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Digital learning and transformation of education

Digital technologies have evolved from stand-alone projects to networks of tools and programmes that connect people and things across the world, and help address personal and global challenges. Digital innovation has demonstrated powers to complement, enrich and transform education, and has the potential to speed up progress towards Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) for education and transform modes of provision of universal access to learning. It can enhance the quality and relevance of learning, strengthen inclusion, and improve education administration and governance. In times of crises, distance learning can mitigate the effects of education disruption and school closures.

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• Published: 25 January 2021

Online education in the post-COVID era

• Barbara B. Lockee 1  

Nature Electronics volume  4 ,  pages 5–6 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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The coronavirus pandemic has forced students and educators across all levels of education to rapidly adapt to online learning. The impact of this — and the developments required to make it work — could permanently change how education is delivered.

The COVID-19 pandemic has forced the world to engage in the ubiquitous use of virtual learning. And while online and distance learning has been used before to maintain continuity in education, such as in the aftermath of earthquakes 1 , the scale of the current crisis is unprecedented. Speculation has now also begun about what the lasting effects of this will be and what education may look like in the post-COVID era. For some, an immediate retreat to the traditions of the physical classroom is required. But for others, the forced shift to online education is a moment of change and a time to reimagine how education could be delivered 2 .

Looking back

Online education has traditionally been viewed as an alternative pathway, one that is particularly well suited to adult learners seeking higher education opportunities. However, the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic has required educators and students across all levels of education to adapt quickly to virtual courses. (The term ‘emergency remote teaching’ was coined in the early stages of the pandemic to describe the temporary nature of this transition 3 .) In some cases, instruction shifted online, then returned to the physical classroom, and then shifted back online due to further surges in the rate of infection. In other cases, instruction was offered using a combination of remote delivery and face-to-face: that is, students can attend online or in person (referred to as the HyFlex model 4 ). In either case, instructors just had to figure out how to make it work, considering the affordances and constraints of the specific learning environment to create learning experiences that were feasible and effective.

The use of varied delivery modes does, in fact, have a long history in education. Mechanical (and then later electronic) teaching machines have provided individualized learning programmes since the 1950s and the work of B. F. Skinner 5 , who proposed using technology to walk individual learners through carefully designed sequences of instruction with immediate feedback indicating the accuracy of their response. Skinner’s notions formed the first formalized representations of programmed learning, or ‘designed’ learning experiences. Then, in the 1960s, Fred Keller developed a personalized system of instruction 6 , in which students first read assigned course materials on their own, followed by one-on-one assessment sessions with a tutor, gaining permission to move ahead only after demonstrating mastery of the instructional material. Occasional class meetings were held to discuss concepts, answer questions and provide opportunities for social interaction. A personalized system of instruction was designed on the premise that initial engagement with content could be done independently, then discussed and applied in the social context of a classroom.

These predecessors to contemporary online education leveraged key principles of instructional design — the systematic process of applying psychological principles of human learning to the creation of effective instructional solutions — to consider which methods (and their corresponding learning environments) would effectively engage students to attain the targeted learning outcomes. In other words, they considered what choices about the planning and implementation of the learning experience can lead to student success. Such early educational innovations laid the groundwork for contemporary virtual learning, which itself incorporates a variety of instructional approaches and combinations of delivery modes.

Online learning and the pandemic

Fast forward to 2020, and various further educational innovations have occurred to make the universal adoption of remote learning a possibility. One key challenge is access. Here, extensive problems remain, including the lack of Internet connectivity in some locations, especially rural ones, and the competing needs among family members for the use of home technology. However, creative solutions have emerged to provide students and families with the facilities and resources needed to engage in and successfully complete coursework 7 . For example, school buses have been used to provide mobile hotspots, and class packets have been sent by mail and instructional presentations aired on local public broadcasting stations. The year 2020 has also seen increased availability and adoption of electronic resources and activities that can now be integrated into online learning experiences. Synchronous online conferencing systems, such as Zoom and Google Meet, have allowed experts from anywhere in the world to join online classrooms 8 and have allowed presentations to be recorded for individual learners to watch at a time most convenient for them. Furthermore, the importance of hands-on, experiential learning has led to innovations such as virtual field trips and virtual labs 9 . A capacity to serve learners of all ages has thus now been effectively established, and the next generation of online education can move from an enterprise that largely serves adult learners and higher education to one that increasingly serves younger learners, in primary and secondary education and from ages 5 to 18.

The COVID-19 pandemic is also likely to have a lasting effect on lesson design. The constraints of the pandemic provided an opportunity for educators to consider new strategies to teach targeted concepts. Though rethinking of instructional approaches was forced and hurried, the experience has served as a rare chance to reconsider strategies that best facilitate learning within the affordances and constraints of the online context. In particular, greater variance in teaching and learning activities will continue to question the importance of ‘seat time’ as the standard on which educational credits are based 10 — lengthy Zoom sessions are seldom instructionally necessary and are not aligned with the psychological principles of how humans learn. Interaction is important for learning but forced interactions among students for the sake of interaction is neither motivating nor beneficial.

While the blurring of the lines between traditional and distance education has been noted for several decades 11 , the pandemic has quickly advanced the erasure of these boundaries. Less single mode, more multi-mode (and thus more educator choices) is becoming the norm due to enhanced infrastructure and developed skill sets that allow people to move across different delivery systems 12 . The well-established best practices of hybrid or blended teaching and learning 13 have served as a guide for new combinations of instructional delivery that have developed in response to the shift to virtual learning. The use of multiple delivery modes is likely to remain, and will be a feature employed with learners of all ages 14 , 15 . Future iterations of online education will no longer be bound to the traditions of single teaching modes, as educators can support pedagogical approaches from a menu of instructional delivery options, a mix that has been supported by previous generations of online educators 16 .

Also significant are the changes to how learning outcomes are determined in online settings. Many educators have altered the ways in which student achievement is measured, eliminating assignments and changing assessment strategies altogether 17 . Such alterations include determining learning through strategies that leverage the online delivery mode, such as interactive discussions, student-led teaching and the use of games to increase motivation and attention. Specific changes that are likely to continue include flexible or extended deadlines for assignment completion 18 , more student choice regarding measures of learning, and more authentic experiences that involve the meaningful application of newly learned skills and knowledge 19 , for example, team-based projects that involve multiple creative and social media tools in support of collaborative problem solving.

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, technological and administrative systems for implementing online learning, and the infrastructure that supports its access and delivery, had to adapt quickly. While access remains a significant issue for many, extensive resources have been allocated and processes developed to connect learners with course activities and materials, to facilitate communication between instructors and students, and to manage the administration of online learning. Paths for greater access and opportunities to online education have now been forged, and there is a clear route for the next generation of adopters of online education.

Before the pandemic, the primary purpose of distance and online education was providing access to instruction for those otherwise unable to participate in a traditional, place-based academic programme. As its purpose has shifted to supporting continuity of instruction, its audience, as well as the wider learning ecosystem, has changed. It will be interesting to see which aspects of emergency remote teaching remain in the next generation of education, when the threat of COVID-19 is no longer a factor. But online education will undoubtedly find new audiences. And the flexibility and learning possibilities that have emerged from necessity are likely to shift the expectations of students and educators, diminishing further the line between classroom-based instruction and virtual learning.

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Technology for Learning: Digital Students Essay

Introduction, features that distinguish digital students from the previous generation ones, why digital students are different from the previous generation of students.

The digitalization of nearly every aspect of life, which started in the last quarter of the twentieth century, has had an impact on nearly every aspect of normal human life. The world today is on the verge of technology, and nearly all processes are being digitalized. For example, people are now using online banking, online booking of rooms and air tickets, online dating, and so forth. The education sector has not been left behind since it is in this era that we have the online application of degree courses, e-learning facilities, and online studies, among other digitalized education services. Digitalization in the education fields has created a new class of learners known as digital students. With the increased use of technology in delivering educational services, most students in this era and age fall within this new breed of learners. This paper defines who the digital students are and outline the differences that exist between them and previous-generation counterparts.

Digital students can be defined as young adults who have been raised up in an environment where they enjoy active participation in technology as an everyday aspect of their lives (Shelly, Gunter, & Gunter, 2010, p. 15). The technology they are exposed to include the daily use of computers in their studies, and daily use of the internet and mobile phones. This paper defines digital students and explains why they are different from their previous generation colleagues.

This technology, in which these students are exposed to, is firmly embedded in their lives in that they cannot function normally without it. It forms part of their academic life as well as their social life, and most of them are well versed in computer competency (Johnson & Maddux, 2003, p. 34). These students are known for taking advantage of the availability of email services, instant messaging, and text messaging and making use of the unlimited online resources in their studies (Daugherty & Russo, 2007, p. 105).

Digital students possess a strong desire for instantaneity and a strong will to control their environment and to channel their social aspect of life through the extensive use of technology. Exposure to technology makes them treat the internet and mobile phones as daily life tools (Jones & Madden, 2002, p. 34). Digital students normally use technology in communication, and this has led to the asynchronous form of communication that incorporates technology devices. These students also have a need and a strong desire to control their online and e-learning environments (Livingstone & Bovill, 2001, p. 43). This great desire to gain control is attributed to their high use of technology.

The major reasons why digital students are different from the previous generation ones are;

• Most of the digital students were born after 1980 when the digital world was more present and pervasive. Due to this fact, they grew up in an environment that was exposed to technology. The earlier generations lacked this privilege and did not have great technology savvy like their digital counterparts.
• Digital students are not only quick to learn, but also technology-dependent, and this makes them differ from earlier generations. Their frequent use of technology makes them different, in terms of technological skills, from previous generations who are less likely to use technology and are therefore less digitally experienced.
• Digital students are able to use many digital technologies in their every day lives. In addition to this use, they have ready access to web-enabled personal computers and other personal digital devices like mobile phones. The previous generation lacked this use since, at such a time, technological inventions were not advanced as they are nowadays.
• The previous generation students also tend to shun away from the use of these technological devices for fear of being perceived as outdated by the techno-savvy generation. This fear and lack of the desire to learn makes them differ from the digital students, who are always open to learning and are ready to compete to be knowledgeable in terms of the latest technology.
• Being technology-dependent, digital students have higher access to new forms of technologically based educational materials (Pour, 2006, p. 713). They are quick in technology-related issues and will not hesitate to try out new ideas. The previous generations of students are not so, but on the contrary, they are more reserved.
• However, digital students include the generation of children who grew up with a mouse in their hand and a screen in front of their face. Unfortunately, this generation lacked much experience in playing fields with fellow children. This lack denied them good socializing skills.

In conclusion, digital students are becoming the predominant type of learners in this era and age. The previous generation students are either forced to embrace technology and teach themselves the required skills since the world is becoming more digitalized every day.

Daugherty, A., & Russo, M. F. (2007). Information literacy programs in the digital age: Educating College and University students online. New York, NY: Association of College & Research Libraries. Web.

Johnson, D. L., & Maddux, C. D. (2003). Technology in Education: A twenty-Year Retrospective. New York, NY: The Haworth Press. Web.

Jones, S,. & Madden, M. (2002). The internet goes to College: How students are living in the future with today’s technology. Web.

Livingstone, S., & Bovill, M. (2001). Children and their changing media environment: A European comparative study. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Web.

Pour, M. K. (2006). Emerging trends and challenges in information technology management. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing. Web.

Shelly, B., Gunter, G., & Gunter, R. (2010). Teachers discovering computers: Integrating technology and digital media in the classroom (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. Web.

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The challenge for the digital age: making learning a part of life

International Journal of Information and Learning Technology

ISSN : 2056-4880

Article publication date: 19 September 2022

Issue publication date: 11 January 2023

The main argument behind this paper is learning in the digital age should not be restricted to creating digital infrastructures for supporting current forms of learning nor taking schools in their current form as God-given, natural entities, but changing current forms of education by developing new frameworks and socio-technical environments for making learning an integral part of life. The authors provide a framework for this argumentation as well as a call-to-action for research on the co-evolution of learning, media, and learning organizations.

Design/methodology/approach

This paper theoretically and argumentatively explores the core assumption that the digitalization of society results in challenges and opportunities for learning and education based on fundamental transformations (Collins and Halverson, 2009; Fischer et al. , 2020).

The digital age greatly enhances the opportunities and supports the necessity for “making learning a part of life”. But while the growth of technology is certain, the inevitability of any particular future is not. The impact of schooling goes beyond that new information about computers, the Internet, and social media are integrated into the schools of today. The transformation of schools needs to be informed by an understanding of the impact of mindset formation that will determine people's approach to learning for the rest of their lives. The authors’ framework is focused on moving “beyond gift-wrapping” by not only fixing and existing systems but to change them and not only reforming but transforming them.

Originality/value

It is the authors’ hope that this article will be of interest to many stakeholders (including learners, teachers, curriculum designers, technology experts, parents, and politicians) and provide a foundation for an ongoing debate and informed actions for “Making Learning a Part of Life” in the digital age.

Fischer, G. , Lundin, J. and Lindberg, O.J. (2023), "The challenge for the digital age: making learning a part of life", International Journal of Information and Learning Technology , Vol. 40 No. 1, pp. 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJILT-04-2022-0079

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2022, Gerhard Fischer, Johan Lundin and Ola J. Lindberg

Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction

This paper explores the core assumption that the digitalization of society results in challenges and opportunities for learning and education based on fundamental transformations ( Collins and Halverson, 2009 ; Fischer et al. , 2020 ). The ongoing digitalization processes in society creates a situation in which not only students but citizens at large need competences for handling everyday life that differ from those in predigital time. Digital technologies cannot merely be understood as tools providing access to new resources for learning, interacting, and knowing, but rather as providing new opportunities to improve the quality of life by supporting innovative dimensions of activity. We argue that research on learning and information technology, in the broadest way of defining this field, often falls short of embracing the multidimensional transformational aspects of these drastic changes. And that it also lacks visionary narratives of what education can and should be, in these transformations.

In the digital age more and more knowledge will be acquired well past the age of formal schooling and increasingly through educational processes that do not center on the traditional school. Making Learning a Part of Life will not be an option but a necessity representing a fundamental challenge to the world in which change is the norm rather than the exception. At the same time, the performance of schools and the basic values of schools should be of increasing concern to society as a whole, rather than being considered professional matters that can safely be left to “educators” or school politicians.

Addressing learning in the digital age should not be restricted to creating digital infrastructures for supporting current forms of learning nor taking schools in their current form as God-given, natural entities but changing current forms of education by developing new frameworks and socio-technical environments for making learning an integral part of life. Outside of educational institutions information technology is rapidly transforming many practices, leading to a growing gap between the role digital technologies play in education and the world at large. Technology alone does not determine social structure nor does it change human behavior: it creates feasibility spaces for new social practices and it can persuade and motivate changes at the individual and social level ( Benkler, 2006 ), whether this is the intention of the designers and developers or not.

The paper is structured as followed: Chapter 2 will briefly characterize two global frameworks for “making learning a part of life”: (1) cultural transformations for which technological developments are necessary but not sufficient; and (2) lifelong learning as an indispensable activity complementing and transcending school learning by extending learning throughout life. Chapter 3 represents a set of specific objectives to move beyond current conceptualizations of learning. Chapter 4 articulates some conclusions resulting from the transformations indicated in Chapter 3.

Rethinking school from cultural transformations and lifelong learning perspectives

Cultural transformations.

Studying the emergence and establishing of cultural transformations are necessary for understanding how learning, interacting, and knowing with digital technology plays a part of everyday life ( Fischer et al. , 2020 ; Thomas and Brown, 2011 ). But viewing the digitalization of society in such terms calls for additional research to describe, analyze, understand, and explain learning in a digitalized world, including a focus on lifelong learning ( Livingstone et al. , 2018 ). show that as the Internet becomes ever more embedded into children's lives, studies must explore the internet-mediated engagements of children with the world. Research must therefore not be limited to concerns of how children relate to the Internet, but rather embrace how children's life is reconfigured in the digital world as a consequence of being internet-mediated. In a review of social media in relation to education ( Dennen et al. , 2020 ), note that dominant themes of research on social media within education differ from dominant themes on research outside of education, suggesting that researchers and practitioners would benefit from research originating from different disciplines and research areas. For instance, social media platforms as resources for teaching and learning are more present in educational research, while negative behaviors, health issues, and identity development and expression are dominant themes outside of education. Issues of digital citizenship and social relationships were also more frequent outside of education.

Exploring the future of learning from a transformational perspective, one impact of digitalization is that we need to understand and decide on what tasks should be reserved for educated human minds and the collaboration among different human minds, and what tasks can and should be taken over or aided by technological artifacts. When some activities are delegated to machines and some tasks are done by humans this have a number of consequences in relation to what can be understood as relevant knowledge to teach and learn, but also to the agency of humans in such activities. The human part of these practices is adaptable by the persons involved ( Lundin et al. , 2015 ), and then also provides space for agency for the involved persons. In relation to educational practices, we see an increased use of data-driven decision support and such efforts where student or learner data are exploited calls for a critical discussion on who benefits from the analysis of digital educational activities ( Dignum, 2021 ). It is necessary to engage in driving transformations in desired directions, or in terms of digital systems adaptivity, to what degree do our systems adapt education to students in relation to gradually adapting students to educational systems ( Hillman et al. , 2020 ).

Taking this stance has consequences for the conceptualization of technology. Perspectives on technology as tools or resources supporting current practices limit the potential to understand and analyze transformational change. Or in the words of ( Bayne, 2015 ) “By casting technology as being simply about ‘enhancement’ of existing practices < … > we execute < … > an elision of a ‘fuller understanding of technologies as social objects’” . Understanding the relationship of technologies with knowing and learning as cultural transformations will allow the formulation and exploration of more radical ideas and changes, opening up for formulating visions of future educational practices.

Educational systems of today are surprisingly dependent on traditional ideas of how to organize school, and to distant from how out of school learning is taking place in a digitalized society ( Collins and Halverson, 2009 ; Resnick, 1987 ). Schooling as such has long traditions and implications ( Hamilton, 2015 ), which brings with them certain already fixed ways of describing and understanding learning and what learning might be ( Tanner, 2013 ). The organization of activities for learning in these settings is often defined by premade notions of content, often placing a curriculum of the future within a context of a curriculum of the past ( Young, 1999 ; Young, 2003 ) limiting the possibilities of including a workable notion of what the future might bring ( Levine, 2002 ). A curriculum of the future in a digital world has been described as centrifugal ( Williamson, 2013 ), in which content cannot be altogether predefined relying more on dynamic sources of a more open character. Defining competence for the digital world is not a new or easy task. Early versions such as being fluent with technology ( National-Research-Council, 1999 ) can today be complemented with ideas of a digital competence ( Erstad et al. , 2021 ) leading to the fundamental challenge framed by the question: “What should be taught and learned in school curricula in the 21st century” ( Collins, 2017 ; Erstad and Voogt, 2018 ). The process of technological innovation is not solely about the design and development of new products or services, but rather is central to the very process that creates cultural change. Such a perspective also echoes Papert's view that computers can be the carrier of “seeds whose intellectual products will not need technological support once they take root in an actively growing mind” ( Papert, 1980 ).

Lifelong learning

Lifelong learning ( Fischer, 2000 ) is an essential challenge for inventing the future of our societies; it is a necessity rather than a possibility or a luxury to be considered. Lifelong learning is more than adult education and/or training – it is a mindset, a skillset and acquired tools, and a habit for people to acquire. It creates the challenge to understand, explore, and support new essential dimensions of learning and it requires new media and innovative technologies to be adequately supported. The major dimensions of our framework for lifelong learning are described and discussed in section 3 of the paper.

A theory of lifelong learning must investigate new frameworks to learning required by the profound and accelerating changes in the nature of work, education and life outside of work and school. If the world of working and living relies on collaboration, creativity, definition and framing of problems and if it requires dealing with uncertainty, change, and intelligence that is distributed across minds, cultures, disciplines, and tools – then education should foster competencies that prepare students for having meaningful and productive lives in such a world. Schools, however, have in many cases moved in the opposite direction. Even as computers become more ubiquitous in schools, curriculum standards and mandated assessments (based on frameworks such as cultural literacy ( Hirsch, 1996 )) have exercised a conservative force against the proliferation of idiosyncratic interests and passion, by emphasizing that everyone should learn the same thing at the same time, as measured by the same standards. Similarly, the education establishment has tried to control what people learn by defining the curriculum in schools. The dramatically increasing amount of non-“institutionally sanctioned” knowledge indicates a gap between the world we live in and our formal education, where the latter focuses mainly on a predefined and limited amount of knowledge. In an information-rich world, the ability comes not only from more information, but from information that is personally meaningful, relevant to people's concerns and relevant to the task at hand.

Moving away from a conception of learning as something uniquely related to schools, gives way to understand learning in different settings. The seeds of a new education system can be seen in the explosive growth of workplace learning, adult education, open, online learning environments (e.g. courses such as Massively Open Online Courses (MOOCS) ( DeCorte et al. , 2016 ), resources such as Wikipedia ( Pirolli et al. , 2009 ), and programming communities such as Scratch ( Resnick et al. , 2009 )), and a variety of design spaces for learning (e.g.: museums, science centers, and digital fabrication laboratories (FabLabs) ( Walter-Herrmann and Büching, 2014 )).

Research on everyday cognition demonstrates that the formal learning in schools and the informal learning in practical settings have important differences ( National-Research-Council, 2009 ). What we discover about learning in schools is insufficient for a theory of human learning: schools are often focused on individual cognition, on memorization and on learning general facts whereas learning in the world at large need to rely on shared resources, the use of powerful tools and external information sources, and situation-specific knowing. Consequently, insufficient theorization of learning means insufficient possibilities for informing the organization of education.

Learner-directed and supportive: the choice of tasks and goals (including the learning opportunities offered) must be under the control of the learner and support for contextualization to users' tasks must be provided.

Contextualized presentation and personalization: information presented should be maximally relevant to the learner's chosen project or task.

