenic component worthy of criminological inquiry (Yar, 2012 ). Shifting attention toward the media/crime nexus and away from traditional media effects analyses opens possibilities for a deeper understanding of the ways that media remains an integral part of our everyday lives and inseparable from our understandings of and engagement with crime and violence.

Over the years, from films to comic books to television to video games to social media, concerns over media effects have shifted along with changing technologies. While there seems to be some consensus that exposure to violent media impacts aggression, there is little evidence showing its impact on violent or criminal behavior. Nonetheless, high-profile violent crimes continue to reignite public interest in media effects, particularly with regard to copycat crimes.

At times, academic debate around media effects remains contentious and one’s academic discipline informs the study and interpretation of media effects. Criminologists and sociologists are generally reluctant to attribute violence and criminal behavior directly to exposure to violence media. They are, however, not dismissive of the impact of media on attitudes, social policies, and social control as evidenced by the myriad of studies on moral panics and other research that addresses the relationship between media, social anxieties, gender, race, and class inequalities. Scholars who study media effects are also sensitive to the historical context of the debates and ways that moral concerns shape public policies. The self-regulating codes of the film industry and the comic book industry have led scholars to be wary of hyperbole and policy overreach in response to claims of media effects. Future research will continue to explore ways that changing technologies, including increasing use of social media, will impact our understandings and perceptions of crime as well as criminal behavior.

Further Reading

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• Reuters . (2016, July 24). Munich gunman, a fan of violent video games, rampage killers, had planned attack for a year . Retrieved from http://www.cnbc.com/2016/07/24/munich-gunman-a-fan-of-violent-video-games-rampage-killers-had-planned-attack-for-a-year.html
• Rich, M. , Bickham, D. S. , & Wartella, E. (2015). Methodological advances in the field of media influences on children. American Behavioral Scientist , 59 (14), 1731–1735.
• Robinson, M. B. (2011). Media coverage of crime and criminal justice. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
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• Savage, J. (2008). The role of exposure to media violence in the etiology of violent behavior: A criminologist weighs in. American Behavioral Scientist , 51 (8), 1123–1136.
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607 Crime Essay Topics & Examples

To write a research paper about criminology or law, you need an interesting topic. Our team came up with 607 titles, along with A+ crime essay examples to assist you in your assignment.

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• Infamous Crimes: Laci Peterson’s Murder
• Unemployment Leads to Crime Essay
• Youth Crime as a Major Issue in the World
• Applying Developmental Theories of Crime to Jeffrey Dahmer
• Crime TV: How Is Criminality Represented on Television?
• The Effects of Mass Media Glorifying Crime and Criminal Lifestyle
• Three Pathways to Crime Identified by Loeber
• Why Does Crime Exist in Society?
• International Organized Crime: The 14K Triads in Hong Kong
• Marxists and Functionalists’ Views on Crime and Deviance
• Hate Crimes: Crimes or Deviant Behavior? Because hate crimes are associated with the violation of the First Amendment rights of freedom of speech and association, it is believed that the motive for hate crimes is a crime itself.
• Technology for Crime Prevention With the modern computer technology and advanced software, criminal justice system has been in a capacity to compile data and store it as well as share its analysis with other agencies both in and out […]
• Impact of Crime on Wider Society Therefore, just as some organs in the body can be removed in order to improve the health of a person, the people who cause problems in the society can also be removed so that the […]
• Social Cultural Causes of Crime There is need to highlight the social cultural factors of crime and describe the necessary positive measures to prevent the occurrences of crime.
• Chris Watts and His Murder Crimes Watts pleaded guilty to the killings of his children and wife. Watts concluded the interview by saying he was sorry and repented for his actions after seeking refuge in God.
• Types of Crime Analysis The goals of tactical analysis are to recognize crime trends and to develop the best suited strategies to address them. This is a matter of great concern and the department would inquire more into the […]
• White Collar Crime Parties affected by the crime and how it affects them White collar criminals place more emphasis on their personal needs than their organization’s to the point of downplaying the real costs of their actions.
• Solving the Issue of Crime As the director of the county juvenile court, the research question related to the problem at hand should state as follows: What are cost effective methods of solving the proliferation of violent street gangs in […]
• Crimes Against Property, Persons, and Public Order The least in ranking is crimes against public order for they have no serious repercussions to lives and livelihood of the involved people.
• “The Functions of Crime” by Emile Durkheim In the article “The Functions of Crime”, Emile Durkheim argues clearly that crime should be treated and analyzed as a normal aspect of a given society.
• White Collar Crimes From a Marxist Criminological Perspective Marxist criminologists interpret it in the following way: “…the crimes of the upper class exert a greater economic toll on society than the crimes of the ‘ordinary people’”.
• Suspect, Crime Scene, and the Victim: Evidence Triangle In every crime investigation, it is mandatory that the evidence gathered be adequate to draw the link between the suspect, crime scene and the victim.
• How Biochemical Conditions and Brain Activity are Linked to Crime Studies have shown that areas with high rates of homicide and other forms of violence had a lot of lead in the air.
• Crimes Against Person Cases of murder falls in the rule of felony murder which is well stipulated by the constitution of any given country and the penalty is administered depending on whether the case was committed in an […]
• Frankston Serial Killer: Background, Crimes, and Motives At the time, the police noted that Denyer was with his girlfriend. The letter claimed that Denyer knows his whereabouts, and that he was planning to break out of prison to kill him.
• Youth Crime According to Conflict Theory The second one is that the youth might engage in criminal activities and violence due to misappropriation of resources, lack of jobs, and inadequate strategies to meet their social needs.
• Crimes and Criminal Tendencies: Cause and Effect The school makes demands of control, discipline, and accountability which are difficult for the low self-control student to meet, and, for this reason, early school leaving is a result of low self-control, not a cause […]
• Relationship Between Crime Rates and Poverty This shows that the strength of the relationship between the crime index and people living below the line of poverty is.427.
• Anthropological Theory of Crime Criminal law is a division of law that elucidates crimes, describes their nature and defines available punishment for a criminal offense.
• Youth Crime in Functionalism and Conflict Theories The analysis will focus on determining factors contributing to youth engagement in criminal acts, examining the types of delinquencies they are likely to commit, and establishing the socio-psychological facets associated with the teenagers in the […]
• Social Disorganization and Crime Social disorganization can be conceptualized as the incapability of the community structure to attain the common values of its members and maintain effective social controls, or as the failure and degeneration of social institutions and […]
• Crime Prevention With Rational Choice Theory In addition, pure RCT may be insufficient for explaining nuances associated with the psychological and social profiles of the offenders. In particular, the traditional RCT faces problems explaining violent crime and irrational risk and reward […]
• Consequences of Committing Crime These factors affect the behavior of an individual and might lead them to criminal activities depending on the effect of the overall combination of the elements mentioned above.
• The Phases of a Crime and Their Importance in Psychological Profiling Attempt and accomplishment, the third and fourth phases of a crime respectively, differ in the sense that an attempt is a failed crime.
• Investigating Crimes against Property According to the Uniform Crime Report of the Federal Bureau of Investigations, there are about 9,767,915 cases of property crimes reported in America annually.
• Crime Prevention Strategies and Quality of Life The aim of crime prevention strategies is to create conditions that cut the chances and motivation for crime, transforming the capability of the criminal justice system to handle crimes.
• Zodiac Movie: Crime, Media Reporting and Ethics The development of the events and the rise of the killer’s popularity began as soon as the reporters of the San Francisco Chronicle received and discovered the letter with threats to American society.
• Aileen Wuornos’ Background and Crimes Aileen Wuornos began her series of murders in 1989. For a short period, she killed seven people, and all of them were men.
• Cybercrime and Cyber-Related Crimes The introduction of computer technology has created room for cyber crimes and cyber related crimes that have caused many people pain and losses to the society.
• Using the Internet to Solve a Crime The purpose of my research is to highlight some of the uses of the internet in solving crime. The Internet can be used to carry out crime mapping, this is a strategy used by law […]
• An Epidemic of Knife Crime in the UK In the case of the former, it is evident that social class plays a key role in the emergence of knife crimes across the UK.
• White-Collar Crime: Importance of Awareness When individuals are informed about white-collar crimes, they will be able to detect, evaluate, and avert natural and artificial threats to the welfare of persons and the setups of administrations.
• Factors Influencing the Commission of Crime Some of the factors that contribute to the decision-making of the offender are based on time constraints, the ability of the information available, agreeing with the offender’s plans as well as the availability of favorable […]
• Statistics of Crime Costs to the UK Healthcare The statistic is describing the claims by Labour that the NHS uses 500 million a year to treat wounds caused by knife crimes.
• The Genre of Crime and Gangster Movies The gangster movies always tend to idolize the gangster figures with a relation to the sinister activities that always define crime and the lifestyles of the gangsters.
• The Impact of Social Media on the Rise in Crime For example, Jones cites revenge porn, or the practice of publishing a partner’s intimate contact on social media, as one of the results of social media use.
• Capital Punishment and Deterrence of Crime For the case of murder or crimes that necessitate capital punishment, the incentive to commit murder is directly related to the uncertainties that punishments for the crime will generate.
• Prostitution as a Victimless Crime The association in the law and morality in the subject of prostitution is been a wide concern as prostitution can be considered as one of the oldest phenomena of humankind in a way of practicing […]
• The Influence of Peer Groups on Youth Crime The impact of youth crime on the community is profound, and so is the influence of criminal behavior on the lives of adolescents.
• The Impact of the Internet on Traditional Crime How the Internet helps the criminals The advancement in the modern computer technologies and the Internet has put radical changes in the concept of information and the mode of exchanging the data.

