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Recent advances in forensic science research

For immediate release, acs news service weekly presspac: april 20, 2022.

Forensic scientists collect and analyze evidence during a criminal investigation to identify victims, determine the cause of death and figure out “who done it.” Below are some recent papers published in ACS journals reporting on new advances that could help forensic scientists solve crimes. Reporters can request free access to these papers by emailing  newsroom@acs.org .

“Insights into the Differential Preservation of Bone Proteomes in Inhumed and Entombed Cadavers from Italian Forensic Caseworks” Journal of Proteome Research March 22, 2022 Bone proteins can help determine how long ago a person died (post-mortem interval, PMI) and how old they were at the time of their death (age at death, AAD), but the levels of these proteins could vary with burial conditions. By comparing bone proteomes of exhumed individuals who had been entombed in mausoleums or buried in the ground, the researchers found several proteins whose levels were not affected by the burial environment, which they say could help with AAD or PMI estimation.

“Carbon Dot Powders with Cross-Linking-Based Long-Wavelength Emission for Multicolor Imaging of Latent Fingerprints” ACS Applied Nanomaterials Jan. 21, 2022 For decades, criminal investigators have recognized the importance of analyzing latent fingerprints left at crime scenes to help identify a perpetrator, but current methods to make these prints visible have limitations, including low contrast, low sensitivity and high toxicity. These researchers devised a simple way to make fluorescent carbon dot powders that can be applied to latent fingerprints, making them fluoresce under UV light with red, orange and yellow colors.

“Proteomics Offers New Clues for Forensic Investigations” ACS Central Science Oct. 18, 2021 This review article describes how forensic scientists are now turning their attention to proteins in bone, blood or other biological samples, which can sometimes answer questions that DNA can’t. For example, unlike DNA, a person’s complement of proteins (or proteome) changes over time, providing important clues about when a person died and their age at death.

“Integrating the MasSpec Pen with Sub-Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization for Rapid Chemical Analysis and Forensic Applications” Analytical Chemistry May 19, 2021 These researchers previously developed a “MasSpec Pen,” a handheld device integrated with a mass spectrometer for direct analysis and molecular profiling of biological samples. In this article, they develop a new version that can quickly and easily detect and measure compounds, including cocaine, oxycodone and explosives, which can be important in forensics investigations.

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Blood pattern analysis—a review and new findings

• Prashant Singh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1340-1789 1 ,
• Nandini Gupta 1 &
• Ravi Rathi 2  

Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences volume  11 , Article number:  9 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Blood is one of the most common pieces of evidence encountered at the crime scene. Due to the viscous nature of blood, unique bloodstain patterns are formed which when studied can reveal what might have happened at the scene of the crime. Blood pattern analysis (BPA), i.e., the study of shape, size, and nature of bloodstain. The focus of this paper is to understand blood and BPA. An experimental finding to understand blood stain formation using Awlata dye was conducted within the university premises under laboratory conditions. Awlata ( Alta ), an Indian dye used for grooming of women, was used to create fake blood stains to understand the formation of bloodstains with respect to varying heights, and their relation with spines and satellite stains was determined.

When the height of dropping fake blood increased, the distance of satellite stains emerging from the fake blood stains was also increasing. From the experimental finding, it was found that satellite stains were directly proportional to height of blood stain and spines were inversely proportional.

It can be concluded that blood is a vital source of information and when interpreted correctly it can be used as a source of information that can aid in investigations. Thus, a relation between formation of blood stains with relation to height was established. This finding using fake blood stains can help in carrying out future studies.

The study aims to determine the relationship between spines and satellites stains in accordance with varying heights using Awlata dye. It involves creation of fake bloodstains using Awlata dye to determine this relation. The study also seeks to suggest the use of Awlata dye for studying bloodstains for conducting future studies.

Blood is an organic fluid circulating in our body that is essential to maintain life; it includes blood cells and plasma that accounts for approximately 8% of body weight. Blood ranges from 4–5 L (female) to 5–6 L (male). Blood has few bodily capabilities which can be required for its morphological interpretation like specific weight, viscosity, and surface tension (Peschel et al. 2011 ; Bevel and Gardner 2012 ). Viscosity in terms of blood may be described as the pressure of the flow of blood, due to shear stress or extensional stress inside the body (Bevel and Gardner 2012 ). An elastic-like property of a fluid due to cohesive forces between liquid molecules is surface tension (Larkin et al. 2012 ). Blood possesses fluid nature inside the body or when it exits from the body due to an impact/injury (James et al. 2005 ). If there were blood clots in the blood found at the crime scene, it suggests that the victim was exposed to an extended injury (Peschel et al. 2011 ; Bevel and Gardner 2012 ).

Blood can exit from the body as drip, spurt, etc., or can even ooze from wounds depending on the type of infliction/damage. BPA is a type of examination that includes the interpretation of shapes of the bloodstains (James et al. 2005 ). Blood pattern analysis aims to reveal the physical events that might have occurred at the crime scene. These bloodstains can be interpreted by their shape, size, and distribution (Brodbeck 2012 ). The facts acquired from BPA can help in crime scene reconstruction, corroborating witness statements, for the investigative procedure (James et al. 2005 ). If bloodstains at a crime scene are either dried or removed by the assailant, they can still be recovered by spraying luminol. Luminol (5-amino-2,3 dihydro-1,4-pthalazine-dione) can be used to detect the presence of minor, unnoticed, or hidden bloodstains diluted down to a level of 1:10 6 (1 μL of blood in 1 L of solution) which gives chemiluminescence or glowing effect when it reacts with dried bloodstains (Quickenden and Creamer 2001 ).