Breakdowns as opportunities for learning: provide means for allowing learners to understand, extricate themselves from, discuss, and learn from breakdowns – turning breakdowns into opportunities rather than failures.

End-user development: support significant modification, extension, and evolution by learners.

Supporting a range of expertise: accommodate learners at progressively different levels of expertise.

Promoting collaboration: include means for collaboration between learners.

Components of a framework for “making learning a part of life”

Beyond current schools: not being god-given natural entities but social constructs.

In the scientific debate on education and the learning science, schools are often perceived as a part of nature, not as artifacts produced in a specific cultural, political, and historical context ( Simon, 1996 ). Illich ( Illich, 1971 ) envisioned fifty years ago (before computers and the internet became part of our everyday lives) alternative visions of schools for increased possibilities for learning: “The inverse of school is possible: that we can depend on self-motivated learning instead of employing teachers to bribe or compel the student to find the time and the will to learn; that we can provide the learner with new links to the world instead of continuing to funnel all educational programs through the teacher” . However, the idea of such an “ inverse school ” is dependent on further exploration and explanation, and maybe also provocation of thinking and debate.

Table 1 provides a comparison between major characteristics resulting in differentiations between school and lifelong learning.

Beyond the individual human mind: complementing renaissance scholars with renaissance communities

Historically the emphasis of education has been to educate and support individual “Renaissance scholars”. In today's world, most of the significant problems are systemic problems that transcend not only the individual human mind but cannot be addressed by any one specialty discipline. To cope with these problems requires not only “Renaissance Scholars” but “Renaissance Communities” ( Fischer, 2013 ) in which stakeholders coming from different disciplines collaborate to create new knowledge.

Based on the constraints on human abilities to learn during a lifetime, we cannot expect individuals to maintain the prerequisite knowledge in their technological discipline, and at the same time to have the needed competence in the social sciences and in domain-specific application domains (e.g. a computer scientist knowing about a variety of tools and at the same time understanding relevant issues in cognitive science, sociology, anthropology and having acquired substantial knowledge in specific domains). While being a “Renaissance Scholar” (such as Leonardo da Vinci, who was equally adept in the arts and the sciences ( Shneiderman, 2002 )) was a realistic possibility in the 15th century, the objective of learning and education in the 21st century should be focused on “Renaissance Communities”. Although humans can delegate some functionality to more or less intelligent machines, such systems are highly dependent on providing support for solving already known problem-solution pairs.

Despite the current rhetoric to avoid a primary focus on the Renaissance scholar in education, the dominant form of school learning and performance is understood as individual. Although group activities of various kinds occur in school, students ultimately are judged on what they can do, know, and solve by themselves. Furthermore, a major part of the core activity of schooling is designed as individual homework. Collaboration is often stigmatized as cheating ( Norman, 2001 ). Students are framed to succeed or fail at a task independently of what other students do. In contrast, much activity outside school is socially shared ( Resnick, 1987 ). Work, personal life, and recreation take place within social systems of interdependence, and each person's ability to function successfully depends how this functionality relates to what others do.

Beyond the unaided human mind: distributed cognition

In many educational approaches, human cognition has been seen as existing solely “inside” a person's head, and studies on cognition have often disregarded the physical and social surroundings in which cognition takes place. Distributed cognition ( Hollan et al. , 2001 ; Salomon, 1993 ) provides an effective theoretical framework for understanding what humans can achieve and how artifacts, tools, and socio-technical environments can be designed and evaluated to empower human beings and to change tasks.

Tools for living (such as eyeglasses) are grounded in a distributed cognition perspective, in which intelligence is mediated by tools for achieving activities that would be error prone, challenging, or impossible to achieve.

Tools for learning (such as training wheels) are grounded in a “scaffolding with fading” perspective in which the ultimate goal is autonomous performance by people without tools.

This distinction raises the fundamental question concerning what it means to learn in the 21st century in which powerful tools are available “anywhere, at any time, for anyone” for many intellectual activities – allowing people to have instant access to facts, assisting people in spelling, doing arithmetic, memorizing experiences, making sense of a large amount of information, connecting, and collaborating with others, and performing numerous other intellectual activities. There is also a possibility of extending educational activities outside of the educational institutions, allowing for example for microlearning educational activities embedded in our everyday lives ( Jahnke et al. , 2020 ). These tools' ubiquitous availability provides numerous benefits but potential pitfalls (e.g. overreliance caused by the fact that tools for living need to be present and accessible when stakeholders are confronted with problems) need to be taken into account.

Beyond instructionist environments: learning when the answer is not known

New discourses are required, because one of the major roles for new media and new technologies is not to deliver predigested information to individuals, but to provide the opportunity and resources for social debate and discussion. One of the most impoverished paradigms of education is a setting in which “a single, all-knowing teacher tells or shows presumably unknowing learners something they presumably know nothing about” ( Bruner, 1996 ). Despite the fact that significant efforts are under way to change the nature of school discourse to make it more of a collective inquiry, this traditional model of education is still widely practiced in our educational institutions, leading critics such as Illich (1971 ) to claim that our schools and universities are the “reproductive organs of a consumer society” and that “people who are hooked on teaching are conditioned to be customers for everything else”.

Many problems (specifically design problems) are wicked ( Rittel and Webber, 1984 ) and the knowledge to address them is not “out there”, but require contributions, innovative ideas, and new forms of activity from all involved stakeholders. Learners in such settings must be active contributors rather than passive consumers ( Fischer, 2002 ) and the learning environments and organizations must foster and support mindsets, tools, and skills that help learners become empowered and willing to actively contribute ( Jenkins, 2006 ; von Hippel, 2005 ). Our argument here is not that it is meaningless to teach what is already know in schools, this is necessary and deserves the greatest care and effort, but schools must also increasingly prepare students for skillfully involving themselves in collaborative knowledge construction.

Beyond supply models of knowledge: learning on demand

Learning in schools is based on a supply-push model. Based on curricula students are taught in different disciplines that are supposed to be relevant and of value in their later life and work. In today's world this approach encounters major obstacles because change is inevitable, complete coverage is impossible, and over a life-time obsolescence is unavoidable. Given the explosion of knowledge, people simply cannot learn in school all or even most of what they will need to know in later life ( Sloman and Fernbach, 2017 ).

Learning on demand ( Fischer, 1991 ) is a promising approach for addressing these problems because: (1) it contextualizes learning by allowing it to be integrated into work rather than relegating it to a separate phase, (2) it lets learners see for themselves the usefulness of new knowledge for actual problem situations, thereby increasing the motivation for learning new things, and (3) it makes new information relevant to the task at hand, thereby leading to more informed decision making, better products, and improved performance.

While learning on demand is an indispensable component of lifelong learning, the following limitations need to addressed: (1) the acquisition of certain essential skills should not be deferred until they are needed, because the time to learn them may be not available or the environment may be too dangerous for safe learning processes; (2) learning on demand is task driven and therefore may be limited to exposing users to isolated pieces of knowledge providing only limited support for learning essential principles; (3) users may encounter difficulties in decontextualizing knowledge so that it can be used in new settings, and (4) whereas learning on demand may be well suited for evolutionary extensions of a knowledge base, it may not support substantial restructuring because the additional features learned occur only in the neighborhood of what learners already know; (5) it is dependent on the ability to formulate a problem in a way that resonates with available knowledge.

Beyond curriculum and cultural literacy: interest-driven and long tail learning

The phrase “ The Long Tail” was coined by Chris Anderson ( Anderson, 2006 ) to describe how our culture and economy is increasingly shifting away from a focus on a relatively small number of “hits” (mainstream products and markets) at the head of the demand curve toward a huge number of niches in the tail (as exemplified by companies such as Amazon or Netflix, that sell a large number of unique items in relatively small quantities).

Envisioning long-tail learning inspired by Anderson's model represents a fundamentally different objective compared to cultural literacy ( Hirsch, 1996 ). The web gives children and adults the ability to pursue topics they are particularly interested and feel passionate about.

How can we envision a productive synergy between the head and the tail and create mechanisms to support and exploit this synergy? How can the passion associated with topics from the tail be integrated with important basic knowledge and skills from the head that they successfully complement each other?

Do we want to keep requiring everyone to learn the same thing in school rather than pursuing their deep interests?

Do we want to keep extending the years of schooling to encompass the expanding knowledge base?

Do we want to support kids to pursue more deeply the topics of interest to them — and if so, where can we find that space for kids to pursue and how can it be supported?

How does access to tools and learning resources influence long tail learning?

Additional differentiations are summarized in Table 2 .

Beyond the fallacy of the “Big Switch”: creating mindsets in support of lifelong learning

Young people growing up in our societies spend a substantial number of years in educational institutions. In addition to learning about a variety of subjects, they will form mindsets what learning is all about which will have consequences for the rest of their lives. Instruction, access to existing information, solving given problems, individual performance, and tool-free environments are themes that determine many “school cultures” in today's world. The components of these mindsets are different from what citizens are confronted with in their lives after school that require problem framing, active participation, collaboration, and learning on demand in support of interest-driven learning. A one-sided focus of schools on tools for learning will leave students unprepared for a world in which tools for living are of critical importance (see section 3.3 ).

Figure 1 illustrates the consequences of this approach assuming that after years of exposure to current school-based practices, students miraculously at some point of time will acquire and practice learning behaviors as required for the demands of lifelong learning in the digital age. Having taught many courses at universities and interacted with many students at the undergraduate and graduate level provided us with overwhelming evidence that the “Big Switch” model represents a fallacy.

Figure 2 characterizes an approach that avoids the “Big Switch” fallacy by engaging students incrementally starting at an early age in interest-drive learning activities. While it is self-evident that students in elementary schools will have less knowledge to contribute than graduate students, they can and should be exposed to (1) skills and processes that support learning as a lifetime activity ( Gardner, 1991 ), (2) that teachers do not always know the answers and that they should actively contribute to the framing and solving of problems ( Bruner, 1996 ), and (3) that collaboration with others should not be considered as “cheating” ( Norman, 2001 ). One way of avoiding the fallacy of the Big Switch model is to develop models that bridge the gap between education in institutions and less formalized settings for learning. Allowing learners to “learn whenever they are curious and seamlessly switching between different contexts” ( Wong and Looi, 2019 ).

Beyond learning analytics: measuring what we value

Learning analytics research and approaches have enhanced learning in many different ways – particularly in online environments in which the interactions of learners can be easily tracked, analyzed, visualized and potentially also predicted. Learning analytics ( Larusson and White, 2014 ) examines the data captured about learners by looking for patterns and correlations that can provide insight how to improve the learning process. Collecting data is important for providing evidence instead of relying on beliefs, misconceptions, assumptions, and unsupported claims. But there are also pitfalls associated with current approaches in learning analytics ( Muller, 2018 ) leading often to unintended, unnoticed, and undesirable side-effects, including (1) influencing our behavior (e.g.: in curriculum design narrowing of what is taught to those things that can be easily measured with objective tests), (2) creating a potentially misleading impression of being “scientific” (by comparing numbers), (3) an obsession with data assuming that data is the best overall measure of any given situation, and (4) that data always produces valuable results.

A fundamental challenge facing learning analytics research is to develop methodologies whose main focus is to move from “value what we measure” to “measure what we value”. To do so will avoid a tyranny of potentially irrelevant metrics that threatens the quality of learning by ignoring that much that is measurable is unimportant and not everything that is important is measurable. Examples for the “value what we measure” approach are (1) the International “Program for International Student Assessment (PISA)” and (2) the USA Program “No Child Left Behind (NCLB)” which both rely heavily on student performance on standardized tests. These movements favor quantifiable approaches (e.g.: instruction of facts and skills) rather than projects, discovery learning, creativity, and imaginative play ( Resnick, 2017 ). Most assessment technologies, that are employed in evaluating students, use multiple-choice, short answers to provide objective scoring. This form of testing requires that all students learn the same thing thereby suppressing approaches such as creativity, customization, and interest-driven learning. The argument here is not that we should not measure individual performance, but a sole focus on individual knowing, will regardless of intention, downplay the importance of creative and collective learning, to teachers but maybe most problematic also to students. Besides aspects of measuring what we value, the very idea of continuous measurement has been critically discussed as it risks emphasizing completion of tests rather than developing critical thinking among students, and that it might create a sense of constant surveillance ( Cerratto-Pargman and McGrath, 2021 ).

The “right kind” (not all of them) of data are of critical importance to understand “how things are” . A challenge of equal (if not more) importance is: how can data driven approaches provide insights and foundations for envisioning new educational designs (as indicated by the different “Beyond” themes of this article) to explore “how things could or should be?” ( Robinson and Aronica, 2015 ). There is new educational designs are not only influenced by data but also by problems, ideas, visions, and inspirational prototypes. The role of the teacher is also central to realize effective use of data for guiding instruction ( Utterberg Modén et al. , 2021 ). Teachers are responsible for teaching in their classroom and if systems are part of creating unfair or unwanted conditions they are in many cases and should be able to choose not to include the systems. However, this is dependent on a certain level of transparency of the systems, allowing teachers to understand the foundation of suggestions that system makes. Given the difference between different classrooms it is unlikely that general predictions and algorithm-driven advice would create a fair and fruitful learning situation to all students, pointing to the importance of allowing humans in the loop not only in design, but also in design-in-use of such systems.

Calls to action: support co-evolution and identify design trade-offs

Co-evolution of learning, media, and learning organizations.

The core argument of this paper is that learning in the digital age should not be envisioned as learning limited by how it is understood and practiced today, and merely enriched or enhanced by digital technologies, but instead our focus should rather be on supporting the co-evolution between learning, new media, and new ways of organizing learning by exploring opportunities for radically new conceptualizations and practices. Technological developments are necessary, but they are not sufficient (e.g. distance learning supported by modern communication technologies should not be restricted to “classroom learning at a distance” but explore new opportunities for collaboration supported by modern communication technologies). Many current uses of technology to support life-long learning and distance learning are restricted to a “gift wrapping” approach ( Fischer, 1998 ): they are used as an add-on to existing practices rather than a catalyst for fundamentally rethinking what education and learning should be about in the next century. This problem is visible in many comparative studies of the use of new technologies for learning. Here face-to-face is often used as baseline, restricting such studies from including tasks including functions that are only available in digital settings (e.g.: comparing memorization between students use pen or computer to take notes). Many digital educational tools, and digital tools in general have functionalities that have no comparable counterpart in face-to-face, or pen-and-paper activity.

Established frameworks, such as instructionism, fixed curriculum, memorization, decontextualized learning, etc., are not sustained or transformed by technology itself. This is true whether we use computer-based training, intelligent tutoring systems, multimedia presentations, or distance education approaches.

Co-evolution (grounded in the different “beyond” arguments of this paper) is grounded in descriptive and prescriptive goals such as: (1) learning should take place in the context of authentic, complex problems (because learners will refuse to quietly listen to someone else's answers to someone else's questions); (2) learning should be embedded in the pursuit of intrinsically rewarding activities; (3) learning-on-demand needs to be supported because change is inevitable, complete coverage is impossible, and obsolescence is unavoidable; (4) organizational and collaborative learning must be supported because the individual human mind is limited; and (5) skills and processes that support learning as a lifetime habit must be developed.

Identifying the best possible mixes with design trade-offs

Design is choice ( Simon, 1996 ). To gain a deep understanding of the potential and the transformations of innovative socio-technical environment for making learning a part of life requires a careful analysis of design trade-offs ( Fischer, 2018 ) associated with different approaches. Because optimal solutions and simple “right” or “wrong” answers do not exist, identifying the best possible mixes represents a desirable objective and should contribute to the formation of mindsets.

customizing education to the particular needs and abilities of individual learners will reduce information overload with context-awareness by providing the “right information, at the right time, in the right place, in the right way, to the right person”;

supporting interest-driven learning by presenting and engaging people with topics that they want to learn rather then that they have to learn thereby allowing them to take responsibility for their own learning;

providing feedback to learners about their own activities and problem-solving activities (e.g. with critiquing components).

it prohibits learners from being exposed to different views on issues thereby promoting group-think ( Janis, 1972 );

it encapsulates learners in filter bubbles ( Pariser, 2021 ) limiting learners to particular world views, never seeing things outside of them;

it limits serendipitous encounters (e.g. encountering interesting ideas, things, events, and people by chance and volunteering information to learners that they consider relevant without asking) ( Roberts, 1989 );

it provides the foundation for privacy intrusions ( Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, 2013 ).

will distributed cognition ( section 3.3 ) support the unaided human mind or will it lead to an overreliance on external tools thereby suppressing the acquisition of basic knowledge and skills (e.g.: navigation systems may have a negative impact on geographical knowledge);

will approaches to long tail learning ( section 3.6 ) facilitate interest-driven learning or will it lead to insufficient exposure to basic skills;

will communication tools increase and widen the collaboration with other learners, or will it increase social isolation because individuals will be sitting at home in front of a computer and interacting less with other people;

will digital technologies widen the “digital divide ” or reduce it by making educational opportunities available to many more learners in all parts of the world (e.g. with Massively Open Online Courses (MOOCS) ( DeCorte et al. , 2016 )).

The best possible mixes need to be situated and explored in specific settings. The revolution in education we see happening will have large effects on society. As with any innovation, the associated design trade-offs need to be analyzed to identify gains and losses Some pessimists see people becoming subservient to their technologies and many people being left behind as technology comes to dominate our lives. Some optimists see a golden age of learning opening before us, where people will be able to find resources to pursue any education they may want.

Conclusions

Universal schooling has formed the basis for our societies today. With the arguments articulated in this paper we do not want to deemphasize the values of schools but rather entice a discussion on reconceptualizing them from a lifelong learning perspective. Many aspects of traditional schools such as students (1) being supposed to sit still and passively listen to the talk of teachers, (2) memorize the information given them to by teachers or found in books, and (3) regurgitate that information back on tests (see section 4.8) worked relatively well in a world where change was not constant, where coverage of important topics was a feasible objective, and skills learned could be applied for a lifetime. Our argument is not that such activities are meaningless, but that we are lacking exploration, debate and investigation on whether they are sufficient.

The digital age greatly enhances the opportunities and supports the necessity for “making learning a part of life”. But while the growth of technology is certain, the inevitability of any particular future is not. The impact of schooling goes beyond that new information about computers, the Internet, and social media are integrated into the schools of today. The transformation of schools needs to be informed by an understanding of the impact of mindset formation that will determine people's approach to learning for the rest of their lives. Our framework is focused on moving “beyond gift-wrapping” by not only fixing and existing systems but to change them and not only reforming but transforming them. We need creative practices to explore frameworks for technological imagination not only grounded in understanding new media and technologies in terms of productivity, efficiency, reliability, and from economic perspectives, but also in exploring innovative sociotechnical environments that contribute to human creativity, gratification, enjoyment, and quality of life.

It is our hope that this article will be of interest to many stakeholders (including learners, teachers, curriculum designers, technology experts, parents, and politicians) and provide a foundation for an ongoing debate and informed actions for “Making Learning a Part of Life” in the digital age.

The fallacy of the “Big Switch” model

Creating mindsets for lifelong learning

A comparison of different conceptualizations of school and lifelong learning

Design trade-off: curriculum-driven versus interest-driven learning

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the participants of the Symposium “Learning in the Digital World” which take place in Östersund from April 20–22, 2022 and was supported by the Swedish Research Council, Grant no. 2021-00532, for insightful comments in a discussion session about the paper. Ben Shneiderman provided valuable feedback to an earlier draft of the paper. The first author was supported during the writing of the book by a fellowship from the Hanse-Wissenschaftskolleg Institute for Advanced Study at Delmenhorst, Germany (HWK; https://hanse-ias.de/en/ ).

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13 Digital Learning Resources in Education

Angeliz Diaz

13.1 Introduction

• Asynchronous online learning – is a student-centered teaching method where their learning can occur in different times and spaces particular to each learner
• Digital learning resources – electronic resources such as applications (apps), software, programs, or websites that engage students in learning activities and support the learning goals of students
• Online learning – a method of education whereby students learn in an entirely internet-based environment
• Remotely – at or from a distance; typically by means of an electronic connection
• Synchronous online learning – a method of learning that requires students to attend classes at a structurally scheduled time virtually
• Traditional learning – a method of instructional interaction that occurs in person and in real time between teachers and their students

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

• Understand the role digital resources have in education
• Understand how the presentation of information digitally may affect the quality of learning
• Describe the different types of instruction delivery
• Distinguish the difference between synchronous and asynchronous learning
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of virtual learning

The inclusion of technology for lesson delivery in classrooms is progressively becoming the new normal nationally. Even though COVID-19 has sparked an exponential increase in the number of students signing up for e-learning, the use of digital learning resources like websites and applications created to enhance learning comprehension of the courses’ content was something already seen before the pandemic. Our earlier implementations combined traditional learning materials and the use of multimedia technology as supplements to the courses. This ratio, where most of the course content was presented with traditional tools like notes, in-person lectures, and textbooks, allowed the 21st-century tools like online tutorials to not be overused or over-depended on. Even with such an efficient balance, society had to adapt from traditional learning  in an in-person learning environment to online learning using entirely internet-based environments due to the pandemic. The pandemic itself created an increase in the amount of digitized information and learning resources. Because these technologies have always been there, their implementation to the extent where society actually had to rely on them to learn was a very concerning transition for us all. With that increase in the usage of other resources for learning, their effectiveness, more specifically, digital learning resources, was put into question. The digital resources set forth to carry out the education of students gained broad acceptance as a result of the limited options available.

“ Natural Sciences workbook in print and online ” by Siyavula Education is licensed under CC BY 2.0

With the choice to sign up for online courses and usage of digital resources so readily available, it was assumed to be the newly convenient method of lesson delivery. The idea that students could learn in preferred environments through different learning styles was appealing. Still, it consequently held the power to create an over-reliance on online tools, thus decreasing the quality of learning regarding retention, comprehension, and accessibility regarding digital learning resources.

