scientific research paper layout

How to Format a Scientific Paper

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Written by  Joanna Kimmerly-Smith

You've done the research. You've carefully recorded your lab results and compiled a list of relevant sources. You've even written a draft of your scientific, technical, or medical paper, hoping to get published in a reputable journal. But how do you format your paper to ensure that every detail is correct? If you're a scientific researcher or co-author looking to get your research published, read on to find out how to format your paper.

While it's true that you'll eventually need to tailor your research for your target journal, which will provide specific author guidelines for formatting the paper (see, for example, author guidelines for publications by Elsevier , PLOS ONE , and  mBio ), there are some formatting rules that are useful to know for your initial draft. This article will explore some of the formatting rules that apply to all scientific writing, helping you to follow the correct order of sections ( IMRaD ), understand the requirements of each section, find resources for standard terminology and units of measurement, and prepare your scientific paper for publication.

Format Overview

The four main elements of a scientific paper can be represented by the acronym IMRaD: introduction, methods, results, and discussion. Other sections, along with a suggested length,* are listed in the table below.

* Length guidelines are taken from https://www.elsevier.com/connect/11-steps-to-structuring-a-science-paper-editors-will-take-seriously#step6 .

Now, let's go through the main sections you might have to prepare to format your paper.

On the first page of the paper, you must present the title of the paper along with the authors' names, institutional affiliations, and contact information. The corresponding author(s) (i.e., the one[s] who will be in contact with the reviewers) must be specified, usually with a footnote or an asterisk (*), and their full contact details (e.g., email address and phone number) must be provided. For example:

Dr. Clara A. Bell 1, * and Dr. Scott C. Smith 2

1 University of Areopagitica, Department of Biology, Sometown, Somecountry

2 Leviathan University, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, Sometown, Somecountry

*[email protected]

FORMATTING TIPS:

• If you are unsure of how to classify author roles (i.e., who did what), guidelines are available online. For example, American Geophysical Union (AGU) journals now recommend using Contributor Roles Taxonomy (CRediT), an online taxonomy for author contributions.

In this summary of your research, you must state your subject (i.e., what you did) and encapsulate the main findings and conclusions of your paper.

• Do not add citations in an abstract (the reader might not be able to access your reference list).
• Avoid using acronyms and abbreviations in the abstract, as the reader may not be familiar with them. Use full terms instead.

Below the abstract, include a list of key terms to help other researchers locate your study. Note that "keywords" is one word (with no space) and is followed by a colon:

Keywords : paper format, scientific writing.

• Check whether "Keywords" should be italicized and whether each term should be capitalized.
• Check the use of punctuation (e.g., commas versus semicolons, the use of the period at the end).
• Some journals (e.g., IEEE ) provide a taxonomy of keywords. This aids in the classification of your research.

Introduction

This is the reader's first impression of your paper, so it should be clear and concise. Include relevant background information on your topic, using in-text citations as necessary. Report new developments in the field, and state how your research fills gaps in the existing research. Focus on the specific problem you are addressing, along with its possible solutions, and outline the limitations of your study. You can also include a research question, hypothesis, and/or objectives at the end of this section.

• Organize your information from broad to narrow (general to particular). However, don't start too broad; keep the information relevant.
• You can use in-text citations in this section to situate your research within the body of literature.

This is the part of your paper that explains how the research was done. You should relate your research procedures in a clear, logical order (i.e., the order in which you conducted the research) so that other researchers can reproduce your results. Simply refer to the established methods you used, but describe any procedures that are original to your study in more detail.

• Identify the specific instruments you used in your research by including the manufacturer’s name and location in parentheses.
• Stay consistent with the order in which information is presented (e.g., quantity, temperature, stirring speed, refrigeration period).

Now that you've explained how you gathered your research, you've got to report what you actually found. In this section, outline the main findings of your research. You need not include too many details, particularly if you are using tables and figures. While writing this section, be consistent and use the smallest number of words necessary to convey your statistics.

• Use appendices or supplementary materials if you have too much data.
• Use headings to help the reader follow along, particularly if your data are repetitive (but check whether your style guide allows you to use them).

In this section, you interpret your findings for the reader in relation to previous research and the literature as a whole. Present your general conclusions, including an assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the research and the implications of your findings. Resolve the hypothesis and/or research question you identified in the introduction.

• Use in-text citations to support your discussion.
• Do not repeat the information you presented in the results or the introduction unless it is necessary for a discussion of the overall implications of the research.

This section is sometimes included in the last paragraph of the discussion. Explain how your research fits within your field of study, and identify areas for future research.

• Keep this section short.

Acknowledgments

Write a brief paragraph giving credit to any institution responsible for funding the study (e.g., through a fellowship or grant) and any individual(s) who contributed to the manuscript (e.g., technical advisors or editors).

• Check whether your journal uses standard identifiers for funding agencies (e.g., Elsevier's Funder Registry ).

Conflicts of Interest/Originality Statement

Some journals require a statement attesting that your research is original and that you have no conflicts of interest (i.e., ulterior motives or ways in which you could benefit from the publication of your research). This section only needs to be a sentence or two long.

Here you list citation information for each source you used (i.e., author names, date of publication, title of paper/chapter, title of journal/book, and publisher name and location). The list of references can be in alphabetical order (author–date style of citation) or in the order in which the sources are presented in the paper (numbered citations). Follow your style guide; if no guidelines are provided, choose a citation format and be consistent .

• While doing your final proofread, ensure that the reference list entries are consistent with the in-text citations (i.e., no missing or conflicting information).
• Many citation styles use a hanging indent and may be alphabetized. Use the styles in Microsoft Word to aid you in citation format.
• Use EndNote , Mendeley , Zotero , RefWorks , or another similar reference manager to create, store, and utilize bibliographic information.

Appendix/Supplementary Information

In this optional section, you can present nonessential information that further clarifies a point without burdening the body of the paper. That is, if you have too much data to fit in a (relatively) short research paper, move anything that's not essential to this section.

• Note that this section is uncommon in published papers. Before submission, check whether your journal allows for supplementary data, and don't put any essential information in this section.

Beyond IMRaD: Formatting the Details

Aside from the overall format of your paper, there are still other details to watch out for. The sections below cover how to present your terminology, equations, tables and figures, measurements, and statistics consistently based on the conventions of scientific writing.

Terminology

Stay consistent with the terms you use. Generally, short forms can be used once the full term has been introduced:

• full terms versus acronyms (e.g., deoxyribonucleic acid versus DNA);
• English names versus Greek letters (e.g., alpha versus α); and
• species names versus short forms (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus versus S. aureus ).

One way to ensure consistency is to use standard scientific terminology. You can refer to the following resources, but if you're not sure which guidelines are preferred, check with your target journal.

• For gene classification, use GeneCards , The Mouse Genome Informatics Database , and/or genenames.org .
• For chemical nomenclature, refer to the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) Compendium of Chemical Terminology (the Gold Book ) and the  IUPAC–IUB Combined Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature .
• For marine species names, use the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) or the European Register of Marine Species (ERMS) .

Italics must be used correctly for scientific terminology. Here are a couple of formatting tips:

• Species names, which are usually in Greek or Latin, are italicized (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus ).
• Genes are italicized, but proteins aren't.

Whether in mathematical, scientific, or technical papers, equations follow a conventional format. Here are some tips for formatting your calculations:

• Number each equation you present in the text, inserting the number in parentheses.

X + Y = 1                                                                                                                                               (1)

• Check whether your target journal requires you to capitalize the word "Equation" or use parentheses for the equation number when you refer to equations within the text.

In Equation 1, X represents . . .

In equation (1), X represents . . .

(Note also that you should use italics for variables.)

• Try using MathType or Equation Editor in Microsoft Word to type your equations, but use Unicode characters when typing single variables or mathematical operators (e.g., x, ≥, or ±) in running text. This makes it easier to edit your text and format your equations before publication.
• In line with the above tip, remember to save your math equations as editable text and not as images in case changes need to be made before publication.

Tables and Figures

Do you have any tables, graphs, or images in your research? If so, you should become familiar with the rules for referring to tables and figures in your scientific paper. Some examples are presented below.

• Capitalize the titles of specific tables and figures when you refer to them in the text (e.g., "see Table 3"; "in Figure 4").
• In tables, stay consistent with the use of title case (i.e., Capitalizing Each Word) and sentence case (i.e., Capitalizing the first word).
• In figure captions, stay consistent with the use of punctuation, italics, and capitalization. For example:

Figure 1. Classification of author roles.

Figure 2: taxonomy of paper keywords

Measurements

Although every journal has slightly different formatting guidelines, most agree that the gold standard for units of measurement is the International System of Units (SI) . Wherever possible, use the SI. Here are some other tips for formatting units of measurement:

• Add spaces before units of measurement. For example, 2.5 mL not 2.5mL.
• Be consistent with your units of measure (especially date and time). For example, 3 hours or 3 h.

When presenting statistical information, you must provide enough specific information to accurately describe the relationships among your data. Nothing is more frustrating to a reviewer than vague sentences about a variable being significant without any supporting details. The author guidelines for the journal Nature recommend that the following be included for statistical testing: the name of each statistical analysis, along with its n value; an explanation of why the test was used and what is being compared; and the specific alpha levels and P values for each test.

Angel Borja, writing for Elsevier publications, described the statistical rules for article formatting as follows:

• Indicate the statistical tests used with all relevant parameters.
• Use mean and standard deviation to report normally distributed data.
• Use median and interpercentile range to report skewed data.
• For numbers, use two significant digits unless more precision is necessary.
• Never use percentages for very small samples.

Remember, you must be prepared to justify your findings and conclusions, and one of the best ways to do this is through factual accuracy and the acknowledgment of opposing interpretations, data, and/or points of view.

Even though you may not look forward to the process of formatting your research paper, it's important to present your findings clearly, consistently, and professionally. With the right paper format, your chances of publication increase, and your research will be more likely to make an impact in your field. Don't underestimate the details. They are the backbone of scientific writing and research.

One last tip: Before you submit your research, consider using our academic editing service for expert help with paper formatting, editing, and proofreading. We can tailor your paper to specific journal guidelines at your request.

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Let Us Format Your Paper to Your Target Journal’s Guidelines

Hire an expert academic editor , or get a free sample, about the author.

Joanna's passion for English literature (proven by her M.A. thesis on Jane Austen) is matched by her passion to help others with their writing (shown by her role as an in-house editor with Scribendi). She enjoys lively discussions about plot, character, and nerdy TV shows with her husband, and she loves singing almost as much as she loves reading. Isn't music another language after all?

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Related Posts

APA Style and APA Formatting

How to Research a Term Paper

13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal

• Open access
• Published: 30 April 2020
• Volume 36 , pages 909–913, ( 2021 )

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• Clara Busse   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0178-1000 1 &
• Ella August   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5151-1036 1 , 2  

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Communicating research findings is an essential step in the research process. Often, peer-reviewed journals are the forum for such communication, yet many researchers are never taught how to write a publishable scientific paper. In this article, we explain the basic structure of a scientific paper and describe the information that should be included in each section. We also identify common pitfalls for each section and recommend strategies to avoid them. Further, we give advice about target journal selection and authorship. In the online resource 1 , we provide an example of a high-quality scientific paper, with annotations identifying the elements we describe in this article.

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Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Writing a scientific paper is an important component of the research process, yet researchers often receive little formal training in scientific writing. This is especially true in low-resource settings. In this article, we explain why choosing a target journal is important, give advice about authorship, provide a basic structure for writing each section of a scientific paper, and describe common pitfalls and recommendations for each section. In the online resource 1 , we also include an annotated journal article that identifies the key elements and writing approaches that we detail here. Before you begin your research, make sure you have ethical clearance from all relevant ethical review boards.

Select a Target Journal Early in the Writing Process

We recommend that you select a “target journal” early in the writing process; a “target journal” is the journal to which you plan to submit your paper. Each journal has a set of core readers and you should tailor your writing to this readership. For example, if you plan to submit a manuscript about vaping during pregnancy to a pregnancy-focused journal, you will need to explain what vaping is because readers of this journal may not have a background in this topic. However, if you were to submit that same article to a tobacco journal, you would not need to provide as much background information about vaping.