Luminol solution is usually directly sprayed in completely dark environments, and then UV (ultra violet) light visualizes the sample (blood). The fluorescence obtained is then photographed or filmed. Luminol can be used to identify minor, unnoticed, or hidden bloodstains, and it also has a high sensitivity to old blood or completely dried blood but, unfortunately, luminol can react with detergents, metals, and vegetables to give false-positive results (Barni et al. 2007 ). Sometimes, there are probabilities that the bloodstain recovered had been created using certain substances (dyes/stains) to deceive the investigators. To distinguish whether a sample is blood or not, assays like Kastle-Meyer (phenolphthalein test), Medinger reaction (Leuco malachite Green), and Tetramethylbenzidine test are used, but they cannot satisfactorily confirm blood (preliminary tests). So, for the confirmatory evaluation of blood, Teichmann and Takayama tests are performed to distinguish if the samples were blood or not (Saferstein and Hall 2020 ). It is also very important for the analyst to determine the origin of species of blood (whether human or animal) by precipitin test; this is often necessary to avoid confusion in investigative findings. There are several conditions in which the bloodstain patterns are disturbed/altered and in such cases, no useful information can be interpreted. So, DNA analysis is utilized for providing investigative leads (Saferstein and Hall 2020 ). When the bloodstains are suspected to be from multiple sources, the investigator can often rely on DNA to reveal valuable details about the crime. So, in the case of multiple victims, analysts often use DNA profiling to determine whose blood it was (James et al. 2005 ; Karger et al. 2008 ).

Bloodstain patterns distributed at the crime scene can be used for the reconstruction of an event (Comiskey et al. 2016 ). Before reconstruction, an analyst must have a comprehensive view of the overall picture and use the step-by-step approach to differentiate and analyze the bloodstain patterns and search for the informative points (James et al. 2005 ). It is also required that the investigator must create a hypothesis on the formation of blood patterns due to injuries. Reconstruction can be further improved by the contribution of case descriptions and statements (witnesses/perpetrators) that can provide insights on the sequence of events. Hence, to carry out an effective reconstruction, both casework experience combined with knowledge of injuries should be known (Karger et al. 2008 ; Kunz et al. 2013 ; Kunz et al. 2015 ).

Types of bloodstains

Passive patterns.

It is a type of bloodstain pattern formed due to gravity, patterns like drip stain, flow stain, blood pool, and serum stain are observed. A drip stain is a drop falling without any disturbance that can take a spherical shape without disintegrating into smaller droplets. Bloodstains, depending on the angle, can cause the blood drop to have a circular or slightly elongated shape; this helps in the determination of the angle of impact (Swgstain 2009 ). Sometimes, a trail can be formed due to the dripping of blood from a weapon as well as in case of blunt or trauma injuries, due to which large volume of blood can be encountered at the crime scene (James et al. 2005 ; Peschel et al. 2011 ).

Spatter patterns

These are patterns formed when hard objects are used to strike the victim (example: a pipe). Forward spatter on the other hand is a pattern formed towards the direction of damage (example: bullet creating an exit wound) (James et al. 2005 ; Peschel et al. 2011 ). Back spatter is a pattern formed by blood when damage is to a hard surface like the skull by a bullet, and the bloodstains will be pointing away from the impact. Gunfire spatter can also vary on the caliber of the weapon used, location of impact, and the location of the victim (James et al. 2005 ; Peschel et al. 2011 ).

Projected patterns are irregular patterns that are due to the motion of weapon (example: stabbing). If in case at the crime scene there was existence of droplets of blood of varied sizes, it is called a cast-off pattern (example: injuries by hammers) (James et al. 2005 ). In case of injury to the artery, the blood from the blood vessel flows like a fountain (upward to downward flow), a zig-zag pattern will be observed until the pressure of the lungs reduces. If there was injury internally, expiration from the mouth/nose releases blood that creates a pattern very small to see (fine mist-like) (James et al. 2005 ; Peschel et al. 2011 ).

Altered patterns

Bloodstain patterns that indicate that a physical change had occurred can be said as altered patterns. This change can be due to physical activity, diffusion, dilution, or insects’, which can misguide the investigators to consider them as drip patterns. In case if the body was dragged over pre-existing blood, it leaves a tangential path (James et al. 2005 ). Contact prints may also be recovered on clean surfaces at the crime scenes (bloody shoe prints, fingerprints, or the entire palm) that can help investigators in determining what might have occurred at the crime scene. This can help investigators to determine what object could have been at the crime scene (James et al. 2005 ; Peschel et al. 2011 ).

Void patterns on the other hands are formed when an object is placed between the blood source and projection area, it is likely to receive some of the stains, which consequently leads to an absence of the stains in an otherwise continuous bloodstain pattern, which can indicate that an object or person would have been a part of the pattern (like a missing object from the wall) that if recovered can help in completing the pattern (James et al. 2005 ; Peschel et al. 2011 ).

Insects that move over the blood can also create a unique pattern that can often confuse the investigators to what pattern it could be. When blood comes into contact with clothing and fabric it spreads via diffusion, often leaving an irregularly shaped pattern which is difficult to interpret, especially in that cases the surface could be collected and send for examination to forensic labs (James et al. 2005 ; Peschel et al. 2011 ).

Moreover, to reconstruct the events that caused bloodshed, the investigators use the direction and angle of the spatter to calculate the areas of convergence (it is the starting point of the bloodshed) and area of origin (point from where the blood immerged) to mark the location of the victim and perpetrator (James et al. 2005 ) (Fig. 1 ).

Fake blood stains that were made using Awlata dye

Different works have been carried in blood pattern analysis, a study showed that when determining area of origin from blood stains, larger drops which are elliptical should be given more consideration (de Bruin et al. 2011 ). In another study, the velocities of blood were considered with factors like air drag and gravity which was used to predict the back-spatter formation by carrying the experiment using a blood-soaked sponge (Comiskey et al. 2016 ).

Fluid dynamics was also given consideration in blood pattern analysis to understand how the blood behaves as a liquid when in air and the factors that are affecting the formation the blood drop (Attinger et al. 2013 ). Study of spines and satellite on basis of velocity has also depicted the formation of bloodstains (Attinger et al. 2013 ).

In a real-time setting, studying bloodstains and its patterns using real blood can be a tedious task, as it requires a large amount of blood. Moreover, in order to carry out such a study, it will require ethical clearance as well as financial support. Using Awlata dye for studying bloodstains can solve these problems because of its easy availability, low cost, and it can be made under laboratory conditions. Thus, investigators and scientists can use this for experimental purposes and to carry future studies.