13.2 What are digital resources? How are they used in both traditional and online learning environments?

Key Takeaway

Digital learning resources are used for education in many ways and implemented in different forms. In traditional classrooms, digital learning resources are used as supplements to the primary course content, while in virtual learning the digital resources actually make up what is the “content” of the class.

With the choice to sign up for online courses and usage of digital resources so readily available, it was assumed to be the newly convenient method of lesson delivery. The idea that students could learn in preferred environments through different learning styles was appealing to ensure the achievement of students’ learning goals. These digital learning resources are opportunities for the expansion of learning. They are available online, worldwide, and at the touch of a hand. The most recognized digital learning resources are Youtube, Khan Academy, MOOCs, podcasts, Quizlet, e-textbooks, and so forth.

13.2.1 How digital resources are implemented in Traditional teaching and E-Learning environments

Traditional learning occurs in an in-person classroom setting where a teacher delivers knowledge to their students. Traditional learning classrooms expected their students to engage not only with the content but also their peers through constructive subject-related discussions. Outside of the classroom, the students are expected to develop their knowledge on the lesson learned in class and apply it to not only real-world scenarios but also put it to practice in assigned homework exercises. Digital learning resources are readily available for students, whether they are inside the classroom or applying their knowledge outside of class. Typically when learning a particular topic that may be harder to understand without visualization, the instructor of the courses may use digital resources to provide more information to the student and enhance the student’s overall ability to see beyond what is on paper. This availability and access to digital resources allows students to balance between the traditional paper-based course materials they are assigned in their traditional classroom and selectively implement digital learning resources when they may need further clarification on the course content and so forth.

Online learning, also known as e-learning, is a learning system in education whereby students learn the things they would traditionally but in an entirely internet-based environment. In these online courses, the content of the class is delivered to students in either a synchronous style or an asynchronous style. While the two styles both heavily rely on digital resources to execute their lessons, the structure of the courses is what sets them apart. In a synchronous online learning course, the instructor and the course students engage with each other and the course content remotely in different locations but at the same scheduled meeting time. The instructors of synchronous courses typically require their students to complete assignments and readings in preparation for class discussion virtually. These courses involve interactive lectures, discussions, student-led conversations, and presentations during structured class meetings (Staff Writers, 2021). In an asynchronous online learning  course, the instructor and the students all interact with the content of the course at their own time from different locations. The instructors of asynchronous courses allow the students to learn a sequence of units through prepared digital resources without holding a live session or enforcing a meeting schedule. Both synchronous and asynchronous courses use online tools and assign readings, upload media, assign online quizzes, suggest supplementary subject-related videos for clarification, utilize Google Docs, and much more (University of Waterloo, 2020).

13.3 The history of technology in education

From paperback books to microcomputers, the technological advancements established throughout decades worth of time have created the technologically advanced classroom environments our students take part in presently.

Since the early 1800’s different forms of technological breakthroughs have shaped education. With the development of new printing techniques in the 1820s, greater production and distribution of books was finally made possible. Because of this newfound accessibility brought by printing, the diversity of materials available to teachers and students significantly increased as textbooks began to become the new norm in public schools during that decade (Cohen, 1988). As the 19th century progressed, so did our societies’ ability to come up with technological advancements like the radio and television that would ultimately be used for the spread of class lessons, similar to the way we do so now with programs like Zoom and podcasts to make sure information is presented regardless of physical circumstances.

“Education Learning Tablet School Technology”  by  Max Pixel  is in the  Public Domain, CC0

In the 1970s, the computer was first introduced into the education system, leaving thousands of schools mesmerized by the potential the computers had to enhance the quality of learning for their students. In fact, they were so admired that federal and state programs began to require schools to purchase these technologies so that they could transform the instructional practices being carried out. By the end of the 1990s, computers were used to enhance classroom instruction, and there was an estimated one computer for every five students (Christensen, Johnston, & Horn, 2008).

Since its introduction into education back decades ago, there has been an evolution where we believe that students’ best performance can be achieved through the use of computers. While computers, initially, served as tutors for students, they have become so technologically advanced that our society has progressed to a state where we have almost become infatuated with the digital learning resources these computers grant us the access to utilize.

Society’s progression through time displays a pattern where the technological advancements developed were typically implemented into the educational systems in some form. The combination of traditional teaching and the implementation of multimedia technology as supplements to the course beneficially transformed the quality of learning for students. As a result of our continuous desire for progressions, the national shift from traditional learning in classrooms to completely virtual learning across millions of homes due to COVID-19 was not as difficult had these technological progressions not been in place. Because of the pandemic’s halt on normality, educational organizations were forced to make the most out of what was already available. The pandemic’s the form of instructional delivery. Granted, these e-teaching materials like e-textbooks and digital learning resources allowed for information to be accessible in a time of despair; it is argued that they were not anything new but rather a form of earlier digital learning materials. Earlier digital learning materials were merely electronic versions of paper-based teaching materials (Li, 2021). The digital learning resources that were once implemented in education as a complementary supplement to paper-based materials and course content are now the digital resources that are being used for the actual learning process itself. Now, society is progressively transitioning back to traditional in-person learning the way it was before COVID-19, with the presentation of information digitally being what seems to be a newly adopted form of normality.

1.4 The impact of digital learning resources on education

Digital learning resources are powerful tools that can be used to enhance the learning quality of students in ways a textbook may not be able to, and though these digital resources have their perks, there are also things that traditional paper-based materials like textbooks allow students to experience that digitalized materials for learning may not. Whether it be the traditional paper-based material or digitalized materials, each resource has its strengths and weaknesses when it comes to enhancing the quality of student education.

The effectiveness of any technological advancement can only be beneficial if it is used correctly so that it may serve its original purpose. The same notion applies to the development of different digital resources. While they come in various forms serving different educational purposes, all-digital learning resources hold the potential to enhance the learning comprehension, learning quality, and overall content retention of the student. The manner they are used and implemented allows for conclusions to be made regarding their effectiveness. The effectiveness of textbooks as a learning resource for students is actually one of the most discussed amongst most because of how traditional paperback textbooks have always served as a greater source of reference for digital learning resources.

13.4.1 Impacts of digital resources on the quality of learning

With digital learning resources, the way in which they are presented to students can significantly impact the quality of learning they receive. It is found that student retention is highly correlated with student perception of quality, meaning that instructors can only attract and aid students with digital learning resources if they provide educational services that are known to meet student requirements and add value to students learning (Ali et al., 2021). In order to ensure that students are intrigued by the content they are being presented, these digital learning resources must come into play in a strategic way that is able to engage the students with the content they are being taught in class. The only downside to this opportunity of engagement is that all students learn in different ways. Though digital learning resources have proven to be highly effective, they have also proven to highly distort the main idea and the bigger picture of certain material teachers are covering.

13.4.2 Advantages of digital resources in education

Digital resources can relieve financial strain. Because e-textbooks are generally cheaper than printed books, the usage of e-textbooks can provide a certain level of relief to the students worried about their rising academic expenses. The Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance reported that an average student spends from $700 to $1,000 on textbooks every year (ACFSA, 2007). With textbooks being such an overwhelming amount of money every year, students have become hesitant and given the purchasing of these books a second thought, which is why digitalized textbooks can serve as the median for having a needed educational resource at a lower price. Because of the great benefits that come from purchasing textbooks in general, digitized ones, with their prices significantly lower than paper-based ones, are a better option for those students who are not easily able to afford them. As a result of this affordability problem being one that is common amongst many students, the bright side is that states and colleges are already taking steps to increase the affordability of these educational resources. Furthermore, compared to printed books, e-textbooks are portable and relatively easy to purchase. The features that e-textbooks can provide, like searching, hyperlinking, highlighting, creating flashcards, and note sharing, is an advantage that paper textbooks don’t have. These active engagement features are advantages to the learning quality of students because of their ability to interact with the content and the satisfaction perceived from usefulness and ease of use.

13.4.3 Disadvantages of digital resources in education

Digital learning resources, while they can be efficient, are not as reliable as paper-based. Though technological enhancements to most digital learning resources are still being made through features like “offline” modes, where students can access their resources even when disconnected from the internet, technology can still fail elsewhere. Unlike traditional paper-based textbooks, online textbooks are limited to a specific amount of accessibility because access to the resources depends on the battery life of the device they are being used on. Additionally, the digital devices required to attain the benefits that may come with online learning resources are very costly and not necessarily a readily available resource to all students. In the United States, there is an overwhelming assumption that all students have access to online resources because of the modernized era of technology we live in. In the United States, there are 1 in 5 children who live in households that do not have food security. With that being said, this conception that incorporating modern technology into their lives is secondary (Gaille, 2019). Granted, these devices hold access to great resources, priorities have to be made, and realistically a pantry stocked with the essential groceries a family needs is of more importance than having a new device that can be the cost of a months worth of groceries or more. Furthermore, with the numerous resources available online to students, the authenticity of students’ work has been noted to be a consistent concern with students plagiarizing and cheating in order to keep up with their assignments. Unless students have a good sense of self-motivation, digital learning resources can set students behind if they are consistently procrastinating their responsibilities and getting out of them using digital learning resources that are meant to be supplementary to the content of the course. In conclusion, factors like battery life, distraction brought by the student’s device, authenticity, internet connection, and so forth are significantly degrading the quality of learning.

13.5 Where the use of digital learning resources in education will lead us?

The amount of students turning toward digital resources to enhance their learning is increasing in an upward trend. The upward trend foreshadows that as more things become digitized so will the amount of students who make use of these digital resources.

With the evolution of technology in the 21st century, the rate of learning resource digitalization is on the increase. As these traditional learning resources like paperback textbooks continue to be digitized at a rate higher than ever, so do the number of students using these digital learning resources. With this influx, it is essential for students to maintain a balance between traditional and digital resources because of the effects the overuse of digital information can have. By utilizing digital resources to enhance learning and retrieve information, rather than using digital information out of dependence, will allow students to greatly benefit from instructional e-resources. The proper usage of digital resources truly influences the quality of learning students receive, and when used properly, the learning quality can be exponentially significant. As the resources for students continue to expand digitally, the prevalence of technology can be predicted to continue to increase the same way it is presently.

Chapter Summary:

As seen in the most recent years, technology has become one of the most used resources in the daily lives of millions of individuals. From a business setting to a classroom one, the digital world has expanded to many aspects of a single day-to-day affairs, one of them being education at all grade levels. The challenge has arisen where the learning quality of these students using digital learning resources through their digital devices has been significantly put into question because of the power they hold to either support or degrade learning quality. With the insight this shift from traditional paper-based material to information being presented to students digitally, the conclusion has been made that it does not necessarily matter what students use as their resources, but rather how they are using it and whether or not they are dependent on the online-learning resource to attain any form of knowledge.

Review Questions:

1. How can digital learning resources play a role in education?

A.  They can make enhance the education of students

B. They can lower the costs of academic expenses

C. They can provide convenience because of their high accessibility

D. All of the above

2. What is a style of learning that occurs online where students attend classes virtually at a scheduled time?

A. Traditional online learning

B. Synchronous online learning

C. Asynchronous online learning

D. Remote online learning

3. The presentation of information to students digitally affects the _______ of learning of students.

B. Endurance

C. Enthusiasm

4. Which of the following is true about the trends in learning?

A. The amount of students signing up for online learning is now at zero because society has successfully transitioned back to traditional in-person learning completely.

B. Students continue to use digital resources in learning at rates that are predicted to continue to increase over time.

C. Students have relied more on textbooks than technology since the pandemic because they appreciate what they had.

D. Students will no longer be able to use digital learning resources because trends show an increase in price that does not allow students to even afford them.

Food for thought:

• What has your educational experience been like? What learning resources have you interacted with, have they evolved over time? How have they played a role in the quality of your education?

Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance. (2007, May). Turn the page making college more affordable. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED497026.pdf

Ali, S., Gulliver, S. R., Uppal, M. A., & Basir, M. (2021). Research investigating individual device preference and e-learning quality perception: can a one-solution-fits-all e-learning solution work? Heliyon, 7(6). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07343

Bellflower, J. V. (2012). The Effectiveness of Traditional and 21st Century Teaching Tools on Students’ Science Learning(Thesis). https://www.proquest.com/docview/916613682/abstract/80D106DF550547C3PQ/1?accountid=6167

Christensen, C., Johnson, C. W., & Horn, M. B. (2008). Disrupting Class: How Disruptive Innovation Will Change the Way the World Learns (1st ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Gaille, B. (2019, December 5). 23 Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology in Education. BrandonGaille.Com. https://brandongaille.com/23-advantages-disadvantages-technology-education/

How Has Technology Changed Education | Purdue Online. (n.d.). Purdue University Online. https://online.purdue.edu/blog/education/how-has-technology-changed-education

Li, X. (2021). Textbook Digitization: A Case Study of English Textbooks in China. English Language Teaching, 14(4), 34. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v14n4p34

Staff Writers. (2021, July 27). Synchronous Learning vs. Asynchronous Learning: What’s the Difference?BestColleges.Com. Retrieved November 17, 2021, from https://www.bestcolleges.com/blog/synchronous-vs-asynchronous/

Sun, J., Flores, J., & Tanguma, J. (2012). E-Textbooks and Students’ Learning Experiences. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 10(1), 63–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4609.2011.00329.x

University of Waterloo. (2020, December 17). Synchronous and Asynchronous Online Learning. Keep Learning. Retrieved November 17, 2021, from https://uwaterloo.ca/keep-learning/strategies-remote-teaching/synchronous-vs-asynchronous-online-learning

Electronic resources such as applications (apps), software, programs, or websites that engage students in learning activities and support the learning goals of students.

A method of instructional interaction that occurs in person and in real time between teachers and their students.

A method of education whereby students learn in an entirely internet-based environment.

A method of learning that requires students to attend classes at a structurally scheduled time virtually.

At or from a distance; typically by means of an electronic connection.

Is a student-centered teaching method where their learning can occur in different times and spaces particular to each learner.

Technology: Where it Started and Where it’s Going Copyright © by Angeliz Diaz is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Big Data, Internet and the Technology that will Define the Future of Business

The science ahead in 2021, openmind books, scientific anniversaries, wegener and his theory of continental drift, featured author, latest book, the digital economy and learning.

Education is changing because the digital economy is shifting the skills and talents needed to lead a successful life and foster personal well-being. Talent gaps persist and are deepening around computer science and creativity. Learners need to be cognitively adaptive, and able to constantly learn new things and apply old knowledge to new contexts. Lifelong learning is the new normal. Three major shifts in education are identified: (1) changes in the funding of education; (2) changes in the duration of learning; and (3) changes in how we learn. Collaborations between industry, government, and education institutions will be the hallmark of education in the digital economy.

The digital economy is changing what we need to be able to do cognitively to lead successful lives and pursue well-being. Artificial intelligence, the Internet of Things, 3D printing, virtual reality, distributed ledger technology, biotechnology, and robotics are combining to change how we work and live. 1  Talent gaps persist and are deepening around computer science and creativity. The gig economy is changing employment and benefits structures around the globe as platforms enable people to share resources. Employment disruption is predicted to be considerable, though the pace of technological uptake, the nature of the welfare state, and the demographics of a given country will help determine the scale and duration of unemployment due to the automation of human work (OECD, 2018). 2  There will be new tasks and competencies in high demand. Higher education, in particular, will play a key role, in reskilling, upskilling, and educating the global labor force of the Fourth Industrial Revolution.

All that is technologically possible still may not be politically or economically rational or feasible. 3  This is why we are likely to see significant initial job displacement for the digital economy, regardless of what education institutions can do to upskill, reskill, and educate talent. The pace of change is such that there is likely to be considerable unemployment in the near term. Education institutors will be able to help individuals manage a transition to a new reality.

What is needed to thrive in the digital economy involves cognitive competencies matched with technological skills. The competencies are a shifting set of skills. Learners need to be adaptive, cognitively curious, and able to constantly learn new things and apply old knowledge to new contexts. The key to employability is cognitive adaptability. Employees will need to learn and unlearn constantly. Education systems need to prepare learners, both adult and youth learners: what I call,  learning resilience . Learning resilience is about the ability to adapt with ease to new truths in your knowledge, repeatedly. It is about being accepting of your prior knowledge being rendered irrelevant under new circumstances.

The current global education landscape was designed to meet the needs of the Industrial Revolution that emerged in the 1850s with the mechanization of physical labor. There has long been a growing divide between graduate skills and employer expectations. For universities and high schools alike, there is a battle for time between soft skills and hard skills—or social-emotional competencies versus technical skills. There is resistance from academics, who see themselves as content knowledge experts who develop and verify knowledge, to teach vocational skills. Yet in countries where higher education is not subsidized by the government, the burden of debt students take on in order to be employed cannot be serviced or justified by content knowledge alone. The change is that universities are no longer the sole purveyors of information. Information is everywhere. It is what you do with information that matters. Furthermore, the jobs that are available in the digital age are shifting so quickly that technical degrees cannot guarantee preparation for the future of work. This is why learning resilience is essential.

Primary, secondary, and tertiary education need to shift their focus to  how  to learn, not  what  to learn. And recruiters need to shift their metrics of talent to acknowledge soft skills and resilience

This is not to say that education as we know it is obsolete; indeed, it is essential to inclusive economic growth. What do you want a formal education to deliver to your future employee? Many jobs require technical skills and that content has to be learned. You cannot do coding without calculus. You cannot model economic outcomes without sound econometrics skills. And you cannot conduct research in the social sciences without sound information literacy. These competencies have to be learned in order to perform the associated trade. Content is still essential. But it is insufficient. Primary, secondary, and tertiary education need to shift their focus to  how  to learn, not  what  to learn. And recruiters need to shift their metrics of talent to acknowledge soft skills, and resilience. Content knowledge is still essential, but it is what you do with that information that really matters.

Competencies are the current focus of good education, however, and the mainstream literature in this area is leading the charge. The current books coming out on what education should be in the digital economy advocate for a specific set of skills being developed by universities. Joseph Aoun, the president of Northeastern University in Boston, famously calls for creativity, entrepreneurship, and numeracy in  Robot-Proof  (Aoun, 2017). Angela Duckworth (2016) calls for grit in  Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance . In one of the most important books on this issue, Erik Brynjolfsson and Andrew McAfee, in  The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies  (2014), write that talent needs enhanced capacities in the areas of ideation, large-frame pattern recognition, and complex communication. And for the very high-end employee, Cynthia Solomon and Xiao Xiao have edited a 2019 volume with MIT Press,  Inventive Minds, Marvin Minsky on Education , musing on how to develop inventive thinkers who can create. All of these publications offer important insights; however, none of them identifies the most important ingredient, though they are useful predictors and elements of leading a successful life in the digital economy and address ways in which education institutions can help get graduates there.

This has always been the approach of liberal arts Colleges. Liberal arts colleges, such as Ashoka University in India, NYU Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates, Williams College in the United States, and Yale-NUS in Singapore, are developing truly global talent. They do this through small enrolment sizes per class, where undergraduates have access to the world’s best researchers, and apply authentic learning with student-centered pedagogy. Real effort is made to integrate the messaging of global movements, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and this is made tangible through innovative curriculum and experiential learning in the field. These learning environments are designed and developed to help learners be comfortable with ambiguity, and to transfer knowledge from one context to another and apply it in new ways.

These colleges graduate a small number of students annually relative to the global labor supply. The liberal arts model is too expensive per pupil to scale up to address the anticipated hundreds of millions of people who need to be reskilled over the next decade or two. However, the liberal arts model, of interdisciplinary understandings of humanity’s challenges, remains an excellent pool from which to draw on future-ready talent for the digital economy because graduates are taught to inquire, analyze, and create regardless of discipline, and to use a global outlook for addressing problems. These students are able to apply science, arts, and social science to strategic questions while developing social skills in an international setting. They have numeracy, digital literacy, and emotional intelligence. This is the thinker of the Fourth Industrial Revolution that we seek. The challenge is to scale its best attributes.

Small classroom sizes are costly, but essential to students receiving quality feedback and access to the professor or high-school teacher

The “how” of developing these skills is expensive. There is simply not enough financial support currently being spent on education and reskilling in the public sector in most countries today. The scale of the talent gaps means industry needs to collaborate with government and higher education to implement a skill shift in the global labor population. Small classroom sizes are costly, but essential to students receiving quality feedback and access to the professor or high-school teacher. Experiential learning is well evidenced to bring students to authentic learning environments that allow them to apply content in the real world, aiding retention of material as well. This, combined with internships, enables students to get exposure to how the content of a course or major will play out in a given workplace or type of industry. The combination of these things allows a student to reach a higher order thinking that results in the ability to problem-solve and create new knowledge. Regardless of what area a student chooses to study in, they must be able to write, to communicate ideas clearly (both quantitively and qualitatively), and to understand how knowledge is created. Inside the classroom, having cutting-edge researchers who bring their work into the classroom helps students understand how knowledge is actually created. This is essential in the age of fake news, augmented imagery, big data, and algorithm bias.

Three Major Shifts in Education for the Digital Economy

The three major changes coming for education as outlined below are based upon exposure to literature, private sector reporting, and practice around the globe. It is important to highlight the governance structures, economic stability, labor relations, and the uptake of technological advances as relevant context for each country and educational institution. Three major shifts in education are identified: (1) changes in the funding of education; (2) changes in the duration of learning; and (3) changes in how we learn. The following sections will walk through each major shift for the future of education.

1. Funding Mechanisms for Education

The biggest change that will come to the future of education is more deliberate engagement between industry, government, and educational institutions for funding learning and talent development. This was clearly called for in Klaus Schwab’s  The Fourth Industrial Revolution  (2016) and continues to be championed by the World Economic Forum. There is a well-established link in the literature between economic development and education of the population. Governments need people to live, work, and earn, in order to maintain various different kinds of social contracts. Amanda K. Oleson and colleagues in a 2016 book with Harvard Education Press,  Beyond the Skills Gap: Preparing College Students for Life and Work , advocate for employers sharing responsibility with the education sector for preparing students to work in the digital economy. If this does happen that will be an excellent change for education in the future digital economy. Industry will have to help pay to reskill and educate differently the global labor pool. This also involves paying to reskill teachers and professors too. The cost is part of the reason for the need in change of funding flows; the scale of the number of people is the other reason for the needed change. McKinsey Global Institute anticipates that nearly 1.2 billion people are currently working in automatable jobs. This is not to say that they will lose their jobs, but nearly all of them will be tasked with doing different work within their organizations in the coming decade. Yes, technology produces opportunities for financially efficient solutions, but in this case, not fast enough. Employers need to assist governments and education institutions to upskill and reskill the workforce.

