average research paper word count

How Long Should a Research Paper Be? Data from 61,519 Examples

I analyzed a random sample of 61,519 full-text research papers, uploaded to PubMed Central between the years 2016 and 2021, in order to answer the questions:

What is the typical overall length of a research paper? and how long should each section be?

I used the BioC API to download the data (see the References section below).

Here’s a summary of the key findings

1- The median length of a research paper is 4,133 words (equivalent to 166 sentences or 34 paragraphs), excluding the abstract and references, with 90% of papers being between 2,023 and 8,284 words.

2- A typical article is divided in the following way:

• Introduction section: 14.6% of the total word count.
• Methods section: 29.7% of the total word count.
• Results section: 26.2% of the total word count.
• Discussion section: 29.4% of the total word count.

Notice that the Materials and methods is the longest section of a professionally written article. So always write this section in enough depth to provide the readers with the necessary details that allow them to replicate your study if they wanted to without requiring further information.

Overall length of a research paper

Let’s start by looking at the maximum word count allowed in some of the well-known journals. Note that the numbers reported in this table include the Abstract , Figure legends and References unless otherwise specified:

[1] excluding figure legends [2] excluding references

⚠ Note A review paper is either a systematic review or a meta-analysis, and an original research paper refers to either an observational or an experimental study conducted by the authors themselves.

Notice the large variability between these journals: The maximum number of words allowed ranges between 3,000 and 9,000 words.

Next, let’s look at our data.

Here’s a table that describes the length of a research paper in our sample:

90% of research papers have a word count between 2,023 and 8,284. So it will be a little weird to see a word count outside of this range.

Our data also agree that a typical review paper is a little bit longer than a typical original research paper but not by much (3,858 vs 3,708 words).

Length of each section in a research article

The median article with an IMRaD structure (i.e. contains the following sections: Introduction , Methods , Results and Discussion ) is in general characterized by a short 553 words introduction. And the methods, results and discussion sections are about twice the size of the introduction:

For more information, see:

• How Long Should a Research Title Be? Data from 104,161 Examples
• How Long Should the Abstract Be? Data 61,429 from Examples
• How Long Should the Introduction of a Research Paper Be? Data from 61,518 Examples
• How Long Should the Methods Section Be? Data from 61,514 Examples
• How Long Should the Results Section Be? Data from 61,458 Examples
• How Long Should the Discussion Section Be? Data from 61,517 Examples
• Length of a Conclusion Section: Analysis of 47,810 Examples
• Comeau DC, Wei CH, Islamaj Doğan R, and Lu Z. PMC text mining subset in BioC: about 3 million full text articles and growing,  Bioinformatics , btz070, 2019.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Arq Bras Cardiol
• v.102(2); 2014 Feb

Detailing the Writing of Scientific Manuscripts: 25-30 Paragraphs

In their professional practices, physicians often face unexpected situations or chance on innovative proposals and ideas. As a result of their training and competence, they usually come up with hypotheses to be tested and research is conducted. This research is completed and their results submitted for presentations at conferences as free communications. Nevertheless, the realization of this creative process is only complete when a scientific manuscript is published in a journal. At this ultimate stage, most efforts seem not be brought to a standstill 1 , 2 . There are several reasons why scholars, interns, residents, graduate students and even experienced physicians may find it difficult to move forward from congress' abstracts to full manuscripts published in journals. However, the most significant hindrance rests with the difficulty writing the mere 25-30 paragraphs of an original manuscript. Many freeze and give up in front of a blank paper or a blinking cursor on a blank word processor's page on the monitor screen. In the previous manuscript 3 , we analyzed and suggested improvements to the process of peer review. In this point of view, we propose a practical strategy to systematize the writing of scientific paragraphs, aiming to simplify the task of scientific writing. This way, our intent is to increase the rate of publication of full manuscripts based on several outstanding abstracts presented annually at major medical conferences, and facilitate the currently overburdened process of peer review.

The format of scientific communication has been evolving greatly over the centuries 4 - 7 , making reading more objective and standardized. One of the important tools in this process is the IMRaD format 4 , 5 , 7 , an acronym derived from the initials of the main sections of a manuscript - introduction, methods, results and discussion. Throughout the twentieth century, the IMRaD format has been increasingly applied, accounting for about 10% of the manuscripts in the 1950s, being dominant in the 1960s, and reaching 80% in the 1970s 7 . Presently, IMRad is the format recommended and adopted by the main medical journals all over the world, including the ABC ( Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia ).

In addition to the IMRaD format, original manuscripts submitted for publication should meet specific standards and rules of each journal. Although a fairly uniform pattern tends to prevail, there are differences that should be observed at the time of writing. For instance, the number of words is limited to 4,500 in ABC and 5,000 in JACC, including text and references. Considering that the references are usually limited to 30-40, and have around 1,000 words, circa 3,500-4,000 are left for the text's body, i.e., to be used in the 25-30 paragraphs of IMRaD, representing about 130 words each.

In the pursuit for evidence and objective data, as a convenience sample, all original manuscripts published in the January 2012 and 2013 editions of ABC and JACC journals have been analyzed (the first two numbers of these months for the latter). There was a fairly clear trend about the total number of paragraphs and distribution of paragraphs in four sections of the IMRaD of a manuscript. For the 20 ABC's manuscripts and 34 JACC's ones, the average number of paragraphs was 28.9 and 28.2 (p = 0.703), respectively, with 1/3 of them having 25-30 paragraphs, and 57% of the total manuscripts having overall 22-33 paragraphs. This relative constancy should be observed and highlighted, considering that the topics and areas covered, as well as the background and the nationality of the authors, are quite different. Thus, this confirms the assumption that there is a basic format to be followed for an effective publication.

Figure 1 illustrates the distribution of paragraphs for the various IMRaD sections in the two journals analyzed. Although there is some variability among the manuscripts, the introduction is clearly a section with fewer paragraphs (p < 0.001), while the remaining sections are somewhat balanced (p > 0.05), especially for original manuscripts of JACC, in which the sections of methods, results and discussion tend to have eight to nine paragraphs. When the distributions of paragraphs between ABC and JACC are compared, introductions and discussions tend to have more paragraphs in ABC than in JACC, respectively, 3.8 versus 2.4 (p < 0.01) and 10.4 versus 8.8 (p = 0.04).

Comparative analysis on the number of paragraphs per section of IMRaD for original manuscripts between Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia (Arq Bras Cardiol) and Journal of The American College of Cardiology (JACC). I: introduction; M: methods; R: results; D: discussion. The box-plot represents median values, the first and third quartiles and 5 th and 95 th percentiles.*Significant difference between the number of paragraphs of the two journals for this section.