Article selection criteria for review

The initial criteria for selecting literature were based on searching different keywords on Google searching engine for blood, blood pattern analysis, and blood pattern analysis in forensic science. Then, after screening of articles based on the title and abstract of papers, papers were sorted. Articles and relevant internet sources that matched the relevant criteria of the review were also selected.

Article eligibility criteria for review

Eligibility of articles was finalized by analyzing whether the papers were discussing about BPA and its related methodology or not.

On basis of analyzing existing literature, it was decided that a study needs to be conducted by creating fake bloodstains using Awlata, so as to understand the formation of stains if the angle is kept fixed and the height is varied (Buck et al. 2011 ; Attinger et al. 2013 ). An Indian dye (Awlata/Alta) was used to make fake blood stains to depict similar patterns as that of blood. Awlata (Alta) is a traditional Indian red dye used by women in the festive season and is applied to hands and feet. For the experiment Awlata dye, a Pasteur pipette and white chart papers were used. The experiment was carried within the university premises in the university laboratory.

Preparation/composition of Awlata

In cultural practices, Awlata dye was made from Betel leaves which is a vine from the family Piperaceae. Awlata is also made from the extract of lac that is a red dye obtained from the scale of an insect Laccifer Lacca. Nowadays, Awlata can be made chemically by using Vermillion (red powder) with water to make a liquid.

Source of Awlata for the experiment

For this experiment, a ready-made Awlata dye (Pari) was bought from the local market which had its composition defined and came packed in a 50-ml bottle. The reason for taking Awlata for experiment, was Awlata dries within a few minutes and its life span is about 1–2 months, after which it starts to fade. But if it is preserved and stored properly, it can stay intact for long durations.

Formation of fake bloodstains

In this experiment, we conducted different height variations to create fake bloodstains using Awlata dye (Buck et al. 2011 ; Attinger et al. 2013 ). The experiment aimed to study the shape (morphology) of these fake bloodstains at different heights (3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 feet) so that an approximate estimation of actual blood stain formation can be studied (Attinger et al. 2013 ). A Pasteur pipette was used for this experiment and about 0.5 ml of Awlata dye was taken for making a single fake blood stain.

The amount of Awlata dye that was used to make a single fake blood stain was ascertained using the indications labeled on the Pasteur pipette. Ninety-degree angle was maintained and the Awlata dye was dropped from different heights and observations were made. For each height, two stains were made and labeled drop 1 and drop 2; this was done to compare the observation and confirm the findings.

After Awlata dye was dropped from different heights to create fake blood stains, it was observed that as the height was increased, the distance of satellite stains emerging from the fake blood stains was also increasing. It can be observed that fake blood stain created from three feet has many numbers of spines and less satellite stains and they are very close to the parent stain. Similarly, as the height was increased, the numbers of spines were reduced and the number of satellite stains was increased.

The experimental observation noted was that as the height was increased, the force of gravity acting on the Awlata dye was also increasing, and hence when the Awlata dye was dropped from a height to create fake blood stains, the impact of the dye on the surface due to gravitational forces, inertial forces, and viscous forces (Attinger et al. 2013 ) could be the possible cause of formation of such stains. To ascertain the formation of these fake blood stains, we retook the height experiment and the observations were very similar to that of the first drop (see Table  1 ).

Discussions

After the experiment carried with Awlata dye, it was observed that height was directly proportional to the number of satellite stains (stains that are small droplets moving away from the parent stain, they are partially/not attached to the parent stain), i.e., more distant the satellite stains from the parent drop, more will be the height. Whereas relation of spines (these are small projections coming out from the parent stain, they remain attached to the parent stain) and height was inverse in nature, i.e., when the height was increased the number of spines reduced.

Though Awlata was used to study the formation of fake blood stains, care must be taken that this dye should be kept away from contact with moisture/water as repeated moisture/water tends to fade the dye and also wash it off. So, if Awlata dye is used for future studies, the observations made from this dye should be properly stored and preserved. This will help ensure the integrity of experimental findings is not altered.

Factors like size, age, and health of the individual should also be given consideration while studying the blood stain formation. Moreover, surface tension also plays an important role in the formation of bloodstains (Larkin et al. 2012 ). Surface tension is also varied if there is some chemical or other chemical present in the blood (Raymond et al. 1996 ). The surface roughness, permeability, and porosity also effect the formation of bloodstain formation. So, these factors are also needed to be given consideration when studying bloodstains (Bear 1975 ).

Study of fake bloodstains using Awlata dye highlights these potential aspects and on basis of existing literary works carried by other scientists a more definite version of BPA can be worked upon. Study of fluid dynamics should also be given consideration while studying bloodstain formation (Attinger et al. 2013 ). To open new gateways of research in BPA and support investigative observations, the findings depicted in this paper can be used as a source to validate actual blood stains and also carry out future studies. Domains like how angle variation with respect to height effects formation of blood stains can be explored on the basis of these findings. This finding can help to understand the formation of blood stains for future research and development.

The future of BPA is promising and more research needs to be done to improve BPA. A more precise method of blood interpretations should be created to make investigations more accurate, so that crime scene reconstruction can be carried out efficiently. The study conducted using Awlata dye can be a contributor to the existing literature on BPA. This paper is a review work which can be utilized by students, scientists, or experts as a reference for carrying out future studies or to enhance their knowledge. Blood pattern analysis is indeed a useful tool in forensic science which can help in crime scene reconstruction and if BPA is coupled with DNA analysis and other investigative findings, more conclusive and thorough details of the sequence of events can be obtained from blood evidence.

Limitations of Awlata dye

The composition of Awlata dye (Alta) and blood vary; hence, Awlata dye (Alta) cannot be considered as blood. Awlata was used to create fake bloodstains which can give an approximate idea towards BPA and resemblance somewhat similar to actual blood stains. The actual scenario at the crime scene that led to the formation of blood stains and that made by Awlata dye has scope for human errors too as studying blood stains in real and that in experimental conditions differ.