Industry will have to help pay to reskill and educate the global labor pool differently. This involves paying to reskill teachers and professors too

Around the world, access to quality education is a challenge regardless of the digital economy. For those who do make it to and through higher education, the issue of funding is prohibitive. In the United States, the Federal Reserve claims that Americans are carrying $1.5 trillion in student loan debts in 2018. A full fee-paying student at Harvard University can expect to spend $78,000 a year in tuition, room and board, fees, and living expenses. In Europe fees are considerably lower; in Spain for example, public university fees range from €2,000–€3,500 per year, and private universities vary between €5,500–€18,000 per school year. In Argentina, higher education is free, but schools are overcrowded and quality can suffer as a result. In India, there are simply not enough seats to the order of millions of youth not having an opportunity to attend tertiary education. This is untapped talent. This is untapped economic opportunity. This is squandered well-being.

The gap between the haves and have-nots will continue to grow, especially along gendered lines, as computer access will determine potential for success in education and employability. It remains to be seen which, if any countries, will adopt some form of “universal basic income” for wealth distribution, or if most countries will go to a four- or three-day work week without pay decreases to address the growth in capital profit and corresponding decrease in human profit. Relying on philanthropy and tuition for higher education will need to change, and tax dollars alone will not be able to fund public education exclusively in welfare economies.

The final reason funding mechanisms need to change is that the lifelong learning demanded by the digital economy means that front-loading our education to the first fifteen to twenty-five years of life is no longer a sufficient model 

The final reason the funding mechanisms need to change is that lifelong learning demanded by the digital economy means that front-loading our education to the first fifteen to twenty-five years of life is no longer a sufficient model. This will be discussed in greater detail below, but it is important to note here that we will all learn throughout our lives from here on out. That change in education is now, not in the future. For adult and corporate education, it is not effective to purchase a course on critical thinking for your employees. You cannot develop resilience and creativity in a three-day training course. Learning to connect ideas and create solutions in novel ways takes time and funding to develop. A commitment to a resilient and effective workforce means providing financial support for lifelong learning from governments, industry, and education institutions. This includes funding research in the learning science as it pertains to adults particularly. It is anticipated that this field of study will be vitally important in the years and decades ahead. Indeed, funding such research could reflect corporate social responsibility.

2. Duration: Lifelong Learning, Upskilling

Education will no longer be front-loaded in the earlier years of life. Education is now a lifelong endeavor where people will have to learn, unlearn, relearn, and learn again. Lifelong learning is essential to survival and thriving in the digital economy. People can learn new facts and gain more knowledge, or they can learn how to do something through instruction of a given skill; or they can learn why something matters which can inspire creativity and drive success. Every organization needs a learning culture that is based on growing and improvement. High performing teams will be composed of those who know how to learn, and not what to learn. Cultures of growth and change need to be embedded to access in schools and in the workplace.

The pace of technological change shifts too quickly for talent development to stop at the age of twenty-five or younger. What we need to know shifts too quickly. And the millions of new jobs that will come into existence will demand technical and social skills we cannot predict at any given time. Lifelong learning is costly, which means governments and industry need to help subsidize it to keep the economy going. Executive education is likely to skyrocket in scope. Likely education institutions in the private sector that can offer badges and certifications of knowledge will be new players in the adult education sector in a way they have not been before.

Furthermore, as reported by the OECD in 2018, pay-compensated reduction in working hours may be a regulatory tool that can compensate for loss in income due to creative disruption of jobs. In this scenario, and the one of universal basic income, people will be freed up to learn new things. More hours of the week can be spent learning. This change in social structures will change how corporate education and training can work. There will be more capital to invest to make the education of adults a reality and a consistent practice.

The OECD has developed a Learning Compass as part of its Future of Education and Skills 2030 project, and seeks to guide education systems across the world to enable students to thrive in seeking well-being in the future. The Learning Compass, as shown in fig. 1, details ways of thinking rather than specific competencies and content knowledge. There are other such schematics being developed by comparable global agencies, as the world grapples with a major shift in what is needed in the workforce, today and in the future. The point is that how we prepare thinkers who can adapt to constantly changing environments is no longer front-loaded in the first twenty to twenty-five years of life, and rote memorization is entirely insufficient for a viable employee. Education centers, both private and public, will work to ensure that learners know how to think and learn, and this is key to their success and long-term well-being.

The OECD Learning Compass 2030 is a learning framework that aims to help students navigate towards future well-being. It creates a common language about broad education goals

The schematic of fig. 1 is helpful in understanding how people will best learn for successful lives. In the classroom, this means education will have to better leverage technology to both access more learners and free up human educators to do what they do best. This means grading will likely be automated in the near future. Algorithms are biased, but there are patterns we can identify and correct. For humans it is much harder to correct for implicit bias. Technology can deliver lectures, curate content, and mark assessments. Educators will need to learn how to facilitate learning, rather than simply share their knowledge. Student-centered learning is essential. Classrooms and online activities should be authentic and relevant to the students’ interests. Where economically and physically possible, students should be taught in small, diverse groups, regardless of age.

Workplace upskilling and reskilling of current employees will be a key feature of corporate action in this area for the medium term. This is also important in the longer term as GenZ employees seek firms who can offer valuable development opportunities relevant to the gig economy. Visa corporation is a great example of what this change should look like for larger firms. Visa University now has two physical campuses: one in Foster City, California, and one in Singapore in their Southeast Asia headquarters. They also have a massive online digital campus which is learner driven, rather than being compliance driven, as they had been before. They have also hired a chief learning officer, Kerie Willyerd, who is the co-author of  Stretch , a book about how to develop peoples’ skills in the automation economy. All of this is intended to develop a learning culture across the organization, one that is trackable with data and strategically aligned to the organization’s business goals and ethics. Larger firms will all need to take such measures to keep their current employees—who are valuably aware of the corporate culture already—and develop their new ones. Visa is also making money off its talent, running Visa Business School, which offers online courses, interactive workshops, and custom training in all areas of the payments industry. They have wisely positioned themselves to be a key player in education for the digital economy within the payments industry and beyond.

3. Changes in How and What We Learn—Technology and Education

The schools with the appropriate funding are making exciting strides in education. While sitting in their classrooms, students can visit a faraway archaeological dig, or a museum, or a hospital, through virtual reality. Students can wear virtual reality goggles and be propelled into a sustainable world where environmental degradation has been reversed. Students can 3D-print a series of molecules in a chemistry class to understand the scale of the atoms relative to each other. And they can watch an algorithm-produced video of a deceased poet from centuries back read their poem aloud. Augmented and virtual reality are changing what is possible in the classroom. Access to laptops and iPads gives educators real-time data about student understanding in their classrooms. Simulations allow nurses and doctors to practice surgery without a cadaver. When technology is available, it alters the relationship between the educator and the learning. Individualized, self-directed learning for students becomes possible. Content is transferred online, outside of class, and then the in-class time can be spent reviewing and learning to apply the material. This blended learning model is likely to be the new norm, as evidence suggests this is the most effective way for people to learn.

Virtual reality (VR) is already allowing those with access to learn anywhere about everything. An example of the technology being brought to bear on this is a firm called VERE360, which develops research-based education products in virtual reality so learners do not have to travel. This approach is also useful as it breaks away from traditional adult training because it better engages the learner. The goal of this firm is to deliver products in VR that help learners understand complex issues and topics that are difficult to understand, such as the complexity of climate change, or mental health. The technology deployed by firms such as VERE360 enables the personalization of corporate and classroom learning and intends to deliver the learning in a shorter time and a more engaging manner than traditional training. VERE360—and its competitors—are working to produce global content on social issues for socially drive organizations and education institutions on less expensive hardware. Hundreds of millions of people in the global workforce need exposure to this technology in order to be competitive and thrive in the digital economy.

In the opposite direction, the Hickory Hill Nature School in Connecticut, USA, 4  is an outdoor school where children are immersed in all-weather learning, whereby there is no indoor space. The purpose is to foster a deep and personal connection to the natural world. Inquiry-based and child-led, with small class size, the pedagogy aligns with evidence-based best practice for developing creative and cognitively flexible learners who are well connected to nature and sustainability. This is the primary and secondary version of liberal arts college without the technical skills scaffolded into the curriculum  per se . These sorts of school will likely proliferate in the digital economy as employers and parents seek to foster creativity and retreat from the numbers of learning. This type of learning will be valued in the future (currently there are only two such schools accredited in the United States) because it delivers a connection to nature that artificial intelligence will likely not possess, and because it is evidence-based best practice for fostering stewardship and emotional intelligence.

Assessment and grading are also being automated. When testing children, there are now ways to apply adaptive computer-based testing that allows each learner to demonstrate their academic proficiency at their own pace. Eric Mazur, Harvard’s world-renowned physicist and expert teacher, has developed Perusall, a software application that grades students’ reading annotations. Learning simulations will eventually be able to replace the teacher as the deliverer of content. How we certify knowledge will shift accordingly. Global talent will be able to badge itself in different ways and, hopefully, much less expensive ways.

The automation economy and the digital technologies that have brought it on will also influence changes in secondary and tertiary curricula. STEM and STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering [Art], and Mathematics) remain very important, and produce talents that are in high demand in the workforce. However, environmental pressure mounts from the climate crisis as well. Students of the automation economy are also students (young and old) living in a time of ecological breakdown. Education institutions will need to adjust their curricula to help people grapple with the science, humanity, social impacts, and solutions. A good education will combine automation and environmental sustainability in the years and decades ahead. And an excellent education will produce resilient learners who can adapt to change effectively.

Online learning will have to be a part of the solution given the scale of the technologically displaced in the short and medium term. While Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) have not delivered the learning they were first purported to, the idea that learning can happen online in the absence of brick-and-mortar access to quality education is important. The number of humans who crave access to quality education is just too large to ignore the online model of free, open-access information. In the future, we will do better at leveraging this tool.

Students of the automation economy are also students (young and old) living in a time of ecological breakdown. Education institutions will need to adjust their curricula to help people grapple with the science, humanity, social impacts, and solutions

A curricular topic that will likely be added to formal and adult education is mindfulness. The stresses of constant change and better awareness of mental health means that education about how to self-regulate and practice self-care will be a societal must. Current models of education require the fortunate to access this support in their own time and within their own financial means. Very few can do so. But sleep, mediation, and nutrition will become vital education pieces in the digital economy. Not only for our mental well-being, but also because we will be living much longer lives in the digital economy, and self-care will be paramount as a result.

Unknowns of the Future of Education

Technology also changes the learners themselves. iPhones, social media, and the culture of the Internet has changed the human attention span, for example. Most people turn off after eight seconds. But this is a change that has not involved the alteration of the human body. Wearable technology is changing how students engage in the classroom and in athletics in schools. In the future, biometrics will likely tell education administrators about individual learning as real-time health data enters into the education process. What is unknown is how cultural sensitivities to privacy will influence the use of such technologies in schools. Where the technology is available and financially supported, will administrators and parents opt to use it? It remains to be seen if employers would have the legal right to use such technology.

At the more advanced end of the technology advancement spectrum, it is possible that people will be using implantable brain-computer interface (BCI) technology, or brain implants, to enhance their knowledge base. With this outcome, education as we know it would fundamentally change. There would be substantial equity and access issues to grapple with from the start but, nonetheless, the possibility of this eventuality is real. Elon Musk’s NueraLink company is working to develop implantable chips that would give the human brain artificial intelligence capacities. These people will be cyber-physical systems in their truest sense. How they are educated will depend on the neuroscience and psychological advances we can make as a society in the coming years. In addition to the access and equity issues involved, there will be significant ethical issues as a result of this new kind of intelligence and what it is  allowed  to learn.

The difference between machine probability and human creativity is real and will remain so, but how education institutions will teach people about the difference is little explored at this time. Likely, ethics training will be essential for global talent regardless of your industry or profession. There is very little, if any, preparation in the education world for this sort of technological change in how information is ascertained by humans. Nonetheless, it is an eventuality that is best placed in the long-term planning of a given organization, educational institution, and government.

These changes have fostered renewed interest in the sciences of learning all the more imperative. As MIT has reported in its report  Work of the Future, Shaping Technology and Institutions, Fall 2019 Report , these changes require a better understanding of how adults learn. Research is currently being done to connect the science of learning to workplace adult learning in practice. 5  It remains unknown how learners of different ages and educational attainment learn best, let alone how cultural context may impact that learning. This will be an area for important research and discovery going forward.

The digital economy is changing what is needed in terms of education to lead a successful life with well-being. Access and quality will continue to be challenges in the digital economy, but there are new opportunities in both areas due to the changes that technological revolution brings. New collaborations between governments, education institutions, and industry will foster a new area in education that is lifelong and technologically enhanced. There are known unknowns to consider in long-term planning, most notably the potential for neural implants changing how humans interact with information cognitively. Education in the digital economy will change in its funding structures. Education and learning will change in duration, no longer being front-loaded in the first decades of life. And education will be changed by technology itself, not just in the ways we deliver information and learning, but also in what is actually learned. Environmental sustainability and well-being will need to be understood by all for a successful life of wellness in the digital economy. These are exciting times for change, but to ensure the outcomes have a net positive impact on society more concerted and deliberate effort around education needs to be pursued by all stakeholders. The costs of not doing so appear to be dire.

Bibliography

—Aoun, Joseph E. 2017.  Robot-proof, Higher Education in the Age of Artificial Intelligence . Cambridge: MIT Press.

—Autor, David, Mindell, David M., and Reynolds, Elisabeth B. 2019.  Work of the Future, Shaping Technology and Institutions, Fall 2019 Report : MIT Work of the Future.

—Brynjolfsson, Erik, and McAfee, Andrew. 2014.  The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies . New York: W. W. Norton.

—Duckworth, Angela. 2016. Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance. New York, NY, US: Scribner/Simon & Schuster.

—Gleason, Nancy W. (ed.). 2018.  Higher Education in the Era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution . Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan.

—McKinsey Global Institute. 2017. “Harnessing Automation for a Future that Works.” Available at  https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/digital-disruption/harnessing-automation-for-a-future-that-works .

—OECD. 2018. “The Future of Education and Skills: Education 2030.” Available at  https://www.oecd.org/education/2030/E2030%20Position%20Paper%20(05.04.2018).pdf .

—Oelsen, Amanda K., et al. 2016.  Beyond the Skills Gap: Preparing College Students for Life and Work . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

—Schwab, Klaus. 2016.  The Fourth Industrial Revolution . New York: Crown Publishing Group.

—Solomon, Cynthia, and Xiao, Xiao. 2019.  Inventive Minds, Marvin Minsky on Education . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

—Willyerd, Kerie, and Mistick, Barbara. 2016.  Stretch: How to Future-Proof Yourself for Tomorrow’s Workplace . Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

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Impacts of digital technologies on education and factors influencing schools' digital capacity and transformation: A literature review

• Published: 21 November 2022
• Volume 28 , pages 6695–6726, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

• Stella Timotheou 1 ,
• Ourania Miliou 1 ,
• Yiannis Dimitriadis 2 ,
• Sara Villagrá Sobrino 2 ,
• Nikoleta Giannoutsou 2 ,
• Romina Cachia 3 ,
• Alejandra Martínez Monés 2 &
• Andri Ioannou   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3570-6578 1  

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Digital technologies have brought changes to the nature and scope of education and led education systems worldwide to adopt strategies and policies for ICT integration. The latter brought about issues regarding the quality of teaching and learning with ICTs, especially concerning the understanding, adaptation, and design of the education systems in accordance with current technological trends. These issues were emphasized during the recent COVID-19 pandemic that accelerated the use of digital technologies in education, generating questions regarding digitalization in schools. Specifically, many schools demonstrated a lack of experience and low digital capacity, which resulted in widening gaps, inequalities, and learning losses. Such results have engendered the need for schools to learn and build upon the experience to enhance their digital capacity and preparedness, increase their digitalization levels, and achieve a successful digital transformation. Given that the integration of digital technologies is a complex and continuous process that impacts different actors within the school ecosystem, there is a need to show how these impacts are interconnected and identify the factors that can encourage an effective and efficient change in the school environments. For this purpose, we conducted a non-systematic literature review. The results of the literature review were organized thematically based on the evidence presented about the impact of digital technology on education and the factors that affect the schools’ digital capacity and digital transformation. The findings suggest that ICT integration in schools impacts more than just students’ performance; it affects several other school-related aspects and stakeholders, too. Furthermore, various factors affect the impact of digital technologies on education. These factors are interconnected and play a vital role in the digital transformation process. The study results shed light on how ICTs can positively contribute to the digital transformation of schools and which factors should be considered for schools to achieve effective and efficient change.

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1 Introduction

Digital technologies have brought changes to the nature and scope of education. Versatile and disruptive technological innovations, such as smart devices, the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR), blockchain, and software applications have opened up new opportunities for advancing teaching and learning (Gaol & Prasolova-Førland, 2021 ; OECD, 2021 ). Hence, in recent years, education systems worldwide have increased their investment in the integration of information and communication technology (ICT) (Fernández-Gutiérrez et al., 2020 ; Lawrence & Tar, 2018 ) and prioritized their educational agendas to adapt strategies or policies around ICT integration (European Commission, 2019 ). The latter brought about issues regarding the quality of teaching and learning with ICTs (Bates, 2015 ), especially concerning the understanding, adaptation, and design of education systems in accordance with current technological trends (Balyer & Öz, 2018 ). Studies have shown that despite the investment made in the integration of technology in schools, the results have not been promising, and the intended outcomes have not yet been achieved (Delgado et al., 2015 ; Lawrence & Tar, 2018 ). These issues were exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced teaching across education levels to move online (Daniel, 2020 ). Online teaching accelerated the use of digital technologies generating questions regarding the process, the nature, the extent, and the effectiveness of digitalization in schools (Cachia et al., 2021 ; König et al., 2020 ). Specifically, many schools demonstrated a lack of experience and low digital capacity, which resulted in widening gaps, inequalities, and learning losses (Blaskó et al., 2021 ; Di Pietro et al, 2020 ). Such results have engendered the need for schools to learn and build upon the experience in order to enhance their digital capacity (European Commission, 2020 ) and increase their digitalization levels (Costa et al., 2021 ). Digitalization offers possibilities for fundamental improvement in schools (OECD, 2021 ; Rott & Marouane, 2018 ) and touches many aspects of a school’s development (Delcker & Ifenthaler, 2021 ) . However, it is a complex process that requires large-scale transformative changes beyond the technical aspects of technology and infrastructure (Pettersson, 2021 ). Namely, digitalization refers to “ a series of deep and coordinated culture, workforce, and technology shifts and operating models ” (Brooks & McCormack, 2020 , p. 3) that brings cultural, organizational, and operational change through the integration of digital technologies (JISC, 2020 ). A successful digital transformation requires that schools increase their digital capacity levels, establishing the necessary “ culture, policies, infrastructure as well as digital competence of students and staff to support the effective integration of technology in teaching and learning practices ” (Costa et al, 2021 , p.163).

Given that the integration of digital technologies is a complex and continuous process that impacts different actors within the school ecosystem (Eng, 2005 ), there is a need to show how the different elements of the impact are interconnected and to identify the factors that can encourage an effective and efficient change in the school environment. To address the issues outlined above, we formulated the following research questions:

a) What is the impact of digital technologies on education?

b) Which factors might affect a school’s digital capacity and transformation?

In the present investigation, we conducted a non-systematic literature review of publications pertaining to the impact of digital technologies on education and the factors that affect a school’s digital capacity and transformation. The results of the literature review were organized thematically based on the evidence presented about the impact of digital technology on education and the factors which affect the schools’ digital capacity and digital transformation.

2 Methodology

The non-systematic literature review presented herein covers the main theories and research published over the past 17 years on the topic. It is based on meta-analyses and review papers found in scholarly, peer-reviewed content databases and other key studies and reports related to the concepts studied (e.g., digitalization, digital capacity) from professional and international bodies (e.g., the OECD). We searched the Scopus database, which indexes various online journals in the education sector with an international scope, to collect peer-reviewed academic papers. Furthermore, we used an all-inclusive Google Scholar search to include relevant key terms or to include studies found in the reference list of the peer-reviewed papers, and other key studies and reports related to the concepts studied by professional and international bodies. Lastly, we gathered sources from the Publications Office of the European Union ( https://op.europa.eu/en/home ); namely, documents that refer to policies related to digital transformation in education.

Regarding search terms, we first searched resources on the impact of digital technologies on education by performing the following search queries: “impact” OR “effects” AND “digital technologies” AND “education”, “impact” OR “effects” AND “ICT” AND “education”. We further refined our results by adding the terms “meta-analysis” and “review” or by adjusting the search options based on the features of each database to avoid collecting individual studies that would provide limited contributions to a particular domain. We relied on meta-analyses and review studies as these consider the findings of multiple studies to offer a more comprehensive view of the research in a given area (Schuele & Justice, 2006 ). Specifically, meta-analysis studies provided quantitative evidence based on statistically verifiable results regarding the impact of educational interventions that integrate digital technologies in school classrooms (Higgins et al., 2012 ; Tolani-Brown et al., 2011 ).

However, quantitative data does not offer explanations for the challenges or difficulties experienced during ICT integration in learning and teaching (Tolani-Brown et al., 2011 ). To fill this gap, we analyzed literature reviews and gathered in-depth qualitative evidence of the benefits and implications of technology integration in schools. In the analysis presented herein, we also included policy documents and reports from professional and international bodies and governmental reports, which offered useful explanations of the key concepts of this study and provided recent evidence on digital capacity and transformation in education along with policy recommendations. The inclusion and exclusion criteria that were considered in this study are presented in Table 1 .