The Chicago Tylenol Murders

The Chicago Tylenol killings were a string of deaths in the Chicago metropolitan region in 1982 as a result of drug tampering. The victims ingested potassium cyanide-laced acetaminophen pills bearing the Tylenol brand. Officers suspected that James Lewis was behind these murders to get revenge for the loss of his daughter Toni.

Transnational Organized Crime

Transnational organized crime coordinates across national borders. It involves marketplaces or groups of people operating in multiple countries to organize and carry out illicit economic operations. These criminal groups use systematic violence and corruption to further their goals. Examples of transnational crimes include the trafficking of drugs, counterfeit items, weapons, people, endangered animals, and natural resources over international borders.

Alcohol and Crime

Abuse of alcohol can make people more likely to commit crimes, such as murder or assault, by lowering their inhibitions and making them less judgmental. Consequently, an intoxicated person has a higher risk of causing bodily and psychological harm to both oneself and other people. To ensure public safety, being intoxicated under specific conditions is illegal in every jurisdiction in the United States.

Can the Police Reduce Crime?

Although studies have generally found that police have little effect on crime, focused patrols still have a significant impact in particular circumstances. Most expectations of the police’s role in reducing crime are based on the deterrence theory. This theory holds that the mere prospect of punishment modifies the behavior of potential criminals and eventually lowers the overall rate of crime in society.

• The Theft of a Laptop in Various Crime Scenarios This paper seeks to evaluate different situations that involve the theft of a laptop with the aim of establishing the types of crime they represent and the differences between them.
• The Major Theories of Crime Causation The survival of any civilization hinges on the establishment of laws and codes of conduct and the subsequent obeying of the same by the members of the society.
• The Evolution of Behavioral and Cognitive Development Theories of Crime Behavioral theory is based upon the principles of behavioral psychology and is the basis for behavior modification and change. This theory is founded on the belief that the way in which people organize their thoughts […]
• Parental Responsibility for Crimes of Children Parents should be held responsible for the crime of their children because in most cases criminal involvement of children is the result of lack of parental control.
• Who Are the Two Partners in All Crimes? A relationship also arises between the offender and the victim, which forms the basis of explaining the motive for the crime.
• CCTV Cameras: Surveillance and the Reduction of Crime The present paper will seek to argue that greater surveillance is not a desirable answer to the problem of crime and that other solutions are required to reduce crime rates in the long term.
• Drug, Crime and Violence This essay offers a brief discussion of how the abuse of illegal drugs is related to both crime and violence. It is prudent to mention that drug and violence have been noted to be closely […]
• White Collar Crimes: Bernard Madoff Ponzi Scheme A Ponzi scheme is a white collar crime in which the perpetrator encourages people to invest in a business and promises high dividends within a short period of time.
• Functionalist Approach to Deviance and Crime This paper looks at the functionalist approach to the explanation of the causes of deviance and crime. Some level of deviance is however healthy as it leads to better adaptation of the society.
• La Cosa Nostra Organized Crime Available criminology scholarship demonstrates that La Cosa Nostra, also referred to as the mafia, the mob, the outfit, the office, and the family, was by any standards the most prominent criminal organization in the United […]
• Social Theories of Crime in Explaining Gang Violence This theory incorporates the strain theory as well as the social disorganization it points out that as a result of strain and societal segregation there is a particular culture that establishes for the low income […]
• Analysis of the Social Context of Crime Therefore, it is vital to reinforce the legal measures against child abuse, including the enhancement of legal repercussions for the perpetrators of the specified type of crime.
• Crime: What Modifies the Human Acts? A young man entering medical school has, as proximate and intermediate ends, the passing of his exams, and the advance from the first to the second class; more remote ends are the exams and classes […]
• “Crimes Against Humanity” by Ward Churchill Throughout the essay, he puts a lot of words and phrases in quotation marks to underline the unique and figurative meaning of these phrases.
• Water Pollution as a Crime Against the Environment In particular, water pollution is a widespread crime against the environment, even though it is a severe felony that can result in harm to many people and vast territories.
• Andrew Luster’s Crime and Media Attention Henry Luster, a psychiatrist, and Elizabeth Luster, the parents of Andrew Luster. The film concluded with a snapshot of Luster and an appeal for witnesses to his whereabouts to notify authorities.
• Note-Taking and Crime Scene Photography Concerning the effectiveness of notes, generally, they should contain a high level of detail, and straightforwardness and cover all areas of the crime scene.
• Salem Witchcraft Hysteria: Crime Against Women In the “Was the Salem Witchcraft Hysteria a Product of Women’s Search for Power?” Kyle Koehler and Laurie Winn Carlson present the “pro” and “cons” arguments for this claim.
• Victimless Crimes: Definition and Types Again, the taxpayers are the victims in such a case as they have to contribute to the rehabilitation of the drug users. As such, some of the so-called victimless crimes have identifiable victims.
• Cyber Crime and Necessity of Cyber Security This is one of the policies that has been proposed to curb cyber crimes and is being debated in the congress.
• The Drug Crime Story of the Stickup Kids In the first part, Contreras situates the participants in the historical context of New York and the South Bronx, the epicenter of the rise of the crack-cocaine trade.
• Sociological Perspectives on Crimes of Power: Enron Selfish ambitions of people are dangerous to the organization because this will lead to the downfall of the company in the long run as it happened with Enron.
• Criminology: Application of Crime Theories For an action to amount to crime, there has to be a breach of law followed by the administration of punishment by the state to the accused.
• New York City Community Policing and Crime Reduction Robbery, the “bellwether crime” that is the general gauge of violence in the city, also dropped significantly – from a high of 100,280 in 1990 to 39,357 by 1998 – a 60%) decline.
• Bernie Madoff Ponzi’s Crime Scheme The image of the American Dream and the Strain Theory works in reverse as well: if a person fails to possess lots of quantifiable treasure, then the social order will consider him as a disappointment.
• Crime Punishment: Shame Is Worth a Try Kahan, therefore, proposes that the use of shame as punishment is put to trial and if found effective, must be implemented as an alternative to the imprisonment.
• DNA Analysis: A Crime-Fighting Tool or Invasion of Privacy? This paper set out to demonstrate that DNA analysis offers a versatile tool for fighting crime and therefore ensuring the success of our civilization.
• Crime Analysis Conceptual Study It is the work of crime analysts to assess the basics of a crime and give an analytical product which is used to handle such offenses and assist incarcerate the offenders, and the accomplice.
• Crime in Canada: Causes, Regulation and Legislation There are those activities that are universally accepted to constitute a crime, however, what might be considered the crime in one society is not necessarily applied in a different society; for instance, looking at a […]
• The Crimes of Charles Manson, Serial Killer Even though his people did it himself, he was not involved in this, and the organization of a particular group of people is not in itself an immoral act but is prohibited in some places.
• The Relationship Between Wealth Distribution and Crime Rates According to Anser et al, the levels of crime and violence in the community depend on the difference between the risks or costs and potential gains.
• Crimes, Future Challenges and Issues Law enforcement agencies will have challenges with legal requirements and privacy issues in operating vehicles that demand law enforcement agency compliance.
• White-Collar Crime: The Notorious Case of Ford Pinto Additionally, the representatives of this organization argued that the actions of the company should be judged according to the standards of federal law.
• “Sisters in Crime: The Rise of the New Female Criminal” by Adler This includes the extent, nature, control and cause of crime in the society. It focuses on supernaturalism in the definition and address of crime in society.
• Cyber Crimes: Court – United States vs. Ancheta Reasoning: The jury argued that the defendant conspired to violate the Computer Fraud Abuse Act as well as the CAN-SPAM Act, caused havoc to computer networks of the national defense department of the federal government, […]
• Depiction of White-Collar Crime: Toxic Chemicals and Effects of the Pollutions The penalty was justified that the victims of the pollution were granted relief and despite the fact that nothing could be done regarding the contamination in past events, the court ordered the sites to be […]
• Middle Class and Crime: Historical Analysis of Crime The middle class norms place a high evaluation on the cultivation and possession of skills and on the tangible achievements which are presumed to witness the possession of skills and the application of effort.
• Social Program for Management of Crimes Against Women It is ironic that for some women, the assumed safety of the home is non-existent, as the home is the setting where she is at her most vulnerable point, and where she is most in […]
• Campus Crimes Types and Causes According to the college administrators’ records, crimes in campuses were minimal in the 19th century and in the early 20th century.
• The Long Way to Confession in Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment The act of confession is one of the central themes in Crime and Punishment, since it is the climax point of the novel signifying crucial changes in Raskolnikov’s mental and physical state.