Awlata dye use in the forensic scenario

Studying BPA is a very skillful task, and at the crime scene when real blood is concerned, the scenarios are simultaneous and unpredictable. To carry studies to understand bloodstains is not always possible; it requires a large amount of blood which is subjected to ethical clearance. Awlata dye can be an emerging substitute to this problem, as it is cost-effective, readily available, and can also be made in the lab. Awlata dye can be used to create experimental conditions to study different forensic scenarios. Fake blood created with Awlata dyes can be used to make simulated crime scenes from forensic and investigative findings to derive case supportive conclusions.

From the experiment done using Awlata dye ( Alta ), it can be concluded that blood stains can help experts estimate the approximate height of the assailant. The formation of the bloodstain can correspond to the height it originated from, thus being a vital source of information. A relation of formation of blood stains with change in varying height was established in accordance with interpretation of spines and satellite stains. Though Awlata is not similar to blood, it can be used to carry out experimental studies to explore more about BPA. Existing studies on BPA depict that blood patterns are very useful source of information and it can help investigators to examine the crime scene precisely.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable

Abbreviations

Blood pattern analysis

Deoxyribonucleic acid

Ultra violet

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School of Forensic Science, National Forensic Sciences University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India

Prashant Singh & Nandini Gupta

Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Forensic Sciences, Amity University, Manesar, Haryana, India

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PS and NG worked on researching relevant data and writing of this review paper. RR was our guide and mentor who constantly guided us and helped formulate the different sections of the review and did the final check. We clarify that all authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

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Singh, P., Gupta, N. & Rathi, R. Blood pattern analysis—a review and new findings. Egypt J Forensic Sci 11 , 9 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41935-021-00224-8

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Received : 28 September 2020

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s41935-021-00224-8

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Thousands of years ago in China, fingerprints were used on all business documents in the same way signatures are used today—to provide approval of the document, or authorization to perform any actions that the document outlines. This was the very first application of forensics in the world. Since then, law enforcement around the world has slowly developed the forensic skills and tools to investigate crime scenes, using forensic sciences and methods to learn what happened. An example of this is Song Ci, an outstanding forensics scientist in Ancient China who documented his lifetimes of experience and thoughts on forensic medicine in his book “Washing Away of Wrongs: Forensic Medicine”. These works were the first of their kind in the world (Fig. 1.1).

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Lin, X. (2018). Introduction to Computer Forensics. In: Introductory Computer Forensics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00581-8_1

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Research Paper

Forensic science research paper.

This sample Forensic Science Research Paper is published for educational and informational purposes only. Like other free research paper examples, it is not a custom research paper. If you need help writing your assignment, please use our custom writing services and buy a paper on any of the criminal justice research paper topics .  This sample research paper on forensic science features: 6300+ words (21 pages), an outline, APA format in-text citations, and a bibliography with 26 sources.

I. Introduction

Ii. primary areas of forensic science, a. criminalistics, b. pathology, c. anthropology, iii. handling of scientific testimony by the courts, iv. conclusion.

For many Americans, the word forensics evokes a cascade of vibrant imagery that entails crime and intrigue. It is a buzzword for DNA, bite marks, bullet wounds, fingerprints, autopsy, gore, death investigations, semen stains, and rape kits. This, however, is only a small part of a much larger picture. Forensics itself is extremely broad—it is the application of the scientific method to assist the law. This can mean almost anything— accountants who perform analysis to assist the courts are forensic accountants; computer enthusiasts who hack into the hard drives of sexual predators are forensic computer technicians; physical anthropologists who study bones in a legal investigation are forensic anthropologists. The field of forensics is growing, and the list becomes even longer as more divisions of labor and specialization occur. With this large influx of experts in fields that expand with technology and multitudes of new techniques, it is amazing that the courts can even keep up.

The many different disciplines that make up forensic science have been embedded in popular culture since their inception. Long before criminal investigations incorporated the use of fingerprints, document examination, blood spatter pattern analysis, gunshot trajectories, accident reconstruction, and the like, these were the topics of fiction. Most familiar to many, Sherlock Holmes and his partner, Dr. Watson, applied the scientific method and stellar detective work to solve crimes and thereby introduced these concepts to the masses. Broadly speaking, this is the definition of forensic science: applying science and technology to legal investigations, whether civil or criminal. From the “medicolegal” examination of a human body postmortem (after death) to analyzing the breath of a driver who had a few too many drinks, the reconstruction of how the Twin Towers collapsed, and the identification of unknown soldiers and civilians in battlefields in mass graves, these practices have now long been integrated into Westernized contemporary court and justice systems. Yet, it was only in recent decades that the abilities of forensic scientists have vastly expanded due to a renaissance of scientific breakthroughs. The purpose of this research paper is to give an overview of the primary areas of forensic science and to review the breakthroughs and controversies within each of its disciplines. Secondarily, this research paper provides an introduction into how the courts screen expert witnesses and concludes with a summary of important recent developments in forensic science.

Many of the foundations of forensic science are rooted in keen criminal investigative principles adjoined with analysis using the scientific method. The work of Edmond Locard is a case in point. In the early 1900s, Locard developed a simple investigative principle that has stood the test of time and is very much incorporated in today’s detective work. Basically, Locard realized that as individuals interact with others or come in contact with objects in an environment, a “cross-transfer” of microscopic and macroscopic elements will occur. A bit of a dog owner’s hair will remain on the person’s clothes and may be left at a crime scene along with some skin cells, and perhaps some of the carpet fibers at the crime scene will cling to the cuff on an individual’s pants; either way, evidence of this transfer may serve as a substantial piece of circumstantial evidence in a case. This principle, called “Locard’s exchange principle,” is at the heart of trace evidence and criminal investigations. Much of the forensic investigation performed at a crime scene, such as utilizing the exchange principle to collect and subsequently analyze evidence, is in the area of criminalistics.

The majority of the forensic services provided in a robust crime laboratory are of a discipline called criminalistics. Put simply, this area of forensic science seeks to process physical evidence collected from a crime scene and produce a final report based on analysts’ findings. It is also the broadest category of forensic science, with many subspecialty units and much expertise. The easiest way to classify these services is to divide them by the units typically found in a robust crime lab: controlled substances, serology/biological screening, DNA, trace analysis, firearms/explosives, tool-marks, questioned documents, latent prints, and toxicology. While a vast amount of different analyses fall within these areas, these highlighted areas are nonexhaustive. It is also important to note that the widest amount of contemporary controversies revolve around many of the more subjective analyses performed by these analysts.