To ensure a reliable extraction of information from each study and assist the research synthesis we selected the study characteristics of interest (impact) and constructed coding forms. First, an overview of the synthesis was provided by the principal investigator who described the processes of coding, data entry, and data management. The coders followed the same set of instructions but worked independently. To ensure a common understanding of the process between coders, a sample of ten studies was tested. The results were compared, and the discrepancies were identified and resolved. Additionally, to ensure an efficient coding process, all coders participated in group meetings to discuss additions, deletions, and modifications (Stock, 1994 ). Due to the methodological diversity of the studied documents we began to synthesize the literature review findings based on similar study designs. Specifically, most of the meta-analysis studies were grouped in one category due to the quantitative nature of the measured impact. These studies tended to refer to student achievement (Hattie et al., 2014 ). Then, we organized the themes of the qualitative studies in several impact categories. Lastly, we synthesized both review and meta-analysis data across the categories. In order to establish a collective understanding of the concept of impact, we referred to a previous impact study by Balanskat ( 2009 ) which investigated the impact of technology in primary schools. In this context, the impact had a more specific ICT-related meaning and was described as “ a significant influence or effect of ICT on the measured or perceived quality of (parts of) education ” (Balanskat, 2009 , p. 9). In the study presented herein, the main impacts are in relation to learning and learners, teaching, and teachers, as well as other key stakeholders who are directly or indirectly connected to the school unit.

The study’s results identified multiple dimensions of the impact of digital technologies on students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes; on equality, inclusion, and social integration; on teachers’ professional and teaching practices; and on other school-related aspects and stakeholders. The data analysis indicated various factors that might affect the schools’ digital capacity and transformation, such as digital competencies, the teachers’ personal characteristics and professional development, as well as the school’s leadership and management, administration, infrastructure, etc. The impacts and factors found in the literature review are presented below.

3.1 Impacts of digital technologies on students’ knowledge, skills, attitudes, and emotions

The impact of ICT use on students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes has been investigated early in the literature. Eng ( 2005 ) found a small positive effect between ICT use and students' learning. Specifically, the author reported that access to computer-assisted instruction (CAI) programs in simulation or tutorial modes—used to supplement rather than substitute instruction – could enhance student learning. The author reported studies showing that teachers acknowledged the benefits of ICT on pupils with special educational needs; however, the impact of ICT on students' attainment was unclear. Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ) found a statistically significant positive association between ICT use and higher student achievement in primary and secondary education. The authors also reported improvements in the performance of low-achieving pupils. The use of ICT resulted in further positive gains for students, namely increased attention, engagement, motivation, communication and process skills, teamwork, and gains related to their behaviour towards learning. Evidence from qualitative studies showed that teachers, students, and parents recognized the positive impact of ICT on students' learning regardless of their competence level (strong/weak students). Punie et al. ( 2006 ) documented studies that showed positive results of ICT-based learning for supporting low-achieving pupils and young people with complex lives outside the education system. Liao et al. ( 2007 ) reported moderate positive effects of computer application instruction (CAI, computer simulations, and web-based learning) over traditional instruction on primary school student's achievement. Similarly, Tamim et al. ( 2011 ) reported small to moderate positive effects between the use of computer technology (CAI, ICT, simulations, computer-based instruction, digital and hypermedia) and student achievement in formal face-to-face classrooms compared to classrooms that did not use technology. Jewitt et al., ( 2011 ) found that the use of learning platforms (LPs) (virtual learning environments, management information systems, communication technologies, and information- and resource-sharing technologies) in schools allowed primary and secondary students to access a wider variety of quality learning resources, engage in independent and personalized learning, and conduct self- and peer-review; LPs also provide opportunities for teacher assessment and feedback. Similar findings were reported by Fu ( 2013 ), who documented a list of benefits and opportunities of ICT use. According to the author, the use of ICTs helps students access digital information and course content effectively and efficiently, supports student-centered and self-directed learning, as well as the development of a creative learning environment where more opportunities for critical thinking skills are offered, and promotes collaborative learning in a distance-learning environment. Higgins et al. ( 2012 ) found consistent but small positive associations between the use of technology and learning outcomes of school-age learners (5–18-year-olds) in studies linking the provision and use of technology with attainment. Additionally, Chauhan ( 2017 ) reported a medium positive effect of technology on the learning effectiveness of primary school students compared to students who followed traditional learning instruction.

The rise of mobile technologies and hardware devices instigated investigations into their impact on teaching and learning. Sung et al. ( 2016 ) reported a moderate effect on students' performance from the use of mobile devices in the classroom compared to the use of desktop computers or the non-use of mobile devices. Schmid et al. ( 2014 ) reported medium–low to low positive effects of technology integration (e.g., CAI, ICTs) in the classroom on students' achievement and attitude compared to not using technology or using technology to varying degrees. Tamim et al. ( 2015 ) found a low statistically significant effect of the use of tablets and other smart devices in educational contexts on students' achievement outcomes. The authors suggested that tablets offered additional advantages to students; namely, they reported improvements in students’ notetaking, organizational and communication skills, and creativity. Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) reported a small positive effect of one-to-one laptop programs on students’ academic achievement across subject areas. Additional reported benefits included student-centered, individualized, and project-based learning enhanced learner engagement and enthusiasm. Additionally, the authors found that students using one-to-one laptop programs tended to use technology more frequently than in non-laptop classrooms, and as a result, they developed a range of skills (e.g., information skills, media skills, technology skills, organizational skills). Haßler et al. ( 2016 ) found that most interventions that included the use of tablets across the curriculum reported positive learning outcomes. However, from 23 studies, five reported no differences, and two reported a negative effect on students' learning outcomes. Similar results were indicated by Kalati and Kim ( 2022 ) who investigated the effect of touchscreen technologies on young students’ learning. Specifically, from 53 studies, 34 advocated positive effects of touchscreen devices on children’s learning, 17 obtained mixed findings and two studies reported negative effects.

More recently, approaches that refer to the impact of gamification with the use of digital technologies on teaching and learning were also explored. A review by Pan et al. ( 2022 ) that examined the role of learning games in fostering mathematics education in K-12 settings, reported that gameplay improved students’ performance. Integration of digital games in teaching was also found as a promising pedagogical practice in STEM education that could lead to increased learning gains (Martinez et al., 2022 ; Wang et al., 2022 ). However, although Talan et al. ( 2020 ) reported a medium effect of the use of educational games (both digital and non-digital) on academic achievement, the effect of non-digital games was higher.

Over the last two years, the effects of more advanced technologies on teaching and learning were also investigated. Garzón and Acevedo ( 2019 ) found that AR applications had a medium effect on students' learning outcomes compared to traditional lectures. Similarly, Garzón et al. ( 2020 ) showed that AR had a medium impact on students' learning gains. VR applications integrated into various subjects were also found to have a moderate effect on students’ learning compared to control conditions (traditional classes, e.g., lectures, textbooks, and multimedia use, e.g., images, videos, animation, CAI) (Chen et al., 2022b ). Villena-Taranilla et al. ( 2022 ) noted the moderate effect of VR technologies on students’ learning when these were applied in STEM disciplines. In the same meta-analysis, Villena-Taranilla et al. ( 2022 ) highlighted the role of immersive VR, since its effect on students’ learning was greater (at a high level) across educational levels (K-6) compared to semi-immersive and non-immersive integrations. In another meta-analysis study, the effect size of the immersive VR was small and significantly differentiated across educational levels (Coban et al., 2022 ). The impact of AI on education was investigated by Su and Yang ( 2022 ) and Su et al. ( 2022 ), who showed that this technology significantly improved students’ understanding of AI computer science and machine learning concepts.

It is worth noting that the vast majority of studies referred to learning gains in specific subjects. Specifically, several studies examined the impact of digital technologies on students’ literacy skills and reported positive effects on language learning (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Grgurović et al., 2013 ; Friedel et al., 2013 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ; Chen et al., 2022b ; Savva et al., 2022 ). Also, several studies documented positive effects on specific language learning areas, namely foreign language learning (Kao, 2014 ), writing (Higgins et al., 2012 ; Wen & Walters, 2022 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ), as well as reading and comprehension (Cheung & Slavin, 2011 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Schwabe et al., 2022 ). ICTs were also found to have a positive impact on students' performance in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) disciplines (Arztmann et al., 2022 ; Bado, 2022 ; Villena-Taranilla et al., 2022 ; Wang et al., 2022 ). Specifically, a number of studies reported positive impacts on students’ achievement in mathematics (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Hillmayr et al., 2020 ; Li & Ma, 2010 ; Pan et al., 2022 ; Ran et al., 2022 ; Verschaffel et al., 2019 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ). Furthermore, studies documented positive effects of ICTs on science learning (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ; Hillmayr et al., 2020 ; Kalemkuş & Kalemkuş, 2022 ; Lei et al., 2022a ). Çelik ( 2022 ) also noted that computer simulations can help students understand learning concepts related to science. Furthermore, some studies documented that the use of ICTs had a positive impact on students’ achievement in other subjects, such as geography, history, music, and arts (Chauhan, 2017 ; Condie & Munro, 2007 ), and design and technology (Balanskat et al., 2006 ).

More specific positive learning gains were reported in a number of skills, e.g., problem-solving skills and pattern exploration skills (Higgins et al., 2012 ), metacognitive learning outcomes (Verschaffel et al., 2019 ), literacy skills, computational thinking skills, emotion control skills, and collaborative inquiry skills (Lu et al., 2022 ; Su & Yang, 2022 ; Su et al., 2022 ). Additionally, several investigations have reported benefits from the use of ICT on students’ creativity (Fielding & Murcia, 2022 ; Liu et al., 2022 ; Quah & Ng, 2022 ). Lastly, digital technologies were also found to be beneficial for enhancing students’ lifelong learning skills (Haleem et al., 2022 ).

Apart from gaining knowledge and skills, studies also reported improvement in motivation and interest in mathematics (Higgins et. al., 2019 ; Fadda et al., 2022 ) and increased positive achievement emotions towards several subjects during interventions using educational games (Lei et al., 2022a ). Chen et al. ( 2022a ) also reported a small but positive effect of digital health approaches in bullying and cyberbullying interventions with K-12 students, demonstrating that technology-based approaches can help reduce bullying and related consequences by providing emotional support, empowerment, and change of attitude. In their meta-review study, Su et al. ( 2022 ) also documented that AI technologies effectively strengthened students’ attitudes towards learning. In another meta-analysis, Arztmann et al. ( 2022 ) reported positive effects of digital games on motivation and behaviour towards STEM subjects.

3.2 Impacts of digital technologies on equality, inclusion and social integration

Although most of the reviewed studies focused on the impact of ICTs on students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes, reports were also made on other aspects in the school context, such as equality, inclusion, and social integration. Condie and Munro ( 2007 ) documented research interventions investigating how ICT can support pupils with additional or special educational needs. While those interventions were relatively small scale and mostly based on qualitative data, their findings indicated that the use of ICTs enabled the development of communication, participation, and self-esteem. A recent meta-analysis (Baragash et al., 2022 ) with 119 participants with different disabilities, reported a significant overall effect size of AR on their functional skills acquisition. Koh’s meta-analysis ( 2022 ) also revealed that students with intellectual and developmental disabilities improved their competence and performance when they used digital games in the lessons.

Istenic Starcic and Bagon ( 2014 ) found that the role of ICT in inclusion and the design of pedagogical and technological interventions was not sufficiently explored in educational interventions with people with special needs; however, some benefits of ICT use were found in students’ social integration. The issue of gender and technology use was mentioned in a small number of studies. Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) reported a statistically significant positive interaction between one-to-one laptop programs and gender. Specifically, the results showed that girls and boys alike benefitted from the laptop program, but the effect on girls’ achievement was smaller than that on boys’. Along the same lines, Arztmann et al. ( 2022 ) reported no difference in the impact of game-based learning between boys and girls, arguing that boys and girls equally benefited from game-based interventions in STEM domains. However, results from a systematic review by Cussó-Calabuig et al. ( 2018 ) found limited and low-quality evidence on the effects of intensive use of computers on gender differences in computer anxiety, self-efficacy, and self-confidence. Based on their view, intensive use of computers can reduce gender differences in some areas and not in others, depending on contextual and implementation factors.

3.3 Impacts of digital technologies on teachers’ professional and teaching practices

Various research studies have explored the impact of ICT on teachers’ instructional practices and student assessment. Friedel et al. ( 2013 ) found that the use of mobile devices by students enabled teachers to successfully deliver content (e.g., mobile serious games), provide scaffolding, and facilitate synchronous collaborative learning. The integration of digital games in teaching and learning activities also gave teachers the opportunity to study and apply various pedagogical practices (Bado, 2022 ). Specifically, Bado ( 2022 ) found that teachers who implemented instructional activities in three stages (pre-game, game, and post-game) maximized students’ learning outcomes and engagement. For instance, during the pre-game stage, teachers focused on lectures and gameplay training, at the game stage teachers provided scaffolding on content, addressed technical issues, and managed the classroom activities. During the post-game stage, teachers organized activities for debriefing to ensure that the gameplay had indeed enhanced students’ learning outcomes.

Furthermore, ICT can increase efficiency in lesson planning and preparation by offering possibilities for a more collaborative approach among teachers. The sharing of curriculum plans and the analysis of students’ data led to clearer target settings and improvements in reporting to parents (Balanskat et al., 2006 ).

Additionally, the use and application of digital technologies in teaching and learning were found to enhance teachers’ digital competence. Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ) documented studies that revealed that the use of digital technologies in education had a positive effect on teachers’ basic ICT skills. The greatest impact was found on teachers with enough experience in integrating ICTs in their teaching and/or who had recently participated in development courses for the pedagogical use of technologies in teaching. Punie et al. ( 2006 ) reported that the provision of fully equipped multimedia portable computers and the development of online teacher communities had positive impacts on teachers’ confidence and competence in the use of ICTs.

Moreover, online assessment via ICTs benefits instruction. In particular, online assessments support the digitalization of students’ work and related logistics, allow teachers to gather immediate feedback and readjust to new objectives, and support the improvement of the technical quality of tests by providing more accurate results. Additionally, the capabilities of ICTs (e.g., interactive media, simulations) create new potential methods of testing specific skills, such as problem-solving and problem-processing skills, meta-cognitive skills, creativity and communication skills, and the ability to work productively in groups (Punie et al., 2006 ).

3.4 Impacts of digital technologies on other school-related aspects and stakeholders

There is evidence that the effective use of ICTs and the data transmission offered by broadband connections help improve administration (Balanskat et al., 2006 ). Specifically, ICTs have been found to provide better management systems to schools that have data gathering procedures in place. Condie and Munro ( 2007 ) reported impacts from the use of ICTs in schools in the following areas: attendance monitoring, assessment records, reporting to parents, financial management, creation of repositories for learning resources, and sharing of information amongst staff. Such data can be used strategically for self-evaluation and monitoring purposes which in turn can result in school improvements. Additionally, they reported that online access to other people with similar roles helped to reduce headteachers’ isolation by offering them opportunities to share insights into the use of ICT in learning and teaching and how it could be used to support school improvement. Furthermore, ICTs provided more efficient and successful examination management procedures, namely less time-consuming reporting processes compared to paper-based examinations and smooth communications between schools and examination authorities through electronic data exchange (Punie et al., 2006 ).

Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) reported that the use of ICTs improved home-school relationships. Additionally, Escueta et al. ( 2017 ) reported several ICT programs that had improved the flow of information from the school to parents. Particularly, they documented that the use of ICTs (learning management systems, emails, dedicated websites, mobile phones) allowed for personalized and customized information exchange between schools and parents, such as attendance records, upcoming class assignments, school events, and students’ grades, which generated positive results on students’ learning outcomes and attainment. Such information exchange between schools and families prompted parents to encourage their children to put more effort into their schoolwork.

The above findings suggest that the impact of ICT integration in schools goes beyond students’ performance in school subjects. Specifically, it affects a number of school-related aspects, such as equality and social integration, professional and teaching practices, and diverse stakeholders. In Table 2 , we summarize the different impacts of digital technologies on school stakeholders based on the literature review, while in Table 3 we organized the tools/platforms and practices/policies addressed in the meta-analyses, literature reviews, EU reports, and international bodies included in the manuscript.

Additionally, based on the results of the literature review, there are many types of digital technologies with different affordances (see, for example, studies on VR vs Immersive VR), which evolve over time (e.g. starting from CAIs in 2005 to Augmented and Virtual reality 2020). Furthermore, these technologies are linked to different pedagogies and policy initiatives, which are critical factors in the study of impact. Table 3 summarizes the different tools and practices that have been used to examine the impact of digital technologies on education since 2005 based on the review results.

3.5 Factors that affect the integration of digital technologies

Although the analysis of the literature review demonstrated different impacts of the use of digital technology on education, several authors highlighted the importance of various factors, besides the technology itself, that affect this impact. For example, Liao et al. ( 2007 ) suggested that future studies should carefully investigate which factors contribute to positive outcomes by clarifying the exact relationship between computer applications and learning. Additionally, Haßler et al., ( 2016 ) suggested that the neutral findings regarding the impact of tablets on students learning outcomes in some of the studies included in their review should encourage educators, school leaders, and school officials to further investigate the potential of such devices in teaching and learning. Several other researchers suggested that a number of variables play a significant role in the impact of ICTs on students’ learning that could be attributed to the school context, teaching practices and professional development, the curriculum, and learners’ characteristics (Underwood, 2009 ; Tamim et al., 2011 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ; Archer et al., 2014 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Haßler et al., 2016 ; Chauhan, 2017 ; Lee et al., 2020 ; Tang et al., 2022 ).

3.5.1 Digital competencies

One of the most common challenges reported in studies that utilized digital tools in the classroom was the lack of students’ skills on how to use them. Fu ( 2013 ) found that students’ lack of technical skills is a barrier to the effective use of ICT in the classroom. Tamim et al. ( 2015 ) reported that students faced challenges when using tablets and smart mobile devices, associated with the technical issues or expertise needed for their use and the distracting nature of the devices and highlighted the need for teachers’ professional development. Higgins et al. ( 2012 ) reported that skills training about the use of digital technologies is essential for learners to fully exploit the benefits of instruction.

Delgado et al. ( 2015 ), meanwhile, reported studies that showed a strong positive association between teachers’ computer skills and students’ use of computers. Teachers’ lack of ICT skills and familiarization with technologies can become a constraint to the effective use of technology in the classroom (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Delgado et al., 2015 ).

It is worth noting that the way teachers are introduced to ICTs affects the impact of digital technologies on education. Previous studies have shown that teachers may avoid using digital technologies due to limited digital skills (Balanskat, 2006 ), or they prefer applying “safe” technologies, namely technologies that their own teachers used and with which they are familiar (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). In this regard, the provision of digital skills training and exposure to new digital tools might encourage teachers to apply various technologies in their lessons (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). Apart from digital competence, technical support in the school setting has also been shown to affect teachers’ use of technology in their classrooms (Delgado et al., 2015 ). Ferrari et al. ( 2011 ) found that while teachers’ use of ICT is high, 75% stated that they needed more institutional support and a shift in the mindset of educational actors to achieve more innovative teaching practices. The provision of support can reduce time and effort as well as cognitive constraints, which could cause limited ICT integration in the school lessons by teachers (Escueta et al., 2017 ).

3.5.2 Teachers’ personal characteristics, training approaches, and professional development

Teachers’ personal characteristics and professional development affect the impact of digital technologies on education. Specifically, Cheok and Wong ( 2015 ) found that teachers’ personal characteristics (e.g., anxiety, self-efficacy) are associated with their satisfaction and engagement with technology. Bingimlas ( 2009 ) reported that lack of confidence, resistance to change, and negative attitudes in using new technologies in teaching are significant determinants of teachers’ levels of engagement in ICT. The same author reported that the provision of technical support, motivation support (e.g., awards, sufficient time for planning), and training on how technologies can benefit teaching and learning can eliminate the above barriers to ICT integration. Archer et al. ( 2014 ) found that comfort levels in using technology are an important predictor of technology integration and argued that it is essential to provide teachers with appropriate training and ongoing support until they are comfortable with using ICTs in the classroom. Hillmayr et al. ( 2020 ) documented that training teachers on ICT had an important effecton students’ learning.

According to Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ), the impact of ICTs on students’ learning is highly dependent on the teachers’ capacity to efficiently exploit their application for pedagogical purposes. Results obtained from the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) (OECD, 2021 ) revealed that although schools are open to innovative practices and have the capacity to adopt them, only 39% of teachers in the European Union reported that they are well or very well prepared to use digital technologies for teaching. Li and Ma ( 2010 ) and Hardman ( 2019 ) showed that the positive effect of technology on students’ achievement depends on the pedagogical practices used by teachers. Schmid et al. ( 2014 ) reported that learning was best supported when students were engaged in active, meaningful activities with the use of technological tools that provided cognitive support. Tamim et al. ( 2015 ) compared two different pedagogical uses of tablets and found a significant moderate effect when the devices were used in a student-centered context and approach rather than within teacher-led environments. Similarly, Garzón and Acevedo ( 2019 ) and Garzón et al. ( 2020 ) reported that the positive results from the integration of AR applications could be attributed to the existence of different variables which could influence AR interventions (e.g., pedagogical approach, learning environment, and duration of the intervention). Additionally, Garzón et al. ( 2020 ) suggested that the pedagogical resources that teachers used to complement their lectures and the pedagogical approaches they applied were crucial to the effective integration of AR on students’ learning gains. Garzón and Acevedo ( 2019 ) also emphasized that the success of a technology-enhanced intervention is based on both the technology per se and its characteristics and on the pedagogical strategies teachers choose to implement. For instance, their results indicated that the collaborative learning approach had the highest impact on students’ learning gains among other approaches (e.g., inquiry-based learning, situated learning, or project-based learning). Ran et al. ( 2022 ) also found that the use of technology to design collaborative and communicative environments showed the largest moderator effects among the other approaches.