Can Criminals Be Rehabilitated?

With the advent of social science research on criminal conduct, the notion that all prisoners would revert to their natural goodness after being freed from society’s pernicious effects gave way to harsher kinds of treatment. Research gave reformers more insight into deviance and revealed more effective methods for dealing with it. Rehabilitation became a science that focuses on giving ex-offenders the attitudes and abilities they need to live lawfully. Currently, the debate about the need for criminal rehabilitation is still ongoing.

Is Predictive Policing Effective?

Predictive policing analyzes historical and current data using sophisticated algorithms and other technology to prevent crime. Many first see these developments as proof that technology is being utilized to further justice. On the other hand, many people are worried about how proactive policing may affect privacy and security in America going forward.

Gender and Crime

“Why do women commit much less crime than men?” is the question that’s still unsolved. Nevertheless, it remains a fact in nearly every community throughout history. Another exciting aspect of gender intersecting with crime is that men are more likely than women to be victims of violent crime.

Relationship between Poverty and Crime

It’s often suspected that need forces one to steal. However, this is not a universal truth. Crime rates among impoverished communities differ depending on ethnicity or nationality. It’s also believed that violent crime is more likely to be caused by interpersonal conflict than by the need to steal.

Racial Discrimination Through Hate Crime

The connection between race and crime is one of the biggest discussions. According to research, the reasons behind racial gaps in crime are socioeconomic position, poverty, and early exposure to violent conduct. However, police tactics that include racial profiling and in-group prejudice can lead to an abnormally high percentage of racial minorities becoming the target of criminal accusations.

• Crime Policies: Broken Windows Theory Massachusetts is one of the communities that have managed to apply this theory to improve security in their streets. One of the key things to note when implementing this theory in such a location is […]
• An Inchoate Crime Under the conspiracy element in the Wisconsin Statutes, conspiracy is defined as the agreement or combination of forces by two individuals with the intent of committing a crime.
• Crime and Deviance Crime is an act that is against the norm of a society and the registered law of the entire country. A person is usually taken to the court of law where the offence is listened […]
• The Connection Between Drugs and Crime The central viewpoint is that it is not an absolute truth that drug use is not an obvious cause of crime.
• Comparing the Rate of Crime between the US, Japan, and Mexico The discussion will be general and mostly based on the crime index. The table shows the level of crime in the USA, Japan, and Mexico.67.
• The Self Control Theory of Crime In this theory, the level of self control exercised by individuals in the presence of a strong or a weak incentive to commit a crime explains why some people commit crimes while others do not.
• Crime Laboratories: Accreditation and Certification S, the four major accrediting bodies include the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board, the American Association for Laboratory Accreditation, Forensic Quality Services, and the American Board of Forensic Toxicology, though each body […]
• Crime Scene Investigation and Evidence Classification They include the explanation of physical evidence to identify purposes, the discussion of the differences between class and individual characteristics of physical evidence, and the evaluation of the class characteristics’ importance.
• Shoe Impression at a Crime Scene It is the transfer of material from the shoe to the surface. The print results from the static charges between the sole of the shoe and the surface.
• Crime Theories: Psychodynamics and Rational Choice The rational choice theory explained the causes of crime to be the ability of an individual to commit the crime, their need for valuable possessions and money, their physical health and ability to commit the […]
• Crimes and Victimization: Gender Issues Generally, a common way to perceive the dynamic between men and women in the context of crime and deviance underestimates women’s capacity to be self-sufficient and expects to see the predator-prey relationships between the genders.
• Curtis Sliwa’s “The Guardian Angels”: Fighting Crime in New York City Almost at the same time, the number of burglaries and rapes tripled, the number of felony assaults and carjackings doubled, and the number of homicides increased by a thousand per year.
• Developmental Crime Prevention Developmental crime prevention is a subsystem of special criminological crime prevention, the target of which is the pre-criminal forms of deviant and delinquent behavior of minors.
• Reasons Why Women Are Often the Victims of Violent Crimes Law enforcement, family, and friends often chose not to pay attention to women in violent relationships, which is another cause of the number of crimes related to femicide to increase.
• White Collar Crime Characteristics It is possible to conclude that white collar offenders are usually well off and have certain status in the society. On balance, it is necessary to note that demographic and psychological characteristics of white collar […]
• “Thinking About Crime: Sense and Sensibility in American Penal Culture” by Michael Tonry Tonry’s goals of explaining the main underlying processes of American penal policymaking and the adverse effects of irrational decisions driven by the moral panic and the politicians’ inclination of gaining authority among the potential voters […]
• Medical Crimes in the Health Industry This is because the industry has such a long bureaucracy that makes the efficient management of the organization very complicated due to the decentralization processes.
• Crime and Family Background Correlation The first half of the 20th century saw the crime rate increase moderately in a few areas; mostly in burglaries and muggings, but less in murders and drunkenness.
• Economy and Crime: The Relationship Economic crime is a serious problem for the business world, and it has become more and more aggravating with the development of technologies and with the growing availability of internet access.
• Crime and Delinquency, Eric Smith’s Case Thus the psychological problems that smith developed were due to the experiences he had gone through the courtesy of his bright red hair, freckles, and speech problems.
• Transnational Crime and International Policing This further aids the level of operation and success of international policing by creating the need for control on transnational crime.
• Medea’s Justification for Her Crime Medea felt Jason had betrayed her love for him and due to her desperate situation she was depressed and her normal thinking was affected that she started thinking of how she would revenge the man […]
• Prostitution as a “Victimless” Crime In an analysis of prostitution as a “victimless” crime, it is primary to maintain that there is an ongoing debate over the classification of the crime into the “victimless” crimes.
• Situational Crime Prevention SCP focuses on deterring crime by increasing the risk and effort in committing a crime. However, they add that the effect of such measures varies based on the location and type of crime targeted.
• Surveillance as the Answer to the Crime Issue One of the main features of the “surveillance society” is the use of closed-circuit television that allows for detecting and preventing crimes.
• Crime Causes in Sociological Theories The former can be characterized as the outcome of the constructive or adverse influence of rewards/ penalties on the individual’s behavior.
• Violent Crimes Controling and Decreasing in the US The display of aggression toward the environment and other individuals does not equalize the dependency between the criminal genes of the parents and their child’s behavior.
• Society’s Response to Crime Impacts on Justice True, the decisions of the court are generally based on nature of the crime, evidence and the manner of the plaintiff and defendant.
• Victims of Crime Act: History and Development The necessary part of the paper is the information about changes to the original policy. The discussion of this act and how necessary it is for the criminal justice system in The United States is […]
• Japanese War Crimes To fully understand the crimes committed, the discourse will also analyze the Japanese and international law and some of the agreements that Japan signed in relation to the crimes that were later committed.
• “Making Crime Pay” by Katherine Beckett The writer suggests that even if the call for tougher penalties is seen as the answer to the problem, those calling for these penalties are not necessarily affected by the rising crime. There is need […]
• Rogue Security Software: Digital Crime Scenario This rogue security software can appear on a website in the form of an advertisement which in most of the time informs that internet user of their win for being a visitor to the website […]
• Organized Crime – John Gotti’s Analyze He argues that the American social structure and its structure of wealth distribution and that dream of achieving the ‘American dream’ all require crime to maintain social stability in the face of structural inequality.
• Mens Rea and Actus Reus of Crime: A Case Study About a block down the street, it begins to sprinkle and Latisha opens the umbrella and realizes that it is not hers.
• Robert Merton’s Strain Theory Explaining Economic Crime Trends This theory states that “crime occurs when there are not enough legitimate opportunities for people to achieve the success goals imposed by the society”.
• Design Theory in “Ornament and Crime” Essay by Loos One of the striking examples of this opinion is the desire to combine the interior and exterior decoration of the building, making them a logical continuation of each other.
• “Legend” Crime Drama Directed by Brian Helgeland Helgeland revives the images of the Kray brothers, Reggie and Ronny that at some point become one of the leading players in the brutal games of the gangster side.
• Crime Scene Investigation in Criminal Justice In the process of controlling the crowd and maintaining order with the aid of the police officers, I took some photographs of the surrounding and then approached the main spot of event. I managed to […]
• Crime Factors & Levels in South Africa vs. Canada Developed and developing countries have different level of crime and crime control from the developing countries. This crime is concentrated in the urban of Ontario, British Columbia and other areas like Quebec.
• TV Violence, Increasing Crime Levels and Child Aggression Most of the proponents of that theory state that by witnessing a certain behavior in fiction people become more prone to repeating it in real life. One of the powers these advancements have given us […]

Chris Watts and His Murder Crimes

American oil field operator Christopher Lee Watts killed his pregnant wife Shanann and their two children by strangling them in the early hours of August 13, 2018, in Frederick, Colorado. Watts first insisted he was innocent of any involvement in his family’s abduction. Still, on August 15, he was taken into custody after admitting to the murder of Shanann during a police interview. Subsequently, he acknowledged killing his kids.