Over the last decade, the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) commissioned a census of publicly funded crime labs to gain a better understanding of the collective trends in forensic services in the United States. By order of usage of service, controlled substances examination has persisted in being the most requested over the years of the census (Durose, 2008). Simply put, these requests concern seized substances thought to be illicit or unidentified controlled drugs. To perform the examination, analysts use a two-pronged process to first screen substances and then use this preliminary data to run a confirmation analysis if the initial one screens positive for a controlled substance. This secondary analysis has the power to examine the unknown substance both qualitatively and quantitatively with high levels of statistical certainty. Thus, at the end of a controlled substance analysis, investigators will learn the consistency of the substances submitted for testing, down to their molecular makeup. For example, if an unknown white powder is examined, controlled substance analysis will show the different components that constitute that powder and to what extent these components make up the whole sample—perhaps 85% cocaine, 5% lidocaine, and 10% baking powder (sodium bicarbonate).

This differs slightly from toxicological services, as the analyses in this area serve to qualify and quantify controlled substances and their metabolites in biological matrices (e.g., blood, saliva, hair, urine, and vitreous fluid of the eye), as well as toxic substances (e.g., mercury, arsenic, and cyanide), alcohol, over-the-counter products, and many other foreign compounds to the body. Depending on the circumstances, investigators typically request only a certain subset of toxicological examinations to be performed, as a full “tox” screen is costly and wasteful. In particular, two situations call for a more comprehensive toxicological examination: in cases of offender/probationer/parolee drug screening and in post-mortem toxicology. In the BJS census, toxicological services were requested a far second (298,704 requests in 2002; 251,585 requests in 2005) behind controlled substances (844,183 requests in 2002; 855,817 requests in 2005). There is limited subjectivity in these areas of forensic science— thus, controversies are limited to individual cases.

Latent print analysis seems ubiquitous in forensic science and police investigations. Examining visible (patent) or invisible (latent) fingerprints and comparing them to known samples or a computer database called AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification System) is a long-standing tradition in the field, and is the third most common type of request for forensic services (Durose, 2008). Based on the premise that no two fingerprints are alike—even identical twins have fingerprints that differ—the criminal justice system as well as private security firms have invested heavily in a fingerprint-driven identification system. Using proficiency tests, or controlled examinations designed to gauge the accuracy and reliability of forensic analyses, researchers have proven to be very accurate in their identification, given typical casework circumstances. Thornton and Peterson (2002) find that the existence of misidentifications is a rare event in typical casework (fewer than 0.5%of comparisons); correct identification lies within the 98%–99% range under normal circumstances. Fingerprints are among only a few other analytical tests, such as DNA typing and blood typing, that share such high success rates.

Firearm and toolmark analysis, the next most requested service, is an example of a subset of forensic analysis that contains elevated amounts of subjectivity, which increases the likelihood of error. Shotgun shells and shot pellets, discharged bullets, bullet casings, and any sort of firearm and its ammunition can be examined to understand the origin of a spent bullet, the trajectory of shots fired, and much more. The physical construction of firearms and their mechanisms make relatively unique impressions on fired bullets suitable for these analyses. Forensic science examinations dealing with toolmarks work in a remarkably similar manner. Impressions left by screwdrivers, crowbars, knives, saws— any tool imaginable in a garage—can give investigators an idea of what tools were used in the commission of a crime. If these tools can be identified, additional evidence left on these objects may be collected, if found.

It is true that as time passes, unique wear and tear on these items may produce remarkably unique impressions on objects (e.g., bullets, walls, bone, etc)—especially when these items are frequently used. When this occurs, the ability of forensic firearm and toolmark examiners to make a determination of whether the suspect impression embedded in an object shares a “common origin” with a sample impression made by the firearm/tool in a laboratory increases in confidence. Regardless whether if these conditions are met or not, these forensic examiners have good success in making these determinations; however, their success can wane in comparison to objective analyses such as DNA testing and blood typing. It is important not to overweigh the probative value of these examinations, especially when environmental conditions such as decay or damage make these analyses exceedingly more difficult.

DNA analysis, what has become the gold standard in forensic identification, is the next most requested service in the United States (Durose, 2008).According to the BJS, this service has remained the most backlogged during the census of publicly funded crime labs in the country. This should not be surprising, as this type of forensic analysis is demanding on both human and operational resources. While the field has come a long way from the origins of the use of DNA in the criminal justice system over three decades ago, the average time to complete these requests is typically much longer than for any other forensic service. For example, a typical forensic toxicological analysis may take anywhere from a week to a month, but comparing DNA samples from a suspect or several suspects to biological samples gathered from a crime scene may take anywhere from a few months to a year. Many times, if backlogs become a surmounting problem and local or state funding permits, outsourcing to private labs may be an option. In fact, about 28% of the crime labs included in the BJS census have outsourced their DNA casework to private labs (Durose, 2008).

The value of DNA analysis is twofold: (1) Several kinds of DNA analyses are embraced by robust methodologies that include error rates that can be measured, calculated, and interpreted to yield results that are concrete and objective. These results can be interpreted to estimate the likelihood of both a false positive (e.g., the likelihood of finding a “match” when, in fact, the samples from a crime scene and a suspect do not “match”) and a false negative (e.g., the likelihood of not finding a “match” when, in fact, the samples from a crime scene and a suspect should “match”). (2) These types of requests also have the power to provide exculpatory and inculpatory evidence with the same amount of certainty, accuracy, and reliability. Both types of evidence are equally important in criminal justice, particularly when a person’s freedom is on the line: exculpatory evidence includes any proof of an individual’s innocence, while inculpatory evidence provides proof of guilt.