Hattie ( 2008 ) reported that the effective use of computers is associated with training teachers in using computers as a teaching and learning tool. Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) noted that in addition to the strategies teachers adopt in teaching, ongoing professional development is also vital in ensuring the success of technology implementation programs. Sung et al. ( 2016 ) found that research on the use of mobile devices to support learning tends to report that the insufficient preparation of teachers is a major obstacle in implementing effective mobile learning programs in schools. Friedel et al. ( 2013 ) found that providing training and support to teachers increased the positive impact of the interventions on students’ learning gains. Trucano ( 2005 ) argued that positive impacts occur when digital technologies are used to enhance teachers’ existing pedagogical philosophies. Higgins et al. ( 2012 ) found that the types of technologies used and how they are used could also affect students’ learning. The authors suggested that training and professional development of teachers that focuses on the effective pedagogical use of technology to support teaching and learning is an important component of successful instructional approaches (Higgins et al., 2012 ). Archer et al. ( 2014 ) found that studies that reported ICT interventions during which teachers received training and support had moderate positive effects on students’ learning outcomes, which were significantly higher than studies where little or no detail about training and support was mentioned. Fu ( 2013 ) reported that the lack of teachers’ knowledge and skills on the technical and instructional aspects of ICT use in the classroom, in-service training, pedagogy support, technical and financial support, as well as the lack of teachers’ motivation and encouragement to integrate ICT on their teaching were significant barriers to the integration of ICT in education.

3.5.3 School leadership and management

Management and leadership are important cornerstones in the digital transformation process (Pihir et al., 2018 ). Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) documented leadership among the factors positively affecting the successful implementation of technology integration in schools. Strong leadership, strategic planning, and systematic integration of digital technologies are prerequisites for the digital transformation of education systems (Ređep, 2021 ). Management and leadership play a significant role in formulating policies that are translated into practice and ensure that developments in ICT become embedded into the life of the school and in the experiences of staff and pupils (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). Policy support and leadership must include the provision of an overall vision for the use of digital technologies in education, guidance for students and parents, logistical support, as well as teacher training (Conrads et al., 2017 ). Unless there is a commitment throughout the school, with accountability for progress at key points, it is unlikely for ICT integration to be sustained or become part of the culture (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). To achieve this, principals need to adopt and promote a whole-institution strategy and build a strong mutual support system that enables the school’s technological maturity (European Commission, 2019 ). In this context, school culture plays an essential role in shaping the mindsets and beliefs of school actors towards successful technology integration. Condie and Munro ( 2007 ) emphasized the importance of the principal’s enthusiasm and work as a source of inspiration for the school staff and the students to cultivate a culture of innovation and establish sustainable digital change. Specifically, school leaders need to create conditions in which the school staff is empowered to experiment and take risks with technology (Elkordy & Lovinelli, 2020 ).

In order for leaders to achieve the above, it is important to develop capacities for learning and leading, advocating professional learning, and creating support systems and structures (European Commission, 2019 ). Digital technology integration in education systems can be challenging and leadership needs guidance to achieve it. Such guidance can be introduced through the adoption of new methods and techniques in strategic planning for the integration of digital technologies (Ređep, 2021 ). Even though the role of leaders is vital, the relevant training offered to them has so far been inadequate. Specifically, only a third of the education systems in Europe have put in place national strategies that explicitly refer to the training of school principals (European Commission, 2019 , p. 16).

3.5.4 Connectivity, infrastructure, and government and other support

The effective integration of digital technologies across levels of education presupposes the development of infrastructure, the provision of digital content, and the selection of proper resources (Voogt et al., 2013 ). Particularly, a high-quality broadband connection in the school increases the quality and quantity of educational activities. There is evidence that ICT increases and formalizes cooperative planning between teachers and cooperation with managers, which in turn has a positive impact on teaching practices (Balanskat et al., 2006 ). Additionally, ICT resources, including software and hardware, increase the likelihood of teachers integrating technology into the curriculum to enhance their teaching practices (Delgado et al., 2015 ). For example, Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) found that the use of one-on-one laptop programs resulted in positive changes in teaching and learning, which would not have been accomplished without the infrastructure and technical support provided to teachers. Delgado et al. ( 2015 ) reported that limited access to technology (insufficient computers, peripherals, and software) and lack of technical support are important barriers to ICT integration. Access to infrastructure refers not only to the availability of technology in a school but also to the provision of a proper amount and the right types of technology in locations where teachers and students can use them. Effective technical support is a central element of the whole-school strategy for ICT (Underwood, 2009 ). Bingimlas ( 2009 ) reported that lack of technical support in the classroom and whole-school resources (e.g., failing to connect to the Internet, printers not printing, malfunctioning computers, and working on old computers) are significant barriers that discourage the use of ICT by teachers. Moreover, poor quality and inadequate hardware maintenance, and unsuitable educational software may discourage teachers from using ICTs (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Bingimlas, 2009 ).

Government support can also impact the integration of ICTs in teaching. Specifically, Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ) reported that government interventions and training programs increased teachers’ enthusiasm and positive attitudes towards ICT and led to the routine use of embedded ICT.

Lastly, another important factor affecting digital transformation is the development and quality assurance of digital learning resources. Such resources can be support textbooks and related materials or resources that focus on specific subjects or parts of the curriculum. Policies on the provision of digital learning resources are essential for schools and can be achieved through various actions. For example, some countries are financing web portals that become repositories, enabling teachers to share resources or create their own. Additionally, they may offer e-learning opportunities or other services linked to digital education. In other cases, specific agencies of projects have also been set up to develop digital resources (Eurydice, 2019 ).

3.5.5 Administration and digital data management

The digital transformation of schools involves organizational improvements at the level of internal workflows, communication between the different stakeholders, and potential for collaboration. Vuorikari et al. ( 2020 ) presented evidence that digital technologies supported the automation of administrative practices in schools and reduced the administration’s workload. There is evidence that digital data affects the production of knowledge about schools and has the power to transform how schooling takes place. Specifically, Sellar ( 2015 ) reported that data infrastructure in education is developing due to the demand for “ information about student outcomes, teacher quality, school performance, and adult skills, associated with policy efforts to increase human capital and productivity practices ” (p. 771). In this regard, practices, such as datafication which refers to the “ translation of information about all kinds of things and processes into quantified formats” have become essential for decision-making based on accountability reports about the school’s quality. The data could be turned into deep insights about education or training incorporating ICTs. For example, measuring students’ online engagement with the learning material and drawing meaningful conclusions can allow teachers to improve their educational interventions (Vuorikari et al., 2020 ).

3.5.6 Students’ socioeconomic background and family support

Research show that the active engagement of parents in the school and their support for the school’s work can make a difference to their children’s attitudes towards learning and, as a result, their achievement (Hattie, 2008 ). In recent years, digital technologies have been used for more effective communication between school and family (Escueta et al., 2017 ). The European Commission ( 2020 ) presented data from a Eurostat survey regarding the use of computers by students during the pandemic. The data showed that younger pupils needed additional support and guidance from parents and the challenges were greater for families in which parents had lower levels of education and little to no digital skills.

In this regard, the socio-economic background of the learners and their socio-cultural environment also affect educational achievements (Punie et al., 2006 ). Trucano documented that the use of computers at home positively influenced students’ confidence and resulted in more frequent use at school, compared to students who had no home access (Trucano, 2005 ). In this sense, the socio-economic background affects the access to computers at home (OECD, 2015 ) which in turn influences the experience of ICT, an important factor for school achievement (Punie et al., 2006 ; Underwood, 2009 ). Furthermore, parents from different socio-economic backgrounds may have different abilities and availability to support their children in their learning process (Di Pietro et al., 2020 ).

3.5.7 Schools’ socioeconomic context and emergency situations

The socio-economic context of the school is closely related to a school’s digital transformation. For example, schools in disadvantaged, rural, or deprived areas are likely to lack the digital capacity and infrastructure required to adapt to the use of digital technologies during emergency periods, such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Di Pietro et al., 2020 ). Data collected from school principals confirmed that in several countries, there is a rural/urban divide in connectivity (OECD, 2015 ).

Emergency periods also affect the digitalization of schools. The COVID-19 pandemic led to the closure of schools and forced them to seek appropriate and connective ways to keep working on the curriculum (Di Pietro et al., 2020 ). The sudden large-scale shift to distance and online teaching and learning also presented challenges around quality and equity in education, such as the risk of increased inequalities in learning, digital, and social, as well as teachers facing difficulties coping with this demanding situation (European Commission, 2020 ).

Looking at the findings of the above studies, we can conclude that the impact of digital technologies on education is influenced by various actors and touches many aspects of the school ecosystem. Figure  1 summarizes the factors affecting the digital technologies’ impact on school stakeholders based on the findings from the literature review.

Factors that affect the impact of ICTs on education

4 Discussion

The findings revealed that the use of digital technologies in education affects a variety of actors within a school’s ecosystem. First, we observed that as technologies evolve, so does the interest of the research community to apply them to school settings. Figure  2 summarizes the trends identified in current research around the impact of digital technologies on schools’ digital capacity and transformation as found in the present study. Starting as early as 2005, when computers, simulations, and interactive boards were the most commonly applied tools in school interventions (e.g., Eng, 2005 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Moran et al., 2008 ; Tamim et al., 2011 ), moving towards the use of learning platforms (Jewitt et al., 2011 ), then to the use of mobile devices and digital games (e.g., Tamim et al., 2015 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Talan et al., 2020 ), as well as e-books (e.g., Savva et al., 2022 ), to the more recent advanced technologies, such as AR and VR applications (e.g., Garzón & Acevedo, 2019 ; Garzón et al., 2020 ; Kalemkuş & Kalemkuş, 2022 ), or robotics and AI (e.g., Su & Yang, 2022 ; Su et al., 2022 ). As this evolution shows, digital technologies are a concept in flux with different affordances and characteristics. Additionally, from an instructional perspective, there has been a growing interest in different modes and models of content delivery such as online, blended, and hybrid modes (e.g., Cheok & Wong, 2015 ; Kazu & Yalçin, 2022 ; Ulum, 2022 ). This is an indication that the value of technologies to support teaching and learning as well as other school-related practices is increasingly recognized by the research and school community. The impact results from the literature review indicate that ICT integration on students’ learning outcomes has effects that are small (Coban et al., 2022 ; Eng, 2005 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ; Schmid et al., 2014 ; Tamim et al., 2015 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ) to moderate (Garzón & Acevedo, 2019 ; Garzón et al., 2020 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Talan et al., 2020 ; Wen & Walters, 2022 ). That said, a number of recent studies have reported high effect sizes (e.g., Kazu & Yalçin, 2022 ).

Current work and trends in the study of the impact of digital technologies on schools’ digital capacity

Based on these findings, several authors have suggested that the impact of technology on education depends on several variables and not on the technology per se (Tamim et al., 2011 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ; Archer et al., 2014 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Haßler et al., 2016 ; Chauhan, 2017 ; Lee et al., 2020 ; Lei et al., 2022a ). While the impact of ICTs on student achievement has been thoroughly investigated by researchers, other aspects related to school life that are also affected by ICTs, such as equality, inclusion, and social integration have received less attention. Further analysis of the literature review has revealed a greater investment in ICT interventions to support learning and teaching in the core subjects of literacy and STEM disciplines, especially mathematics, and science. These were the most common subjects studied in the reviewed papers often drawing on national testing results, while studies that investigated other subject areas, such as social studies, were limited (Chauhan, 2017 ; Condie & Munro, 2007 ). As such, research is still lacking impact studies that focus on the effects of ICTs on a range of curriculum subjects.

The qualitative research provided additional information about the impact of digital technologies on education, documenting positive effects and giving more details about implications, recommendations, and future research directions. Specifically, the findings regarding the role of ICTs in supporting learning highlight the importance of teachers’ instructional practice and the learning context in the use of technologies and consequently their impact on instruction (Çelik, 2022 ; Schmid et al., 2014 ; Tamim et al., 2015 ). The review also provided useful insights regarding the various factors that affect the impact of digital technologies on education. These factors are interconnected and play a vital role in the transformation process. Specifically, these factors include a) digital competencies; b) teachers’ personal characteristics and professional development; c) school leadership and management; d) connectivity, infrastructure, and government support; e) administration and data management practices; f) students’ socio-economic background and family support and g) the socioeconomic context of the school and emergency situations. It is worth noting that we observed factors that affect the integration of ICTs in education but may also be affected by it. For example, the frequent use of ICTs and the use of laptops by students for instructional purposes positively affect the development of digital competencies (Zheng et al., 2016 ) and at the same time, the digital competencies affect the use of ICTs (Fu, 2013 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ). As a result, the impact of digital technologies should be explored more as an enabler of desirable and new practices and not merely as a catalyst that improves the output of the education process i.e. namely student attainment.

5 Conclusions

Digital technologies offer immense potential for fundamental improvement in schools. However, investment in ICT infrastructure and professional development to improve school education are yet to provide fruitful results. Digital transformation is a complex process that requires large-scale transformative changes that presuppose digital capacity and preparedness. To achieve such changes, all actors within the school’s ecosystem need to share a common vision regarding the integration of ICTs in education and work towards achieving this goal. Our literature review, which synthesized quantitative and qualitative data from a list of meta-analyses and review studies, provided useful insights into the impact of ICTs on different school stakeholders and showed that the impact of digital technologies touches upon many different aspects of school life, which are often overlooked when the focus is on student achievement as the final output of education. Furthermore, the concept of digital technologies is a concept in flux as technologies are not only different among them calling for different uses in the educational practice but they also change through time. Additionally, we opened a forum for discussion regarding the factors that affect a school’s digital capacity and transformation. We hope that our study will inform policy, practice, and research and result in a paradigm shift towards more holistic approaches in impact and assessment studies.

6 Study limitations and future directions

We presented a review of the study of digital technologies' impact on education and factors influencing schools’ digital capacity and transformation. The study results were based on a non-systematic literature review grounded on the acquisition of documentation in specific databases. Future studies should investigate more databases to corroborate and enhance our results. Moreover, search queries could be enhanced with key terms that could provide additional insights about the integration of ICTs in education, such as “policies and strategies for ICT integration in education”. Also, the study drew information from meta-analyses and literature reviews to acquire evidence about the effects of ICT integration in schools. Such evidence was mostly based on the general conclusions of the studies. It is worth mentioning that, we located individual studies which showed different, such as negative or neutral results. Thus, further insights are needed about the impact of ICTs on education and the factors influencing the impact. Furthermore, the nature of the studies included in meta-analyses and reviews is different as they are based on different research methodologies and data gathering processes. For instance, in a meta-analysis, the impact among the studies investigated is measured in a particular way, depending on policy or research targets (e.g., results from national examinations, pre-/post-tests). Meanwhile, in literature reviews, qualitative studies offer additional insights and detail based on self-reports and research opinions on several different aspects and stakeholders who could affect and be affected by ICT integration. As a result, it was challenging to draw causal relationships between so many interrelating variables.

Despite the challenges mentioned above, this study envisaged examining school units as ecosystems that consist of several actors by bringing together several variables from different research epistemologies to provide an understanding of the integration of ICTs. However, the use of other tools and methodologies and models for evaluation of the impact of digital technologies on education could give more detailed data and more accurate results. For instance, self-reflection tools, like SELFIE—developed on the DigCompOrg framework- (Kampylis et al., 2015 ; Bocconi & Lightfoot, 2021 ) can help capture a school’s digital capacity and better assess the impact of ICTs on education. Furthermore, the development of a theory of change could be a good approach for documenting the impact of digital technologies on education. Specifically, theories of change are models used for the evaluation of interventions and their impact; they are developed to describe how interventions will work and give the desired outcomes (Mayne, 2015 ). Theory of change as a methodological approach has also been used by researchers to develop models for evaluation in the field of education (e.g., Aromatario et al., 2019 ; Chapman & Sammons, 2013 ; De Silva et al., 2014 ).

We also propose that future studies aim at similar investigations by applying more holistic approaches for impact assessment that can provide in-depth data about the impact of digital technologies on education. For instance, future studies could focus on different research questions about the technologies that are used during the interventions or the way the implementation takes place (e.g., What methodologies are used for documenting impact? How are experimental studies implemented? How can teachers be taken into account and trained on the technology and its functions? What are the elements of an appropriate and successful implementation? How is the whole intervention designed? On which learning theories is the technology implementation based?).

Future research could also focus on assessing the impact of digital technologies on various other subjects since there is a scarcity of research related to particular subjects, such as geography, history, arts, music, and design and technology. More research should also be done about the impact of ICTs on skills, emotions, and attitudes, and on equality, inclusion, social interaction, and special needs education. There is also a need for more research about the impact of ICTs on administration, management, digitalization, and home-school relationships. Additionally, although new forms of teaching and learning with the use of ICTs (e.g., blended, hybrid, and online learning) have initiated several investigations in mainstream classrooms, only a few studies have measured their impact on students’ learning. Additionally, our review did not document any study about the impact of flipped classrooms on K-12 education. Regarding teaching and learning approaches, it is worth noting that studies referred to STEM or STEAM did not investigate the impact of STEM/STEAM as an interdisciplinary approach to learning but only investigated the impact of ICTs on learning in each domain as a separate subject (science, technology, engineering, arts, mathematics). Hence, we propose future research to also investigate the impact of the STEM/STEAM approach on education. The impact of emerging technologies on education, such as AR, VR, robotics, and AI has also been investigated recently, but more work needs to be done.

Finally, we propose that future studies could focus on the way in which specific factors, e.g., infrastructure and government support, school leadership and management, students’ and teachers’ digital competencies, approaches teachers utilize in the teaching and learning (e.g., blended, online and hybrid learning, flipped classrooms, STEM/STEAM approach, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning), affect the impact of digital technologies on education. We hope that future studies will give detailed insights into the concept of schools’ digital transformation through further investigation of impacts and factors which influence digital capacity and transformation based on the results and the recommendations of the present study.

Data availability statement

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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Acknowledgements

This project has received funding under Grant Agreement No Ref Ares (2021) 339036 7483039 as well as funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program under Grant Agreement No 739578 and the Government of the Republic of Cyprus through the Deputy Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digital Policy. The UVa co-authors would like also to acknowledge funding from the European Regional Development Fund and the National Research Agency of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, under project grant PID2020-112584RB-C32.

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Timotheou, S., Miliou, O., Dimitriadis, Y. et al. Impacts of digital technologies on education and factors influencing schools' digital capacity and transformation: A literature review. Educ Inf Technol 28 , 6695–6726 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11431-8

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Impacts of digital technologies on education and factors influencing schools' digital capacity and transformation: A literature review

Stella timotheou.

1 CYENS Center of Excellence & Cyprus University of Technology (Cyprus Interaction Lab), Cyprus, CYENS Center of Excellence & Cyprus University of Technology, Nicosia-Limassol, Cyprus

Ourania Miliou

Yiannis dimitriadis.

2 Universidad de Valladolid (UVA), Spain, Valladolid, Spain

Sara Villagrá Sobrino

Nikoleta giannoutsou, romina cachia.

3 JRC - Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, Seville, Spain

Alejandra Martínez Monés

Andri ioannou, associated data.

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Digital technologies have brought changes to the nature and scope of education and led education systems worldwide to adopt strategies and policies for ICT integration. The latter brought about issues regarding the quality of teaching and learning with ICTs, especially concerning the understanding, adaptation, and design of the education systems in accordance with current technological trends. These issues were emphasized during the recent COVID-19 pandemic that accelerated the use of digital technologies in education, generating questions regarding digitalization in schools. Specifically, many schools demonstrated a lack of experience and low digital capacity, which resulted in widening gaps, inequalities, and learning losses. Such results have engendered the need for schools to learn and build upon the experience to enhance their digital capacity and preparedness, increase their digitalization levels, and achieve a successful digital transformation. Given that the integration of digital technologies is a complex and continuous process that impacts different actors within the school ecosystem, there is a need to show how these impacts are interconnected and identify the factors that can encourage an effective and efficient change in the school environments. For this purpose, we conducted a non-systematic literature review. The results of the literature review were organized thematically based on the evidence presented about the impact of digital technology on education and the factors that affect the schools’ digital capacity and digital transformation. The findings suggest that ICT integration in schools impacts more than just students’ performance; it affects several other school-related aspects and stakeholders, too. Furthermore, various factors affect the impact of digital technologies on education. These factors are interconnected and play a vital role in the digital transformation process. The study results shed light on how ICTs can positively contribute to the digital transformation of schools and which factors should be considered for schools to achieve effective and efficient change.

Introduction

Digital technologies have brought changes to the nature and scope of education. Versatile and disruptive technological innovations, such as smart devices, the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR), blockchain, and software applications have opened up new opportunities for advancing teaching and learning (Gaol & Prasolova-Førland, 2021 ; OECD, 2021 ). Hence, in recent years, education systems worldwide have increased their investment in the integration of information and communication technology (ICT) (Fernández-Gutiérrez et al., 2020 ; Lawrence & Tar, 2018 ) and prioritized their educational agendas to adapt strategies or policies around ICT integration (European Commission, 2019 ). The latter brought about issues regarding the quality of teaching and learning with ICTs (Bates, 2015 ), especially concerning the understanding, adaptation, and design of education systems in accordance with current technological trends (Balyer & Öz, 2018 ). Studies have shown that despite the investment made in the integration of technology in schools, the results have not been promising, and the intended outcomes have not yet been achieved (Delgado et al., 2015 ; Lawrence & Tar, 2018 ). These issues were exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced teaching across education levels to move online (Daniel, 2020 ). Online teaching accelerated the use of digital technologies generating questions regarding the process, the nature, the extent, and the effectiveness of digitalization in schools (Cachia et al., 2021 ; König et al., 2020 ). Specifically, many schools demonstrated a lack of experience and low digital capacity, which resulted in widening gaps, inequalities, and learning losses (Blaskó et al., 2021 ; Di Pietro et al, 2020 ). Such results have engendered the need for schools to learn and build upon the experience in order to enhance their digital capacity (European Commission, 2020 ) and increase their digitalization levels (Costa et al., 2021 ). Digitalization offers possibilities for fundamental improvement in schools (OECD, 2021 ; Rott & Marouane, 2018 ) and touches many aspects of a school’s development (Delcker & Ifenthaler, 2021 ) . However, it is a complex process that requires large-scale transformative changes beyond the technical aspects of technology and infrastructure (Pettersson, 2021 ). Namely, digitalization refers to “ a series of deep and coordinated culture, workforce, and technology shifts and operating models ” (Brooks & McCormack, 2020 , p. 3) that brings cultural, organizational, and operational change through the integration of digital technologies (JISC, 2020 ). A successful digital transformation requires that schools increase their digital capacity levels, establishing the necessary “ culture, policies, infrastructure as well as digital competence of students and staff to support the effective integration of technology in teaching and learning practices ” (Costa et al, 2021 , p.163).