Information about a journal’s core readership can be found on its website, usually in a section called “About this journal” or something similar. For example, the Journal of Cancer Education presents such information on the “Aims and Scope” page of its website, which can be found here: https://www.springer.com/journal/13187/aims-and-scope .

Peer reviewer guidelines from your target journal are an additional resource that can help you tailor your writing to the journal and provide additional advice about crafting an effective article [ 1 ]. These are not always available, but it is worth a quick web search to find out.

Identify Author Roles Early in the Process

Early in the writing process, identify authors, determine the order of authors, and discuss the responsibilities of each author. Standard author responsibilities have been identified by The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) [ 2 ]. To set clear expectations about each team member’s responsibilities and prevent errors in communication, we also suggest outlining more detailed roles, such as who will draft each section of the manuscript, write the abstract, submit the paper electronically, serve as corresponding author, and write the cover letter. It is best to formalize this agreement in writing after discussing it, circulating the document to the author team for approval. We suggest creating a title page on which all authors are listed in the agreed-upon order. It may be necessary to adjust authorship roles and order during the development of the paper. If a new author order is agreed upon, be sure to update the title page in the manuscript draft.

In the case where multiple papers will result from a single study, authors should discuss who will author each paper. Additionally, authors should agree on a deadline for each paper and the lead author should take responsibility for producing an initial draft by this deadline.

Structure of the Introduction Section

The introduction section should be approximately three to five paragraphs in length. Look at examples from your target journal to decide the appropriate length. This section should include the elements shown in Fig.  1 . Begin with a general context, narrowing to the specific focus of the paper. Include five main elements: why your research is important, what is already known about the topic, the “gap” or what is not yet known about the topic, why it is important to learn the new information that your research adds, and the specific research aim(s) that your paper addresses. Your research aim should address the gap you identified. Be sure to add enough background information to enable readers to understand your study. Table 1 provides common introduction section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

The main elements of the introduction section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Methods Section

The purpose of the methods section is twofold: to explain how the study was done in enough detail to enable its replication and to provide enough contextual detail to enable readers to understand and interpret the results. In general, the essential elements of a methods section are the following: a description of the setting and participants, the study design and timing, the recruitment and sampling, the data collection process, the dataset, the dependent and independent variables, the covariates, the analytic approach for each research objective, and the ethical approval. The hallmark of an exemplary methods section is the justification of why each method was used. Table 2 provides common methods section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Results Section

The focus of the results section should be associations, or lack thereof, rather than statistical tests. Two considerations should guide your writing here. First, the results should present answers to each part of the research aim. Second, return to the methods section to ensure that the analysis and variables for each result have been explained.

Begin the results section by describing the number of participants in the final sample and details such as the number who were approached to participate, the proportion who were eligible and who enrolled, and the number of participants who dropped out. The next part of the results should describe the participant characteristics. After that, you may organize your results by the aim or by putting the most exciting results first. Do not forget to report your non-significant associations. These are still findings.

Tables and figures capture the reader’s attention and efficiently communicate your main findings [ 3 ]. Each table and figure should have a clear message and should complement, rather than repeat, the text. Tables and figures should communicate all salient details necessary for a reader to understand the findings without consulting the text. Include information on comparisons and tests, as well as information about the sample and timing of the study in the title, legend, or in a footnote. Note that figures are often more visually interesting than tables, so if it is feasible to make a figure, make a figure. To avoid confusing the reader, either avoid abbreviations in tables and figures, or define them in a footnote. Note that there should not be citations in the results section and you should not interpret results here. Table 3 provides common results section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Discussion Section

Opposite the introduction section, the discussion should take the form of a right-side-up triangle beginning with interpretation of your results and moving to general implications (Fig.  2 ). This section typically begins with a restatement of the main findings, which can usually be accomplished with a few carefully-crafted sentences.

Major elements of the discussion section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Next, interpret the meaning or explain the significance of your results, lifting the reader’s gaze from the study’s specific findings to more general applications. Then, compare these study findings with other research. Are these findings in agreement or disagreement with those from other studies? Does this study impart additional nuance to well-accepted theories? Situate your findings within the broader context of scientific literature, then explain the pathways or mechanisms that might give rise to, or explain, the results.

Journals vary in their approach to strengths and limitations sections: some are embedded paragraphs within the discussion section, while some mandate separate section headings. Keep in mind that every study has strengths and limitations. Candidly reporting yours helps readers to correctly interpret your research findings.

The next element of the discussion is a summary of the potential impacts and applications of the research. Should these results be used to optimally design an intervention? Does the work have implications for clinical protocols or public policy? These considerations will help the reader to further grasp the possible impacts of the presented work.

Finally, the discussion should conclude with specific suggestions for future work. Here, you have an opportunity to illuminate specific gaps in the literature that compel further study. Avoid the phrase “future research is necessary” because the recommendation is too general to be helpful to readers. Instead, provide substantive and specific recommendations for future studies. Table 4 provides common discussion section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Follow the Journal’s Author Guidelines

After you select a target journal, identify the journal’s author guidelines to guide the formatting of your manuscript and references. Author guidelines will often (but not always) include instructions for titles, cover letters, and other components of a manuscript submission. Read the guidelines carefully. If you do not follow the guidelines, your article will be sent back to you.

Finally, do not submit your paper to more than one journal at a time. Even if this is not explicitly stated in the author guidelines of your target journal, it is considered inappropriate and unprofessional.

Your title should invite readers to continue reading beyond the first page [ 4 , 5 ]. It should be informative and interesting. Consider describing the independent and dependent variables, the population and setting, the study design, the timing, and even the main result in your title. Because the focus of the paper can change as you write and revise, we recommend you wait until you have finished writing your paper before composing the title.

Be sure that the title is useful for potential readers searching for your topic. The keywords you select should complement those in your title to maximize the likelihood that a researcher will find your paper through a database search. Avoid using abbreviations in your title unless they are very well known, such as SNP, because it is more likely that someone will use a complete word rather than an abbreviation as a search term to help readers find your paper.

After you have written a complete draft, use the checklist (Fig. 3 ) below to guide your revisions and editing. Additional resources are available on writing the abstract and citing references [ 5 ]. When you feel that your work is ready, ask a trusted colleague or two to read the work and provide informal feedback. The box below provides a checklist that summarizes the key points offered in this article.

Checklist for manuscript quality

Data Availability

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Brett M, Kording K (2017) Ten simple rules for structuring papers. PLoS ComputBiol. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005619

Lang TA (2017) Writing a better research article. J Public Health Emerg. https://doi.org/10.21037/jphe.2017.11.06

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Acknowledgments

Ella August is grateful to the Sustainable Sciences Institute for mentoring her in training researchers on writing and publishing their research.

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Busse, C., August, E. How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal. J Canc Educ 36 , 909–913 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13187-020-01751-z

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Writing the Scientific Paper

When you write about scientific topics to specialists in a particular scientific field, we call that scientific writing. (When you write to non-specialists about scientific topics, we call that science writing.)

The scientific paper has developed over the past three centuries into a tool to communicate the results of scientific inquiry. The main audience for scientific papers is extremely specialized. The purpose of these papers is twofold: to present information so that it is easy to retrieve, and to present enough information that the reader can duplicate the scientific study. A standard format with six main part helps readers to find expected information and analysis:

• Title--subject and what aspect of the subject was studied.
• Abstract--summary of paper: The main reason for the study, the primary results, the main conclusions
• Introduction-- why the study was undertaken
• Methods and Materials-- how the study was undertaken
• Results-- what was found
• Discussion-- why these results could be significant (what the reasons might be for the patterns found or not found)

There are many ways to approach the writing of a scientific paper, and no one way is right. Many people, however, find that drafting chunks in this order works best: Results, Discussion, Introduction, Materials & Methods, Abstract, and, finally, Title.

The title should be very limited and specific. Really, it should be a pithy summary of the article's main focus.

• "Renal disease susceptibility and hypertension are under independent genetic control in the fawn hooded rat"
• "Territory size in Lincoln's Sparrows ( Melospiza lincolnii )"
• "Replacement of deciduous first premolars and dental eruption in archaeocete whales"
• "The Radio-Frequency Single-Electron Transistor (RF-SET): A Fast and Ultrasensitive Electrometer"

This is a summary of your article. Generally between 50-100 words, it should state the goals, results, and the main conclusions of your study. You should list the parameters of your study (when and where was it conducted, if applicable; your sample size; the specific species, proteins, genes, etc., studied). Think of the process of writing the abstract as taking one or two sentences from each of your sections (an introductory sentence, a sentence stating the specific question addressed, a sentence listing your main techniques or procedures, two or three sentences describing your results, and one sentence describing your main conclusion).

Example One

Hypertension, diabetes and hyperlipidemia are risk factors for life-threatening complications such as end-stage renal disease, coronary artery disease and stroke. Why some patients develop complications is unclear, but only susceptibility genes may be involved. To test this notion, we studied crosses involving the fawn-hooded rat, an animal model of hypertension that develops chronic renal failure. Here, we report the localization of two genes, Rf-1 and Rf-2 , responsible for about half of the genetic variation in key indices of renal impairment. In addition, we localize a gene, Bpfh-1 , responsible for about 26% of the genetic variation in blood pressure. Rf-1 strongly affects the risk of renal impairment, but has no significant effect on blood pressure. Our results show that susceptibility to a complication of hypertension is under at least partially independent genetic control from susceptibility to hypertension itself.

Brown, Donna M, A.P. Provoost, M.J. Daly, E.S. Lander, & H.J. Jacob. 1996. "Renal disease susceptibility and hypertension are under indpendent genetic control in the faun-hooded rat." Nature Genetics , 12(1):44-51.

Example Two

We studied survival of 220 calves of radiocollared moose ( Alces alces ) from parturition to the end of July in southcentral Alaska from 1994 to 1997. Prior studies established that predation by brown bears ( Ursus arctos ) was the primary cause of mortality of moose calves in the region. Our objectives were to characterize vulnerability of moose calves to predation as influenced by age, date, snow depths, and previous reproductive success of the mother. We also tested the hypothesis that survival of twin moose calves was independent and identical to that of single calves. Survival of moose calves from parturition through July was 0.27 ± 0.03 SE, and their daily rate of mortality declined at a near constant rate with age in that period. Mean annual survival was 0.22 ± 0.03 SE. Previous winter's snow depths or survival of the mother's previous calf was not related to neonatal survival. Selection for early parturition was evidenced in the 4 years of study by a 6.3% increase in the hazard of death with each daily increase in parturition date. Although there was no significant difference in survival of twin and single moose calves, most twins that died disappeared together during the first 15 days after birth and independently thereafter, suggesting that predators usually killed both when encountered up to that age.

Key words: Alaska, Alces alces , calf survival, moose, Nelchina, parturition synchrony, predation

Testa, J.W., E.F. Becker, & G.R. Lee. 2000. "Temporal patterns in the survival of twin and single moose ( alces alces ) calves in southcentral Alaska." Journal of Mammalogy , 81(1):162-168.

Example Three

We monitored breeding phenology and population levels of Rana yavapaiensis by use of repeated egg mass censuses and visual encounter surveys at Agua Caliente Canyon near Tucson, Arizona, from 1994 to 1996. Adult counts fluctuated erratically within each year of the study but annual means remained similar. Juvenile counts peaked during the fall recruitment season and fell to near zero by early spring. Rana yavapaiensis deposited eggs in two distinct annual episodes, one in spring (March-May) and a much smaller one in fall (September-October). Larvae from the spring deposition period completed metamorphosis in earlv summer. Over the two years of study, 96.6% of egg masses successfully produced larvae. Egg masses were deposited during periods of predictable, moderate stream flow, but not during seasonal periods when flash flooding or drought were likely to affect eggs or larvae. Breeding phenology of Rana yavapaiensis is particularly well suited for life in desert streams with natural flow regimes which include frequent flash flooding and drought at predictable times. The exotic predators of R. yavapaiensis are less able to cope with fluctuating conditions. Unaltered stream flow regimes that allow natural fluctuations in stream discharge may provide refugia for this declining ranid frog from exotic predators by excluding those exotic species that are unable to cope with brief flash flooding and habitat drying.