Even years after a crime occurs, DNA analysis has proven itself to be the chief piece of analysis in many criminal cases. The past few decades have seen wrongful convictions overturned by DNA analyses at the cost of proving other forensic science evidence (or at least the interpretation of this evidence) wrong. Saks and Koehler (2005) point out that forensic science testing errors and false or misleading testimony by forensic expert witnesses are the second and fifth most common issues (respectively) in the wrongful conviction cases overturned by Project Innocence. This organization consists of a group of attorneys and advisors working pro bono that have been highly critical of many components of the criminal justice system, including a variety of areas in forensic science. Since the late 1980s, over 225 convicted felons typically serving life sentences have been exonerated by the efforts of Project Innocence using DNA analysis as the cornerstone of their litigation. On their Web site and in their promotional literature, Project Innocence echoes Saks and Koehler’s calls for reform in forensic science, particularly within areas that only give limited probative value. This includes much of the remaining facets of criminalistics not previously discussed: serology and biological screening, trace evidence analysis (e.g., hairs, fibers, glass, paint, etc.), impressions (e.g., bite marks, shoeprints, tire marks, etc.), fire and explosive examination, and questioned documents.

Each of these areas of analysis has its strengths and weaknesses, but all of them have been shown to assist investigators in their casework. Serology and biological screening is an example of a subset of forensic services that allows any investigator to narrow down the possibilities of suspects or helps the investigator understand the circumstances and nature of the event(s) in question, yet it has limited probative value. While a variety of these forensic services are able to produce results with reliable statistics and defined error rates, critics remain steadfast that these results can be misleading to jurors. Blood grouping methods are a good example: These methods allow analysts to examine a sample of blood and produce a report that identifies the blood type of the “donor.” In stark contrast to the cost and effort of DNA analysis, these reports can be produced rapidly and at a low price. The issue, however, becomes the lack of power these analyses have in narrowing suspects with a good degree of certainty, as many people share the same blood type. “Presumptive tests” for suspected semen and saliva samples are examples of less powerful biological analyses that can yield useful results, giving investigators reasonable evidence that these samples do, in fact, consist of seminal fluid or saliva. If there is sufficient biological material and these samples are viable enough to run DNA analysis (e.g., the material has not been contaminated or degraded below qualifying levels), further analysis can be run to refine these preliminary results. Forensic analysts may also choose to use other methods, such as microscopy and species typing, to refine these results if DNA analysis is not an option.

Other kinds of forensic tools, such as particular types of trace analysis and questioned document analysis, do not have as good a track record of producing reliable, accurate, and powerful results. Observers, however, should not cast them off as not being useful. For example, if an analyst were to find a hair in the trunk of a car bound to a piece of duct tape that was consistent with a victim’s head hair, the car owner would have a lot of explaining to do. This is not to say that this hair couldn’t have come from another source—in fact, the analyst would be hard-pressed to come up with a statistic of the likelihood that the hair came from the victim’s head. If, in fact, the analyst offered this statistic, it would be a disservice to a jury, the defendant, and even the victim since this information is uncertain and not based on sound statistical principles. If DNA material—whether nuclear DNA material or a kind called mitochondrial DNA material—were available for examination, then analysts would gain the power to include specific statistics in the present case to aid in the interpretation of the findings. Otherwise, a certain degree of caution should be used in interpreting the results and weighed accordingly when making a decision based on the information found in a final report.

In particular, questioned document analysis has received a significant amount of criticism, particularly in its ability to determine “matched” writing samples (or more accurately stated, consistent writing samples). Proficiency testing has proven to yield weak results in this area (see Peterson & Markham, 1995b). Yet, handwriting comparisons are the most commonly requested service in the area of questioned documents. Based on the reasonable assumption that people’s handwriting evolves over time, and that writing habits contain idiosyncrasies, both conscious and subconscious, analysts look for consistencies in writing samples for particular classes and characteristics of writing behavior. This holds true even when a person tries to disguise his or her writing to conceal authorship. For the most part, these services are more critical in civil trials where the burden of proof does not have to meet the “beyond a reasonable doubt” standard. Other types of questioned document analysis can fortify these results to offer more resolute findings. These include the analyses and comparisons of paper, inks, and printer and typewriter output. It must be stated, however, that few of these analyses come with the ability to include standard statistics and error rates, leaving them open to the aforementioned criticism.

While the above is not an exhaustive list of forensic services performed by many crime labs, it should offer a sampling of analyses that make up a spectrum from objective to subjective. While those from the subjective end of the spectrum may not be able to conclusively yield the proverbial finger pointed at a wrongdoer or give black-and-white answers, they can further clarify what occurred or did not occur with a series of events under investigation. Obviously, very few pieces of evidence can offer a smoking gun, so to speak, on their own. It is not the sole responsibility of the forensic analyst to make this clear; it is the responsibility of all of the key players in the courtroom work group—judges, prosecutors, attorneys, jury foreman, and the jury—to use their role to get the most out of each analysis, report, and expert testimony to be able to reach a just verdict. While many of the critiques of the more subjective aspects of forensic science merit close attention, the importance should be stressed on the proper weighing of this evidence when offered at trial. As mentioned above, these analyses do hold scientific value but only to a limited extent. The results must be weighed carefully with all of the other evidence, testimony, and circumstances about a particular trial in question.

While the forensic services at a crime lab play an important role in contemporary criminal justice and civil courts, other key services are offered outside of the crime lab that are important to mention. Two areas in particular stand out—forensic pathology, since these services are utilized so regularly, and forensic anthropology, for its topical importance in solving identification mysteries worldwide. The following two sections describe these aspects of forensic science, often considered off in their own realms and separate due to where they are organizationally located, in the government (pathology, and a minor part of anthropology) and in academia (anthropology).