Given that the integration of digital technologies is a complex and continuous process that impacts different actors within the school ecosystem (Eng, 2005 ), there is a need to show how the different elements of the impact are interconnected and to identify the factors that can encourage an effective and efficient change in the school environment. To address the issues outlined above, we formulated the following research questions:

a) What is the impact of digital technologies on education?

b) Which factors might affect a school’s digital capacity and transformation?

In the present investigation, we conducted a non-systematic literature review of publications pertaining to the impact of digital technologies on education and the factors that affect a school’s digital capacity and transformation. The results of the literature review were organized thematically based on the evidence presented about the impact of digital technology on education and the factors which affect the schools’ digital capacity and digital transformation.

Methodology

The non-systematic literature review presented herein covers the main theories and research published over the past 17 years on the topic. It is based on meta-analyses and review papers found in scholarly, peer-reviewed content databases and other key studies and reports related to the concepts studied (e.g., digitalization, digital capacity) from professional and international bodies (e.g., the OECD). We searched the Scopus database, which indexes various online journals in the education sector with an international scope, to collect peer-reviewed academic papers. Furthermore, we used an all-inclusive Google Scholar search to include relevant key terms or to include studies found in the reference list of the peer-reviewed papers, and other key studies and reports related to the concepts studied by professional and international bodies. Lastly, we gathered sources from the Publications Office of the European Union ( https://op.europa.eu/en/home ); namely, documents that refer to policies related to digital transformation in education.

Regarding search terms, we first searched resources on the impact of digital technologies on education by performing the following search queries: “impact” OR “effects” AND “digital technologies” AND “education”, “impact” OR “effects” AND “ICT” AND “education”. We further refined our results by adding the terms “meta-analysis” and “review” or by adjusting the search options based on the features of each database to avoid collecting individual studies that would provide limited contributions to a particular domain. We relied on meta-analyses and review studies as these consider the findings of multiple studies to offer a more comprehensive view of the research in a given area (Schuele & Justice, 2006 ). Specifically, meta-analysis studies provided quantitative evidence based on statistically verifiable results regarding the impact of educational interventions that integrate digital technologies in school classrooms (Higgins et al., 2012 ; Tolani-Brown et al., 2011 ).

However, quantitative data does not offer explanations for the challenges or difficulties experienced during ICT integration in learning and teaching (Tolani-Brown et al., 2011 ). To fill this gap, we analyzed literature reviews and gathered in-depth qualitative evidence of the benefits and implications of technology integration in schools. In the analysis presented herein, we also included policy documents and reports from professional and international bodies and governmental reports, which offered useful explanations of the key concepts of this study and provided recent evidence on digital capacity and transformation in education along with policy recommendations. The inclusion and exclusion criteria that were considered in this study are presented in Table ​ Table1 1 .

Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the selection of resources on the impact of digital technologies on education

To ensure a reliable extraction of information from each study and assist the research synthesis we selected the study characteristics of interest (impact) and constructed coding forms. First, an overview of the synthesis was provided by the principal investigator who described the processes of coding, data entry, and data management. The coders followed the same set of instructions but worked independently. To ensure a common understanding of the process between coders, a sample of ten studies was tested. The results were compared, and the discrepancies were identified and resolved. Additionally, to ensure an efficient coding process, all coders participated in group meetings to discuss additions, deletions, and modifications (Stock, 1994 ). Due to the methodological diversity of the studied documents we began to synthesize the literature review findings based on similar study designs. Specifically, most of the meta-analysis studies were grouped in one category due to the quantitative nature of the measured impact. These studies tended to refer to student achievement (Hattie et al., 2014 ). Then, we organized the themes of the qualitative studies in several impact categories. Lastly, we synthesized both review and meta-analysis data across the categories. In order to establish a collective understanding of the concept of impact, we referred to a previous impact study by Balanskat ( 2009 ) which investigated the impact of technology in primary schools. In this context, the impact had a more specific ICT-related meaning and was described as “ a significant influence or effect of ICT on the measured or perceived quality of (parts of) education ” (Balanskat, 2009 , p. 9). In the study presented herein, the main impacts are in relation to learning and learners, teaching, and teachers, as well as other key stakeholders who are directly or indirectly connected to the school unit.

The study’s results identified multiple dimensions of the impact of digital technologies on students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes; on equality, inclusion, and social integration; on teachers’ professional and teaching practices; and on other school-related aspects and stakeholders. The data analysis indicated various factors that might affect the schools’ digital capacity and transformation, such as digital competencies, the teachers’ personal characteristics and professional development, as well as the school’s leadership and management, administration, infrastructure, etc. The impacts and factors found in the literature review are presented below.

Impacts of digital technologies on students’ knowledge, skills, attitudes, and emotions

The impact of ICT use on students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes has been investigated early in the literature. Eng ( 2005 ) found a small positive effect between ICT use and students' learning. Specifically, the author reported that access to computer-assisted instruction (CAI) programs in simulation or tutorial modes—used to supplement rather than substitute instruction – could enhance student learning. The author reported studies showing that teachers acknowledged the benefits of ICT on pupils with special educational needs; however, the impact of ICT on students' attainment was unclear. Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ) found a statistically significant positive association between ICT use and higher student achievement in primary and secondary education. The authors also reported improvements in the performance of low-achieving pupils. The use of ICT resulted in further positive gains for students, namely increased attention, engagement, motivation, communication and process skills, teamwork, and gains related to their behaviour towards learning. Evidence from qualitative studies showed that teachers, students, and parents recognized the positive impact of ICT on students' learning regardless of their competence level (strong/weak students). Punie et al. ( 2006 ) documented studies that showed positive results of ICT-based learning for supporting low-achieving pupils and young people with complex lives outside the education system. Liao et al. ( 2007 ) reported moderate positive effects of computer application instruction (CAI, computer simulations, and web-based learning) over traditional instruction on primary school student's achievement. Similarly, Tamim et al. ( 2011 ) reported small to moderate positive effects between the use of computer technology (CAI, ICT, simulations, computer-based instruction, digital and hypermedia) and student achievement in formal face-to-face classrooms compared to classrooms that did not use technology. Jewitt et al., ( 2011 ) found that the use of learning platforms (LPs) (virtual learning environments, management information systems, communication technologies, and information- and resource-sharing technologies) in schools allowed primary and secondary students to access a wider variety of quality learning resources, engage in independent and personalized learning, and conduct self- and peer-review; LPs also provide opportunities for teacher assessment and feedback. Similar findings were reported by Fu ( 2013 ), who documented a list of benefits and opportunities of ICT use. According to the author, the use of ICTs helps students access digital information and course content effectively and efficiently, supports student-centered and self-directed learning, as well as the development of a creative learning environment where more opportunities for critical thinking skills are offered, and promotes collaborative learning in a distance-learning environment. Higgins et al. ( 2012 ) found consistent but small positive associations between the use of technology and learning outcomes of school-age learners (5–18-year-olds) in studies linking the provision and use of technology with attainment. Additionally, Chauhan ( 2017 ) reported a medium positive effect of technology on the learning effectiveness of primary school students compared to students who followed traditional learning instruction.

The rise of mobile technologies and hardware devices instigated investigations into their impact on teaching and learning. Sung et al. ( 2016 ) reported a moderate effect on students' performance from the use of mobile devices in the classroom compared to the use of desktop computers or the non-use of mobile devices. Schmid et al. ( 2014 ) reported medium–low to low positive effects of technology integration (e.g., CAI, ICTs) in the classroom on students' achievement and attitude compared to not using technology or using technology to varying degrees. Tamim et al. ( 2015 ) found a low statistically significant effect of the use of tablets and other smart devices in educational contexts on students' achievement outcomes. The authors suggested that tablets offered additional advantages to students; namely, they reported improvements in students’ notetaking, organizational and communication skills, and creativity. Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) reported a small positive effect of one-to-one laptop programs on students’ academic achievement across subject areas. Additional reported benefits included student-centered, individualized, and project-based learning enhanced learner engagement and enthusiasm. Additionally, the authors found that students using one-to-one laptop programs tended to use technology more frequently than in non-laptop classrooms, and as a result, they developed a range of skills (e.g., information skills, media skills, technology skills, organizational skills). Haßler et al. ( 2016 ) found that most interventions that included the use of tablets across the curriculum reported positive learning outcomes. However, from 23 studies, five reported no differences, and two reported a negative effect on students' learning outcomes. Similar results were indicated by Kalati and Kim ( 2022 ) who investigated the effect of touchscreen technologies on young students’ learning. Specifically, from 53 studies, 34 advocated positive effects of touchscreen devices on children’s learning, 17 obtained mixed findings and two studies reported negative effects.

More recently, approaches that refer to the impact of gamification with the use of digital technologies on teaching and learning were also explored. A review by Pan et al. ( 2022 ) that examined the role of learning games in fostering mathematics education in K-12 settings, reported that gameplay improved students’ performance. Integration of digital games in teaching was also found as a promising pedagogical practice in STEM education that could lead to increased learning gains (Martinez et al., 2022 ; Wang et al., 2022 ). However, although Talan et al. ( 2020 ) reported a medium effect of the use of educational games (both digital and non-digital) on academic achievement, the effect of non-digital games was higher.

Over the last two years, the effects of more advanced technologies on teaching and learning were also investigated. Garzón and Acevedo ( 2019 ) found that AR applications had a medium effect on students' learning outcomes compared to traditional lectures. Similarly, Garzón et al. ( 2020 ) showed that AR had a medium impact on students' learning gains. VR applications integrated into various subjects were also found to have a moderate effect on students’ learning compared to control conditions (traditional classes, e.g., lectures, textbooks, and multimedia use, e.g., images, videos, animation, CAI) (Chen et al., 2022b ). Villena-Taranilla et al. ( 2022 ) noted the moderate effect of VR technologies on students’ learning when these were applied in STEM disciplines. In the same meta-analysis, Villena-Taranilla et al. ( 2022 ) highlighted the role of immersive VR, since its effect on students’ learning was greater (at a high level) across educational levels (K-6) compared to semi-immersive and non-immersive integrations. In another meta-analysis study, the effect size of the immersive VR was small and significantly differentiated across educational levels (Coban et al., 2022 ). The impact of AI on education was investigated by Su and Yang ( 2022 ) and Su et al. ( 2022 ), who showed that this technology significantly improved students’ understanding of AI computer science and machine learning concepts.

It is worth noting that the vast majority of studies referred to learning gains in specific subjects. Specifically, several studies examined the impact of digital technologies on students’ literacy skills and reported positive effects on language learning (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Grgurović et al., 2013 ; Friedel et al., 2013 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ; Chen et al., 2022b ; Savva et al., 2022 ). Also, several studies documented positive effects on specific language learning areas, namely foreign language learning (Kao, 2014 ), writing (Higgins et al., 2012 ; Wen & Walters, 2022 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ), as well as reading and comprehension (Cheung & Slavin, 2011 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Schwabe et al., 2022 ). ICTs were also found to have a positive impact on students' performance in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) disciplines (Arztmann et al., 2022 ; Bado, 2022 ; Villena-Taranilla et al., 2022 ; Wang et al., 2022 ). Specifically, a number of studies reported positive impacts on students’ achievement in mathematics (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Hillmayr et al., 2020 ; Li & Ma, 2010 ; Pan et al., 2022 ; Ran et al., 2022 ; Verschaffel et al., 2019 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ). Furthermore, studies documented positive effects of ICTs on science learning (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ; Hillmayr et al., 2020 ; Kalemkuş & Kalemkuş, 2022 ; Lei et al., 2022a ). Çelik ( 2022 ) also noted that computer simulations can help students understand learning concepts related to science. Furthermore, some studies documented that the use of ICTs had a positive impact on students’ achievement in other subjects, such as geography, history, music, and arts (Chauhan, 2017 ; Condie & Munro, 2007 ), and design and technology (Balanskat et al., 2006 ).

More specific positive learning gains were reported in a number of skills, e.g., problem-solving skills and pattern exploration skills (Higgins et al., 2012 ), metacognitive learning outcomes (Verschaffel et al., 2019 ), literacy skills, computational thinking skills, emotion control skills, and collaborative inquiry skills (Lu et al., 2022 ; Su & Yang, 2022 ; Su et al., 2022 ). Additionally, several investigations have reported benefits from the use of ICT on students’ creativity (Fielding & Murcia, 2022 ; Liu et al., 2022 ; Quah & Ng, 2022 ). Lastly, digital technologies were also found to be beneficial for enhancing students’ lifelong learning skills (Haleem et al., 2022 ).

Apart from gaining knowledge and skills, studies also reported improvement in motivation and interest in mathematics (Higgins et. al., 2019 ; Fadda et al., 2022 ) and increased positive achievement emotions towards several subjects during interventions using educational games (Lei et al., 2022a ). Chen et al. ( 2022a ) also reported a small but positive effect of digital health approaches in bullying and cyberbullying interventions with K-12 students, demonstrating that technology-based approaches can help reduce bullying and related consequences by providing emotional support, empowerment, and change of attitude. In their meta-review study, Su et al. ( 2022 ) also documented that AI technologies effectively strengthened students’ attitudes towards learning. In another meta-analysis, Arztmann et al. ( 2022 ) reported positive effects of digital games on motivation and behaviour towards STEM subjects.

Impacts of digital technologies on equality, inclusion and social integration

Although most of the reviewed studies focused on the impact of ICTs on students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes, reports were also made on other aspects in the school context, such as equality, inclusion, and social integration. Condie and Munro ( 2007 ) documented research interventions investigating how ICT can support pupils with additional or special educational needs. While those interventions were relatively small scale and mostly based on qualitative data, their findings indicated that the use of ICTs enabled the development of communication, participation, and self-esteem. A recent meta-analysis (Baragash et al., 2022 ) with 119 participants with different disabilities, reported a significant overall effect size of AR on their functional skills acquisition. Koh’s meta-analysis ( 2022 ) also revealed that students with intellectual and developmental disabilities improved their competence and performance when they used digital games in the lessons.

Istenic Starcic and Bagon ( 2014 ) found that the role of ICT in inclusion and the design of pedagogical and technological interventions was not sufficiently explored in educational interventions with people with special needs; however, some benefits of ICT use were found in students’ social integration. The issue of gender and technology use was mentioned in a small number of studies. Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) reported a statistically significant positive interaction between one-to-one laptop programs and gender. Specifically, the results showed that girls and boys alike benefitted from the laptop program, but the effect on girls’ achievement was smaller than that on boys’. Along the same lines, Arztmann et al. ( 2022 ) reported no difference in the impact of game-based learning between boys and girls, arguing that boys and girls equally benefited from game-based interventions in STEM domains. However, results from a systematic review by Cussó-Calabuig et al. ( 2018 ) found limited and low-quality evidence on the effects of intensive use of computers on gender differences in computer anxiety, self-efficacy, and self-confidence. Based on their view, intensive use of computers can reduce gender differences in some areas and not in others, depending on contextual and implementation factors.

Impacts of digital technologies on teachers’ professional and teaching practices

Various research studies have explored the impact of ICT on teachers’ instructional practices and student assessment. Friedel et al. ( 2013 ) found that the use of mobile devices by students enabled teachers to successfully deliver content (e.g., mobile serious games), provide scaffolding, and facilitate synchronous collaborative learning. The integration of digital games in teaching and learning activities also gave teachers the opportunity to study and apply various pedagogical practices (Bado, 2022 ). Specifically, Bado ( 2022 ) found that teachers who implemented instructional activities in three stages (pre-game, game, and post-game) maximized students’ learning outcomes and engagement. For instance, during the pre-game stage, teachers focused on lectures and gameplay training, at the game stage teachers provided scaffolding on content, addressed technical issues, and managed the classroom activities. During the post-game stage, teachers organized activities for debriefing to ensure that the gameplay had indeed enhanced students’ learning outcomes.

Furthermore, ICT can increase efficiency in lesson planning and preparation by offering possibilities for a more collaborative approach among teachers. The sharing of curriculum plans and the analysis of students’ data led to clearer target settings and improvements in reporting to parents (Balanskat et al., 2006 ).

Additionally, the use and application of digital technologies in teaching and learning were found to enhance teachers’ digital competence. Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ) documented studies that revealed that the use of digital technologies in education had a positive effect on teachers’ basic ICT skills. The greatest impact was found on teachers with enough experience in integrating ICTs in their teaching and/or who had recently participated in development courses for the pedagogical use of technologies in teaching. Punie et al. ( 2006 ) reported that the provision of fully equipped multimedia portable computers and the development of online teacher communities had positive impacts on teachers’ confidence and competence in the use of ICTs.

Moreover, online assessment via ICTs benefits instruction. In particular, online assessments support the digitalization of students’ work and related logistics, allow teachers to gather immediate feedback and readjust to new objectives, and support the improvement of the technical quality of tests by providing more accurate results. Additionally, the capabilities of ICTs (e.g., interactive media, simulations) create new potential methods of testing specific skills, such as problem-solving and problem-processing skills, meta-cognitive skills, creativity and communication skills, and the ability to work productively in groups (Punie et al., 2006 ).

Impacts of digital technologies on other school-related aspects and stakeholders

There is evidence that the effective use of ICTs and the data transmission offered by broadband connections help improve administration (Balanskat et al., 2006 ). Specifically, ICTs have been found to provide better management systems to schools that have data gathering procedures in place. Condie and Munro ( 2007 ) reported impacts from the use of ICTs in schools in the following areas: attendance monitoring, assessment records, reporting to parents, financial management, creation of repositories for learning resources, and sharing of information amongst staff. Such data can be used strategically for self-evaluation and monitoring purposes which in turn can result in school improvements. Additionally, they reported that online access to other people with similar roles helped to reduce headteachers’ isolation by offering them opportunities to share insights into the use of ICT in learning and teaching and how it could be used to support school improvement. Furthermore, ICTs provided more efficient and successful examination management procedures, namely less time-consuming reporting processes compared to paper-based examinations and smooth communications between schools and examination authorities through electronic data exchange (Punie et al., 2006 ).

Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) reported that the use of ICTs improved home-school relationships. Additionally, Escueta et al. ( 2017 ) reported several ICT programs that had improved the flow of information from the school to parents. Particularly, they documented that the use of ICTs (learning management systems, emails, dedicated websites, mobile phones) allowed for personalized and customized information exchange between schools and parents, such as attendance records, upcoming class assignments, school events, and students’ grades, which generated positive results on students’ learning outcomes and attainment. Such information exchange between schools and families prompted parents to encourage their children to put more effort into their schoolwork.

The above findings suggest that the impact of ICT integration in schools goes beyond students’ performance in school subjects. Specifically, it affects a number of school-related aspects, such as equality and social integration, professional and teaching practices, and diverse stakeholders. In Table ​ Table2, 2 , we summarize the different impacts of digital technologies on school stakeholders based on the literature review, while in Table ​ Table3 3 we organized the tools/platforms and practices/policies addressed in the meta-analyses, literature reviews, EU reports, and international bodies included in the manuscript.

The impact of digital technologies on schools’ stakeholders based on the literature review

Tools/platforms and practices/policies addressed in the meta-analyses, literature reviews, EU reports, and international bodies included in the manuscript

Additionally, based on the results of the literature review, there are many types of digital technologies with different affordances (see, for example, studies on VR vs Immersive VR), which evolve over time (e.g. starting from CAIs in 2005 to Augmented and Virtual reality 2020). Furthermore, these technologies are linked to different pedagogies and policy initiatives, which are critical factors in the study of impact. Table ​ Table3 3 summarizes the different tools and practices that have been used to examine the impact of digital technologies on education since 2005 based on the review results.

Factors that affect the integration of digital technologies

Although the analysis of the literature review demonstrated different impacts of the use of digital technology on education, several authors highlighted the importance of various factors, besides the technology itself, that affect this impact. For example, Liao et al. ( 2007 ) suggested that future studies should carefully investigate which factors contribute to positive outcomes by clarifying the exact relationship between computer applications and learning. Additionally, Haßler et al., ( 2016 ) suggested that the neutral findings regarding the impact of tablets on students learning outcomes in some of the studies included in their review should encourage educators, school leaders, and school officials to further investigate the potential of such devices in teaching and learning. Several other researchers suggested that a number of variables play a significant role in the impact of ICTs on students’ learning that could be attributed to the school context, teaching practices and professional development, the curriculum, and learners’ characteristics (Underwood, 2009 ; Tamim et al., 2011 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ; Archer et al., 2014 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Haßler et al., 2016 ; Chauhan, 2017 ; Lee et al., 2020 ; Tang et al., 2022 ).

Digital competencies

One of the most common challenges reported in studies that utilized digital tools in the classroom was the lack of students’ skills on how to use them. Fu ( 2013 ) found that students’ lack of technical skills is a barrier to the effective use of ICT in the classroom. Tamim et al. ( 2015 ) reported that students faced challenges when using tablets and smart mobile devices, associated with the technical issues or expertise needed for their use and the distracting nature of the devices and highlighted the need for teachers’ professional development. Higgins et al. ( 2012 ) reported that skills training about the use of digital technologies is essential for learners to fully exploit the benefits of instruction.