Sartorius, Shawn S., and Philip C. Rosen. 2000. "Breeding phenology of the lowland leopard frog ( Rana yavepaiensis )." Southwestern Naturalist , 45(3): 267-273.

Introduction

The introduction is where you sketch out the background of your study, including why you have investigated the question that you have and how it relates to earlier research that has been done in the field. It may help to think of an introduction as a telescoping focus, where you begin with the broader context and gradually narrow to the specific problem addressed by the report. A typical (and very useful) construction of an introduction proceeds as follows:

"Echimyid rodents of the genus Proechimys (spiny rats) often are the most abundant and widespread lowland forest rodents throughout much of their range in the Neotropics (Eisenberg 1989). Recent studies suggested that these rodents play an important role in forest dynamics through their activities as seed predators and dispersers of seeds (Adler and Kestrell 1998; Asquith et al 1997; Forget 1991; Hoch and Adler 1997)." (Lambert and Adler, p. 70)

"Our laboratory has been involved in the analysis of the HLA class II genes and their association with autoimmune disorders such as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. As part of this work, the laboratory handles a large number of blood samples. In an effort to minimize the expense and urgency of transportation of frozen or liquid blood samples, we have designed a protocol that will preserve the integrity of lymphocyte DNA and enable the transport and storage of samples at ambient temperatures." (Torrance, MacLeod & Hache, p. 64)

"Despite the ubiquity and abundance of P. semispinosus , only two previous studies have assessed habitat use, with both showing a generalized habitat use. [brief summary of these studies]." (Lambert and Adler, p. 70)

"Although very good results have been obtained using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of DNA extracted from dried blood spots on filter paper (1,4,5,8,9), this preservation method yields limited amounts of DNA and is susceptible to contamination." (Torrance, MacLeod & Hache, p. 64)

"No attempt has been made to quantitatively describe microhabitat characteristics with which this species may be associated. Thus, specific structural features of secondary forests that may promote abundance of spiny rats remains unknown. Such information is essential to understand the role of spiny rats in Neotropical forests, particularly with regard to forest regeneration via interactions with seeds." (Lambert and Adler, p. 71)

"As an alternative, we have been investigating the use of lyophilization ("freeze-drying") of whole blood as a method to preserve sufficient amounts of genomic DNA to perform PCR and Southern Blot analysis." (Torrance, MacLeod & Hache, p. 64)

"We present an analysis of microhabitat use by P. semispinosus in tropical moist forests in central Panama." (Lambert and Adler, p. 71)

"In this report, we summarize our analysis of genomic DNA extracted from lyophilized whole blood." (Torrance, MacLeod & Hache, p. 64)

Methods and Materials

In this section you describe how you performed your study. You need to provide enough information here for the reader to duplicate your experiment. However, be reasonable about who the reader is. Assume that he or she is someone familiar with the basic practices of your field.

It's helpful to both writer and reader to organize this section chronologically: that is, describe each procedure in the order it was performed. For example, DNA-extraction, purification, amplification, assay, detection. Or, study area, study population, sampling technique, variables studied, analysis method.

Include in this section:

• study design: procedures should be listed and described, or the reader should be referred to papers that have already described the used procedure
• particular techniques used and why, if relevant
• modifications of any techniques; be sure to describe the modification
• specialized equipment, including brand-names
• temporal, spatial, and historical description of study area and studied population
• assumptions underlying the study
• statistical methods, including software programs

Example description of activity

Chromosomal DNA was denatured for the first cycle by incubating the slides in 70% deionized formamide; 2x standard saline citrate (SSC) at 70ºC for 2 min, followed by 70% ethanol at -20ºC and then 90% and 100% ethanol at room temperature, followed by air drying. (Rouwendal et al ., p. 79)

Example description of assumptions

We considered seeds left in the petri dish to be unharvested and those scattered singly on the surface of a tile to be scattered and also unharvested. We considered seeds in cheek pouches to be harvested but not cached, those stored in the nestbox to be larderhoarded, and those buried in caching sites within the arena to be scatterhoarded. (Krupa and Geluso, p. 99)

Examples of use of specialized equipment

• Oligonucleotide primers were prepared using the Applied Biosystems Model 318A (Foster City, CA) DNA Synthesizer according to the manufacturers' instructions. (Rouwendal et al ., p.78)
• We first visually reviewed the complete song sample of an individual using spectrograms produced on a Princeton Applied Research Real Time Spectrum Analyzer (model 4512). (Peters et al ., p. 937)

Example of use of a certain technique

Frogs were monitored using visual encounter transects (Crump and Scott, 1994). (Sartorius and Rosen, p. 269)

Example description of statistical analysis

We used Wilcox rank-sum tests for all comparisons of pre-experimental scores and for all comparisons of hue, saturation, and brightness scores between various groups of birds ... All P -values are two-tailed unless otherwise noted. (Brawner et al ., p. 955)

This section presents the facts--what was found in the course of this investigation. Detailed data--measurements, counts, percentages, patterns--usually appear in tables, figures, and graphs, and the text of the section draws attention to the key data and relationships among data. Three rules of thumb will help you with this section:

• present results clearly and logically
• avoid excess verbiage
• consider providing a one-sentence summary at the beginning of each paragraph if you think it will help your reader understand your data

Remember to use table and figures effectively. But don't expect these to stand alone.

Some examples of well-organized and easy-to-follow results:

• Size of the aquatic habitat at Agua Caliente Canyon varied dramatically throughout the year. The site contained three rockbound tinajas (bedrock pools) that did not dry during this study. During periods of high stream discharge seven more seasonal pools and intermittent stretches of riffle became available. Perennial and seasonal pool levels remained stable from late February through early May. Between mid-May and mid-July seasonal pools dried until they disappeared. Perennial pools shrank in surface area from a range of 30-60 m² to 3-5- M². (Sartorius and Rosen, Sept. 2000: 269)

Notice how the second sample points out what is important in the accompanying figure. It makes us aware of relationships that we may not have noticed quickly otherwise and that will be important to the discussion.

A similar test result is obtained with a primer derived from the human ß-satellite... This primer (AGTGCAGAGATATGTCACAATG-CCCC: Oligo 435) labels 6 sites in the PRINS reaction: the chromosomes 1, one pair of acrocentrics and, more weakly, the chromosomes 9 (Fig. 2a). After 10 cycles of PCR-IS, the number of sites labeled has doubled (Fig. 2b); after 20 cycles, the number of sites labeled is the same but the signals are stronger (Fig. 2c) (Rouwendal et al ., July 93:80).

Related Information: Use Tables and Figures Effectively

Do not repeat all of the information in the text that appears in a table, but do summarize it. For example, if you present a table of temperature measurements taken at various times, describe the general pattern of temperature change and refer to the table.

"The temperature of the solution increased rapidly at first, going from 50º to 80º in the first three minutes (Table 1)."

You don't want to list every single measurement in the text ("After one minute, the temperature had risen to 55º. After two minutes, it had risen to 58º," etc.). There is no hard and fast rule about when to report all measurements in the text and when to put the measurements in a table and refer to them, but use your common sense. Remember that readers have all that data in the accompanying tables and figures, so your task in this section is to highlight key data, changes, or relationships.

In this section you discuss your results. What aspect you choose to focus on depends on your results and on the main questions addressed by them. For example, if you were testing a new technique, you will want to discuss how useful this technique is: how well did it work, what are the benefits and drawbacks, etc. If you are presenting data that appear to refute or support earlier research, you will want to analyze both your own data and the earlier data--what conditions are different? how much difference is due to a change in the study design, and how much to a new property in the study subject? You may discuss the implication of your research--particularly if it has a direct bearing on a practical issue, such as conservation or public health.

This section centers on speculation . However, this does not free you to present wild and haphazard guesses. Focus your discussion around a particular question or hypothesis. Use subheadings to organize your thoughts, if necessary.

This section depends on a logical organization so readers can see the connection between your study question and your results. One typical approach is to make a list of all the ideas that you will discuss and to work out the logical relationships between them--what idea is most important? or, what point is most clearly made by your data? what ideas are subordinate to the main idea? what are the connections between ideas?

Achieving the Scientific Voice

Eight tips will help you match your style for most scientific publications.

• Develop a precise vocabulary: read the literature to become fluent, or at least familiar with, the sort of language that is standard to describe what you're trying to describe.
• Once you've labeled an activity, a condition, or a period of time, use that label consistently throughout the paper. Consistency is more important than creativity.
• Define your terms and your assumptions.
• Include all the information the reader needs to interpret your data.
• Remember, the key to all scientific discourse is that it be reproducible . Have you presented enough information clearly enough that the reader could reproduce your experiment, your research, or your investigation?
• When describing an activity, break it down into elements that can be described and labeled, and then present them in the order they occurred.
• When you use numbers, use them effectively. Don't present them so that they cause more work for the reader.
• Include details before conclusions, but only include those details you have been able to observe by the methods you have described. Do not include your feelings, attitudes, impressions, or opinions.
• Research your format and citations: do these match what have been used in current relevant journals?
• Run a spellcheck and proofread carefully. Read your paper out loud, and/ or have a friend look over it for misspelled words, missing words, etc.

Applying the Principles, Example 1

The following example needs more precise information. Look at the original and revised paragraphs to see how revising with these guidelines in mind can make the text clearer and more informative:

Before: Each male sang a definite number of songs while singing. They start with a whistle and then go from there. Each new song is always different, but made up an overall repertoire that was completed before starting over again. In 16 cases (84%), no new songs were sung after the first 20, even though we counted about 44 songs for each bird.

After: Each male used a discrete number of song types in his singing. Each song began with an introductory whistle, followed by a distinctive, complex series of fluty warbles (Fig. 1). Successive songs were always different, and five of the 19 males presented their entire song repertoire before repeating any of their song types (i.e., the first IO recorded songs revealed the entire repertoire of 10 song types). Each song type recurred in long sequences of singing, so that we could be confident that we had recorded the entire repertoire of commonly used songs by each male. For 16 of the 19 males, no new song types were encountered after the first 20 songs, even though we analyzed and average of 44 songs/male (range 30-59).

Applying the Principles, Example 2

In this set of examples, even a few changes in wording result in a more precise second version. Look at the original and revised paragraphs to see how revising with these guidelines in mind can make the text clearer and more informative:

Before: The study area was on Mt. Cain and Maquilla Peak in British Columbia, Canada. The study area is about 12,000 ha of coastal montane forest. The area is both managed and unmanaged and ranges from 600-1650m. The most common trees present are mountain hemlock ( Tsuga mertensiana ), western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla ), yellow cedar ( Chamaecyparis nootkatensis ), and amabilis fir ( Abies amabilis ).

After: The study took place on Mt. Cain and Maquilla Peak (50'1 3'N, 126'1 8'W), Vancouver Island, British Columbia. The study area encompassed 11,800 ha of coastal montane forest. The landscape consisted of managed and unmanaged stands of coastal montane forest, 600-1650 m in elevation. The dominant tree species included mountain hemlock ( Tsuga mertensiana ), western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla ), yellow cedar ( Chamaecyparis nootkatensis ), and amabilis fir ( Abies amabilis ).

Two Tips for Sentence Clarity

Although you will want to consider more detailed stylistic revisions as you become more comfortable with scientific writing, two tips can get you started:

First, the verb should follow the subject as soon as possible.

Really Hard to Read : "The smallest of the URF's (URFA6L), a 207-nucleotide (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2- terminal portion of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit gene."

Less Hard to Read : "The smallest of the UR-F's is URFA6L, a 207-nucleotide (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-terminal portion of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene; it has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene."

Second, place familiar information first in a clause, a sentence, or a paragraph, and put the new and unfamiliar information later.

More confusing : The epidermis, the dermis, and the subcutaneous layer are the three layers of the skin. A layer of dead skin cells makes up the epidermis, which forms the body's shield against the world. Blood vessels, carrying nourishment, and nerve endings, which relay information about the outside world, are found in the dermis. Sweat glands and fat cells make up the third layer, the subcutaneous layer.