Based on these results, in our personal experience as authors of original manuscripts and according to other authors' opinions 4 , 8 - 10 , a simple content model may be proposed within the IMRaD format, taking 25-30 paragraphs as standard for an original manuscript. For practical purposes, one page is considered one page in a word processor, with conventional margins and with a 1.5 line spacing and font size 11.

Unfolding the sections

Introduction: 1 page (ideally), maximum 400 words over 1-4 paragraphs (ideally 3) - some journals restrict this to 350 words (E.g.: ABC); 5-10 references.

Methods: 2-3 pages (possibly higher in experiments resorting to innovative methods or plenty of techniques or sophisticated statistics) - not exceeding 750 words over 6 9 paragraphs; 5-15 references

Results: 2-3 pages of text, figures and tables, as strictly necessary; not exceeding 1,000 words over 4-9 paragraphs; usually without references.

Discussion: 3-4 pages of text; this is usually the most extensive part of the manuscript relating to word count 4 , 8 - 10 , with 1,000-1,500 words distributed over up to 10 paragraphs; including a conclusion paragraph, although some journals consider the latter another text section. The discussion usually has 10-20 references, with some of them possibly appearing in previous text sections.

Unfolding the paragraphs

Introduction.

1. Problem - what is known?

2. Contextualization *

3. Knowledge gap - what is not known?

4. Definition and purpose of the study - what will be studied and the hypothesis or objective; preferably not including results or conclusions *

5. Population and sample - inclusion and/or exclusion criteria; reference to the informed consent form and approval by the ethics committee

6. Population and sample II - description of specific sampling subgroups or, when necessary, in-depth detailing of procedures connected to follow-up and losses *

7. Main methods - most important variable or procedure

8. Main methods II - unfolding the paragraph above *

9. Secondary methods - less important variables

10. Study protocol - detailing of what has been done and how it has been done

11. Study protocol II - additional data when necessary and justified *

12. Statistical analysis - descriptive and inferential methods

13. Statistical analysis II - software and significance level *

14. General data - description of sample and information about the patient selection flow and actual performance of the study

15. Main results - the most important variables

16. Main results II - additional results and other analyzes of the most important variables *

17. Secondary results - the other study variables

18. Secondary results II - additional results of variables or the interrelation or interaction between them *

19. Secondary results III - additional results of variables or the interrelation or interaction between them *

20. Other results and analysis carried out in the study *

21. The problem and the study's "original" proposal - discussing again the study's problem

22. Interpretation of the main result - meaning of what has been found

23. Comparison with the literature - how this result confirms previous data

24. Further comparison with the literature * - exploring methodological or mechanistic differences

25. The main result's contribution to knowledge - the "novelty" or main message or contribution of the research to the current state-of-the-art

26. Interpretation of secondary results - what these results inform or mean

27. Interpretation of secondary results II *

28. Comparison of this study with previous ones - the contribution and developments in this study for the area's knowledge

29. Limits of the study - strengths and weaknesses; the weaknesses and methodological problems of the study and, especially, how these limitations may hinder the practical application of the results and their interpretations. The strengths of the study may also be stressed, possibilities may be pointed out, as well as issues to be further researched - other knowledge gaps

30. Conclusions and implications - this represents a synthesis of the study, usually answering the hypothesis reported in the final paragraph of the introductory section, solving the study objective.

A rather practical observation is that the writing of paragraphs does not need to follow the order of sections or, even, the several paragraphs making up the given section. In practice, most of the experienced authors start with the methods and results, hence following to the discussion, and only then proceeding to the introduction. The title is typically their last concern.

Grounded on the practical strategy presented in this point of view, in keeping with the IMRaD format, we may assert that potential authors will deal better with blinking cursors on the word processor and will deal easily and objectively with the final stage of transforming an outstanding communication at a conference into an excellent original manuscript. This will allow a much larger audience to benefit from their findings and interpretations, forever.

* These paragraphs are optional, and often the contents can se incorporated into the previous paragraph(s).

Potential Conflict of Interest

No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

Author contributions

Sources of Funding

This study was partly funded by CNPq and FAPERJ.

Study Association

This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.

alwaysresearching.com

never stop your research process

What is the normal research paper length.

Research papers are popular for frightening students due to the many hours and hard effort needed. Fortunately, there are several ways to assist you through them. One of them is by understanding the basics, like how to conduct research and the standard length of a research paper.

You’ll discover that if you know the research paper length and how much research you’ll have to do, they’re not that unpleasant to undertake.

In this article, you’ll find the general guidelines for the length of an academic research paper. We’ll also look at the research paper paragraph length and how many pages you can fit your research into.

How many words should a research paper be?

First, let’s begin with the average word count of the research.

How many words are sufficient? A thousand? Or a lot more? To be clear, there’s no general answer specific to all fields. Factors like topics chosen, fields of study, and instructions from an academic professional come into play.

However, a research paper can be between 4000 to 6000 words on average. In some fields, that may get up to 8000 or even more.

How long is a research paper in high school?

How many pages is a research paper in high school? Research papers are often called term papers, and most high school instructors expect their pupils to produce 3 to 5 pages of them.

They are usually given during a semester and sometimes may be up to 5 and 7 pages long if they are final papers.

How long is a short research paper?

A short research paper can be between 2000 to 3000 words long. These are often seen in high school research papers mentioned above. In fewer cases, they can be for college studies.

How long is a research paper: length guide

The length of a research paper varies depending on the stage of education, course of study, and departmental guidelines. In addition, of course, the volume of relevant findings and the length of your conclusion and discussion can also play a part. But these are often personal factors.

However, academic pieces like essays are usually shorter than research papers or theses.

Your research paper assignment will often come with straightforward guidelines on the pages or word count range it is expected to fall within.

For instance, you could be given a paper that should fall between 4500–5000 words or 20–25 pages. If you’re not given a specific range or limit, don’t forget to confirm with your instructor.

A research paper is often divided into:

• Introduction : 15% of the final word count.
• Methods : 35% of the final word count.
• Analysis and Results : 30% of the final word count.
• Discussion : 20% of the final word count.

To answer the question, “how long is a typical research paper?” We intend to look at them through various lenses. The ideal length of a research paper should be up to 8000 words. That means without the references and abstract sections, and you should have over 150 sentences and 30 paragraphs.

Although there are no hard and fast rules for choosing the length of individual paragraphs in a research paper, the most common length is between 90 and 130 words. Any paragraph under 90 words is judged insufficient to support an argument, whereas any paragraph above 130 words is seen as over-inflated.

It is also worth noting that the length of the written piece dictates the paragraph lengths. Therefore, when the document is brief, the paragraphs should be similar and vice versa.