Intellectual Property Crimes in Cyberspace

Intellectual property, like any creation, has its problems. Unauthorized use of trade names, trademarks, service marks, photos, codes, audio files, movies, and literary content has become a joint infringement on the vast new realm of knowledge and expertise in cyberspace. It’s usually done through spamming, framing, linking, meta-tagging, and other illegal activities.

Does Curfews Prevent Juvenile Crime?

Advocates claim curfews prevent crime and safeguard children by keeping them off the streets. Curfews, however, appear to have no effect, and some activists and specialists in juvenile justice warn of unintended consequences like increased racial profiling and damaged relationships between police and youth.

American Crime Trends and Criminological Theories

The main task of criminology has always been to obtain reliable information about the crime committed. Modern technological breakthroughs allow new ways of improving criminological procedures and making them faster, more accurate, and more effective. Among modern trends in criminology are global surveillance systems, 3D crime scene scanners, AI built into police databases, facial recognition software, computer forensics, and many more.

Serial Killer Profiles

Psychological profiling of serial killers entails taking a closer look at their mindset, motivation, and characteristics of the crime scene. Criminologists use case studies of serial killers to study the traits and incentives of such criminals and find methods that help look into serial killers’ actions. All this helps to overcome common difficulties that law enforcement faces in dealing with serial murders.

• Searching and Recording the Crime Scene Therefore, based on the nature and size of the scene, it is best recommended for the zone and grid search method to be used in the location and collection of evidence.
• Does Crime Make Economic Sense? Crime has great effects on the prices of the commodities being sold in the country; hence this will affect both the suppliers and the consumers which influences the income directly.
• Conflict & Crime Control vs. Consensus & Due Process Model The model enforces the law through dialogue between the offenders and the law enforcers’ agencies. The police and courts are the main bodies in the conflict control model of criminal justice.
• Forensic Science: Examining Crime Evidence For a forensic scientist, it is paramount to be able to perform the three main functions: Gathering evidence finding the evidence from the crime scene that might be relevant to the case, and collecting it […]
• Crime Prevention at the Workplace: Employee Theft Considering that any form of employee theft induces substantial harm to the financial performance of companies, the integration of adequate crime prevention procedures in the corporate security system is of great importance.
• Crime Prevention and Control Effectiveness Another aspect that needs to be acknowledged is that it is impossible to avoid all of the crimes because some individuals will participate in such activities even if it is dangerous and significant risks are […]
• Freakonomics: What Attributed to the Sharp Drop In Crime? This article focuses on these reasons that were thought to have led to reduction of the rising crime rates experienced in United States in the 1990s and refutes the claims flaunted by the theorists.
• Prohibition and the Rise of Organized Crime In the 1920s, the United States was facing worrying rates of crime that called for the intervention of the Congress to avert the situation.
• Transnational Organized Crime In the subsequent section, the paper suggests a method that would be utilized in understanding the effects of organized crime on the economic policies of states.
• Extortion in Organized Crime Groups Blackmailing is a standard tool in organized crime, as it relies on one’s ability to threaten with severe consequences for non-compliance.
• Guidelines for Responsible Reporting on Hate Crimes The media is responsible for maintaining a balance between their interests and the needs and rights of crime victims, the public, and defendants.
• The Crime of Attempt: Adequate Punishment In this situation, it is necessary to cooperate with a lawyer to prove the absence of intent to harm or to verify the impossibility of committing a crime.
• Hate Crimes from a Biblical Perspective Therefore, hate crimes include immoral conduct and a risk to the wellbeing of the general populace, and the courts are without a doubt vested with the jurisdiction to decide how the perpetrators of these offenses […]
• Categories of Crime in Current Justice System A stable and effective legal system work is one of the fundamental aspects necessary for the evolution of society. The severity of the crime is determined by the damage done to a person and the […]
• Impact of Cyber Crime on Internet Banking The paper evaluates a con article on ‘The impact of cybercrime on e-banking’ [1]. H2: Identity theft will have a negative impact on the adoption of electronic banking.
• Crime Scene Investigation Techniques Digital GPS evidence refers to the location data that is collected and stored on digital devices such as smartphones, laptops, tablets, smart watches, and others.
• The Most Effective Crime Reduction Approaches Therefore, the assessment and monitoring of the community must remain a core strategy for a crime analyst to prevent a rise in crime.
• Mental Health of Crime Offenders The research was created with the idea that women have a significant role in promoting global health because of the importance of their health. According to the findings, life skills training programs improved women’s mental […]
• A Theoretical Perspective on Crimes On the one hand, if the core of committing crimes is the moral values or rational decisions of the individual, then re-education seems to be a feasible strategy. Consequently, the concept of re-education is not […]
• Cryptocurrency Crimes in Financial Markets One of the most relevant, and important news in recent times is the trend of cryptocurrency crimes in financial markets. In this case, it is necessary to improve security systems concerning the management, control, storage, […]
• Discussion on the Role of Crime The results of this study can be implemented in the education and training of police officers and lead to a reduction in the number of illegal actions.
• Research in Criminal Justice: Crime Solvability Factors In the sphere of criminal justice, inquiry can doubtlessly assist in the formulation of improved and more progressive laws and institutions.
• Terrorism and Transnational Organized Crime as Threats to Homeland Security The US is among the nations that have suffered some of the worst terrorist attacks worldwide and it is also a hub of international criminal activities due to its wealth of resources and powerful economic […]
• Sexual Crimes and Behavioral Problems Treatment The author’s central claim is the need for a comprehensive study of sexual crimes and the identity of a sex offender with mental abnormalities.
• State Crimes: Strategies to Resisting Tortures in Prisons This paper intends to uncover the effective methods of resistance to state crime on the example of torture in prisons. The main argument will be that the specificity of repressive regimes, which are the main […]
• The Community Policing Impact on Juvenile Crime Moreover, the involvement of the police when it comes to community activities and narrowing the gap between law enforcement and youth is also related to criminal activity in the region.
• Police Administration Issue: Crime Victim Rights Moreover, the police administration has not acknowledged that the decision of the hospital does, in fact, protect the victims’ rights, a duty that is to be implemented by law enforcement.
• Hate Crimes and Biblical Worldview The first four commandments of the Old Testament are the commandments about the love of God, and the next six are about the love of one’s neighbors.
• Sociology Can Be Applied to Offenders and Crimes As a result, such people are likely to be involved in property theft and unlawfully obtain what does not belong to them.
• Crime Problems and Criminal Justice Notably, except for the last one, all listed procedures can be applied to crime issues discussed above and seem practical in preventing law violations.
• Suitability of Electronic Monitoring: Crime Control Perspective Electronic monitors must be used for youthful offenders because it provides the necessary level of structure and rules that the individuals must follow in order to remain in the community.
• Low Crime Clearance Rates in the United States The decline in clearance rates might be explained by the relaxation of law enforcement and the simultaneous increase in standards for making an arrest.
• Crime Control and Prevention Methods In addition to notations that are usually tiresome for schoolchildren, police officers who specialize in working with minors can show movies about the dangers of drinking alcohol.
• Transnational Organized Crime in the United States The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia’s and the Taliban’s engagement in the narcotic business is essential to their position to uphold terrorist activities.
• Crime Reporting in Irish Media The impact of the increase in crime reporting is the rise in worrisome behaviors among the citizens. On the other hand, there is an increase in crime rates, especially cyber crimes and sexual offenses.
• Police Corruption: A Crime With Severe Consequences Police corruption is a severe crime that can lead to adverse consequences for the officer-criminals and society. The documentary “Seven Five” shows the story of one of the most criminal police officers Michael Dowd.
• Analysis of Crime and Punishment Bill The notion of the fact that the role of the legislator might be stressful at the beginning of the discussion is highly relevant.
• Investigating and Reporting White Collar Crimes: The Case of Bernie Madoff The severity of the sentence given to Madoff reflects how the American courts viewed his crimes and the seriousness with which white-collar crimes are approached.
• “Time and Crime: Which Cold-Case Investigations Should Be Reheated?”: Key Ideas One of the goals that require the criminal investigation to undergo completion, according to Hughes and Jonas, is retribution, where the verdict is to be issued for an offender’s wrongdoing.
• “Hot Spots of Crime…” Article by Weisburd & White In addition to this, items such as all the time, most of the time, some of the time, or not at all were used in establishing a common pattern in both social and work activities. […]

Follow these steps to select a fantastic essay topic:

• Examine the assignment’s prerequisites. Avoid picking broad subjects if the deadline is near. Instead, focus on something narrower.
• Create a list of potential subtopics. Make sure they meet the requirements of your task and your personal taste.
• Restrict your options. After you have a list of potential topics, narrow it down by considering factors like practicality, significance, and your level of subject-matter expertise.
• Conduct some preliminary research. This will assist you in determining the availability of trustworthy sources on the subject.
• Determine who your readers are. When selecting a topic, consider your target audience’s expectations and preferences to ensure that your essay is engaging and relevant.