Less confusing : The skin consists of three layers: the epidermis, the dermis, and the subcutaneous layer. The epidermis is made up of dead skin cells, and forms a protective shield between the body and the world. The dermis contains the blood vessels and nerve endings that nourish the skin and make it receptive to outside stimuli. The subcutaneous layer contains the sweat glands and fat cells which perform other functions of the skin.

Bibliography

• Scientific Writing for Graduate Students . F. P. Woodford. Bethesda, MD: Council of Biology Editors, 1968. [A manual on the teaching of writing to graduate students--very clear and direct.]
• Scientific Style and Format . Council of Biology Editors. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
• "The science of scientific writing." George Gopen and Judith Swann. The American Scientist , Vol. 78, Nov.-Dec. 1990. Pp 550-558.
• "What's right about scientific writing." Alan Gross and Joseph Harmon. The Scientist , Dec. 6 1999. Pp. 20-21.
• "A Quick Fix for Figure Legends and Table Headings." Donald Kroodsma. The Auk , 117 (4): 1081-1083, 2000.

Wortman-Wunder, Emily, & Kate Kiefer. (1998). Writing the Scientific Paper. Writing@CSU . Colorado State University. https://writing.colostate.edu/resources/writing/guides/.

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Scientific paper structure: get started with this quick and easy guide

• by kayciebutler
• November 13, 2020 November 13, 2020

Why the scientific paper structure? It mimics the research process!

Science can be daunting enough – the scientific paper structure doesn’t have to be, too!

In fact, the structure of a scientific paper is meant to be anything but daunting, as it is designed to mimic how science actually progresses.

Don’t believe me? Think about this –

–>Research usually starts with a topic ( title ) .

–>Then, you need to study the s tate of the field around that topic, identify key gaps to address, and form a hypotheses ( introduction ).

–>Next, you gather the tools and equipment you need to do that research ( materials ) and perform experiments ( methods ).

–>After that, you report the results of those experiments ( results ) and see how those results affect the field and integrate back into it ( discussion ).

Helpfully, that is also exactly how your scientific paper is structured.

A scientific research paper is typically ordered:

• Introduction
• Materials and Methods
• Discussion/Conclusions

*Note: This page is going to walk you though the scientific paper structure. If you want info on writing each of these sections, please see my comprehensive page on writing your scientific manuscript !

Scientific paper structure: IMRAD and scope

In more technical terms, the scientific paper is usually structured in what we call the IMRAD format, standing for “ I ntroduction, M ethods, R esults A nd D iscussion.”

An IMRAD-based paper includes:

I ntroduction

•    Why did you do this research?
•   What was the original hypothesis?
•   When, where, and how did you do this research?
•   What materials or subjects were involved?
•   What did you discover?
•   Was the tested hypothesis true?

a nd D iscussion

•   What do your results mean?
•   How does this fit within the field?
•   What are the future  prospectives ?

Besides mimicking the research process, the structure of an IMRAD paper is also helpful for the reader in terms of the the scope of the paper and is designed to draw them in and then show them how your work matters.

What is the scope?

The scope indicates how broadly or narrowly the writing is focused. If the writing in a certain section has a broad scope , it is designed to be accessible to a broad audience . If the writing in a section has a narrow scope , it is designed to be the most focused on your specific work – which is directly accessible to a much smaller audience .

To show you what I mean, I made this diagram that shows how the scope of an IMRAD paper changes from beginning to end:

Note how the scope of a scientific paper makes an hourglass shape.

This makes sense, as the important results of your paper are the narrowest in scope. Because this scope is so narrow, it is not widely known, so it would not be accessible to a reader unless it was bookended with information that is much broader in scope, or information that is more well known and understood. This is how you teach the reader what they need to know to understand your work and give them the tools to place your work in context.

Therefore, the introduction of our paper is going to start at the very broadest scope, first introducing the reader to our field in general and then to our research more specifically. In this way, we will start at a very broad scope and slowly narrow into the results – which represent the narrowest scope in our paper.

Scientific paper structure: Key parts

1. title and abstract: attract the reader’s attention.

A scientific paper usually starts with two key parts that help attract a reader’s attention to your work: the title and abstract.

These parts are designed to essentially be the advertisement for your paper.

This means they need to be informative enough about the content of the paper to attract the right readers to your paper, and they also need to be written in a way that is interesting enough to attract those who might not otherwise find your paper.

Also note, basically any reader who gets to the paper body will have read your title and then abstract. By making sure your title and abstract are as attractive as possible, you can get more readers interested in also reading the paper body!

The title contains the key words of the paper, and tries to organize them in a way that lets the reader know what kind of study you conducted and roughly what you accomplished in that paper.

For all of my advice on writing your title, go here .

The abstract is also written to draw attention to your papers, so you want to structure it in a similar hourglass shape as the paper body.

The abstract should

• start with a broad problem that is relatable to the average reader of that journal
• indicate how your proposed to solve that problem ( hypothesis or research objectives )
• give a few lines about what you did in the paper, including key methods and results
• end with a statement about why your work is important and why it deserves to be published .

This is a lot to ask of a normally 250 word abstract!

Don’t worry – I show you exactly how to do this. For all of my advice on writing your abstract, go here.

Or, you can download your free abstract writing guide here .

2. Introduction: Introduce the reader to your work

After the reader has opened your paper, they need to be introduced to not only your work, but why it matters. This is where the introduction comes in!

Most scientists are good at introducing the literature surrounding their field – which is a big part of the introduction – but struggle to convey the importance or necessity of their work.

Part of this is because many people fail to see the importance of introducing the entire field to the reader to show why it is important to do research in that field.

Therefore, the introduction should start with a very wide overview and include a paragraph at the beginning that introduces the entire field to the reader.

Paragraphs of your introduction

Paragraph 1. The first paragraph of the introduction should answer the question – “Why does my research field exist?” 

Importantly – this paragraph should include a very clear statement of a gap that still exists in the world that your field of research seeks to fill .

Paragraphs 2-3 . Next, it is important to introduce to the reader why your research project exists, which involves the traditional review of relevant literature that most scientists are comfortable writing. These next 1-2 paragraphs should answer the question – “Why does the research in this paper exist?”

Importantly – these paragraphs should include a very clear statement of a gap that still exists in the field that your specific research project seeks to fil l .

Paragraph 4 . The last paragraph of the introduction should give the reader an overview of what to expect in this paper. It should include a typical “Here, we did…” sentence as well as a very short summary of key methods or results.

But we aren’t done yet…

This final paragraph should also end on a sentence that answers the question – “Why does this work matter and deserve to be published?”

The most impactful introductions all end with this forward-thinking statement that helps the reader place the product of your work into context. Don’t underestimate this sentence – getting the “why” into your reader’s head from the beginning can do wonders for their ability to grasp the importance of your work.

For all of my advice on how to write your introduction, go here !

3. Materials and Methods: Tell the reader what you did and how you did it

After setting up why your research projected needed to exist and what you hoped to accomplish, it is time to tell the reader what you did and how you did it.

In terms of text, this section on your materials and methods is the narrowest in scope of all of you paper, as it related to your project alone.

In this section, you need provide enough detail that your work could be repeated.

Tell your reader:

• what materials you used and where you bought them
• what equipment you used
• what protocols you followed
• how you did each experiment
• how you analyzed your results
• how you calculated statistics

If you want your work to be considered robust, others need to be able to repeat it.

At this point, your paper should convey what another lab would need to know to copy what you did in this work.

4. Results: Show the reader what you saw

The final section of the narrow scope in your paper is your results, where you tell the reader what you saw in your experiments.

These paragraphs tell the story of your paper, and should be designed as such.

For the best readability of this section, the results should be structured such that each paragraph :

• represents one experiment or group of related experiments
• begins with a topic sentence that tells the reader what you did in that paragraph and why
• end with a summary statement (1/2 – 1 sentence) telling the reader the main take-home point of that paragraph

The results section should not :

• Provide extra introductory info only when it is needed to understand the following work and does not apply to the entire paper
• Provide only enough here such that the reader understands what experiments were done and what the controls were .
• The reader should not be able to reproduce your experiments from the details in this section
• Provide only enough for the reader to understand the rest of the paper plus the paragraph-ending summary statement .

For all of my advice on how to write your results, go here !

5. Discussion: Walk the reader through what your results mean and how they affect the field

At the end of the paper, the reader needs to know what your results mean and how they integrate in the field – it is the only way to understand the importance and impact of your work!

For this, the discussion is the opposite of the introduction – it funnels the reader OUT of your work, building on your results to connect your work to the field and society as a whole.

Paragraphs of your discussion

Paragraph 1. The first paragraph briefly summarizes the main results of the paper and directly shows how they address the gap in the field  that was mentioned in the introduction.

Paragraphs 2-4. These middle paragraphs discuss your results. For each paragraph, take one key result and:

• analyze it – what does it mean?
• relate it to the field – how does it tie into other work in the field?
• relate it to the gap – how does it help fill the gap that you discussed in the introduction?
• speculate beyond the current limits of the field – what new research questions do these results bring up?
• f uture directions – how can this research be expanded on in the future?

Final paragraph – the conclusion.   The conclusion should never be a summary of the paper – this misses a great opportunity to highlight the importance and impact of your work, and leave the reader with a forward-thinking outlook.

The conclusion does a disservice to your paper if it doesn’t highlight why your work deserves to be published. Make sure it answers:

• Why should scientists be excited about this work?
• Why should non-scientists be excited?

For all of my advice on how to write your discussion, go here !

Scientific paper structure: Putting it all together and writing

Now after seeing how a scientific paper is structured and why, you might still be struggling to write the paper…don’t worry, this is completely normal!

Just because we know the structure we need to strive for, it still isn’t easy to translate our work into a paper. This is because the way a paper is structured is designed to help the reader through the process, but it is not necessarily the easiest ordering for writing a paper.

To now learn how to WRITE your scientific paper, you can find all of my advice on that topic here .

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• Review Article
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• Published: 27 April 2024

Advancing the local climate zones framework: a critical review of methodological progress, persisting challenges, and future research prospects

• Jie Han   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0003-3165-631X 1 ,
• Jingyi Cai 1 ,
• Leixin Ouyang 2 &
• Zhengxuan Liu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2761-5078 3  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  538 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Environmental studies
• Science, technology and society

The local climate zones (LCZs) classification system has emerged as a more refined method for assessing the urban heat island (UHI) effect. However, few researchers have conducted systematic critical reviews and summaries of the research on LCZs, particularly regarding significant advancements of this field in recent years. This paper aims to bridge this gap in scientific research by systematically reviewing the evolution, current status, and future trends of LCZs framework research. Additionally, it critically assesses the impact of the LCZs classification system on climate-responsive urban planning and design. The findings of this study highlight several key points. First, the challenge of large-scale, efficient, and accurate LCZs mapping persists as a significant issue in LCZs research. Despite this challenge, the universality, simplicity, and objectivity of the LCZs framework make it a promising tool for a wide range of applications in the future, especially in the realm of climate-responsive urban planning and design. In conclusion, this study makes a substantial contribution to the advancement of LCZs research and advocates for the broader adoption of this framework to foster sustainable urban development. Furthermore, it offers valuable insights for researchers and practitioners engaged in this field.

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Introduction.

Urbanization is an irreversible process that will continue to accelerate over the next three decades, resulting in a projected global urban population increase of up to 668 million (UN-Habitat 2022 ). While urbanization brings economic development, cultural exchange, and technological progress, it also concentrates people in cities, leading to higher greenhouse gas emissions and pollutants. These emissions contribute to air quality degradation, global warming, and climate change. Urban heat island (UHI), characterized by higher temperatures in urban areas compared to their surrounding rural areas, is a consequence of urbanization, driven by unique urban surfaces and anthropogenic heat release. UHI carries numerous adverse effects, including increased energy consumption, air pollution, degradation of living conditions, and elevated heat-related mortality rates. All of these challenges significantly impede sustainable development, underscoring the critical importance of identifying, mitigating, and adapting to UHI (Huang and Lu 2018 ).