On the other hand, a paragraph should include more than four sentences. This is because some topics in specific fields may require lengthier paragraphs to add facts and statistics to your work. And because every section should concentrate on a single concept, the length of a paragraph should be dictated by its supporting ideas.

For example, if an explanation demands detailed evidence in the form of statistics, illustrations, quotations, examples, and definitions, it would naturally be longer.

However, very brief paragraphs also exist in papers of roughly 2,000 words. These can be frequent and large papers of over 10,000 words. The type of paper and course of study often cause these drastic changes.

The average length of a research paper will always differ because of dissimilar types, structures, topics, and instructions. When giving precise specifications for your research paper length, tailor your research to meet its requirements. Remember to avoid adding irrelevant ideas just to beef up your writing. Stick to concise and rich ideas.

You Might Also Like

Best Way to Organize Research and Write a Perfect Paper

Guide on how to write results and discussion in a research paper, term paper help guide for your perfect piece, leave a reply cancel.

How Long Should a Research Paper Be?

How Long Should A Research Paper Be? An Overview

In short, research paper's average length can range from 1,500 words for research proposals and case studies - all the way to 100,000 words for large dissertations.

Research, by its nature of being complex, requires a careful and thorough elucidation of facts, notions, information, and the like - which is all reflected in its most optimal length.

Thus, one of the critical points that you need to focus on when writing either a complex research paper or a less complex research paper is your objective and how you can relay the latter in a particular context. Say you are writing a book review. Since you will only need to synthesize information from other sources to solidify your claim about a certain topic, you will perhaps use paraphrasing techniques, which offer a relatively lower word count when compared to a full-blown descriptive research paper.

Even when both types of research differ in word counts, they can effectively attain their objectives, given the different contexts in which they are written and constructed. 

Certainly, when asked about how long is a research paper, it surely depends on the objective or the type of research you will be using. Carrying out these objectives will warrant you to do certain paper writing tasks and techniques that are not necessarily long or short when you compare them to other research types. 

At Studyfy, we care for the attainment of your research objectives. We understand that achieving such will contribute to the success of your research completion. While maintaining the ideal word count for a research paper, you are in a meaningful position to understand the various elements that can enrich your paper, even if it looks overwhelming.

How Long Should the Introduction of a Research Paper Be?

The research introduction section most likely occupies approximately 30-40% of the entire research paper.

The introduction of a regular academic paper can total 1750-2000 words depending on the research type and complexity of the research niche or topic. That is why, in writing this section, you must enrich the content of your paper while maintaining readability and coherence for the benefit of your readers.

The introduction houses the background of the study. This is the part of the paper where the entire context of the paper is established. We all know that the research context is important as it helps the readers understand why the paper is even conducted in the first place. Thus, the impression of having a well-established context can only be found in the introduction. Now that we know the gravity of creating a good introduction, let us now ask how long this section should be.

Generally speaking, the paper’s introduction is the longest among all the sections. Aside from establishing the context, the introduction must house the historical underpinnings of the study (important for case studies and ethnographic research), salient information about all the variables in the study (including their relationship with other variables), and related literature and studies that can provide insight into the novelty and peculiarities of the current research project.

To better understand the general composition of your research introduction, you may refer to the breakdown of this section below:

• Context Establishment and Introduction of Key Terms. In this subsection, you will articulate the background (historical, social, economic, psychological, etc.) of the study, including the ecosystem and the niche of your study interest. Furthermore, key terms found as variables in your study must be properly defined operationally and theoretically, if necessary. This comprises 20% of the introduction, or about 350-500 words.
• Related Literature and Studies. This is the subsection where you will criticize and integrate existing literature and studies to highlight the research gap that you intend to fill in. This comprises 25% of the introduction or about 450-600 words.
• Thesis statement. This part of the introduction can only be a paragraph or a couple of sentences, as this needs to be straightforward in relaying the identified research gap of the researchers. This comprises 5% of the introduction or about 90-100 words.
• Objectives or Research Questions. This subsection should outline the aims of the study, especially highlighting the inquiries that concern the relationship between the variables and how the research will progress to fill in the identified gaps. This comprises 5% of the introduction or about 90-100 words.

Theoretical and/or Conceptual Framework. These frameworks, when better assisted with a visual representation, guide the entire research process and provide a structure for understanding the relationship between the variables in the study. This comprises 10% of the introduction or about 180-200 words.

Struggling with your Research Paper?

Get your assignments done by real pros. Save your precious time and boost your marks with ease.

Elements of Good Research Writing Process– While Maintaining the Ideal Word Count!

• Clarity of Purpose . All types of writing, whether long or short, have its clarity of purpose as the heart of the text. In research, it is manifested through the inclusion of a research question or hypothesis. A good research paper does not repeat these elements without a purpose in mind. Though they can be emphasized throughout the development of the paper, the manner of doing it must be in a logical and purposeful way. 

To guide you in writing process of doing so, you can ask yourself the following questions:

• Is the research question or hypothesis clearly stated?
• Does the introduction provide a clear overview of the purpose of the study?
• Does the purpose of the study repeat purposefully in the latter sections of the paper?
• Does the purpose of the study repeat logically in the latter sections of the paper?

2. Literature Review . When appending related literature and studies to your paper, the question must not revolve around whether you have supplied a lot of these pieces of information, making your article wordy and ideal. While the literature review adds a significant ‘chunk’ to your paper, with some paper formats even allotting a specific section for it, we must carefully consider what and how we can integrate them. It subsequently entails a critical analysis of a piece of literature or study and logically places it beside information that you desire to contest. As they say, a good literature review identifies knowledge gaps, highlights the author’s familiarity with the topic, and provides an overview of the research areas that show a disparity of agreement. In order to have these characteristics, you can ask yourself the following questions:

• Have I integrated relevant literature in my review?
• Have I placed it logically within a specific piece of information based on my presumption?
• Do they identify a concept or piece of information that is otherwise unknown to the field?
• Have I critically analyzed existing research to identify the research gap?

3. Logical Flow. Research will not be whole without its parts. Researchers must know how to tie everything together and ensure that each part is functional in itself and supplements with other parts. When dealing with a large body of text, the logical flow of the paper might be a considerable concern. Along with the confusion brought about by the wordiness and complexity of the topic, your readers might get lost because of incoherence and inconsistencies with the presentation of ideas, leading to them not reading your paper any further. Thus, while ensuring that you get the word count that you want, you might want to ask yourself these questions first:

• Does the introduction progress logically from the general background to the specific research question?
• Do the transition devices between sections and individual paragraphs of the body facilitate a smooth flow of ideas?
• Is there a clear hierarchy of ideas, with each paragraph contributing to the overall argument?
• Have I organized ideas in a way that makes the document easy to track?
• Have I pursued a logical sequence of presenting information?