Crime Subtopics

Here are some great ideas that you can use for your assignment:

• The law includes social norms and regulations that help organize life in a society.
• Community corrections are a means to punish criminals for their deeds.
• Terrorism is a subtopic including international crimes and political assaults.
• Sexual assault is a severe crime that can’t go unpunished.
• Illegal drug consumption has ruined millions of lives in all social circles.
• Serial killers are one of the scariest aspects of criminology.
• Crime among juveniles can be just as serious as adult crimes.
• Criminology helps develop many effective means to catch criminals, and they improve every day.
• Crime of Ricin Using or an Easy Way Out
• Current Trends in Globalization of Crime
• The Crime and Justice Impact on New Media
• Legal Issues Related to Cyber Crime Investigations
• Crime Rates in the United States
• Processing a Physical and Electronic Crime Scene
• Criminalistics: Forensic Science, Crime, and Terrorism
• Crime Trends in the Jurisdiction
• Websites Against Cyber Crimes: Investigating High-Tech Crime
• Cultural Criminology: Inside the Crime
• Juvenile Crime and Human Institutions’ Solutions
• Crime of Extortion and Potential Defense
• The United States Uniform Crime Report’s Aims
• Department of Justice Project on Organized Crime
• Illegal Immigration Policies and Violent Crime
• Major Crimes Committed by Women
• Finding a Crime Series: Murders Committed by John Wayne Gacy
• Review of High Tech Crime Investigation
• Analysis of Crime and Violence Trauma
• Crime Maps of Detroit and Michigan
• Criminologists’ Views on Crime and Justice Issues
• Napoleon Beazley: Analysis of Crime
• Case Study on Tax Crimes: Distributional Implications of Joint Tax
• Aspects of Sexual Crime Myth
• Document Falsification Crime and Response to It
• Criminal Justice & Security: Measuring Crime Statistics
• Overrepresentation of African Americans in Crime Statistics
• Business-Related Crime and Preventive Measures
• Factors Affecting Losses From Property Crime
• Hate Crimes and Implications
• Juvenile Violent Crime and Children Below Poverty
• Increasing Level of Fear of Crime and Its Cause
• Criminological Theories Explaining Overrepresentation of African Americans in Crime Statistics
• The Crime Scene Investigation Effect Theory
• Profiled in Life & Death: Crime Victims’ Compensation and Young People of Color
• American Serial Killer Joseph Paul Franklin’s Crimes
• Prison Sentence Alternatives for Drug-Related Crimes
• Juvenile Crime of Lionel Tate: Causes and Effects
• Crime Commitment and Punishment
• The Federal Bureau Investigation Crime Statistics
• White-Collar Crime-Related Data Sources in the US
• Crimes Against Humanity – Genocide
• Ordinary vs. Hate Crime Activities: Key Differences
• Public Perceptions of Racial Crimes
• Rediscovery of Crime Victims
• Public Perceptions of Crime Analysis
• Crime and Violence: Modern Social Classification
• The New Perspective in the Management of Crime and Offenders
• Measuring Crime Within Lynfield Estate
• Restoring the Requirement of Mens Rea for All Crimes
• GIS Comparing to Areas in Baltimore in Comparison to Crime
• State Report: Crime Rates in Wisconsin
• Sentencing Philosophies in Crime
• Victimless Crimes in the United States of America
• Youth Crime Statistics in the US
• Hate Crimes – Bullying
• The Crimes of Sexual Assault in Canada
• Transnational Organized Crime in Port Security Operations
• Social and Cultural Inequalities Impact On Crime Experience: London
• Prison Reforms for Handling Crime Effectively
• The ‘Street Games’ Athletic Intervention to Reduce Youth Crime
• Conspiracies in Society: Power Elite and State Crimes Against Society Theories
• Asian Hate Crimes in the United States
• Disability Hate Crimes in England and Wales
• Close-Circuit Television: Crime Control vs. Privacy
• Victims and Crime Evaluation
• Hate Crime Problem Overview
• “Adventures in Crime” Book by Amanda Archer
• Managing the Hate Crimes and Preparing Officers
• Adaptations to Anomie. Theories of Crime
• Rape Theories and Policies to Minimize Crimes
• Federal Statutes: White-Collar Crime
• Juvenile Use of Drug and Committing of Crime
• Data-Based Analysis Approach in Preventing Crime at Dallas Police Department
• Researching Hate Crimes in America
• Crimes Against Unborn Children
• Crime in 2020 During COVID-19
• Evidence of a Relationship Between Crime and Economy
• Federal, State, and Local Hate Crime Laws
• The Costs and Benefits of Dealing With Juvenile Crimes in Boot Camps
• Drug Crimes and Merton’s Anomie
• Property Crime in Boston and Detroit
• Main Aspects of Organized Crime Models
• Crime Control Perspective & the Due Process Perspective
• History of Crime Measurement vs. Contemporary Situation
• Profiling and Analytical Skills in Crime Detection
• The Difference Between Media Depiction and the Reality of Crime
• The Use of Social Crime Prevention Techniques in the UK
• Lipstick Analysis in Crime Detection
• Effects of Community Policing Upon Fear of Crime
• Homeland Security: Digital Crime and Terrorism Activities
• Problem-Oriented Crime Intervention and Policy Analysis
• Hacking as a Crime and Related Theories
• Affect of the Organized Crime in Australia
• Crime Challenges in the 21st Century
• Deviance and Deviant Crimes
• Human Consciousness Leading to Hate Crimes
• The Government Solutions of Violent Crimes
• Crime Statistics in United States
• Causes of Committing Crimes
• Anti Money Laundering and Financial Crime
• Sexual Crimes: Criminal Liability
• Crime in Virginia: Nature and Trends
• Noble Cause Corruption – A Crime-Fighting Sub-Culture
• Electronic Crime: Online Predators on Facebook
• Insider Trading Crime and Sentencing
• Criminal Street Gangs as Organized Crime Groups
• Developmental Theories and Crime Prevention Programs
• Race and Culture Factors in Crime
• Analysis of Mental Health in Crime
• Isla Vista Mass Murder as a Hate Crime
• The Genetics of Crime: ‘Criminal Gene’
• The Links Between Gender and Crime
• Crime Prevention Strategies at Walden University
• Petty Crime Offenses: A Case of Mary Lee
• Louisiana’s Crime Law: Victim Rights
• Crime Prevention, Law Enforcement and Correction Theories
• Applied Crime Prevention in Hollywood 20 Cinema Location
• Factors Related to Crime and Their Influence
• The Effects of Campus Shootings on Fear of Crime on Campus
• Global Crimes Impact Assessment
• Improving Crime Policy in Canada by Using Criminological Evidence
• Computer Crime in the United Arab Emirates
• Hate Crime Statistics in Los Angeles and New York Metropolitan Areas
• Theories on Crime
• Criminology in Brief: Understanding Crime
• White Collar Crime: Insidious Injuries
• Generalisation of Persons Who Commit Crime
• The Wire: A Crime-Drama Television Series
• The Crime of Robbing the Big City Bank
• Social Developmental Crime Prevention Programs
• Displacement: Crime Prevention
• The Crime Phenomenon: Victimization and Its Theories
• White-Collar Crime: An Overview
• Gender Crime Rates: The Role of Division of Labor
• Official Crime Statistics: ‘Criminal Activity’ Measure
• Organized Crimes: Review
• Types of Crime in Cyberspace
• A Research of the Crime in State Nevada
• Marriage and Crime Reduction: Is There a Relationship?
• Application of CompStat Crime Model in Los Angeles
• Problems Related to Defining and Regulating Crimes in the Home
• The Crimes of Charles Manson
• Copyright Implications: Crime Punishable by Law
• Natural and Legal Crime Conceptual Distinction
• Crime in America: What We May Learn From Its Causes?
• Reducing Crime Rates by Analyzing Its Causes
• White-Collar Crime Conceptual Study
• How America’s Top Cop Reversed the Crime Epidemic
• Impact of Economic Characteristics on Sex Crimes
• Juvenile Crime Statistics
• Factors Contributing to Gender Disparity in White Collar Crimes
• Comparison Between Organized Crime And Terrorism
• Mental Illness Relationship to Crime
• Models of Organized Crime Executive Summary
• White Collar Crime-Enron Corporation
• Actus Reus and Mens Rea Aspects of Crime
• The British Crime Survey’s Strengths and Weaknesses
• Houston City Demographics and Crime Profile
• Hate Crime Against the Jewish Community
• Anomie, Crime, and Weakened Social Ties in Social Institutions
• State of Crime in California
• The Highest Crime Rate: Metropolitan County of Jefferson
• Identifying Crime Patterns
• Increasing the Rates of Crimes in Modern World
• Crime Analysis Data Sources
• Corporate Regulation and Crime
• Understanding the Causes of Juvenile Crime
• White-Collar Crime Offenders and Legislation
• Strategic, Tactical, and Administrative Crime Analysis
• Methamphetamine Drug Crime Registration
• Classical and Biological Theories of Crime
• Property and Computer Crimes
• Increasing the Severity of Punishments Imposed for Crime
• Crime in the Suites Effects of Power and Privilege
• Causes of Organized Crime Analysis
• Mr. Charles Dempsey Court Case: Cause and Consequences of the Crime
• The Fears of Reporting a Crime: Why Witnesses Do Not Report Crimes
• Investigation Methods: Terrorism and Cyber Crime
• Neighborhood Watch Programs and Crime Prevention
• Impact of Globalization and Neoliberalism on Crime and Criminal Justice
• Routine Activities Theory of Crime by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson
• Electronic Crime Scene Investigation & Good Practice Guide
• White-Collar Crimes: Prevention and Fight
• What Is a Crime? Is It Possible to Prevent Crime?
• Asian Crime: Different Cultures, Different Attitudes
• International White-Collar Crime
• Community Cohesiveness and Incidence of Crime
• Crime Theories: Intimate Partner Violence in the US
• Age-Crime Relationships and Motivations
• Processing the Crime Scene: Tools and Techniques
• Forensic Serology and Its Key Aspects in Investigating Crimes
• The Relationship of Drugs and Crime
• Detrimental Effects of Gender Influenced Crime and Interventions
• The Prevention of Crime and Community Justice
• Use of the Information Technology to Solve Crimes: DNA Tests and Biometrics
• Nature of Crime in the State of Virginia
• Crime and Social Learning Theory Concept
• Cyber Bullying and Positivist Theory of Crime
• The Future of Global Crime: Globalization and Integration
• The Parallel Between Crime and Conflicts in Africa, Asia and Latin America
• Globalization and the Internet: Change of Organized Crime
• War on Crime Influence on Power Shift Among Various Groups
• Trends in Police Recorded Crime in Northern Ireland
• Human Factor in Enabling and Facilitating E-Crimes
• Financial Crime and Employment
• Power Elite: Deviance and Crime Discussion
• The Crime of Sexual Violence Committed by Men
• Screening in Aviation: Prevention of Crime
• History of Crime in America Since the Early 1800s
• US Attorney’s Office Press Release on Birmingham Crimes