In the case of a sudden and unexpected death, an autopsy has become a mandatory public health and legal investigation to ensure that any disease threat—or more typically, wrongful death—does not go uninvestigated. A variety of organizational schemas exist to accomplish this in the United States. At the heart of these schemas are inherently two systems, the medical examiner system and the coroner system (Hanzlick & Combs, 1998). While it was previously important to speak of the differences between these two systems, these differences are narrowing as medically trained forensic pathologists are becoming the core of both. In earlier coroner systems, individuals of various backgrounds—undertakers, sheriffs, and farmers— served as the lead investigators in forensic death investigations. In the present day, this elected position still exists in rural areas; however, if there is a questioned death, most coroners have easy access to a district medical examiner or forensic pathologist with specialized training to thoroughly investigate a death. Famed pathologists DiMaio and DiMaio (2001) describe the duties of the death investigation system in their comprehensive overview of forensic pathology:

• To determine the cause and manner of death
• To identify, if the deceased is unknown
• To determine the time of death and injury
• To collect evidence from the body that can be used to prove or disprove an individual’s guilt or innocence and to confirm or deny the account of how the death occurred
• To document injuries or lack of them
• To deduce how the injuries occurred
• To document any natural disease present
• To determine or exclude other contributory or causative factors to the death
• To provide expert testimony if the case goes to trial (p. 1)

While this list is comprehensive, it ignores the most fundamental roles both medical examiners and coroners play in public health and epidemiology (Hanzlick & Parrish, 1996). For example, medico-legal investigation may uncover environmental hazards, poisons, or communicable diseases that have the potential to harm others. In this case, medical examiners or coroners can warn the appropriate authorities to take proper action to prevent harm. They also monitor trends in disease and drug overdose over time to fuel public health and drug abuse research.

Forensic pathology centers on the autopsy process. This process serves to answer two questions: What is the cause and the manner of death? The cause of death is the injury/condition or set of primary and secondary injuries/ conditions that result in and contribute to the death in question. For example, myocardial infarction (heart attack), liver failure, asphyxia, alcohol poisoning/overdose, gunshot wound, blunt force trauma, and emphysema can be causes of death. The manner of death consists of only a few categories: natural, homicide, suicide, accident, and undetermined/unclassified. This determination takes the circumstances surrounding the death, including the activity of the decedent just before death, and blends it with the findings at autopsy, toxicology reports, medical history, and police narratives among other sources to categorize the individual into one of these pathways of death. This is the most subjective part of the autopsy process, and is only finalized at the end of the forensic death investigation—typically a few days before the certificate of death is printed.

The controversies in this discipline are by and large localized to disagreements over the cause and manner of death in particular investigations—and since the determination of the cause of death can be documented and preserved for years past autopsy, these disagreements are quite limited. It is the manner of death that can be the most controversial, second only to outright malfeasance and malpractice. As this determination has bearing on life insurance policies, criminal and civil trials, and individuals’ reputations, challenges are relatively frequent in today’s society.

Sometimes death investigation, particularly human identification, requires the expertise of professionals who can interpret clues derived from the skeleton. Forensic anthropology, a specialization within physical anthropology, has particular import when the typical means of identification are destroyed, decomposed, or otherwise damaged. The determination of age, race/ancestry, sex, and living height/stature can be assessed by the advanced anthropometric methods available in the discipline to aid investigators by providing an antemortem (before death) profile of the unknown individual. These methods are based on the forensic skeletal collections of leading anthropologists around the world, particularly in the United States (Ousley & Jantz, 1998). The skeletons in these collections have been meticulously measured and documented, and have been programmed into specialized computer statistical packages that give forensic anthropologists the ability to estimate most individuals’ living profile with reasonable statistical confidence. As more contemporary skeletons are contributed to this data bank, and particularly as these collections become more diverse in their sampling, the statistical confidence of these practitioners will be enhanced.

Beyond this profile, the physical examination of the skeleton can reveal injuries, damage or wear by occupational stress, unique genetic variations, surgical modifications, and an estimate of time since those events that all can assist in identification. For example, someone who broke his or her forearm 2 months before death will show evidence of trauma and healing in the ulna or radius in that arm. The healing process comes to a stop once a person dies, so this evidence gets frozen in time, so to speak. Evidence of perimortem (around the moment of death) trauma to the skeleton may also be helpful to investigators in determining the circumstances of death. In fact, the timing of injuries can be imperative in determining wrongdoing in homicide cases (Sauer, 1998).

In contemporary times, forensic anthropologists have been key players in the investigation of mass disasters and mass graves. These individuals are highly trained in the gentle excavation and analysis of skeletal remains in many different environments. In fact, one of the leading research programs in the world—the Forensic Anthropology Center at the University of Tennessee—has made many contributions to scholarly literature on the impact of environmental and circumstantial factors on the human skeleton. This literature continues to aid forensic anthropologists in the field as they travel to distant corners of the globe in which different climates, soils, environmental factors such as acid rain and salt water, and so much more have differential impacts on skeletal remains over time.

With the increased use of forensic science testimony in the courts, there also must be safeguards against so-called junk science being admitted into trials. The manner in which the courts perform this task is being debated among many experts that offer their services to the court, litigants, plaintiffs, and defendants. In the days before any guidance was issued by the courts, justices used to rely on the “marketplace test” for expert witnesses. Basically, if the expert witness could sell his or her craft and survive in the marketplace, and if he or she offered testimony that was not common knowledge or within the grasp of the average juror, more than likely that testimony was admitted. Note that this did not screen out those who practice mumbo-jumbo science, and it could not distinguish between astrology (a very old tradition that still can make money today) and astronomy. Today, this strategy would not work. Psychic detectives would not be allowed to testify to their experiences in speaking with the dead—something that cannot be verified by any sort of empirical tests, which leaves the court and other experts skeptical. However, a homeopathic doctor who has credentials from a nonaccredited institution may be able to give testimony on the effects of the sage plant on insanity from his self-documented case studies. Thus, the courts must have some sort of method to be able to distinguish between what could be considered science and what can be considered bogus.

The first black-and-white method of screening expert testimony was offered in Frye v. United States (1923). In this case, the defendant was accused of murder, to which he offered an expert to testify to his innocence by analyzing the results of a very primitive lie detection exam (the systolic blood pressure deception test). This witness and subsequent testimony were rejected, since they did not yet receive general acceptance in the field from which they came. This type of lie detection device was new on the scene, and the court made the stand that testimony given and evidence offered should have a real-world basis and be generally accepted among the experts in the field. This will prevent evidence “in the twilight zone” from prematurely influencing court decisions before it can be perfected within the expert’s field.