4. Language Use and Style. Developing an academic language throughout your paper and maintaining a formal style of paper writing are all the more important in research writing process, and mind you, it can also help you increase your word count in a sustainable way! Incorporating this form of language and style into your paper entails more than just adding incoherent or overly manufactured words that may be viewed as fillers.

Strategies and known practices are said to hit multiple objectives without compromising the quality of the paper. You may expand your points by providing detailed explanations, introducing sufficient pieces of evidence that supports your claims, addressing counterargument through the presentation of related literature or studies, or clarifying complex concepts through chunking. To better understand these techniques, some of these questions might be helpful for you:

• Is the language clear and concise?
• Have I avoided unnecessary jargon or complex sentences or paragraphs?
• Have I avoided repetition or redundancy in the document?
• Have I expanded on key points by providing more detailed explanations and examples?
• Have I discussed nuances, variations, or exceptions to your results?
• Have I clarified some complex concepts or theories by chunking them into more detailed explanations?

How Long Should a Paragraph Be in a Research Paper?

For the research paper introduction section, a typical paragraph count will be 12-15, excluding the literature review section. Each subsection has 1-2 individual paragraphs. The mentioned section, on the other hand, can have paragraphs totaling 10-20. The conclusion section, on the other hand, is considered ideal if it has 5-7 paragraphs. 

The paragraph count differs from one research type to another and even from one paper section to another. While it is worth deciding how long should a paragraph be in a research paper, it is more important to take note of the importance of ideas that should be included in each paragraph within a certain section. Take the review of the literature section as an example. The number of literature in the paper is said to be equal to the number of paragraphs allotted for the section. The reason lies in the uniformity of importance these pieces of literature hold, provided that they are closely associated with the research gap. 

Do you feel like you need to pay for a research paper in hopes of finding a model article with the right paragraph count? Look no further, as Studyfy has its in-house research paper writing service that houses professionals and experts for your academic paper writing help. Its reasonable price– no deadline markup nor additional hidden charges– is tantamount to the expertise each writer has put into their work.

Did you like our inspiring Research Paper Guide?

For more help, tap into our pool of professional writers and get expert essay editing services!

How Long Should a Conclusion Be in a Research Paper?

A concluding section, then, must only comprise 5% of the total word count of the paper, translating to approximately 400 words. This measly allocation may put you into a flimsy situation, especially if you do not know how to manage your vocabulary well and you keep on adding filler words that can sacrifice the importance of this section. Ditch the nonsense and construct your conclusion in a concise yet enriching way.

In concluding a research paper, it is important to always synthesize the big chunks of information examined in the data analysis and discussion. As worn out as the reader may look after reaching this point, the conclusion must act as a “mellow point” for them, entrusting them only with important pointers of the study. Sometimes, the conclusion part of the paper, even though less wordy than its preceding sections, may be difficult to construct, as you still need to have a basis– a scaffold– to refer to, and synthesizing, just like analyzing and evaluating data, is just as hard and laborious.

Through its superb essay writing services , plus applying top-notch quality assurance to academic papers like research articles, Studyfy can help you achieve the best for last with an effective, meaningful, and content-rich conclusion. Your readers will not think twice about using your study as a model for their own works!

How Long is a Research Paper in terms of its Various Types?

As mentioned in the first part of the article, the word count of an academic paper is dependent on the type of research you wish to conduct. While the general word count has been given, we cannot deny the fact that this threshold is only an estimation. There might be a time when you are tasked to create a research article that is different from a standard IMRAD-structured (Introduction, Methodology, Results, Analysis, Discussion) research paper. You are in for a treat, as we will provide you with a cheat sheet for the word count of several types of write-ups in the realm of research:

Research Proposal

Specific Purpose/s: A preliminary outline that contains the research question, minimal literature review, methodology, and significance of the research undertaking.

"Word Count Range: 1500-3000 words"

Review Article

Specific Purpose/s: Review bodies of literature about an overarching topic or niche, analyze a particular section, synthesize according to certain themes, and identify knowledge gaps from the findings.

"Word Count Range: 5000-10,000 words"

Meta-Analysis

Specific Purpose/s: Involves the use of statistical analyses of multiple studies to provide a quantitative synthesis of the evidence.

"Word Count Range: 5000-15,000 words"

Specific Purpose/s: Presents an in-depth and intrusive analysis of a specific case, one which aims to illustrate a broader concept or novel phenomenon.

"Word Count Range: 1500-5000 words"

Conference Paper

Specific Purpose/s: Presents a brief introduction, salient research findings, and implications connected to a given theme by a conference or colloquium.

"Word Count Range: 2000-5000 words"

Dissertation

Specific Purpose/s: Regarded as a terminal scholarly requirement for doctorate students, this is an in-depth discussion of an otherwise original research finding, often written in chapters. It contributes significantly to the body of knowledge of a particular study of interest.

"Word Count Range: 50,000-100,000 words (depending on the institution)"

Are you contemplating buying research papers of different types? Studyfy got your back! Its roster of writers and editing experts leaves no space for errors, ensuring that both quality and quantity– that’s right: content and word count are not compromised. The variety of expertise within ensures that all research and scholarly works are delivered to your liking. Pay less– no hidden charges and markups while you enjoy the best quality of writing with Studyfy.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long is the introduction in a research paper.

AThe introduction takes up about 30-40% of the entire paper since the context and research background should be specified and further discussed. For a general academic paper with 4000 words, the introduction must be approximately 1500 words. You can do the math for the rest!

How long is a research paper, considering that there are many of them?

There is no one-size-fits-all guideline in determining the word count of a plethora of research papers in the world. Although there is an accepted word count range for each research type (as presented in the previous section), there are several factors that should likewise be considered in determining the word count: specific guidelines set by the institution you are working with, the complexity of the topic, audience, and depth of analysis. 

Do I have to include all of the prescribed subsections of the introduction to increase the word count?

While the prescribed subsections have significant functions in the research paper introduction, some of them are not required to be included. The decisions depend on the type of research you wish to conduct and the external guidelines that you might need to follow. Some disciplines, such as social sciences, require a research article to have a theoretical framework, whereas others do not. Some research papers follow the standard IMRAD paper format that infuses the literature review section into the introduction, while the Germanic Thesis paper format, for example, regards the former as a separate section.

How do I increase my word count without compromising the quality of my research paper?

The dilemma of choosing quality over quantity has long been debunked: you do not have to choose in the first place. All you need is a set of writing strategies and techniques that will target those two birds using one stone. You may provide more detail to some ambiguous or novel terms. You can add additional works of literature to some concepts that promote abstraction. You may include examples or empirical pieces of evidence to create a more concrete representation of a concept or theory. Lastly, you may use subheadings to efficiently allocate word count for your chosen discussion topics.