Want to write an original and creative speech? Take a look at these true crime assignment ideas:

• Popular themes in true crime podcasts. Study common subjects that are present in the plots of true crime podcasts. Why are specific topics so popular?
• History of the true crime genre. In your speech, describe the genre’s origin, history, development, and place in popular culture.
• The true crime genre influences the formation of mass culture. Investigate the role and significance of true crime in modern society.
• Reasons for the popularity of the true crime genre among viewers. Explain the reasons why the true crime genre is so popular among viewers. What piques people’s interest in this genre?
• Cyber Technology: Organized Crimes and Law Enforcement
• Crime Myths and Domestic Terrorism
• State or Federal Crime: Texas Kidnapping Study
• Recidivism Rates for Sex Crimes
• Prevention of Sex Offenders From Committing Crimes
• Impacts of the Society’s Response to Crime
• Policing Operations: Application of New Technologies to Combat Crime
• Relationship Between Unemployment and Crimes
• Drugs, Crime, and Violence: Effects of Drug Use on Behavior
• The Three Strikes Law in Countering Crime
• Hate Crimes in the United States: Bias Toward the Victim’s Identity
• The Nature of Crime: Underlying Drivers Making People Criminals
• Theoretical Impact on Sex Crimes Investigations
• Social Pressure and Black Clothing Impact on Crime Judgments
• Personal vs. Collective Responsibility in War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity
• Economic Recession and Crime Rates
• Criminal Justice System: Crime Scene Investigation
• Urban Relationship Between Poverty and Crime
• Community Policing as a Tool Against Crime
• Women’s Crime: Gendered Criminology Theory
• Crimes Against the State: Terrorist Attacks and Death Penalty
• Crime Rates in UK: Quantitative Methods
• Do Drug Enforcement Laws Help to Reduce Other Crimes?
• Organized Crime Investigation in Different Countries
• Cutting-Off Hand Keeps Off Crimes in the Country
• Organized Crime in the United States
• Crime Mysteries of Jack the Ripper
• China’s Legal System: Crime and Punishment
• Criminal Investigations: Nature of Crime Investigators
• NGOs and the Fight Against Crime
• Cyber-Bullying Is a Crime: Discussion
• Crime Punishment: Humane Treatment of Prisoners Today
• Probing Crime Based on Conduct Report
• Criminal Justice for Physically Injured Crime Victims
• Major Theories of Crime Causation
• Does Drug Interdiction Increase or Decrease Drug-Related Crime?
• Hate Crime as a Core Subject of Criminology
• Youth Crime and Punishment
• Policy Recommendations for Controlling Crime
• City Violence, Crimes and Disruption
• Responsibility for the Most Horrific Crimes Issue
• Crime Prevention Programs in America
• Rape: The Misunderstood Crime
• Sex Crimes and Burglary: Patterns, Benefits, and Risk
• Alcohol and Crime in the U.K., the United States, and Australia
• Crime and Punishment in Texas
• Three Perspective of One Crime
• Financial Cost of Crime to Society
• Crime in High Schools
• Prevention & Control Of Crime
• Crime and Subcultures in the Urban Area
• Crime in Inner City Neighborhoods
• Date Rape Is Not a Crime: Discussion
• Effective Physical Security and Crime Prevention
• Criminology: Drugs, Crime and Control
• Youth Crime. Prejudice: Is It Justified?
• State Corporate Crime and Criminological Inquiry
• Psychological Theories Explaining Violent Crime
• Granite City Building Inspectors: Service Crime
• Torts and Crimes. Liability for Traffic Accidents
• Crime of Genocide: Justice and Ethical Issues
• White-Collar Crimes and Deferred Prosecution
• The Uniform Crime Statistics Over 5 Years
• Cyber Crime in the U.S. and Nigeria
• Forensic Biology in Crime Scene Investigations
• The Concept of Uniform Crime Reporting Program
• Property Crime and Typologies
• Crimes That Teenagers Do Not Commit
• National Crime Victimization Survey and Analysis
• The Crime of Innocence
• The First Officer at Crime Scene
• Crime Scene Reconstruction
• Computer Crimes: Viewing the Future
• Important Crime Scene Responsibilities
• Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime
• Computer Forensics: Identity Theft
• Computer Crime Investigation Processes and Analyses
• Crime Prevention and Juvenile Delinquency
• Longford: British Biographical Crime Drama Film
• Immigration and Crime Rates in the United States
• Organized Crime in New York and Chicago
• Gender Factors of Crime in Campus
• Forensic Psychology: Media and Crime Relationship
• National Missing and Unidentified Persons System
• “Broken Windows” and Situational Crime Prevention Theories
• Problem‐Oriented Policing in Violent Crime Places
• NGO Analysis of Canadian Crime Victim Foundation
• Crime and Criminal Justice News
• Deterrence: Discouraging Offenders from Re-Committing Crimes
• Religion Role in Crime Definition
• Transnational Organized Crime: Counterstrategy
• Serial Killers, Their Crimes, and Stereotypes
• Economics of Organized Crime and Drug Trafficking
• Achieving Total Security in the Community
• International Law: War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity
• Crime Theories Differentiating Criminal Behavior
• Comparing Different Indexes of Crimes
• Anomie and Strain Crime Theories
• Crime Theories: Shooting in Northwest Washington
• White-Collar Crime Theories and Their Development
• Robert Courtney’s Crime as Input to Business Regulation
• Three-Strikes Law Ineffective in Crime Reduction
• Violence, Security and Crime Prevention at School
• Electronic Crimes and Federal Guidance in Regulation
• Crimes in Biological, Psychological, Sociological Theories
• Offenders’ Age and Anti-Black Hate Crimes
• The Role of Location in Crime Fiction
• Crimes Against Persons: Theory and Doctrine
• Prohibition as a Cause of Increased Crimes Illegal Activity
• Crime Prevention Approaches
• White-Collar Crimes Causes
• Processing a Crime Scene
• Differences of Crime Perception in North Jersey
• Children as Victims of Crime
• Crime Prevention and Risk Management
• Crime Data: Collection and Analysis Tools
• Crime Rates of Sex Crimes and Firearm Violence
• Hate Crimes in Modern Society
• Organized Crime in the Balkans
• Compliance Impact on Financial Crimes
• Marijuana Crime in California State and Federal Courts
• Digital Crime Causes and Theories
• Pink-Collar Criminal: Gender in White-Collar Crime
• Nanjing Massacre as Japan’s Denied War Crime
• Gender and Crime Correlation in Strain Theory
• Crime Scene Investigation: Principles and Process
• ”Crime and Justice in the United States” by Bohm & Haley
• Crime Television Series: “Al Fin Cayó!”
• Internet Crime Prevention by Law and E-Business
• Hate Crimes and Anti-Discrimination Laws
• Crime Scene Investigation Stages and Protocols
• Race, Ethnicity and Crime in America
• White Collar Crimes Focus
• Raskolnikov’s Crime in Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”
• Crime Causation and Diversion in the Florida State
• Identity Theft Crimes in the United States
• Violent Crimes Classification in the United States
• Abortion as a Crime and the Fight Against It
• Fort Lauderdale’s Law Enforcement and Crime Rates
• Conflict Criminology and Crime Causation Theories
• Cyber Law: Intellectual Property Crimes
• Criminological Theories and American Crime Trends
• Classical Criminology and Present Day Crime
• Hughesville’s Environmental Design in Crime Prevention
• Hans Von Hentig’s Approach to Crime
• Incarceration Rates, Crime Rates, Public Safety
• Law Enforcement’s Response on Hate Crimes
• Insight into Hate Crimes: Who Is the Victim?
• The Historical Investigation – Robert Salmon’s Crime
• Economic Crime & Global Impact: Money Laundering
• The Enron Company’s Ethical Crimes
• American Mafia: Crime Prevention and Prosecution
• Syrian War Crimes and International Criminal Court
• Minorities, Immigrants, and Crime Prejudice
• Victims of Crime Act and Crime Victims Fund
• Cyberspace: Statistics, Policy, and Crimes
• Crimes Classification in American Criminal Law
• The Drug Effect: Health, Crime and Society
• Social Deviance and Crime Organizations
• Nature of Crime in the UAE
• Organ Trade: Legal Position and Crime
• The Debate Over Recent Recorded Crime in Turkey
• Technologically-Aided Crime Analysis
• How to Stop Internet Crime?
• Singapore’s Cyber Crime Scene
• Organized Crime in Japan and the US
• Crimes: Identity Theft in America
• Home Depot Company’s E-Commerce Crime Case
• CSI Effect: Crime-Related Shows and Judicial System
• Punitive Versus Therapeutic Crime Management
• Internet Crimes: Cyberstalking
• Assault: Historical Common Law and Current Statute
• Crime Issues: Objectives of Punishment and Sentencing
• Controlling Organized Crime
• Criminology: Prisons Impact on Crime Rates
• Criminal Concepts Differentiation
• Crime in Chicago: Witnesses Go Silent
• Cyber-Crime – New Ways to Steal Identity and Money
• Hate Crime Among Juveniles
• The Extent of Crime in Urban Settings
• Luka Magnotta and His Crime
• Education Policy and Crime Reduction: USA/Africa Comparability Study
• Patterns at Crime Scenes
• Effects of Transnational Organized Crime on Foreign Politics
• Criminal Justice System Role in Curbing Crime Rates
• The National Crime Victims Right Movement Media Strategy
• Corporate White Collar Crime Analysis
• Final Program Evaluation: Increasing Police Numbers to Reduce Juvenile Crime in the UAE
• Increase Police Numbers to Reduce UAE’s Juvenile Crime Rate
• Transnational Organized Crime: Prevalence, Factors and Impacts
• Analyzing Graffiti as a Crime
• Social Criticism Work in the Scandinavian Crime Fiction Novels
• Transnational Organized Crime Network: Definition and Aspects
• Crime and Victimization in the US
• “Hana-B” a Crime Drama Film by Takeshi Kitano
• Corporate Crime – BP Oil Spill
• Ethics in Technology: Cyber Crimes
• The Effect of Marriage on Crime Rate
• Crime & The Media
• Youth, Crime, and Violence