The term “urban heat island” was first introduced by Balchin and Pye ( 1947 ), and it has since become a prominent research field within urban climate studies (Peng et al. 2022 , Zhang et al. 2022 , Mo et al. 2024 ). The central issue in UHI research revolves around quantifying urban heat island intensity (UHII) (Huang and Lu 2018 ). The conventional approach to UHI evaluation involves computing UHII by comparing the average temperature difference between urban and rural areas. However, this method encounters limitations due to the diverse nature of urban morphology, land cover, and human activities, leading to varying UHII results within urban areas. Consequently, UHI analysis and mitigation strategies based on these results lack precision. Another challenge with the urban-rural dichotomy lies in selecting suburban measurement points that are minimally affected by urbanization. With urbanization, the once-clear social, political, and economic boundaries between urban and rural areas have blurred. It is more accurate to describe the relationship between urban and rural areas as a continuous and dynamic system rather than a rigid dichotomy.

To address the shortcomings of the traditional “urban-rural dichotomy” in UHI research, the local climate zones (LCZs) classification system, introduced by Stewart and Oke ( 2012 ), offers a fresh research framework. This system has expanded its applications beyond UHI research and is now being employed in other domains related to sustainable urban development, including urban planning (Pradhesta et al. 2019 , Kopp et al. 2021 ), building energy consumption (Yang et al. 2020a , 2022 , Benjamin et al. 2021 ), and urban thermal comfort (Lau et al. 2019 , Wu et al. 2022 ).

Table 1 lists the existing review articles on LCZs research. Many researchers in the domain of LCZs mapping have directed their attention to the current advancements in this area. For instance, Huang et al. ( 2023 ) offered a comprehensive review of LCZs mapping, providing detailed analyses of remote sensing (RS)-based and geographic information system (GIS)-based methods. They discussed RS-based methods in terms of feature sets, classification units, training areas, classification algorithms, and accuracy assessment, while GIS-based methods were elaborated based on LCZ parameters, basic spatial units (BSUs), classification algorithms, and accuracy assessment. Quan and Bansal ( 2021 ) summarized the general LCZs mapping processes in the reviewed studies, encompassing data collection, defining BSUs, calculating urban canopy parameters (UCPs), LCZs classification, post-processing, and performance evaluation. Ma et al. ( 2021 ) conducted a timely investigation into RS-based LCZs mapping applications. They analyzed and evaluated several aspects influencing LCZs mapping performance, including mapping units/scales, transferability, sample datasets, low accuracy, and classification schemes. Meanwhile, researchers have dedicated their focus to the field pertaining to the LCZs framework. For example, Lehnert et al. ( 2021 ) provided a comprehensive analysis of the application of the LCZs framework in European urban areas, demonstrating an increasing and widely recognized use of LCZs in climate research across European cities. Xue et al. ( 2020 ) explored the applications of LCZs schemes in various research fields such as meteorology, atmospheric science, environmental science, remote sensing, architectural technology, civil engineering, and ecology by conducting a bibliometric analysis of articles citing LCZs using CiteSpace. Additionally, most review studies utilize bibliometric analysis to review LCZs research. However, bibliometric analysis has the limitation of time lag due to the literature on which it is based, which can not sufficiently reflect the latest research progress.

The mentioned studies indicate the significant attention LCZs-related research has garnered within the academic community. Nonetheless, several noticeable gaps exist: 1) Few researchers have systematically conducted critical reviews and comprehensive summaries of LCZs research, especially concerning its recent notable advancements. 2) A thorough investigation into its development, research methodologies, and broader applications, particularly in sustainable urban development contexts, is warranted. This paper’s innovations and contributions primarily involve:

1) Given recent advancements, this study comprehensively examines and categorizes research methods and application areas within the LCZs framework. This analysis provides a thorough understanding of theoretical foundations and practical applications, contributing to a more holistic comprehension of LCZs studies.

2) The paper critically evaluates the effectiveness of the LCZs classification system in supporting climate-responsive urban planning and design. This assessment is crucial in understanding the practical utility of the LCZs framework for sustainable urban development and its potential to mitigate UHI challenges.

The primary sections of this paper are structured as follows: The literature survey and corresponding quantitative analysis are presented in Literature Survey. Advancements in local climate zones framework introduces the LCZs framework and delves into the measurement of UCPs. Recent advancements in manual sampling and mapping methods of LCZs reviews the progress of LCZs research methods applied in UHI research. Application of LCZs framework in various scenarios explores the various application areas of LCZs, with a particular focus on its utility in UHI research and climate-sensitive urban design. Limitations, challenges, and future prospects engages in a discussion regarding research limitations and potential future applications of the LCZs framework. Conclusions presents the key findings and conclusions drawn from the study. This structured approach allows for a systematic and in-depth exploration of the LCZs classification system’s development and its multifaceted applications in the context of research related to sustainable urban development.

Literature survey

This study conducted a comprehensive screening of all peer-reviewed journal and conference papers that cited the original LCZs framework articles based on the Web of Science dataset. As of February 2023, a total of 1534 papers were identified. Based on this, we performed literature statistics and bibliometric analysis to quantitatively assess the current state of development of LCZs research.

Literature statistics

The literature statistics were conducted from three aspects: annual output, country distribution, and research fields. Figures 1 and 2 provide visual representations of the annual output and the country distribution of LCZs research for the period spanning from 2013 to 2022. Since the introduction of the LCZs framework in 2012, there has been a notable surge in publications related to LCZs research. Specifically, the number of publications has seen a substantial increase, starting at 17 in 2013 and reaching 300 in 2022. This upward trend underscores the escalating interest and engagement in LCZs research within the academic community and beyond. Furthermore, the distribution of countries reveals five nations that have made substantial contributions to LCZs research. China stands out with the highest number of papers, accounting for 668 publications, which amounts to approximately 43.55% of the total papers. Following China, the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Australia have also made significant contributions to LCZs research, with 333, 225, 176, and 104 publications, respectively. These statistics highlight the global reach and significance of LCZs research, with diverse countries actively participating in advancing this research field.

Annual output of LCZs research.

Country distribution of LCZs research.

Table 2 provides an overview of the distribution of research fields related to LCZs. LCZs research is characterized by its interdisciplinary nature, encompassing a wide spectrum of academic disciplines. The research content of LCZs studies spans several fields: (1) Meteorology and atmospheric sciences: The LCZs framework is employed to investigate urban meteorology, evaluate the impact of urbanization on weather patterns, and develop models for urban climate simulations; (2) Environmental sciences and ecology: The LCZs classification system helps identify and quantify the effect of urbanization on ecosystems, biodiversity, and the overall environment; (3) Physical sciences: The LCZs classification takes into account physical parameters such as surface materials, building density, and thermal admittance. This classification helps physical scientists study the thermal characteristics of urban surfaces, develop models for energy balance calculations, and explore the impact of different materials on the UHI effect; (4) Geography: Geographers use LCZs framework to investigate urban morphology, land use dynamics, urban-rural interactions, and the relationship between urban form and climate; (5) Energy and fuels: The LCZs classification system helps identify areas with high energy demand or heat stress, guiding the development of energy-efficient buildings, urban cooling techniques, and renewable energy integration; (6) RS: RS is a prominent and integral research direction within LCZs. It involves the use of satellite and aerial imagery to map and monitor large-scale urban climates, often supported by GIS technologies. The multidisciplinary nature of LCZs research enables cross-disciplinary collaboration and knowledge integration, making it a versatile framework for understanding and addressing urban climate challenges.

Bibliometric analysis

The study employs the concept of “co-occurrence clustering” and utilizes the CiteSpace visualization software to conduct a bibliometric analysis of the screening results. In this analysis, the fundamental unit of information extraction and structural construction is the “keywords”. The research utilizes a “keyword co-occurrence” network to depict the knowledge structure, research evolution, and current research focal points within the LCZs application field. In this network, each node corresponds to a keyword found in the literature, and the links represent the connections between these keywords. The objective is to visually and analytically explore the nodes, links, and overall network structure, shedding light on the present state of development in the LCZs application field. This approach allows for a systematic and data-driven examination of the relationships between keywords and their significance within the context of LCZs research. It facilitates the identification of trends, patterns, and emerging areas of interest within this field, providing valuable insights for researchers and practitioners alike.

In the analyzed literature employing the LCZs framework, several recurring nodes stand out, shedding light on the primary objectives and emphases of LCZs research. The top five frequently occurring nodes include “urban heat island,” “temperature,” “climate,” “impact,” and “city,” as illustrated in Fig. 3 . These nodes collectively indicate that LCZs research primarily seeks to understand the factors influencing urban climates (“climate” and “city”), particularly the impact on temperature parameters (“temperature”). There is a notable focus on examining how the factors affect UHI (“urban heat island”), which aligns with the LCZs framework’s original purpose. The high frequency of “urban heat island” (697 times, with 144 mentions in 2021) underscores its central role in LCZs research. This centrality stems from the LCZs framework’s inception, which aimed to address the limitations of the “urban-rural dichotomy” in UHI studies, enabling a more nuanced understanding of UHI impacts and the development of effective mitigation strategies.

Keyword co-present of the analyzed LCZs literature.

Advancements in local climate zones framework

Local climate zone classification system.

LCZs are defined as areas with uniform surface cover, structure, material, and human activity, with a minimum radius of 200–500 m, which exhibit local-scale, climatic nature, and zonal representation as depicted in Fig. 4 . The LCZs classification system is based on 10 UCPs with recommended ranges, allowing for classification into 17 standard LCZ patterns, comprising 10 built types and 7 land cover types. The various LCZ types represent the diverse compositions of buildings, roads, plants, soils, rocks, and water. The names of standard built types primarily reflect three building structure characteristics (Density: compact/open; Height: high/mid/low; Material: heavy/lightweight) and building type (general/industrial). Conversely, the counterparts of standard land cover types mainly reflected the vegetation and land cover characteristics.

Schematic diagram of standard LCZs.

The process of LCZs classification usually involves four steps: data acquisition, UCPs calculation, LCZs classification, and accuracy evaluation. The first step is to collect the required information for the study area (e.g., field measurements and satellite images). The second step involves calculating UCPs using the data gathered in the previous step. A detailed description of the calculation methods for UCPs is provided in Measurement of urban canopy parameters. For LCZs classification, the results from UCPs calculation can assist in identifying the best match between field sites and LCZ classes. Additionally, LCZs subclasses can be customized when UCPs deviate from the recommended ranges of the standard set of classes. For instance, a combination of LCZ 4 (Open high-rise) and 3 (Compact low-rise) can provide LCZ 3 4 (Compact low-rise with open high-rise).

Measurement of urban canopy parameters

For achieving precise LCZs classification, obtaining accurate values for UCPs is of paramount importance. These UCPs are primarily related to surface structure parameters, including sky view factor (SVF) (Steyn 1980 , Matzarakis et al. 2007 , Liang et al. 2017 ), aspect ratio (AR) (Masson 2000 ), and height of roughness elements (HRE) (Yan and Huang 2022 , Wu et al. 2023 ). They also encompass surface cover parameters such as building surface fraction (BSF) (Yu et al. 2010 , Guo et al. 2022 , Jifroudi et al. 2022 , Wei et al. 2023 ), impervious surface fractions (ISF), and pervious surface fractions (PSF) (Deng and Wu 2013 , Sytsma et al. 2020 ). Surface fabric parameters (surface admittance and surface albedo (Bartmiński and Siłuch 2022 , Tahooni et al. 2023 )) and human activity parameters (anthropogenic heat flux (Yu et al. 2021 , Wang et al. 2022b , Liu and Li 2023 )) are equally included.

In the absence of specific heat-related indicators, most current studies rely on the geometric and ground cover values to define LCZs. Table 3 highlights the various methods employed in previous studies to measure parameters related to ground cover and geometry. Measurement methods for SVF are typically categorized as fisheye photographs, satellite images, street view images, and numerical simulations. Parameters such as AR, BSF, ISF, PSF, HRE, and TRC are primarily grouped into three categories: field measurement, satellite image calculation, and building data acquisition.