Why is it important to track the word count of a research paper?

There are various reasons why we need to do it. Some institutions that publish scholarly journals follow certain guidelines in word count as one of the primary requirements. A specified limit enables researchers to allocate the number of words to several sections of their writing efficiently. Most institutions also use paper length as a predictor of publication cost. The longer the word count is, the costlier the publication will be. Lastly, reading engagement is affected by word count, as readers tend to shy away from reading an article that is long, boring, and insubstantial. 

Can a writing service help me achieve my goals of writing within the right word count range?

Certainly! Studyfy offers several academic services, including writing services and research papers for sale . Understanding your various writing needs, writers can cater to the needed style, word count, formatting, and any other aspects so that you can have the best quality write-up without having to fear extra charges and big markups.

• Master Your Homework
• Do My Homework

The Ideal Length of Research Papers: What’s Right for You?

Research papers are an essential part of the academic experience for many students, yet their ideal length is often contested. This article seeks to address this controversy by providing insight into what constitutes the appropriate and effective length for a research paper. A comprehensive exploration of guidelines from various sources, including university faculty members and leading industry professionals, will be presented in order to provide an informed opinion on this timely issue. Through careful analysis of data points such as word count limits, average document size requirements across institutions, formatting considerations based on style guides (e.g., MLA or APA), it can be determined which approach to research paper writing best serves both learners’ needs and instructors’ expectations. Ultimately, readers should expect a thorough examination that investigates every angle related to finding the “right” amount of content when constructing research papers that are academically sound while still being concisely expressed with precision clarity throughout each paragraph’s text flow.

1. Introduction: Understanding the Research Paper

2. the significance of length in a research paper, 3. traditional academic conventions for research papers, 4. alternatives to longer lengths: shorter formats and writing styles, 5. establishing your own ideal format or style of writing for your research paper, 6. considerations when setting an ideal length for your specific topic and audience, 7. conclusion: finding your optimal balance between brevity and depth.

Research papers are a form of communication between academics, and their purpose is to inform readers about the results of investigations into specific topics. The structure of research papers differs from that of other academic writings; they have an introduction, body sections for findings and discussion, as well as a conclusion.

• Length: Generally speaking, research paper length depends on the scope and complexity of the topic discussed but should usually be between 3-8 pages in total.

This type of writing requires critical thinking skills along with close attention to detail when it comes to data collection. It is essential that researchers take sufficient time outlining what information needs to be collected before beginning any investigation in order to ensure relevant results can be obtained. Additionally, having familiarity with various resources such as journal articles or books related to the topic being studied helps writers develop coherent arguments throughout their work.

The Impact of Length

A research paper’s length plays a critical role in the communication of its findings. Its length often helps determine how comprehensive, detailed and informative it is. Depending on the nature of the subject matter, longer papers may provide more information that can help readers understand complex concepts. In general, they are also seen as providing higher quality evidence since authors have more space to include robust argumentation for their conclusions. Therefore, when writing a research paper one should take into consideration not only what topics will be included but also how many pages are needed to effectively communicate these points.

In terms of determining an appropriate length for a particular project or academic field there is no definitive answer. Generally speaking however most undergraduate-level papers fall between 5–7 pages while graduate-level assignments tend to run 8–10 pages or even longer depending on the specific requirements set by supervisors and/or universities themselves.

The Basics of Academic Research Paper Writing

Research papers are a staple component in the academic world, requiring students to demonstrate their understanding and knowledge gained from courses. The traditional approach for producing an effective research paper is as follows:

• Develop a thesis statement which clearly outlines your argument.
• Identify and use credible sources that align with your argument.

These two components provide the foundation for any successful research paper. It should then be up to you, the writer, to create an effective structure that flows logically between ideas while expanding upon them sufficiently.

As research papers tend to require considerable effort and time, shorter formats can help get your point across quickly. There are a variety of alternative writing styles that you can employ when the length of your paper is restricted.

• Shorter Research Papers: These types of papers typically range from 1-3 pages in length. While there may be less space for arguments and analysis, they still provide enough room for students to effectively present their ideas without becoming bogged down by lengthy word counts or extraneous details.
• Essays: Essay writing provides an excellent opportunity to practice distilling complex information into smaller chunks while conveying key points succinctly. In general, essays should not exceed four pages (double spaced) depending on the course requirements.

Creating Your Own Format or Style of Writing Developing a style of writing that works best for your research paper can be an integral part of the success and impact it will have on readers. As such, you should spend ample time to find your individual format. When crafting your own personal style, some key factors to consider include clarity in language; cohesion among paragraphs and ideas; incorporating visuals effectively as possible (e.g., charts/graphs); properly citing sources; using simple but informative headings; introducing each main topic with a concise sentence or two, followed by bulleted points detailing its importance and implications; avoiding run-on sentences whenever applicable. Additionally, depending on where you are publishing your paper, there may also be specific formatting requirements dictated by publishers (this is especially common when submitting papers for publication). When it comes to length – while varying based on assignment type – general guidelines recommend that undergraduate research papers range from 3-7 pages in length while graduate-level assignments usually require 10+ page lengths.

When setting an ideal length for your topic and audience, it’s important to consider the purpose of your writing. Different types of documents have different lengths that are suitable in terms of scope and content. For example, a blog post can typically be shorter than a research paper or dissertation.

The other key factor is understanding who your target audience is – their expectations about document length will affect how long you should write. As a general rule, it helps to keep things concise by using short sentences and avoiding unnecessary detail where possible. Research papers often vary in length but they usually range from 8-10 pages double spaced; any longer may risk losing readers’ attention.

Achieving the Optimal Balance It can be challenging to determine exactly how much detail or brevity is appropriate for a research paper. The length of your paper will depend on the complexity and scope of your topic, as well as which formatting style you are using (e.g., MLA, APA). Generally speaking, though, most research papers should range from 5-15 pages long in order to adequately explore their topics while still keeping them concise and comprehensible.

• To balance depth with brevity:

When creating a research paper it is essential that you do not sacrifice substance for form; there must always be enough evidence provided within each section to support its assertions and claims. To ensure this without making your document too lengthy, try utilizing different writing techniques such as visual aids like diagrams or charts when presenting complex concepts. Additionally, focus on providing only key points rather than exhaustive details; strive for being succinct yet informative!

In conclusion, the length of research papers can vary greatly depending on a variety of factors. The most important thing is to understand your audience and purpose for writing and tailor your paper accordingly. As long as you are able to properly communicate all relevant information in an organized manner, then there should be no restriction on how long or short your paper needs to be; it all depends on what works best for you!