Frye’s general acceptance test survived until contemporary times, and was hardly mentioned until talk about updating the Federal Rules of Evidence began to stir up controversy. In 1993, this controversy came to a head in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals when the Court revised the judge’s role in admitting expert testimony. The decision was to make the judge act as the gatekeeper to screen out junk science and allow the expert testimony that is reliable, valid, testable (falsifiable), and generally accepted. The Court did not mandate that these criteria should be limiting nor inflexible, but it did stress that judges should utilize, to the best of their ability, their analytical skills in making a judgment call on the evidence or testimony’s methodology and standing in the field from which it came. Two more key decisions were made by the Court to enhance the role of trial judges as gatekeepers of expert testimony. In Joiner v. General Electric Co. (1997), the method of appealing lower courts’ decisions on allowing or disallowing expert testimony was set to abuse of discretion instead of a de novo review of the proffered expert testimony. Thismeans that trial judges should be challenged on their decisions to accept or disallow expert testimony only if a plaintiff or defendant can prove that this judge broke a procedural rule in the process of coming to this decision. Complete overviews of this judicial decision were deemed inappropriate. The second was Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael (1999), which expanded the Daubert decision to include all expert witnesses, not just those with a scientific background (auto mechanics, accountants that have worked closely with the FBI on fraud cases, and many others without advanced degrees but who have specialized knowledge).

So, the courts are set with the precedent to keep out junk science, but can they actually perform the task well? The Court has spoken about the ability to utilize “special masters” to aid the court in coming to a conclusion on the veracity of offered expert testimony. Some scholars suggest that a research foundation be created, at least for the Supreme Court, similar to what the Congress currently has the capacity to do. This way, the parties can offer expert testimony, but the court can make a counteroffer with nonbiased (as much as this is possible) research that can guide the trial in the right direction. The issue of whether these safeguards, if instituted regularly, assist in keeping out junk science is an empirical question that desperately needs answering.

Today, decisions have been made at the state level to continue to follow a Frye-based system, or a Daubert-based system, or a third system that is a hybrid of the two. The federal system works solely on Daubert principles. As can be anticipated, there are advocates of both Frye- and Daubert-based systems—the differences between them are outside of the scope of this research paper. However, readers should take note that challenges to expert testimony are constantly being litigated. The decisions of these trials will serve to be the most important shaping factors in what will be deemed appropriate in U.S. courts.

Due to the wide variation of facets in the forensic sciences, the undertaking of sifting through all methods and techniques of all forensics is the stuff that makes up a complete book, if not a series of books. As outlined in this research paper, a variety of types of examinations performed in forensic laboratories cannot even be assessed with conventional statistics with the exceptions of DNA analysis and blood group typing (which has lost prevalence as DNA analysis gained popularity), and certain analyses of gunshot residue models (Faigman, Kaye, Saks, & Sanders., 2002). Therefore, it is important to cite the variability of the subjectivity and objectivity within these methods and techniques to gain some insight into the overall utility of these analyses as stand-alone pieces of information. David Faigman et al. begin taking on the task of typing many techniques used within the vast fields of the forensic sciences in terms of amount of subjectivity, reliability in the minds of forensic scientists, and their individual susceptibility of attack when measured by the criteria posited by Daubert. Since no aggregate data are available to seek relative frequency probabilities, it is up to the experience of the individual examiner to establish levels of confidence around his or her determinations. The complexities of placing these confidence intervals around scientific testing are apparent to those with even an elementary knowledge of statistics.

The future of forensic science has much to do with evolving with the standards the courts will set over the coming years. If more states were to move to the Daubert criteria for evaluating expert testimony, it is more likely that a portion of the more subjective-heavy analyses of forensic science would be decommissioned. While many would argue that this is a necessary and overdue development in forensic science, a good portion of these forensic services do offer value to investigators that may or may not be lost. For example, there is no reason that investigators or litigants should not continue to use these services to provide this value—it is just that the information found in the final reports of these investigations must be used only to help someone make a case and would not be allowed at trial. As previously suggested, these analyses can lead to further inquiries, which may break cases wide open, whether they are civil or criminal.

As a conglomerate of professions, the forensic sciences are actively overhauling their professional codes of ethics to address the rash of cases in which rogue forensic scientists were falsifying reports, doing bad science, and egregiously overstepping their bounds as expert witnesses. While frauds exist in every aspect of life, any person who harms the liberty of another person just for personal gain or lack of professionalism is surely the most despised from both within and outside of the professions. Even entire crime labs have been identified as corrupt. Accreditation that is monitored by professional organizations, and making these accreditation processes more robust, have been seen as ways to begin to root out such problems before they begin. This accreditation must be maintained throughout one’s professional career and through the duration of a lab’s existence.

On a final note, much investment has been made in professionalization and the encouragement of continuing education and training to assist forensic practitioners in expanding their knowledge base. This will assist these professionals in keeping up with the state of the art in the fast-paced world of science and technology, and their advancement. The most recent U.S. presidents have also made commitments to expand forensic science research and development, particularly in the DNA analysis and human identification areas. Such advances in technology will be key for many years to come in the U.S. criminal justice system’s capacity to solve crimes, seek justice, and learn truths about the many mysteries that will confront it.

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Psychology and law play a significant role in postgraduate education and professional development. Forensic psychology courses are increasingly common in undergraduate psychology programs, and many such offerings are filled to capacity with undergraduate students weaned on justice- and crime-themed media and literature. Attracted by the compelling application of psychology to real-world criminal investigations and trials, undergraduate students frequently volunteer as research assistants in forensic psychology laboratories. Master’s and doctoral programs focusing on various aspects of forensic psychology have been developed and provide the research and service industries with additional intellectual capital. Postdoctoral training and professional certification options in forensic psychology support the development of a profession that is uniquely qualified to address mental health issues in a wide variety of legal contexts.

Read more about Forensic Psychology:

• Forensic Psychology (Main article)
• Psychology and Law
• What is Forensic Psychology?
• History of Forensic Psychology
• Clinical Forensic Psychology
• Forensic Psychology Ethics
• Forensic Psychology Education