Delgado et al. ( 2015 ), meanwhile, reported studies that showed a strong positive association between teachers’ computer skills and students’ use of computers. Teachers’ lack of ICT skills and familiarization with technologies can become a constraint to the effective use of technology in the classroom (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Delgado et al., 2015 ).

It is worth noting that the way teachers are introduced to ICTs affects the impact of digital technologies on education. Previous studies have shown that teachers may avoid using digital technologies due to limited digital skills (Balanskat, 2006 ), or they prefer applying “safe” technologies, namely technologies that their own teachers used and with which they are familiar (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). In this regard, the provision of digital skills training and exposure to new digital tools might encourage teachers to apply various technologies in their lessons (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). Apart from digital competence, technical support in the school setting has also been shown to affect teachers’ use of technology in their classrooms (Delgado et al., 2015 ). Ferrari et al. ( 2011 ) found that while teachers’ use of ICT is high, 75% stated that they needed more institutional support and a shift in the mindset of educational actors to achieve more innovative teaching practices. The provision of support can reduce time and effort as well as cognitive constraints, which could cause limited ICT integration in the school lessons by teachers (Escueta et al., 2017 ).

Teachers’ personal characteristics, training approaches, and professional development

Teachers’ personal characteristics and professional development affect the impact of digital technologies on education. Specifically, Cheok and Wong ( 2015 ) found that teachers’ personal characteristics (e.g., anxiety, self-efficacy) are associated with their satisfaction and engagement with technology. Bingimlas ( 2009 ) reported that lack of confidence, resistance to change, and negative attitudes in using new technologies in teaching are significant determinants of teachers’ levels of engagement in ICT. The same author reported that the provision of technical support, motivation support (e.g., awards, sufficient time for planning), and training on how technologies can benefit teaching and learning can eliminate the above barriers to ICT integration. Archer et al. ( 2014 ) found that comfort levels in using technology are an important predictor of technology integration and argued that it is essential to provide teachers with appropriate training and ongoing support until they are comfortable with using ICTs in the classroom. Hillmayr et al. ( 2020 ) documented that training teachers on ICT had an important effecton students’ learning.

According to Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ), the impact of ICTs on students’ learning is highly dependent on the teachers’ capacity to efficiently exploit their application for pedagogical purposes. Results obtained from the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) (OECD, 2021 ) revealed that although schools are open to innovative practices and have the capacity to adopt them, only 39% of teachers in the European Union reported that they are well or very well prepared to use digital technologies for teaching. Li and Ma ( 2010 ) and Hardman ( 2019 ) showed that the positive effect of technology on students’ achievement depends on the pedagogical practices used by teachers. Schmid et al. ( 2014 ) reported that learning was best supported when students were engaged in active, meaningful activities with the use of technological tools that provided cognitive support. Tamim et al. ( 2015 ) compared two different pedagogical uses of tablets and found a significant moderate effect when the devices were used in a student-centered context and approach rather than within teacher-led environments. Similarly, Garzón and Acevedo ( 2019 ) and Garzón et al. ( 2020 ) reported that the positive results from the integration of AR applications could be attributed to the existence of different variables which could influence AR interventions (e.g., pedagogical approach, learning environment, and duration of the intervention). Additionally, Garzón et al. ( 2020 ) suggested that the pedagogical resources that teachers used to complement their lectures and the pedagogical approaches they applied were crucial to the effective integration of AR on students’ learning gains. Garzón and Acevedo ( 2019 ) also emphasized that the success of a technology-enhanced intervention is based on both the technology per se and its characteristics and on the pedagogical strategies teachers choose to implement. For instance, their results indicated that the collaborative learning approach had the highest impact on students’ learning gains among other approaches (e.g., inquiry-based learning, situated learning, or project-based learning). Ran et al. ( 2022 ) also found that the use of technology to design collaborative and communicative environments showed the largest moderator effects among the other approaches.

Hattie ( 2008 ) reported that the effective use of computers is associated with training teachers in using computers as a teaching and learning tool. Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) noted that in addition to the strategies teachers adopt in teaching, ongoing professional development is also vital in ensuring the success of technology implementation programs. Sung et al. ( 2016 ) found that research on the use of mobile devices to support learning tends to report that the insufficient preparation of teachers is a major obstacle in implementing effective mobile learning programs in schools. Friedel et al. ( 2013 ) found that providing training and support to teachers increased the positive impact of the interventions on students’ learning gains. Trucano ( 2005 ) argued that positive impacts occur when digital technologies are used to enhance teachers’ existing pedagogical philosophies. Higgins et al. ( 2012 ) found that the types of technologies used and how they are used could also affect students’ learning. The authors suggested that training and professional development of teachers that focuses on the effective pedagogical use of technology to support teaching and learning is an important component of successful instructional approaches (Higgins et al., 2012 ). Archer et al. ( 2014 ) found that studies that reported ICT interventions during which teachers received training and support had moderate positive effects on students’ learning outcomes, which were significantly higher than studies where little or no detail about training and support was mentioned. Fu ( 2013 ) reported that the lack of teachers’ knowledge and skills on the technical and instructional aspects of ICT use in the classroom, in-service training, pedagogy support, technical and financial support, as well as the lack of teachers’ motivation and encouragement to integrate ICT on their teaching were significant barriers to the integration of ICT in education.

School leadership and management

Management and leadership are important cornerstones in the digital transformation process (Pihir et al., 2018 ). Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) documented leadership among the factors positively affecting the successful implementation of technology integration in schools. Strong leadership, strategic planning, and systematic integration of digital technologies are prerequisites for the digital transformation of education systems (Ređep, 2021 ). Management and leadership play a significant role in formulating policies that are translated into practice and ensure that developments in ICT become embedded into the life of the school and in the experiences of staff and pupils (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). Policy support and leadership must include the provision of an overall vision for the use of digital technologies in education, guidance for students and parents, logistical support, as well as teacher training (Conrads et al., 2017 ). Unless there is a commitment throughout the school, with accountability for progress at key points, it is unlikely for ICT integration to be sustained or become part of the culture (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). To achieve this, principals need to adopt and promote a whole-institution strategy and build a strong mutual support system that enables the school’s technological maturity (European Commission, 2019 ). In this context, school culture plays an essential role in shaping the mindsets and beliefs of school actors towards successful technology integration. Condie and Munro ( 2007 ) emphasized the importance of the principal’s enthusiasm and work as a source of inspiration for the school staff and the students to cultivate a culture of innovation and establish sustainable digital change. Specifically, school leaders need to create conditions in which the school staff is empowered to experiment and take risks with technology (Elkordy & Lovinelli, 2020 ).

In order for leaders to achieve the above, it is important to develop capacities for learning and leading, advocating professional learning, and creating support systems and structures (European Commission, 2019 ). Digital technology integration in education systems can be challenging and leadership needs guidance to achieve it. Such guidance can be introduced through the adoption of new methods and techniques in strategic planning for the integration of digital technologies (Ređep, 2021 ). Even though the role of leaders is vital, the relevant training offered to them has so far been inadequate. Specifically, only a third of the education systems in Europe have put in place national strategies that explicitly refer to the training of school principals (European Commission, 2019 , p. 16).

Connectivity, infrastructure, and government and other support

The effective integration of digital technologies across levels of education presupposes the development of infrastructure, the provision of digital content, and the selection of proper resources (Voogt et al., 2013 ). Particularly, a high-quality broadband connection in the school increases the quality and quantity of educational activities. There is evidence that ICT increases and formalizes cooperative planning between teachers and cooperation with managers, which in turn has a positive impact on teaching practices (Balanskat et al., 2006 ). Additionally, ICT resources, including software and hardware, increase the likelihood of teachers integrating technology into the curriculum to enhance their teaching practices (Delgado et al., 2015 ). For example, Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) found that the use of one-on-one laptop programs resulted in positive changes in teaching and learning, which would not have been accomplished without the infrastructure and technical support provided to teachers. Delgado et al. ( 2015 ) reported that limited access to technology (insufficient computers, peripherals, and software) and lack of technical support are important barriers to ICT integration. Access to infrastructure refers not only to the availability of technology in a school but also to the provision of a proper amount and the right types of technology in locations where teachers and students can use them. Effective technical support is a central element of the whole-school strategy for ICT (Underwood, 2009 ). Bingimlas ( 2009 ) reported that lack of technical support in the classroom and whole-school resources (e.g., failing to connect to the Internet, printers not printing, malfunctioning computers, and working on old computers) are significant barriers that discourage the use of ICT by teachers. Moreover, poor quality and inadequate hardware maintenance, and unsuitable educational software may discourage teachers from using ICTs (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Bingimlas, 2009 ).

Government support can also impact the integration of ICTs in teaching. Specifically, Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ) reported that government interventions and training programs increased teachers’ enthusiasm and positive attitudes towards ICT and led to the routine use of embedded ICT.

Lastly, another important factor affecting digital transformation is the development and quality assurance of digital learning resources. Such resources can be support textbooks and related materials or resources that focus on specific subjects or parts of the curriculum. Policies on the provision of digital learning resources are essential for schools and can be achieved through various actions. For example, some countries are financing web portals that become repositories, enabling teachers to share resources or create their own. Additionally, they may offer e-learning opportunities or other services linked to digital education. In other cases, specific agencies of projects have also been set up to develop digital resources (Eurydice, 2019 ).

Administration and digital data management

The digital transformation of schools involves organizational improvements at the level of internal workflows, communication between the different stakeholders, and potential for collaboration. Vuorikari et al. ( 2020 ) presented evidence that digital technologies supported the automation of administrative practices in schools and reduced the administration’s workload. There is evidence that digital data affects the production of knowledge about schools and has the power to transform how schooling takes place. Specifically, Sellar ( 2015 ) reported that data infrastructure in education is developing due to the demand for “ information about student outcomes, teacher quality, school performance, and adult skills, associated with policy efforts to increase human capital and productivity practices ” (p. 771). In this regard, practices, such as datafication which refers to the “ translation of information about all kinds of things and processes into quantified formats” have become essential for decision-making based on accountability reports about the school’s quality. The data could be turned into deep insights about education or training incorporating ICTs. For example, measuring students’ online engagement with the learning material and drawing meaningful conclusions can allow teachers to improve their educational interventions (Vuorikari et al., 2020 ).

Students’ socioeconomic background and family support

Research show that the active engagement of parents in the school and their support for the school’s work can make a difference to their children’s attitudes towards learning and, as a result, their achievement (Hattie, 2008 ). In recent years, digital technologies have been used for more effective communication between school and family (Escueta et al., 2017 ). The European Commission ( 2020 ) presented data from a Eurostat survey regarding the use of computers by students during the pandemic. The data showed that younger pupils needed additional support and guidance from parents and the challenges were greater for families in which parents had lower levels of education and little to no digital skills.

In this regard, the socio-economic background of the learners and their socio-cultural environment also affect educational achievements (Punie et al., 2006 ). Trucano documented that the use of computers at home positively influenced students’ confidence and resulted in more frequent use at school, compared to students who had no home access (Trucano, 2005 ). In this sense, the socio-economic background affects the access to computers at home (OECD, 2015 ) which in turn influences the experience of ICT, an important factor for school achievement (Punie et al., 2006 ; Underwood, 2009 ). Furthermore, parents from different socio-economic backgrounds may have different abilities and availability to support their children in their learning process (Di Pietro et al., 2020 ).

Schools’ socioeconomic context and emergency situations

The socio-economic context of the school is closely related to a school’s digital transformation. For example, schools in disadvantaged, rural, or deprived areas are likely to lack the digital capacity and infrastructure required to adapt to the use of digital technologies during emergency periods, such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Di Pietro et al., 2020 ). Data collected from school principals confirmed that in several countries, there is a rural/urban divide in connectivity (OECD, 2015 ).

Emergency periods also affect the digitalization of schools. The COVID-19 pandemic led to the closure of schools and forced them to seek appropriate and connective ways to keep working on the curriculum (Di Pietro et al., 2020 ). The sudden large-scale shift to distance and online teaching and learning also presented challenges around quality and equity in education, such as the risk of increased inequalities in learning, digital, and social, as well as teachers facing difficulties coping with this demanding situation (European Commission, 2020 ).

Looking at the findings of the above studies, we can conclude that the impact of digital technologies on education is influenced by various actors and touches many aspects of the school ecosystem. Figure  1 summarizes the factors affecting the digital technologies’ impact on school stakeholders based on the findings from the literature review.

Factors that affect the impact of ICTs on education

The findings revealed that the use of digital technologies in education affects a variety of actors within a school’s ecosystem. First, we observed that as technologies evolve, so does the interest of the research community to apply them to school settings. Figure  2 summarizes the trends identified in current research around the impact of digital technologies on schools’ digital capacity and transformation as found in the present study. Starting as early as 2005, when computers, simulations, and interactive boards were the most commonly applied tools in school interventions (e.g., Eng, 2005 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Moran et al., 2008 ; Tamim et al., 2011 ), moving towards the use of learning platforms (Jewitt et al., 2011 ), then to the use of mobile devices and digital games (e.g., Tamim et al., 2015 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Talan et al., 2020 ), as well as e-books (e.g., Savva et al., 2022 ), to the more recent advanced technologies, such as AR and VR applications (e.g., Garzón & Acevedo, 2019 ; Garzón et al., 2020 ; Kalemkuş & Kalemkuş, 2022 ), or robotics and AI (e.g., Su & Yang, 2022 ; Su et al., 2022 ). As this evolution shows, digital technologies are a concept in flux with different affordances and characteristics. Additionally, from an instructional perspective, there has been a growing interest in different modes and models of content delivery such as online, blended, and hybrid modes (e.g., Cheok & Wong, 2015 ; Kazu & Yalçin, 2022 ; Ulum, 2022 ). This is an indication that the value of technologies to support teaching and learning as well as other school-related practices is increasingly recognized by the research and school community. The impact results from the literature review indicate that ICT integration on students’ learning outcomes has effects that are small (Coban et al., 2022 ; Eng, 2005 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ; Schmid et al., 2014 ; Tamim et al., 2015 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ) to moderate (Garzón & Acevedo, 2019 ; Garzón et al., 2020 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Talan et al., 2020 ; Wen & Walters, 2022 ). That said, a number of recent studies have reported high effect sizes (e.g., Kazu & Yalçin, 2022 ).

Current work and trends in the study of the impact of digital technologies on schools’ digital capacity

Based on these findings, several authors have suggested that the impact of technology on education depends on several variables and not on the technology per se (Tamim et al., 2011 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ; Archer et al., 2014 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Haßler et al., 2016 ; Chauhan, 2017 ; Lee et al., 2020 ; Lei et al., 2022a ). While the impact of ICTs on student achievement has been thoroughly investigated by researchers, other aspects related to school life that are also affected by ICTs, such as equality, inclusion, and social integration have received less attention. Further analysis of the literature review has revealed a greater investment in ICT interventions to support learning and teaching in the core subjects of literacy and STEM disciplines, especially mathematics, and science. These were the most common subjects studied in the reviewed papers often drawing on national testing results, while studies that investigated other subject areas, such as social studies, were limited (Chauhan, 2017 ; Condie & Munro, 2007 ). As such, research is still lacking impact studies that focus on the effects of ICTs on a range of curriculum subjects.

The qualitative research provided additional information about the impact of digital technologies on education, documenting positive effects and giving more details about implications, recommendations, and future research directions. Specifically, the findings regarding the role of ICTs in supporting learning highlight the importance of teachers’ instructional practice and the learning context in the use of technologies and consequently their impact on instruction (Çelik, 2022 ; Schmid et al., 2014 ; Tamim et al., 2015 ). The review also provided useful insights regarding the various factors that affect the impact of digital technologies on education. These factors are interconnected and play a vital role in the transformation process. Specifically, these factors include a) digital competencies; b) teachers’ personal characteristics and professional development; c) school leadership and management; d) connectivity, infrastructure, and government support; e) administration and data management practices; f) students’ socio-economic background and family support and g) the socioeconomic context of the school and emergency situations. It is worth noting that we observed factors that affect the integration of ICTs in education but may also be affected by it. For example, the frequent use of ICTs and the use of laptops by students for instructional purposes positively affect the development of digital competencies (Zheng et al., 2016 ) and at the same time, the digital competencies affect the use of ICTs (Fu, 2013 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ). As a result, the impact of digital technologies should be explored more as an enabler of desirable and new practices and not merely as a catalyst that improves the output of the education process i.e. namely student attainment.

Conclusions

Digital technologies offer immense potential for fundamental improvement in schools. However, investment in ICT infrastructure and professional development to improve school education are yet to provide fruitful results. Digital transformation is a complex process that requires large-scale transformative changes that presuppose digital capacity and preparedness. To achieve such changes, all actors within the school’s ecosystem need to share a common vision regarding the integration of ICTs in education and work towards achieving this goal. Our literature review, which synthesized quantitative and qualitative data from a list of meta-analyses and review studies, provided useful insights into the impact of ICTs on different school stakeholders and showed that the impact of digital technologies touches upon many different aspects of school life, which are often overlooked when the focus is on student achievement as the final output of education. Furthermore, the concept of digital technologies is a concept in flux as technologies are not only different among them calling for different uses in the educational practice but they also change through time. Additionally, we opened a forum for discussion regarding the factors that affect a school’s digital capacity and transformation. We hope that our study will inform policy, practice, and research and result in a paradigm shift towards more holistic approaches in impact and assessment studies.

Study limitations and future directions

We presented a review of the study of digital technologies' impact on education and factors influencing schools’ digital capacity and transformation. The study results were based on a non-systematic literature review grounded on the acquisition of documentation in specific databases. Future studies should investigate more databases to corroborate and enhance our results. Moreover, search queries could be enhanced with key terms that could provide additional insights about the integration of ICTs in education, such as “policies and strategies for ICT integration in education”. Also, the study drew information from meta-analyses and literature reviews to acquire evidence about the effects of ICT integration in schools. Such evidence was mostly based on the general conclusions of the studies. It is worth mentioning that, we located individual studies which showed different, such as negative or neutral results. Thus, further insights are needed about the impact of ICTs on education and the factors influencing the impact. Furthermore, the nature of the studies included in meta-analyses and reviews is different as they are based on different research methodologies and data gathering processes. For instance, in a meta-analysis, the impact among the studies investigated is measured in a particular way, depending on policy or research targets (e.g., results from national examinations, pre-/post-tests). Meanwhile, in literature reviews, qualitative studies offer additional insights and detail based on self-reports and research opinions on several different aspects and stakeholders who could affect and be affected by ICT integration. As a result, it was challenging to draw causal relationships between so many interrelating variables.

Despite the challenges mentioned above, this study envisaged examining school units as ecosystems that consist of several actors by bringing together several variables from different research epistemologies to provide an understanding of the integration of ICTs. However, the use of other tools and methodologies and models for evaluation of the impact of digital technologies on education could give more detailed data and more accurate results. For instance, self-reflection tools, like SELFIE—developed on the DigCompOrg framework- (Kampylis et al., 2015 ; Bocconi & Lightfoot, 2021 ) can help capture a school’s digital capacity and better assess the impact of ICTs on education. Furthermore, the development of a theory of change could be a good approach for documenting the impact of digital technologies on education. Specifically, theories of change are models used for the evaluation of interventions and their impact; they are developed to describe how interventions will work and give the desired outcomes (Mayne, 2015 ). Theory of change as a methodological approach has also been used by researchers to develop models for evaluation in the field of education (e.g., Aromatario et al., 2019 ; Chapman & Sammons, 2013 ; De Silva et al., 2014 ).

We also propose that future studies aim at similar investigations by applying more holistic approaches for impact assessment that can provide in-depth data about the impact of digital technologies on education. For instance, future studies could focus on different research questions about the technologies that are used during the interventions or the way the implementation takes place (e.g., What methodologies are used for documenting impact? How are experimental studies implemented? How can teachers be taken into account and trained on the technology and its functions? What are the elements of an appropriate and successful implementation? How is the whole intervention designed? On which learning theories is the technology implementation based?).

Future research could also focus on assessing the impact of digital technologies on various other subjects since there is a scarcity of research related to particular subjects, such as geography, history, arts, music, and design and technology. More research should also be done about the impact of ICTs on skills, emotions, and attitudes, and on equality, inclusion, social interaction, and special needs education. There is also a need for more research about the impact of ICTs on administration, management, digitalization, and home-school relationships. Additionally, although new forms of teaching and learning with the use of ICTs (e.g., blended, hybrid, and online learning) have initiated several investigations in mainstream classrooms, only a few studies have measured their impact on students’ learning. Additionally, our review did not document any study about the impact of flipped classrooms on K-12 education. Regarding teaching and learning approaches, it is worth noting that studies referred to STEM or STEAM did not investigate the impact of STEM/STEAM as an interdisciplinary approach to learning but only investigated the impact of ICTs on learning in each domain as a separate subject (science, technology, engineering, arts, mathematics). Hence, we propose future research to also investigate the impact of the STEM/STEAM approach on education. The impact of emerging technologies on education, such as AR, VR, robotics, and AI has also been investigated recently, but more work needs to be done.

Finally, we propose that future studies could focus on the way in which specific factors, e.g., infrastructure and government support, school leadership and management, students’ and teachers’ digital competencies, approaches teachers utilize in the teaching and learning (e.g., blended, online and hybrid learning, flipped classrooms, STEM/STEAM approach, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning), affect the impact of digital technologies on education. We hope that future studies will give detailed insights into the concept of schools’ digital transformation through further investigation of impacts and factors which influence digital capacity and transformation based on the results and the recommendations of the present study.

Acknowledgements

This project has received funding under Grant Agreement No Ref Ares (2021) 339036 7483039 as well as funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program under Grant Agreement No 739578 and the Government of the Republic of Cyprus through the Deputy Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digital Policy. The UVa co-authors would like also to acknowledge funding from the European Regional Development Fund and the National Research Agency of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, under project grant PID2020-112584RB-C32.

Data availability statement

Declarations.

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