Physical Review Journals

Published by the american physical society.

• Collections

Guidelines for Calculating Length

Word count procedure.

The following guidelines can be used to determine the length of a manuscript submitted to the Physical Review journals. The general formula for calculating a manuscript’s length is:

Total Word Count = Text + Displayed Math + Figures + Tables

Counting Words in a TeX File

Authors are advised to use REVTeX 4.2 for the preparation of their manuscript, using the proper journal option (‘prl’ for Physical Review Letters for instance). Manuscripts that fit within the following page limits are likely to conform to the length guidelines: Letters and PRPER Short Papers: 4 pages, Letters: 4 pages for PRB; 5 pages for Physical Review A, C, D, E, Fluids, Materials, and Research. Alternatively, you can determine the word count of a REVTeX 4.2 file by:

• Commenting out the \maketitle command
• Using the 'nofootinbib' option
• Putting an \end{document} before the bibliography
• Comment out any display equations
• Commenting out the rows (but not the caption) of any tables
• Commenting out the acknowledgment

The paper should still run under LaTeX. To get a precise word count, you can then use the wordcount.tex file found at https://ctan.org/tex-archive/macros/latex/contrib/wordcount .

Counting Words in a Word File

To count the number of words in a Word document, make a copy of your manuscript and remove all of the text and other elements that aren’t counted under the guidelines. Then use Word’s built-in word count function.

Determining the Size of Figures

GhostScript can be used to determine the bounding box of Encapsulated PostScript (EPS) and PDF figures:

You can then use the size of the bounding box to figure out the exact width and height of the figure. Various image programs will display the dimensions of JPEG, GIF, PNG, and other types of figure files. Alternatively, you may use a PDF viewer with cropping capabilities to draw a crop box around the figure and read off the dimensions. Finally, you may simply print out the figure and measure its dimensions. The units are arbitrary because the guidelines use the aspect ratio, which is the width/height.

Word Count Limits

The length restrictions for different article types vary among the Physical Review journals. The length limits are given in the following table:

Sign up to receive regular email alerts from Physical Review Journals

• Forgot your username/password?
• Create an account

Article Lookup

Paste a citation or doi, enter a citation.

• How Long Is a PhD Thesis?
• Doing a PhD

It’s no secret that one of the most challenging aspects of a PhD degree is the volume of work that goes into writing your thesis . So this raises the question, exactly how long is a thesis?

Unfortunately, there’s no one size fits all answer to this question. However, from the analysis of over 100 PhD theses, the average thesis length is between 80,000 and 100,000 words. A further analysis of 1000 PhD thesis shows the average number of pages to be 204 . In reality, the actual word count for each PhD thesis will depend on the specific subject and the university it is being hosted by. This is because universities set their own word length requirements, with most found to be opting for around 100,000.

To find out more about how these word limits differ between universities, how the average word count from STEM thesis differ from non-STEM thesis and a more detailed breakdown from the analysis of over 1000 PhDs, carry on reading the below.

Word Count Differences Between Universities

For any PhD student writing a thesis, they will find that their document will be subject to a word limit set by their university. In nearly all cases, the limit only concerns the maximum number of words and doesn’t place any restrictions on the minimum word limit. The reason for this is that the student will be expected to write their thesis with the aim of clearly explaining their research, and so it is up to the student to determine what he deems appropriate.

Saying this, it is well accepted amongst PhD students and supervisors that the absence of a lower limit doesn’t suggest that a thesis can be ‘light’. Your thesis will focus on several years worth of original research and explore new ideas, theories or concepts. Besides this, your thesis will need to cover a wide range of topics such as your literature review, research methodology, results and conclusion. Therefore, your examiners will expect the length of your thesis to be proportional to convey all this information to a sufficient level.

Selecting a handful of universities at random, they state the following thesis word limits on their website:

• University of Edinburgh: 100,000
• University of Exeter: 100,000
• University of Leister: 80,000
• University of Bath: 80,000
• University of Warwick: 70,000

The above universities set upper word limits that apply across the board, however, some universities, such as the University of Birmingham and the University of Sheffield, set different word limits for different departments. For example, the University of Sheffield adopts these limits:

• Arts & Humanities: 75,000
• Medicine, Dentistry & Health: 75,000
• Science: 80,000
• Social Sciences: 75,000-100,000

Although there’s a range of limit, it’s safe to say that the majority fall within the 80,000 to 100,000 bracket.

Word Count Based on Data from past Theses

A poll of 149 postdocs.

In mid-2019, Dr Eva Lantsoght, a published author, academic blogger and Structural Engineering Professor, conducted a poll which asked postgraduate doctoral students to share the length of their final thesis. 149 PostDoc students responded to the survey, with the majority reporting a length falling within the ‘80,000 – 120,000 words’ bracket as seen below.

Analysis of 1000 PhD Theses

Over a three-year time period, Dr Ian Brailsford, a then Postgraduate Learning Adviser at the University of Auckland, analysed 1000 doctoral thesis submitted to his university’s library. The PhD theses which formed the basis of his analysis were produced between 2008 to 2017 and showed:

• Average number of pages = 204
• Median number of pages = 198
• Average number of chapters = 7.6

We should note that the above metrics only cover the content falling within the main body of the thesis. This includes the introduction, literature review, methods section, results chapter, discussions and conclusions. All other sections, such as the title page, abstract, table of contents, acknowledgements, bibliography and appendices were omitted from the count.

Although it’s impossible to draw the exact word count from the number of pages alone, by using the universities recommended format of 12pt Times New Roman and 1.5 lines spacing, and assuming 10% of the main body are figures and footnotes, this equates to an average main body of 52,000 words.

STEM vs Non-STEM

As part of Dr Ian Brailsford’s analysis, he also compared the length of STEM doctorate theses to non-STEM theses. He found that STEM theses tended to be shorter. In fact, he found STEM theses to have a medium page length of 159 whilst non-STEM theses had a medium of around 223 pages. This is a 40% increase in average length!

Can You Exceed the Word Count?

Whilst most universities will allow you to go over the word count if you need to, it comes with the caveat that you must have a very strong reason for needing to do so. Besides this, your supervisor will also need to support your request. This is to acknowledge that they have reviewed your situation and agree that exceeding the word limit will be absolutely necessary to avoid detriment unnecessary detriment to your work.

This means that whilst it is possible to submit a thesis over 100,000 words or more, it’s unlikely that your research project will need to.

How Does This Compare to a Masters Dissertation?

The average Masters dissertation length is approximately 20,000 words whilst a thesis is 4 to 5 times this length at approximately 80,000 – 100,000.