There is no one set of standards for making an excellent research question. Priorities and criteria vary throughout fields. An excellent research question for a true crime paper requires a unique approach. But don’t worry. Here are the recommendations that will help you:

• Your research’s objective should be clear to you. The issue you’re looking into should make it apparent what you will write about and what sources you’ll use.
• It shouldn’t be too narrow or too broad. A suitable scope for the query should be specified, but not to the point where you can cover it in one sentence. In addition, if the question is too general, responding to it with a limited word count won’t be feasible.
• It’s not too simple or too complex to respond. A yes or no response alone shouldn’t be the only requirement for the research question.
• It should have enough sources. You’ll need to deepen your knowledge on the matter for research. It’s best if there are many arguments, facts, and evidence.

Here are the examples of a good research question on true crime:

• What’s the role of villains in the true crime genre?
• How did true crime become ingrained in popular culture?
• What issues are addressed in the true crime genre?
• Can Genetics Cause Crime?
• Are the Laws Propagating Crime?
• When Was the First True Crime?
• Does Capital Punishment Deter Crime?
• Does Crime and Violence Affect the Tourism Industry?
• Does Drug Use Cause Crime or Does Crime Cause Drug Use?
• Does Marriage Reduce Crime?
• What’s the Origin of Crime?
• Does Social Deprivation Relate to Crime?
• Why People Commit Crime?
• Why Crime Rates Will Drop?
• What Are the Social Causes of Youth Crime?
• What Causes High Crime Rate?
• What Are the Proper Steps in a Crime Investigation?
• What Are the Psychological Causes of Crime?
• What Are the Causes of Youth Crime in the UK?
• What Are the Major Problems with Regard to the Collection of Crime Statistics?
• How Accurate Are Official Crime Statistics?
• What Is the First: Crime or Law?
• How Did American White Collar Crime Transform?
• What Are the Seven Elements of a Crime?
• How Does Globalization Impact on Crime and Victimization?
• How Can Crime Best Be Measured?
• Why Does Crime Change over Time?
• How Crime and Deviance Can Be Seen as Functional for Society?

Here are the top 4 topics on campus crime to boost your inspiration:

• Crime statistics on university campuses. You can analyze the numbers over a period of time. Additionally, consider comparing the crime rates between different universities.
• Security policy on university campuses. This topic requires you to study the security policies on university campuses, including measures to ensure the safety of students, faculty, and staff.
• Crime prevention techniques on university campuses. In your essay, review various crime prevention methods and strategies on college campuses, including proactive security measures.
• The role of students in campus safety. How can students enhance the safety of their campuses? Propose ways of their participation in crime prevention.
• Computer Forensics Essay Topics
• Drug Trafficking Research Topics
• Crime Prevention Research Topics
• Organized Crime Titles
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Home — Essay Samples — Law, Crime & Punishment — Criminal Behavior — Poverty Is The Root Of Crime

How Poverty is The Main Cause of Crime

• Categories: Criminal Behavior

About this sample

Words: 593 |

Published: Dec 16, 2021

Words: 593 | Page: 1 | 3 min read

• brooklyn eagle. (2019,October 15). New York's most desperate caught up in 'crimes of poverty'. Retrieved from https://brooklyneagle.com/articles/2019/10/15/new-yorks-most-desperate-caught-up-in-crimes-of-poverty/
• Ginni Correa. (2020,june 18). Addiction center. Retrieved from https://www.addictioncenter.com/addiction/low-income-americans/
• OSAC. (6/18/2019). Venezuela 2019 Crime & Safety Report. Retrieved from https://www.osac.gov/Country/Venezuela/Content/Detail/Report/b0933dac-4154-4dc2-89c1-160ca3b2c4c2
• Tom Mack. (3 JAN 2020). Leicestershire live . Retrieved from https://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/news/leicester-news/man-stealing-metal-feed-family-3699993

Should follow an “upside down” triangle format, meaning, the writer should start off broad and introduce the text and author or topic being discussed, and then get more specific to the thesis statement.