In summary, methods for measuring UCPs mainly consist of manual measurement and satellite image calculation. Manual measurement involves collecting data from a few sampling points in a region and then averaging them to determine UCP values. However, this approach is time-consuming, labor-intensive, and prone to inaccuracies, rendering it unsuitable for large-scale urban climate studies based on the LCZs framework. In contrast, alternative methods such as RS and simulation modeling can be more effectively employed for UCPs measurements. These methods offer a more efficient and accurate means of collecting UCPs, enabling a comprehensive and reliable analysis of urban climate patterns and their impact on human well-being and the environment. Furthermore, there is a pressing need to establish standardized procedures for measuring UCPs. Future research within the LCZs framework could emphasize the standardization of UCP calculation using RS and GIS data to ensure precise results.

Calculating urban heat island intensity using the LCZs framework

The LCZs framework method focuses on defining the UHI magnitude using the temperature difference between LCZs, represented by ΔT LCZ X-LCZ D , rather than the traditional “urban-rural” temperature difference (ΔT u-r ) (Stewart and Oke 2012 ). Here, LCZ X denotes any class within the LCZs classification system, while the temperature of LCZ D (low plants) serves as the baseline. This calculation method not only offers a more physically grounded understanding of UHII but also enhances its analysis and comparability. Numerous studies have affirmed the efficacy of the LCZs-based UHII calculation method. For example, Shi et al. ( 2021 ) computed surface urban heat island (SUHI) intensity by analyzing the difference in land surface temperature (LST) between LCZs and compared it with the conventional “urban-rural dichotomy” method. The results revealed that the LCZs-based UHII calculation method yielded a more precise measure of SUHI intensity. Similarly, Budhiraja et al. ( 2019 ) examined the seasonal SUHI intensity of Delhi using both LCZs-based and “urban-rural dichotomy” methods, concluding that the former provided a more detailed understanding of the relationship between urban structure and SUHI.

Two primary UHI types were assessed using the LCZs-based UHII calculation method: atmospheric urban heat island (AUHI) and SUHI. Concerning AUHI, Chen et al. ( 2021 ) explored the connection between the diurnal temperature range and AUHI intensity using the LCZs-based UHII calculation method under varying meteorological conditions categorized by precipitation. Yang et al. ( 2017 ) investigated the characteristics of local AUHI at selected LCZ sites, employing the LCZs-based UHII calculation method. Regarding SUHI, Wang et al. ( 2021 ) calculated surface urban heat island intensity (SUHII) using this method and proposed a sustainable urban green infrastructure planning strategy based on the analysis results. O’Malley and Kikumoto ( 2022 ) delved into heat storage in Tokyo Prefecture, utilizing the LCZs-based UHII calculation method to compute nocturnal-diurnal SUHI differences. Finally, Zheng et al. ( 2022 ) scrutinized the changes of LCZs and surface SUHII within Chang-Zhu-Tan’s primary urban area, employing the LCZs-based UHII calculation method.

In conclusion, the LCZs-based UHII calculation method represents a significant advancement in UHI research. Its ability to capture localized UHI variations, enhance comparability across regions, and guide targeted mitigation strategies makes it a valuable tool for urban planning and climate adaptation. However, addressing data challenges and standardization issues will be crucial to fully realize its potential for widespread application. Further research should focus on refining data acquisition and measurement techniques within the LCZs framework to ensure the accuracy and reliability of UHII assessments.

Recent advancements in manual sampling and mapping methods of LCZs research

This section explores the research methods employed within the LCZs framework for UHI research, specifically focusing on the manual sampling method for limited LCZs and LCZs mapping methods for large-scale applications.

Manual sampling method for limited LCZs

In the early stages of UHI research based on the LCZs framework, the primary emphasis was on LCZs classification through a manual sampling approach. This method involved the identification of LCZ types for a limited number of land parcels using manual techniques, such as scrutinizing satellite images, live photos, and conducting field surveys, for urban climate investigations. For instance, Yang et al. ( 2017 ) conducted a study examining the local UHI characteristics across 12 LCZs. These LCZs were selected based on a thorough review of satellite images, street-level views, and on-site fieldwork. In another research endeavor, Yang et al. ( 2018 ) investigated 14 distinct LCZs using field data and high-resolution satellite images to analyze the thermal characteristics of each location.

However, it is important to note that the manual sampling method has limitations, particularly when applied to large-scale urban climate investigations. It necessitates a substantial number of researchers to manually identify the LCZ type of each plot, which is resource-intensive and time-consuming. Moreover, there is a risk of human error during the identification process, potentially compromising the accuracy and reliability of the results. Consequently, while the manual sampling method has proven valuable for in-depth studies focusing on limited LCZs, it may not be suitable for broader urban climate investigations within expansive urban areas. In such cases, alternative LCZs mapping methods are typically preferred to ensure efficiency and accuracy.

LCZs mapping methods

The evolution of the LCZs framework has given rise to LCZs mapping methods tailored for large-scale urban climate studies. These methods simplify the representation of urban climate within the LCZs framework, enabling comparative analyses across different cities and enhancing the universality and applicability of findings. Moreover, LCZs framework facilitates the transformation of “climate language,” supporting the development of climate-sensitive urban design. LCZs mapping methods can be categorized into two types based on their data sources and classification algorithms: GIS-based and RS-based mapping methods (Tamás et al. 2015 ).

GIS-based LCZs mapping method

The GIS-based LCZs mapping method comprises six main steps, as depicted in Fig. 5 (Quan and Bansal 2021 ). Initially, it involves collecting GIS data and defining BSUs to segment the urban environment into smaller blocks for LCZs classification. Subsequently, the UCPs values for each BSU are calculated using GIS data, and the LCZ type for each BSU is determined based on the LCZs framework. Finally, post-processing is carried out to merge adjacent units for simplification and size adjustment, ultimately leading to the generation and evaluation of the LCZs map. BSUs refer to the spatial scale of LCZ classification, and the size of a BSU must meet the size requirement of the LCZs framework. The definition of BSUs is typically divided into lot area polygons (Lelovics et al. 2014 , Unger et al. 2014 ), urban blocks (Wu et al. 2018 , Quan 2019 ), and regular grids (Chen et al. 2020a ). Additionally, pre-processing of the GIS data is often necessary before calculating the UCPs. Common pre-processing includes: (1) Data cleaning: GIS datasets may contain errors or inconsistencies, such as missing values, outliers, or topological errors. It’s important to clean the data to avoid inaccuracies. (2) Spatial resolution matching: GIS datasets may have different spatial resolutions, which can affect the accuracy of UCPs calculations. Pre-processing is necessary to resample or aggregate datasets to a common spatial resolution to ensure compatibility for analysis. (3) Others: Steps such as data normalization and data integration are performed as needed. Overall, pre-processing of GIS data is essential before calculating UCPs to ensure data cleanliness, compatibility, and suitability for analysis, leading to more accurate and reliable results.

General steps of GIS-based LCZs mapping method (Quan and Bansal 2021 ).

The use of GIS-based LCZs mapping has gained traction in urban climate studies since the pioneering study by Lelovics et al. ( 2014 ) in Hungary. For example, Quan et al. ( 2017 ) developed and tested a bottom-up, fine-grained 3D LCZs mapping method utilizing GIS and land cover data, with urban block units serving as BSUs. Geletič et al. ( 2019 ) employed the GIS-based LCZs mapping method to explore the inter-zone and intra-zone seasonal variations of SUHI in three central European cities.

Despite its precision, the GIS-based LCZs mapping method has limitations. Firstly, obtaining accurate and consistent ground truth data for calculating UCPs poses a significant challenge, leading to limited availability of urban data. The inability to acquire comprehensive and detailed datasets for estimating UCPs, particularly those related to thermal aspects, can significantly impact the accuracy of LCZs mapping. Secondly, the merging of BSUs exists in post-processing, making it challenging to find optimal solutions, particularly in intricate urban environments. This process may not fully capture the complexity of LCZs mapping.

RS-based LCZs mapping method

RS is a technology that leverages remote sensors to collect data from target objects and analyze it to extract valuable information. Advances in RS information acquisition, transmission, and storage technologies have diminished the limitations of RS applications due to improved data quality and the increased availability of multiple RS data sources (Liu et al. 2006 ). RS satellites streamline fieldwork complexity and time intervals while delivering quantifiable and qualitative data (Dhingra and Kumar 2019 ). Optical RS imagery is gradually favored for identifying and categorizing land types and has become a pivotal research area.

RS-based LCZs mapping methods also have several limitations. One key limitation is the spatial and temporal resolution of the RS data. RS data may not always provide complete coverage or may be affected by cloud cover, which means that RS images need to be processed for stitching. However, since the spatial and temporal resolution of different remotely sensed images may vary, the stitching process may impact the accuracy and completeness of the LCZs mapping. Additionally, RS-based LCZs mapping requires specialized knowledge in remote sensing and image processing, which can be a barrier for non-remote sensing professionals. This limitation restricts the widespread application of RS-based LCZs mapping in urban planning and climate studies.

However, compared to GIS-based approaches, RS-based LCZs mapping methods offer several advantages, including higher resolution, finer spatial and temporal data, and the ability to quickly cover large areas. As a result, RS-based LCZs mapping has become the preferred approach for LCZs classification.

To enhance the accuracy of LCZs map classification, RS researchers have employed various benchmark datasets and classifiers. Regarding the benchmark dataset, Hu et al. ( 2018 ) utilized Sentinel-1 Dual-Pol data in LCZs mapping. Yang et al. ( 2020b ) employed multi-source datasets, including Luojia1-01 nighttime light imagery, Landsat-8, Sentinel-2, and building vector data, to generate LCZs maps. They found that a combination of object-based and pixel-based data with multi-source data improved LCZs mapping workflow. Machine learning classifiers, such as random forests and support vector machines (Xu et al. 2017 , Hu et al. 2018 , Hay Chung et al. 2021 ), are widely used for LCZs classification based on free multi-temporal RS data. In recent years, deep learning techniques have also been employed in RS-based LCZs mapping, as artificial intelligence has advanced. For example, Liu et al. ( 2019 ) combined object-based image analysis with convolutional neural networks (CNN) for LCZs mapping. Huang et al. ( 2021 ) introduced a CNN-based LCZ classification model for LCZs mapping in 32 Chinese cities. Their model achieved high overall accuracy in more than 50% of the cities.

Urban climate studies based on the LCZs framework face notable challenges due to the demand for expertise in meteorological science, RS, and machine learning, as well as data availability issues and non-standardized urban description methods. To address these challenges, Bechtel et al. ( 2015 ) proposed the world urban database and access portal tool (WUDAPT) protocol for LCZs mapping, which was developed ultimately into the LCZs generator (Demuzere et al. 2021 ), an online platform that generates LCZs mapping solely needing a training area file as input and also provides automated accuracy assessment. This approach aims to collect, store, and disseminate climate-related data on urban physical geography globally. The WUDAPT approach merges local expert knowledge with the LCZs framework to categorize the urban landscape into LCZs, generating LCZs maps for urban regions. The WUDAPT, outlined in Fig. 6 , has been widely adopted for urban climate studies in numerous regions. For example, Demuzere et al. ( 2022 ) generated a 100 m-resolution global LCZs map, accessible for download at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6364594 . Cai et al. ( 2018 ) created an LCZs map for the Yangtze River Delta megaregion in China. Ren et al. ( 2019 ) generated LCZs maps for over 20 cities and three major economic regions in China, offering recommendations for enhancement. Demuzere et al. ( 2019 ) constructed LCZs maps for Europe. Beyond urban climate studies, WUDAPT finds applications in various domains, including urban pollution (Shi et al. 2019 ) and multi-scale urban atmospheric modeling (Ching et al. 2019 ).

WUDAPT workflow (Bechtel et al. 2015 ).

LCZs mapping methods represent a pivotal advancement within the LCZs framework, enabling more extensive and systematic urban climate studies. These methods are indispensable for gaining insights into urban climatology, which is crucial for informed urban planning and climate-responsive urban design. While both GIS-based and RS-based LCZs mapping methods offer advantages, it’s essential to consider their respective strengths and limitations. GIS-based approaches provide high precision but may suffer from data availability issues and the complexity of post-processing. In contrast, RS-based methods offer freely available multi-temporal data and can quickly capture large-scale urban environments but may require extensive computational resources and expertise. The integration of machine learning and deep learning techniques into RS-based LCZs mapping has significantly improved classification accuracy and efficiency. However, these methods often demand large training datasets and computational resources. Further research should focus on optimizing these techniques for resource-constrained environments. The WUDAPT protocol stands out as a promising approach for LCZs mapping, offering generality, simplicity, and objectivity. Its reliance on local expert knowledge enhances accuracy, especially in areas with limited data availability. However, challenges persist in implementing this protocol universally, particularly in regions lacking local expertise.