The key reason for this difference is because of the level of knowledge they convey. A Master’s dissertation focuses on concluding from existing knowledge whilst a PhD thesis focuses on drawing a conclusion from new knowledge. As a result, the thesis is significantly longer as the new knowledge needs to be well documented so it can be verified, disseminated and used to shape future research.

Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.

Related Reading

Unfortunately, the completion of your thesis doesn’t mark the end of your degree just yet. Once you submit your thesis, it’s time to start preparing for your viva – the all-to-fun thesis defence interview! To help you prepare for this, we’ve produced a helpful guide which you can read here: The Complete Guide to PhD Vivas.

Browse PhDs Now

Join thousands of students.

Join thousands of other students and stay up to date with the latest PhD programmes, funding opportunities and advice.

researchersnetwork.org

PRACTICAL GUIDES TO RESEARCH WRITING

How Long Is a Research Paper? Let’s Find Out

The length of your paper ranks high among various factors to consider in academic writing. It is thus common for students to get confused when they are presented with a research paper that does not prescribe a word limit.

How long is a research paper? This article will analyse various factors you should consider to determine the length of your paper. 

How long should a research paper be?

The average length of a paper ranges between 4000 to 6000 words. However, research papers may carry up to ten thousand words depending on their complexity. A complex research topic brings about multiple issues to be studied and longer arguments in a bid to acknowledge existing work in your field.

As such, your research paper length is also affected by the availability of resources. A wider number of counterarguments presents more arguments for your paper, resulting in a longer document. The documents may also add to your literature review chapter, further lengthening your paper. 

How many pages is a research paper

On average, a research paper ranges between 15 to 50 pages. As indicated earlier, the length of your paper is affected by the complexity of your topic. As such, some disciplines may require a longer document while shorter papers suffice in other disciplines. 

When going about your research paper, we recommend that you start off with research and then you develop an outline. Afterward, share the outline with your committee for input on areas you may address further and the arguments to omit.

This will help you gauge the length of your paper, without stuffing your research paper with filler words. Also, check previous tasks in your faculty to determine the word count range of previous papers within your field. 

Why are research papers so long?

The research paper length ranks on the higher end of the spectrum for academic papers. This is because your research paper comprises multiple chapters that require evidence-backed arguments.

The literature review, for instance, puts into consideration various publications relating to your topic. This allows you to highlight a research gap and argue the necessity of researching the identified gap.

This is followed by an introduction where you highlight the background study of your topic and your thesis. Your methodology further analyses more resources in a bid to legitimize your research and enable the replicability of your research.

Afterward, your paper presents your results and supplements other studies to design your arguments. This tedious approach to argument brings about copious amounts of words, thus making a research paper longer than typical essays. 

Average research paper length: how long should each chapter be? 

The length of your dissertation chapters varies depending on your total word count. A longer paper may have more words in each chapter compared to shorter research papers. A great way to divide the word count among various chapters in your paper is to follow the percentages approach.

The abstract of your paper should range between 300-500 words. As such, use precise sentences to capture all essential bits of information needed for a quality abstract. The other portions of your paper should contribute to the total wordcount as follows:

• Literature review – 25% to 30%
• Introduction – 15%-20%
• Methodology – 10%-25%
• Results – 10%-15%
• Discussion – 25%-30%
• Conclusion – 10%-15%

You can use the outline to approximate the length of your paper and thus determine how long various chapters should be. We however recommend that you focus on the quality and completeness of arguments in your paper as opposed to chasing a word limit.

What contributes to the final word count of a paper?

After establishing the answer to the question: how long should a thesis be? Most students usually work to include every word from the title page to the appendix in this word count.

If a word limit has been provided by your tutor, it covers all sections of the paper except the title page, references, and appendices. As such, your word count is estimated by the number of words in various chapters that are formative to your research. 

We hope that this guide has cleared any issues you were facing regarding your research paper length. Feel free to engage our experts for assistance in editing your paper to ensure success in your academic journey. The experienced writers ensure that your paper captures the imagination of the reader. If you’re also seeking assistance with other assignments, you can rely on them to deliver exceptional results. If you are wondering “Can they do my python homework ?” we assure you, “Yes, they can.”

Making Every Word Count: Keys to a Strong Research Abstract

• First Online: 27 April 2021

Cite this chapter

• Lorelei Lingard   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4150-3355 10 &
• Christopher Watling   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9686-795X 10  

Part of the book series: Innovation and Change in Professional Education ((ICPE,volume 19))

2516 Accesses

Strong research abstracts are simultaneously informative and persuasive. In this chapter, we consider the contexts abstracts function within, the purposes they serve, and the audiences they must reach. We adapt the Problem/Gap/Hook heuristic to enable writers to make the most of the limited word count that an abstract allows. We outline strategies for writing abstracts that are accessible, economic, and convincing. And we offer tips for crafting each section of an abstract for maximum impact. These approaches will ensure that abstracts can fulfil their role as ambassadors of our work.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Cook, D. A., & Bordage, G. (2016). Twelve tips on writing abstracts and title: How to get people to use and cite your work. Medical Teacher, 38 (11), 1100–1104. https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159X.2016.1181732 .

Article   Google Scholar  

Groves, T., & Abbasi, K. (2004). Screening research papers by reading abstracts: Please get the abstract right, because we may use it alone to assess your paper. BMJ, 329 , 470–471. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.329.7464.470 .

Johnson, C. E., Keating, J. L., & Molloy, E. K. (2020). Psychological safety in feedback: What does it look like and how can educators work with learners to foster it? Medical Education, 54 (6), 559–570. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.14154 .

Schimel, J. (2012). Writing science: How to write papers that get cited, and proposals that get funded . New York: Oxford University Press USA.

Google Scholar  

Stupp, R., Mason, W. P., Van Den Bent, M. J., Weller, M., Fisher, B., Taphoorn, M. J., et al. (2005). Radiotherapy plus concomitant and adjuvant Temozolomide for glioblastoma. New England Journal of Medicine, 352 (10), 987–996. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa043330 .

Taylor, T. S., Raynard, A. L., & Lingard, L. (2019). Perseverance, faith, and stoicism: A qualitative study of medical student perspectives on managing fatigue. Medical Education, 53 (12), 1221–1229. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.13998 .

Varpio, L., Amiel, J., & Richards, B. F. (2016). Writing competitive research conference abstracts: AMEE Guide No. 108. Medical Teacher, 38 (9), 863–871. https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159X.2016.1211258 .

Venance, S. L., LaDonna, K. A., & Watling, C. J. (2014). Exploring frontline faculty perspectives after a curriculum change. Medical Education, 48 , 998–1007. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.12529 .