Provides a foundational overview, outlining the historical context and introducing key information that will be further explored in the essay, setting the stage for the argument to follow.

Cornerstone of the essay, presenting the central argument that will be elaborated upon and supported with evidence and analysis throughout the rest of the paper.

The topic sentence serves as the main point or focus of a paragraph in an essay, summarizing the key idea that will be discussed in that paragraph.

The body of each paragraph builds an argument in support of the topic sentence, citing information from sources as evidence.

After each piece of evidence is provided, the author should explain HOW and WHY the evidence supports the claim.

Should follow a right side up triangle format, meaning, specifics should be mentioned first such as restating the thesis, and then get more broad about the topic at hand. Lastly, leave the reader with something to think about and ponder once they are done reading.

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How to master the art of writing a successful cause and effect essay that captivates your readers and earns you top grades.

Are you intrigued by the interconnected nature of events and phenomena? Do you aspire to unravel the hidden threads that link causes to effects? Crafting a cause and outcome essay provides an excellent platform to explore and dissect these connections, allowing you to showcase your analytical skills and express your ideas with precision and clarity.

In this comprehensive guide, we will delve deep into the art of writing cause and outcome essays, equipping you with effective strategies, invaluable tips, and real-life examples that will help you master the craft. Whether you are a seasoned writer looking to enhance your skills or a beginner eager to embark on a new writing journey, this guide has got you covered.

Throughout this journey, we will navigate the intricate realm of cause and outcome relationships, examining how actions, events, and circumstances influence one another. We will explore the essential elements of a cause and outcome essay, honing in on the importance of a strong thesis statement, logical organization, and compelling evidence. By the end of this guide, you will possess the necessary tools to produce a captivating cause and outcome essay that engages your readers and leaves a lasting impact.

Tips for Writing a Cause and Effect Essay

When composing a paper that focuses on exploring the connections between actions and their consequences, there are several essential tips that can help you write a compelling cause and effect essay. By following these guidelines, you can ensure that your essay is well-structured, clear, and effectively communicates your ideas.

By following these tips, you can enhance your ability to write a compelling cause and effect essay. Remember to analyze the causes and effects carefully, organize your ideas effectively, provide clear explanations, use transitional words, and proofread your essay to ensure a polished final piece of writing.

Understand the Purpose and Structure

One of the most important aspects of writing a cause and effect essay is understanding its purpose and structure. By understanding these key elements, you can effectively communicate the relationship between causes and effects, and present your argument in a clear and organized manner.

In a cause and effect essay, the purpose is to analyze the causes of a specific event or phenomenon and explain the effects that result from those causes. This type of essay is often used to explore the connections between different factors and to demonstrate how one event leads to another.

To structure your cause and effect essay, consider using a chronological or sequential order. Start by introducing the topic and providing some background information on the causes you will discuss. Then, present your thesis statement, which should clearly state your main argument or claim.

In the body paragraphs, discuss each cause or group of causes in a separate paragraph. Provide detailed explanations, examples, and evidence to support your claims. Make sure to use transitional words and phrases to guide the reader through your essay and to show the logical progression of causes and effects.

Finally, in the conclusion, summarize your main points and restate your thesis, reinforcing your overall argument. You can also discuss the broader implications of your analysis and suggest possible solutions or further research.

By understanding the purpose and structure of a cause and effect essay, you can effectively convey your ideas and arguments to your readers. This will help them follow your reasoning and see the connections between causes and effects, leading to a more convincing and impactful essay.

Choose a Topic

When embarking on the journey of writing a cause and effect essay, one of the first steps is to choose an engaging and relevant topic. The topic sets the foundation for the entire essay, determining the direction and scope of the content.

To select an effective topic, it is important to consider your interests, as well as the interests of your intended audience. Think about subjects that captivate you and inspire curiosity. Consider current events, personal experiences, or areas of study that pique your interest. By choosing a topic that you are genuinely passionate about, you will be more motivated to conduct thorough research and present compelling arguments.

Additionally, it is essential to select a topic that is relevant and meaningful. Identify an issue or phenomenon that has a clear cause-and-effect relationship, allowing you to explore the connections and consequences in depth. Look for topics that are timely and impactful, as this will ensure that your essay resonates with readers and addresses significant issues in society.

Moreover, a well-chosen topic should have enough depth and breadth to support a comprehensive analysis. Avoid selecting topics that are too broad or shallow, as this can make it challenging to delve into the causes and effects in a meaningful way. Narrow down your focus to a specific aspect or aspect of a broader topic to ensure that you have enough material to explore and analyze.

In conclusion, choosing a topic for your cause and effect essay is a critical step that will shape the entire writing process. By selecting a topic that aligns with your interests, is relevant and meaningful, and has enough depth and breadth, you will lay the foundation for a compelling and informative essay.

Conduct Thorough Research

Before diving into writing a cause and effect essay, it is essential to conduct a comprehensive research on the topic of your choice. This research phase will provide you with the necessary background information and context to develop a strong and well-supported essay.

During the research process, explore various sources such as books, academic journals, reputable websites, and credible news articles. Utilize synonyms for “research” like “investigate” or “explore” to keep your writing engaging and varied.

Avoid relying solely on a single source or biased information. Instead, strive to gather a variety of perspectives and data points that will enhance the credibility and validity of your essay.

Take notes as you research, highlighting key points, statistics, and quotes that you may want to include in your essay. Organize your findings in a clear and structured manner, making it easier to refer back to them as you begin writing.

Incorporating well-researched evidence and supporting examples into your cause and effect essay will lend credibility to your arguments, making them more persuasive and convincing. By conducting thorough research, you will be able to present a well-rounded and informed analysis of the topic you are writing about.

Create an Outline

One of the crucial steps in writing any type of essay, including cause and effect essays, is creating an outline. An outline helps to organize your thoughts and ideas before you start writing, ensuring that your essay has a clear and logical structure. In this section, we will discuss the importance of creating an outline and provide some tips on how to create an effective outline for your cause and effect essay.

When creating an outline, it is important to start with a clear understanding of the purpose and main points of your essay. Begin by identifying the main cause or event that you will be discussing, as well as its effects or consequences. This will serve as the foundation for your outline, allowing you to structure your essay in a logical and coherent manner.

Once you have identified the main cause and effects, it is time to organize your ideas into a clear and logical order. One effective way to do this is by using a table. Create a table with two columns, one for the cause and one for the effect. Then, list the main causes and effects in each column, using bullet points or short phrases. This will help you see the connections between the different causes and effects, making it easier to write your essay.

In addition to listing the main causes and effects, it is also important to include supporting details and examples in your outline. These can help to strengthen your argument and provide evidence for your claims. Include specific examples, facts, and statistics that support each cause and effect, and organize them under the relevant point in your outline.

Lastly, make sure to review and revise your outline before you start writing your essay. Check for any gaps in your logic or missing information, and make any necessary adjustments. Your outline should serve as a roadmap for your essay, guiding you through the writing process and ensuring that your essay is well-structured and coherent.

In conclusion, creating an outline is an essential step in writing a cause and effect essay. It helps to organize your thoughts and ideas, ensuring that your essay has a clear and logical structure. By identifying the main cause and effects, organizing your ideas into a table, including supporting details and examples, and reviewing your outline, you can create an effective outline that will guide you through the writing process.

Develop the Body Paragraphs

Once you have identified the main causes and effects of the topic you are writing about, it is time to develop your body paragraphs. In these paragraphs, you will present specific evidence and examples to support your claims. The body of your essay should be well-structured and focused, with each paragraph addressing a single cause or effect.

Start each body paragraph with a topic sentence that clearly states the main point you will be discussing. Then, provide detailed explanations and evidence to support your argument. This can include statistics, research findings, expert opinions, or personal anecdotes. Remember to use clear and concise language to convey your ideas effectively.

In order to make your writing more coherent, you can use transition words and phrases to connect your ideas and create a logical flow between paragraphs. Words like “because”, “as a result”, “therefore”, and “consequently” can be used to show cause and effect relationships.

Additionally, it is important to use paragraph unity, which means that each paragraph should focus on a single cause or effect. Avoid including unrelated information or discussing multiple causes/effects in a single paragraph, as this can confuse the reader and weaken your argument.

Furthermore, consider using examples and evidence to enhance the clarity and persuasiveness of your arguments. Concrete examples and real-life scenarios can help illustrate the cause and effect relationship and make your writing more engaging to the reader.

• Use accurate data and precise details to back up your claims
• Include relevant research and studies to support your arguments
• Provide real-life examples and cases that demonstrate the cause and effect relationship

In conclusion, developing the body paragraphs of your cause and effect essay is crucial in presenting a well-structured and persuasive argument. By using topic sentences, clear explanations, transition words, and relevant evidence, you can effectively convey your ideas and convince the reader of the cause and effect relationship you are discussing.

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