In summary, LCZs mapping methods represent a pivotal milestone in urban climate research. They offer versatile tools for understanding and addressing the UHI effect and other climate-related urban challenges. As technology and data availability continue to advance, these methods are poised to play an increasingly prominent role in shaping sustainable and climate-resilient cities.

Application of LCZs framework in various scenarios

The application domains of the LCZs framework can be categorized and analyzed based on the keywords found in the screened literature. This analysis spans three principal areas: (1) LCZs framework in UHI studies: The primary application of the LCZs framework remains in the domain of UHI research. It provides a valuable tool for investigating the causes and consequences of UHIs, helping researchers better comprehend their impacts on urban climates and devising strategies to mitigate them. Given the growing significance of UHI effects in urban areas, continued research in this area is essential. (2) LCZs research contributions to urban design and climate change mitigation: LCZs research also makes substantial contributions to urban design and climate change mitigation efforts. The framework enables a more refined understanding of how urban structures and land use impact local climates. Consequently, it aids urban planners and policymakers in developing climate-sensitive urban designs and strategies to reduce the UHI effect and its associated challenges. (3) LCZs framework in diverse fields: LCZs research has found applications in various other domains, such as urban ventilation, precipitation, thermal comfort, carbon emissions, and building energy consumption. This indicates the versatility of the LCZs framework and its potential to inform a broad spectrum of urban-related research.

In summary, the LCZs framework has evolved to become a valuable tool in various research scenarios. While its origins lie in addressing UHI research limitations, it now extends its influence to inform urban design, climate change mitigation, and a range of interdisciplinary studies. Its adaptability and versatility underscore the continued relevance of LCZs research in addressing contemporary urban challenges.

LCZs framework in urban heat island studies

UHI research is crucial for understanding the impact of urban environments and devising strategies to mitigate UHI effects. Traditional studies have focused on 2D built environment parameters, such as building density, road density, and green space area, extracted from available data sources like weather data or satellite imagery for 2D planar UHI studies. Recent investigations have revealed that 3D built environment factors, including building height and SVF, have a more substantial influence on UHI than the 2D parameters (Luo et al. 2023 ). Consequently, there is a growing need for research that assesses and characterizes UHI through 3D spatial analysis, rather than the planar UHI estimation (Kim and Brown 2021 ). The LCZs system, which integrates both 2D and 3D UCPs, is well-suited for 3D UHI studies and can contribute to advancing the understanding of UHI and its influencing factors.

Table 4 provides examples of UHI research conducted using the LCZs framework, covering various climate types and research contents. These studies span different climate types, including tropical, subtropical, temperate, and more. UHI research typically falls into two categories: SUHI, which concerns the temperature difference between urban and rural areas at the surface level, and AUHI, which examines corresponding air temperature differences. Temperature variables in UHI studies can further be categorized into LST and air temperature, depending on the type of UHI under investigation. Research objectives encompass the identification, influencing factors, and mitigation strategies associated with UHI. UHI studies employ four primary measurement methods, including fixed measurement (utilizing fixed meteorological stations or establishing stationary observation points for thermal environment measurements), mobile measurement (employing mobile vehicles equipped with climate observation instruments to collect and record climate data along predefined routes), ground measurement (retrieving LST using thermal infrared data), and numerical simulation.

Given the dispersed nature of measurement points and the limited equipment available for LCZs investigations, many UHI studies opt for mobile measurement or LST retrieval methods to gather temperature data across extensive areas. Furthermore, contemporary LCZs framework research has shifted its focus from single-city examinations to comparative analyses between cities. This shift highlights the generalizability of the LCZs framework and its contributions to the growing trend of multi-regional urban climate research.

LCZs research contributions to urban design and climate change mitigation

Well-planned cities are essential for achieving sustainable urban development (Bai 2018 ). Climate-sensitive urban design plays a pivotal role in addressing the challenges posed by rising temperatures, which threaten residents’ thermal comfort (Kim and Brown 2021 ). However, existing urban planning systems struggle to cope with the complexities of local, regional, and global warming. Integrating climate considerations into data requirements and analysis methods is crucial for practical urban design applications (Perera and Emmanuel 2018 ).

The development of urban climate mapping systems has emerged as a responsive tool for climate-conscious urban planning. LCZs offer a structured classification system for land surface characteristics, forming the basis for surface parameterization methods (Ren et al. 2011 , Jin et al. 2020 ). LCZs facilitate the examination of the relationship between urban morphology and climate, providing meteorological data that informs building and urban design decisions. This framework has yielded significant insights into climate-responsive urban design, as exemplified by recent research endeavors.

For instance, Perera and Emmanuel ( 2018 ) utilized the LCZs framework to guide urban planning in Colombo, establishing it as a valuable theoretical foundation for crafting climate-sensitive cities. Likewise, Maharoof et al. ( 2020 ) applied the LCZs framework to investigate the implementation of climate-sensitive urban planning in densely populated urban areas, as illustrated by their case study of Glasgow city center. Another study by Pradhesta et al. ( 2019 ) dissected the critical components of thermal comfort within the LCZs framework, emphasizing factors such as roughness feature height, packing density, surface cover, and thermal admittance of materials. These components prove pivotal in the design of urban spaces that prioritize residents’ thermal comfort.

In essence, the LCZs framework offers a powerful tool for formulating climate-sensitive urban design strategies that enhance the quality of life and the sustainability of our cities. Climate-conscious urban design based on LCZs revolves around several key facets:

i) Green infrastructure: Integrating green infrastructure into urban planning stands as a critical measure for mitigating the effects of climate change on cities and their inhabitants. A comprehensive evaluation by Emmanuel and Loconsole ( 2015 ) underscores the effectiveness of green infrastructure options in combatting urban overheating, particularly within the context of a warming climate. Notably, increasing green coverage by approximately 20% over current levels could potentially eliminate up to half of the projected extra UHI effect by 2050 (Emmanuel and Loconsole 2015 ). Further insights from Kotharkar et al. ( 2020 ) reveal that greening initiatives not only serve as cooling strategies but also enhance pedestrian-level comfort. Intriguingly, their research highlights the superior results achieved by planting vegetation along streets, as opposed to concentrating greenery in designated areas. Li et al. ( 2022b ) further advocate for the moderation of SUHI through the strategic implementation of urban blue-green infrastructure. Stepani and Emmanuel ( 2022 ) advocate optimizing green spaces within public realms rather than merely increasing their quantity, emphasizing that climate-responsive design necessitates a diverse array of solutions, extending beyond green infrastructure.

ii) Blue infrastructure: The concept of blue infrastructure encompasses a network of natural and artificial water systems, including rivers, lakes, canals, and drainage systems, which serve as vital resources for human communities. Li et al. ( 2022b ) recommended harnessing the seasonal variations and spatial distribution of water bodies to enhance the cooling performance of LCZ G (Water). Factors such as distance and flow rates within rivers significantly influence the cooling effects, making them key considerations for urban planners and policymakers. Furthermore, they stress the importance of accounting for the growing risks of floods and droughts in East African cities, necessitating the design of blue infrastructure capable of adapting to seasonal variations and changing climates.

iii) Building design: Building resilience to climate change-induced extreme weather events is a crucial consideration in urban design. Passive cooling strategies, including cool roofs, emerge as effective means to reduce energy consumption and mitigate the UHI effect. Kotharkar et al. ( 2020 ) highlight the efficacy of cool roofs, specially designed to reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat than traditional roofing materials, particularly in densely populated urban areas.

iv) Street design: Urban streets represent a significant component of contemporary urban planning, encompassing approximately one-quarter of urban areas. They wield considerable influence in shaping comfortable urban environments. However, the climate-sensitive street design goes beyond rigid one-size-fits-all approaches. Maharoof et al. ( 2020 ) advocate for the integration of LCZ parameters with form-based considerations such as orientation and façade geometry. This nuanced approach recognizes that different street typologies may demand distinct design strategies, underscoring the importance of tailoring designs to specific urban contexts.

v) Other considerations: Research by O’Malley and Kikumoto ( 2022 ) suggests that mitigating UHI effects can be achieved through constructing lower-rise and open LCZs. They note that high-rise buildings possess larger heat storage capacities relative to lower-rise structures. Additionally, Zheng et al. ( 2022 ) proposed the full utilization of the cooling potential inherent in LCZ A-D and LCZ G and emphasized the need for judicious regulation of construction land areas (built LCZs) in future urban development plans.

Leveraging insights from LCZs-based research, climate-sensitive urban design should center around the integration of green and blue infrastructure, innovative building design, and flexible street design elements to counter the adverse impacts of climate change and foster the creation of sustainable, climate-responsive urban environments.

i) Green-blue infrastructure: Urban areas can benefit significantly from nature-based solutions, such as green roofs, gardens, and urban forests. These solutions serve dual purposes, including mitigating the negative impacts of climate change and promoting biodiversity. Furthermore, green corridors, such as tree-lined streets and bike paths, serve as multifunctional assets. They not only improve air quality but also offer enhanced mobility options for residents and reduce noise pollution. Water features, such as fountains and ponds, not only enhance the aesthetic appeal of public spaces but also provide cooling through evaporation.

ii) Building design: To mitigate UHI effects, building design should incorporate various strategies, including green roofs, cool roofs, shade provision, and sustainable materials. Green roofs are particularly advantageous because they contribute to cooling both buildings and their surroundings by absorbing and subsequently releasing moisture through transpiration. Additionally, cool roofs reflect sunlight and possess lower heat absorption than traditional roofing materials. The reduction in heat transfer into buildings beneath the roof not only lowers cooling costs but also enhances indoor comfort during hot weather. Moreover, building design can introduce shading solutions in outdoor areas, thereby reducing the amount of sunlight absorbed by buildings and their surroundings, thus contributing to cooler environments. Sustainable building materials, such as recycled steel, bamboo, and reclaimed wood, can play a pivotal role in reducing the environmental footprint of construction, ensuring that buildings are more sustainable, efficient, and comfortable.

iii) Street design: The design of urban streets plays a crucial role in mitigating UHI effects. Incorporating vegetation, green roofs, and other green elements into street design can effectively provide shade and evaporative cooling. Furthermore, using permeable pavement materials allows rainwater to penetrate the surface, promoting evaporation and reducing the amount of heat absorbed and re-emitted by the pavement. This is particularly important as impervious surfaces, like concrete and asphalt, tend to absorb and re-emit substantial amounts of heat, exacerbating UHI effects. By reducing the prevalence of impervious surfaces in street design, the adverse impacts of UHI can be mitigated. Additionally, thoughtful street furniture design, including streetlights and bus shelters, can be employed to provide shade and further reduce UHI effects.

In summary, urban design strategies that incorporate green-blue infrastructure, utilize innovative building design techniques, and employ street design elements prioritizing vegetation and sustainability offer comprehensive solutions to mitigate the adverse effects of UHI. These strategies enhance the overall resilience and comfort of urban areas, preparing them for the challenges posed by climate change.

Applications of the LCZs framework in other domains

Urban climate studies.