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Centre for Education Research and Innovation, Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, London, ON, Canada

Lorelei Lingard & Christopher Watling

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Lingard, L., Watling, C. (2021). Making Every Word Count: Keys to a Strong Research Abstract. In: Story, Not Study: 30 Brief Lessons to Inspire Health Researchers as Writers. Innovation and Change in Professional Education, vol 19. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71363-8_10

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71363-8_10

Published : 27 April 2021

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-71362-1

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-71363-8

eBook Packages : Education Education (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

How do I access the word count in my Academic Writer paper?

Sep 17, 2020 • knowledge, information.

CAN'T FIND YOUR ANSWER

Contact Academic Writer Support

Contact APA Databases Support

Contact PsycLearn Support

© 2020 American Psychological Association 750 First Street NE Washington, DC 20002-4242

How Much Research Is Being Written by Large Language Models?

New studies show a marked spike in LLM usage in academia, especially in computer science. What does this mean for researchers and reviewers?

In March of this year, a  tweet about an academic paper went viral for all the wrong reasons. The introduction section of the paper, published in  Elsevier’s  Surfaces and Interfaces , began with this line:  Certainly, here is a possible introduction for your topic. 

Look familiar? 

It should, if you are a user of ChatGPT and have applied its talents for the purpose of content generation. LLMs are being increasingly used to assist with writing tasks, but examples like this in academia are largely anecdotal and had not been quantified before now. 

“While this is an egregious example,” says  James Zou , associate professor of biomedical data science and, by courtesy, of computer science and of electrical engineering at Stanford, “in many cases, it’s less obvious, and that’s why we need to develop more granular and robust statistical methods to estimate the frequency and magnitude of LLM usage. At this particular moment, people want to know what content around us is written by AI. This is especially important in the context of research, for the papers we author and read and the reviews we get on our papers. That’s why we wanted to study how much of those have been written with the help of AI.”

In two papers looking at LLM use in scientific publishings, Zou and his team* found that 17.5% of computer science papers and 16.9% of peer review text had at least some content drafted by AI. The paper on LLM usage in peer reviews will be presented at the International Conference on Machine Learning.

Read  Mapping the Increasing Use of LLMs in Scientific Papers and  Monitoring AI-Modified Content at Scale: A Case Study on the Impact of ChatGPT on AI Conference Peer Reviews  

Here Zou discusses the findings and implications of this work, which was supported through a Stanford HAI Hoffman Yee Research Grant . 

How did you determine whether AI wrote sections of a paper or a review?

We first saw that there are these specific worlds – like commendable, innovative, meticulous, pivotal, intricate, realm, and showcasing – whose frequency in reviews sharply spiked, coinciding with the release of ChatGPT. Additionally, we know that these words are much more likely to be used by LLMs than by humans. The reason we know this is that we actually did an experiment where we took many papers, used LLMs to write reviews of them, and compared those reviews to reviews written by human reviewers on the same papers. Then we quantified which words are more likely to be used by LLMs vs. humans, and those are exactly the words listed. The fact that they are more likely to be used by an LLM and that they have also seen a sharp spike coinciding with the release of LLMs is strong evidence.

Some journals permit the use of LLMs in academic writing, as long as it’s noted, while others, including  Science and the ICML conference, prohibit it. How are the ethics perceived in academia?

This is an important and timely topic because the policies of various journals are changing very quickly. For example,  Science said in the beginning that they would not allow authors to use language models in their submissions, but they later changed their policy and said that people could use language models, but authors have to explicitly note where the language model is being used. All the journals are struggling with how to define this and what’s the right way going forward.

You observed an increase in usage of LLMs in academic writing, particularly in computer science papers (up to 17.5%). Math and  Nature family papers, meanwhile, used AI text about 6.3% of the time. What do you think accounts for the discrepancy between these disciplines? 

Artificial intelligence and computer science disciplines have seen an explosion in the number of papers submitted to conferences like ICLR and NeurIPS. And I think that’s really caused a strong burden, in many ways, to reviewers and to authors. So now it’s increasingly difficult to find qualified reviewers who have time to review all these papers. And some authors may feel more competition that they need to keep up and keep writing more and faster. 

You analyzed close to a million papers on arXiv, bioRxiv, and  Nature from January 2020 to February 2024. Do any of these journals include humanities papers or anything in the social sciences?  

We mostly wanted to focus more on CS and engineering and biomedical areas and interdisciplinary areas, like  Nature family journals, which also publish some social science papers. Availability mattered in this case. So, it’s relatively easy for us to get data from arXiv, bioRxiv, and  Nature . A lot of AI conferences also make reviews publicly available. That’s not the case for humanities journals.

Did any results surprise you?

A few months after ChatGPT’s launch, we started to see a rapid, linear increase in the usage pattern in academic writing. This tells us how quickly these LLM technologies diffuse into the community and become adopted by researchers. The most surprising finding is the magnitude and speed of the increase in language model usage. Nearly a fifth of papers and peer review text use LLM modification. We also found that peer reviews submitted closer to the deadline and those less likely to engage with author rebuttal were more likely to use LLMs. 

This suggests a couple of things. Perhaps some of these reviewers are not as engaged with reviewing these papers, and that’s why they are offloading some of the work to AI to help. This could be problematic if reviewers are not fully involved. As one of the pillars of the scientific process, it is still necessary to have human experts providing objective and rigorous evaluations. If this is being diluted, that’s not great for the scientific community.

What do your findings mean for the broader research community?

LLMs are transforming how we do research. It’s clear from our work that many papers we read are written with the help of LLMs. There needs to be more transparency, and people should state explicitly how LLMs are used and if they are used substantially. I don’t think it’s always a bad thing for people to use LLMs. In many areas, this can be very useful. For someone who is not a native English speaker, having the model polish their writing can be helpful. There are constructive ways for people to use LLMs in the research process; for example, in earlier stages of their draft. You could get useful feedback from a LLM in real time instead of waiting weeks or months to get external feedback. 

But I think it’s still very important for the human researchers to be accountable for everything that is submitted and presented. They should be able to say, “Yes, I will stand behind the statements that are written in this paper.”

*Collaborators include:  Weixin Liang ,  Yaohui Zhang ,  Zhengxuan Wu ,  Haley Lepp ,  Wenlong Ji ,  Xuandong Zhao ,  Hancheng Cao ,  Sheng Liu ,  Siyu He ,  Zhi Huang ,  Diyi Yang ,  Christopher Potts ,  Christopher D. Manning ,  Zachary Izzo ,  Yaohui Zhang ,  Lingjiao Chen ,  Haotian Ye , and Daniel A. McFarland .

Stanford HAI’s mission is to advance AI research, education, policy and practice to improve the human condition.  Learn more . 

More News Topics