types of research paper

Reference management. Clean and simple.

Types of research papers

Analytical research paper

Argumentative or persuasive paper, definition paper, compare and contrast paper, cause and effect paper, interpretative paper, experimental research paper, survey research paper, frequently asked questions about the different types of research papers, related articles.

There are multiple different types of research papers. It is important to know which type of research paper is required for your assignment, as each type of research paper requires different preparation. Below is a list of the most common types of research papers.

➡️ Read more:  What is a research paper?

In an analytical research paper you:

• pose a question
• collect relevant data from other researchers
• analyze their different viewpoints

You focus on the findings and conclusions of other researchers and then make a personal conclusion about the topic. It is important to stay neutral and not show your own negative or positive position on the matter.

The argumentative paper presents two sides of a controversial issue in one paper. It is aimed at getting the reader on the side of your point of view.

You should include and cite findings and arguments of different researchers on both sides of the issue, but then favor one side over the other and try to persuade the reader of your side. Your arguments should not be too emotional though, they still need to be supported with logical facts and statistical data.

Tip: Avoid expressing too much emotion in a persuasive paper.

The definition paper solely describes facts or objective arguments without using any personal emotion or opinion of the author. Its only purpose is to provide information. You should include facts from a variety of sources, but leave those facts unanalyzed.

Compare and contrast papers are used to analyze the difference between two:

Make sure to sufficiently describe both sides in the paper, and then move on to comparing and contrasting both thesis and supporting one.

Cause and effect papers are usually the first types of research papers that high school and college students write. They trace probable or expected results from a specific action and answer the main questions "Why?" and "What?", which reflect effects and causes.

In business and education fields, cause and effect papers will help trace a range of results that could arise from a particular action or situation.

An interpretative paper requires you to use knowledge that you have gained from a particular case study, for example a legal situation in law studies. You need to write the paper based on an established theoretical framework and use valid supporting data to back up your statement and conclusion.

This type of research paper basically describes a particular experiment in detail. It is common in fields like:

Experiments are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions. You need to describe your experiment with supporting data and then analyze it sufficiently.

This research paper demands the conduction of a survey that includes asking questions to respondents. The conductor of the survey then collects all the information from the survey and analyzes it to present it in the research paper.

➡️ Ready to start your research paper? Take a look at our guide on how to start a research paper .

In an analytical research paper, you pose a question and then collect relevant data from other researchers to analyze their different viewpoints. You focus on the findings and conclusions of other researchers and then make a personal conclusion about the topic.

The definition paper solely describes facts or objective arguments without using any personal emotion or opinion of the author. Its only purpose is to provide information.

Cause and effect papers are usually the first types of research papers that high school and college students are confronted with. The answer questions like "Why?" and "What?", which reflect effects and causes. In business and education fields, cause and effect papers will help trace a range of results that could arise from a particular action or situation.

This type of research paper describes a particular experiment in detail. It is common in fields like biology, chemistry or physics. Experiments are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions.

Canvas | University | Ask a Librarian

• Library Homepage
• Arrendale Library

Writing a Research Paper

Types of research papers.

• About This Guide
• Choosing a Topic
• Writing a Thesis Statement
• Gathering Research
• Journals and Magazines This link opens in a new window
• Creating an Outline
• Writing Your Paper
• Citing Resources
• Academic Integrity This link opens in a new window
• Contact Us!

 Call us at 706-776-0111

  Chat with a Librarian

  Send Us Email

  Library Hours

Although research paper assignments may vary widely, there are essentially two basic types of research papers. These are argumentative and analytical .

Argumentative

In an argumentative research paper, a student both states the topic they will be exploring and immediately establishes the position they will argue regarding that topic in a thesis statement . This type of paper hopes to persuade its reader to adopt the view presented.

 Example : a paper that argues the merits of early exposure to reading for children would be an argumentative essay.

An analytical research paper states the topic that the writer will be exploring, usually in the form of a question, initially taking a neutral stance. The body of the paper will present multifaceted information and, ultimately, the writer will state their conclusion, based on the information that has unfolded throughout the course of the essay. This type of paper hopes to offer a well-supported critical analysis without necessarily persuading the reader to any particular way of thinking.

Example : a paper that explores the use of metaphor in one of Shakespeare's sonnets would be an example of an analytical essay.

*Please note that this LibGuide will primarily be concerning itself with argumentative or rhetorical research papers.

• << Previous: About This Guide
• Next: Choosing a Topic >>
• Last Updated: Jul 12, 2023 9:03 AM
• URL: https://library.piedmont.edu/research_paper
• Ebooks & Online Video
• New Materials
• Renew Checkouts
• Faculty Resources
• Friends of the Library
• Library Services
• Request Books from Demorest
• Our Mission
• Library History
• Ask a Librarian!
• Making Citations
• Working Online

Arrendale Library Piedmont University 706-776-0111

Different Types Of Research Papers

Table of contents

• 1 Analytical Research Papers
• 2 Argumentative or Persuasive Research Papers
• 3 Definition Research Papers
• 4 Compare and Contrast Papers
• 5 Cause and Effect Papers
• 7 Survey Research Papers
• 8 Interpretative Paper
• 9 The Main Points When Writing Research Papers

Academic time is a period of great challenges. The most difficult ones concern the production of creative, sizeable, and meaningful works. To do so, the student must find the necessary information and choose the key thoughts to develop in their text. The most responsible thing is to put all the data together logically, consistently, and concisely. Moreover, each university (college) puts forward unique formatting requirements.