Beyond its primary application in UHI studies, the LCZs framework offers substantial utility across various domains of urban climate research. This adaptable framework enables researchers to explore both spatial and temporal dynamics of ventilation and precipitation patterns at a local scale, providing crucial insights for developing effective strategies to mitigate the environmental and health impacts of urbanization. For instance, Zhao et al. ( 2020 ) effectively employed the LCZs framework to analyze local-scale urban ventilation performance in Shenyang. In another study, Yang et al. ( 2019a ) evaluated the ventilation efficiency of different LCZs in Shanghai by assessing the frontal area index across various LCZ types. Chen et al. ( 2021 ) conducted a quantitative assessment of the relationship between daily temperature variations and UHII under varying meteorological conditions, classifying data using precipitation as a criterion. Additionally, Shi et al. ( 2022 ) assessed the influence of urban ventilation corridors on UHII using the LCZs framework. Yang et al. ( 2020c ) explored the spatial and temporal variations in humidity within the urban canopy across eight LCZ plots in Nanjing, analyzing the interplay between humidity differences, condensation precipitation events, meteorological parameters, and UHI. In a related study, Savić et al. ( 2020 ) scrutinized precipitation patterns in different urbanization settings by segregating areas into “urbanized” and “non-urbanized” based on LCZs classifications.

In summation, the utilization of the LCZs framework within urban climate research enhances our comprehension of the intricate connections between urban design and the multifaceted facets of urban climate. This broader perspective empowers researchers to devise effective strategies aimed at mitigating the repercussions of urbanization on the environment and human well-being, ultimately contributing to the enhancement of urban living conditions.

Enhancing outdoor thermal comfort

The quality of outdoor thermal comfort significantly influences the livability of urban areas. Changes in urban surfaces can substantially affect LST, consequently leading to elevated air temperatures and increased heat stress on urban residents (Lau et al. 2019 ). The LCZs framework proves to be a valuable tool in advancing research on outdoor thermal comfort by capturing the nuances of urban surface characteristics. For instance, Lau et al. ( 2019 ) employed a combination of questionnaires and field measurements to gauge subjective thermal sensations within eight distinct LCZs in Hong Kong. Unger et al. ( 2018 ) examined daily and seasonal fluctuations of outdoor human thermal perceptions, scrutinizing diverse LCZ types based on meteorological data. On a quantitative note, Liu et al. ( 2018 ) analytically assessed the levels of outdoor thermal comfort within nine LCZs in Shenzhen, dissecting the impact of various urban spatial characteristics. Schibuola and Tambani ( 2022 ) engaged in an evaluation of outdoor thermal comfort using the LCZs framework, offering a basis for comparative analysis of mitigation strategies. Meanwhile, Unal Cilek and Uslu ( 2022 ) analyzed the thermal conditions in urban green spaces across three distinct canopy cover scenarios using LCZs framework. Lastly, Wu et al. ( 2022 ) assessed the thermal comfort levels in Shenzhen throughout the year 2020 based on the LCZs framework.

These studies demonstrate that the LCZs framework enables a more profound comprehension of how urban surface characteristics affect outdoor thermal comfort. This understanding is crucial for developing and optimizing mitigation strategies in urban planning and design to enhance the quality of life and comfort for urban residents.

Tackling carbon emissions and building energy consumption

Cities play a significant role in global energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions (Zhou 2022b ), making the development of sustainable urban areas pivotal for achieving climate stability objectives (Zhou 2023 , Zhou et al. 2023 ). The form and function of the built environment closely intertwine with its carbon emission patterns. Hence, the LCZs framework emerges as a valuable tool for research focused on mitigating carbon emissions and optimizing building energy efficiency. Through the creation of a regional carbon map grounded in the LCZs framework, researchers can furnish urban planners and decision-makers with crucial insights into urban carbon emissions, thereby bolstering strategic initiatives for carbon reduction and management.

Recent studies have harnessed the potential of the LCZs framework to scrutinize and chart building carbon emissions and energy utilization within urban landscapes. Notably, Wu et al. ( 2018 ) established correlations between building carbon emissions and LCZs classifications, culminating in a detailed mapping of LCZs-based building carbon emissions in Shanghai. This research enables a granular understanding of urban-scale carbon dynamics, essential for localized mitigation efforts. Additionally, Sharifi et al. ( 2018 ) introduced a novel LCZs-based urban carbon mapping method, offering a standardized approach to urban carbon assessment. This method found application in major global cities like Bangkok, Shanghai, and Tokyo, facilitating comprehensive carbon analysis. Moreover, the adaptability of the LCZs framework extends to energy consumption assessments for city-level energy management and planning. For instance, Yang et al. ( 2019b ) devised a diagnostic equation for daily maximum UHI indices grounded in the LCZs framework, effectively applying it to simulate building energy consumption. In a similar vein, Kotharkar et al. ( 2022 ) explored cooling loads and energy requisites for two distinct building typologies, leveraging the LCZs framework for insights into energy planning.

Collectively, these studies underscore the versatility and promise of the LCZs framework in guiding urban sustainability endeavors and informed energy planning, ultimately steering cities toward a greener, more energy-efficient future.

Limitations, challenges, and future prospects

Limitations and challenges.

While the LCZs framework presents a promising avenue for standardizing the exchange of global urban temperature data, its widespread adoption faces challenges due to the lack of a unified approach to data sourcing and LCZs classification, leading to inconsistencies in LCZs framework research. To ensure methodological consistency, it is essential to establish a standardized LCZs framework research protocol. The WUDAPT method, designed for data sharing and user-friendliness, shows promise for future urban climate studies based on LCZs mapping. However, a critical challenge remains in improving this method’s accuracy. Consequently, a key concern in LCZs research is developing a large-scale, effective, and precise LCZs mapping approach by leveraging various benchmark datasets and classifiers. This paper highlights current issues in the LCZs mapping process and suggests potential enhancements.

i) Data availability: Data availability poses significant challenges for LCZs mapping, stemming from several factors. These include limitations in the spatial and temporal resolution of RS data, difficulties in obtaining accurate and consistent ground truth data for calculating UCPs, the high cost associated with accessing high-quality RS data, etc. These challenges emphasize the need for a generalizable framework that addresses data availability issues. The WUDAPT team is actively working towards this goal and has curated a list of datasets for UCPs calculation, including building data, tree data, and urban population data, which can be accessed on the official website ( https://www.wudapt.org/third-party-data/ ).

ii) RS-based mapping: RS-based mapping predominantly relies on freely available Landsat satellite image data. However, the limited image resolution of Landsat data can compromise LCZs mapping accuracy. To mitigate this limitation, the use of low-cost and user-friendly unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) devices for high-resolution RS image capture is worth considering. This approach can mitigate the impact of weather conditions and cloud cover on images, ultimately enhancing the precision of training sample identification and LCZs classification.

iii) Training samples: The overall accuracy of the WUDAPT method depends on the precise identification of LCZ types within the training samples. However, challenges may arise during data collection and UCPs calculation due to limited professional knowledge among researchers, potentially leading to inaccurate LCZs identification. To mitigate these challenges, the accuracy of training sample recognition can be improved through the standardization of data collection and UCPs calculation processes. This will help reduce subjective errors and address expertise-related constraints that can hinder manual recognition.

iv) Classifier: Apart from training samples, the classifier’s ability to achieve high-precision LCZ type recognition is pivotal in LCZs mapping research. Recent advancements in artificial intelligence, particularly deep learning, have revolutionized image recognition and found widespread application in image classification tasks. Consequently, the emerging trend is to leverage neural network algorithms to achieve large-scale, efficient, and precise LCZs mapping.

By addressing these challenges and limitations, the LCZs framework can evolve into a more robust tool for urban climate research and planning, ensuring improved accuracy and consistency across studies.

Future prospects

The LCZs framework’s generality, simplicity, and objectivity make it remarkably versatile, positioning it for extensive application across various future research domains. Beyond its current role in UHI effect research, the framework exhibits potential for a plethora of other areas, such as urban design, outdoor thermal comfort, carbon emissions, building energy consumption. The trajectory of LCZs framework research can be delineated into the following directions:

i) Enhancing understanding of UHI: Previous studies evaluating UHI effects have predominantly relied on 2D planar analysis, which does not account for the 3D physical form of cities. The LCZs framework provides an avenue for 3D spatial analysis, facilitating a more comprehensive evaluation of UHII. This advancement can significantly enhance our understanding of UHI effects and foster the development of innovative UHI mitigation strategies.

ii) Urban design: The LCZs framework serves as a valuable tool for identifying climate risks within urban areas. Urban planners, government decision-makers, and stakeholders can leverage this framework to formulate plans for climate-sensitive urban development, thereby promoting the creation of sustainable and resilient cities. Through the utilization of the LCZs framework, these stakeholders can gain valuable insights into potential climate risks, enabling them to proactively implement measures that enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of urban planning and development.

iii) Exploring complex urban climates: While recent urban climate studies have started to consider the influence of complex geographical factors such as topography and water bodies, there remains a research gap concerning mountainous cities. These cities, characterized by unique topographical elements and complex urban climates, have received comparatively less research attention. Therefore, future urban climate research can delve into the analysis of urban climates in mountainous cities using the LCZs framework. By leveraging this framework, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the intricate interactions between topographical features and urban climates in these unique settings.

iv) LCZs-based economic-environmental analysis: Economic-environmental analysis aids policymakers and businesses in harmonizing economic growth with environmental sustainability by quantifying the environmental impacts of economic activities (Zhou 2022a ). Future LCZs research can evolve towards economic-environmental analysis. The LCZs framework provides a foundational understanding of urban physical characteristics and functions, which can be correlated with economic activities and environmental impacts. Integrating economic analysis into LCZ studies, such as integrating lifecycle assessment methods to quantify the environmental impacts of various urban development scenarios, enables researchers to investigate the cost-effectiveness of diverse urban development strategies, evaluate the economic implications of carbon emission reduction, and assess the financial advantages of sustainable building practices.

These future research directions promise to further amplify the applicability and impact of the LCZs framework in urban climate studies, urban planning, economic activities, and climate-conscious urban development.

Conclusions

This study provides a systematic and critical overview of LCZs framework research, exploring its evolution, current status, and future prospects based on recent advancements. It underscores the LCZs classification system’s effectiveness in guiding climate-responsive planning and design. The study’s key contributions are summarized as follows:

1) The proliferation of publications on the LCZs framework has been remarkable, escalating from 17 in 2013 to 300 in 2022. This surge in research reflects a prominent trend towards interdisciplinary collaboration, with LCZs research encompassing ten primary categories, including meteorology atmospheric sciences, environmental sciences ecology, and physical sciences among others.

2) The ongoing challenge of achieving large-scale, efficient, and accurate LCZs mapping remains a central concern in LCZs research. Efforts to address this challenge have been underway, with researchers integrating diverse benchmark datasets, employing UAVs, and utilizing deep learning classifiers.

3) In the realm of UHI studies, the LCZs framework has demonstrated its suitability for 3D UHI analysis, enriching the comprehension of UHI dynamics and their repercussions on urban environments. Recent LCZs framework investigations have evolved from single-city analyses to comparative studies encompassing multiple cities. Moving forward, the LCZs framework holds promise for deciphering the complexities of urban climates influenced by intricate geographical factors.

4) For climate-responsive urban design, the LCZs framework serves as an invaluable instrument for devising strategies that prioritize climate sensitivity in urban planning and development. The integration of green and blue infrastructure, building design principles, and innovative street design emerges as fundamental elements in fostering climate-conscious cities through the LCZs framework.

5) The LCZs framework exhibits versatility across various research domains, including outdoor thermal comfort, carbon emissions analysis, and building energy consumption assessments. Its application contributes significantly to advancing ecological urban construction and promoting sustainable urban development.

In summation, the LCZs framework stands out as a powerful instrument with broad implications for urban climate research, urban planning, and the advancement of climate-resilient and sustainable cities. Its ongoing evolution and refinement are poised to catalyze innovation and advancements in these crucial domains.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by Innovation Project of Guangxi Graduate Education (YCSW2023306), Natural Science Foundation of Guangxi Province of China (No.2018GXNSFAA281212).

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School of Architecture and Transportation Engineering, Guilin University of Electronic Technology, Guilin, China

Jie Han, Nan Mo & Jingyi Cai

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Akron, Akron, OH, USA

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Jie Han: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Writing—original draft. Nan Mo: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing—original draft. Jingyi Cai: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing—review & editing. Leixin Ouyang: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation. Zhengxuan Liu: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing.

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Han, J., Mo, N., Cai, J. et al. Advancing the local climate zones framework: a critical review of methodological progress, persisting challenges, and future research prospects. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 538 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03072-8

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Received : 21 October 2023

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03072-8

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