First, the subject of the document subject determines the basic points. Thus, lawyers necessarily refer to the norms of laws in their work. Mathematicians operate with formulas and calculations. Philosophers are freer and rely on their own conclusions and thoughts. Depending on the types of research papers, this affects the structure, format, and narration style. Preparing a student paper seems complicated, long, and boring. However, this process can bring pleasure! In this article, we will share information about different types of research projects to help students easily create academic papers.

Analytical Research Papers

The main task of writing a paper is teaching the student how to think. Thus, the two main types of research papers ─ analytical and argumentative ─ rely on facts to process. The differences between these academic papers seem non-obvious at first. Therefore, we will consider each of them in turn. Analytical type of work work assumes the deepest possible immersion in the subject (topic). Here are the main components of analytical research papers:

• The main concept can be broken down into additional topics (categories).
• Critical thinking becomes the basis for interpreting the data obtained.
• They are a mix of information: scientific data and literature are intertwined with contemporary ones.

No wonder students frequently need academic paper assistance when preparing such texts for the first time. A specialist can quickly and accurately gather and present the necessary information according to the requirements. If you are struggling with what is an analytical research paper, we`ll give you simple advice. Consistency is what will help add readability to your paper. Keeping in mind the principle of “one paragraph / one thought” , you will not get confused by the information. This approach helps to keep the story logical while you are not as familiar with the different types of research articles. When you master working with analytics, writing college papers will become easier.

Argumentative or Persuasive Research Papers

Actually, there are multiple genres of scientific papers with mixed formats. We will now examine argumentative (persuasive), often confused with analytical texts. However, this type of research paper has notable features:

• They are based strictly on facts.
• Each statement is reasoned.
• Several sources support statements.

In contrast to the previous one, the focus is on conveying a thought and convincing the reader of it. If you are a medical student, you know biology research papers rely on survey data, statistics, and professors’ opinions. A quality medical paper excludes theories and speculations. For example, they rely on successful cases when they want to convey the effectiveness of a new drug or treatment regimen. You can read transcripts of legal proceedings: it gives a great insight into how argument structure works. For example, some parts of the sensational court hearings of actor Johnny Depp were published online. And later, they became part of the student papers of future lawyers.

The main thing to realize is that different types of research papers also have different purposes. The format should not be perceived as a limitation. Following the structure and key principles allows one to convey the key messages. For example, argumentation is especially good when conveying a controversial or unpopular idea. You are sort of practicing objections with the reader by factualizing them.

Definition Research Papers

During the studies, you may meet opposing types of academic papers. One kind may give more freedom for thoughts and manifestations. The other requires the author to be as objective as possible. This type of document, as the name implies, emphasizes informativeness. To understand the concept of such texts, note the following research paper topics . The title often already contains the main idea:

• “Fundamentals of pathogenic bacterial development”;
• “Principles of artificial intelligence”;
• “Legal aspects of relationship regulation”.

The main author’s task here is to transfer information. Usually, here comes the difficulty of choosing interesting and relevant data. That is why you can often ask yourself: who can write my research paper per all guidelines and professor’s expectations?

People who have not faced the need to prepare a text consider this task simple. First and foremost, writing a plan makes composing study papers easier. Depending on the requirements, highlight 5-7 main facts that need to be described. When you have a draft ready, adding additional information becomes less challenging.

Compare and Contrast Papers

Success is close when you understand how to use distinct types of research articles. Interestingly. students lament they lack writing skills. However, this will only be an advantage in some academic papers. One of the options worth mastering is texts based on comparison/contrast, e.g., to describe colors or texture. How do you explain the difference between green and lettuce colors?

Let’s explain this type of research papers with a simple example. You have two monitors in front of you. You can describe all the charms using beautiful epithets. But the reader will not understand: which one is better? Rely on technical characteristics: size, performance, battery, matrix. When discussing visual objects, use images: they often speak better than words.

It’s a principle that applies to scientific research work creation. Excessive emotionality of the author may indicate interest / attempted manipulation. Otherwise, the cold and dry facts create the very contrast and comparison that allow the reader to draw personally appropriate conclusions. If you are pursuing a specific thought, you need to know which comparisons are relevant to your topic.

Cause and Effect Papers

As students learns, they master different types of research texts. Often, teachers request informative and analytical materials at the beginning of the training. However, by the middle of the training, one cannot do without more complex formats of research papers. This type of work assumes a deep immersion in the subject and topic. The author must describe the causes and consequences of the events or phenomena.

The very mechanism of creating a paper differs. The author mainly collects information from the previous varieties, having a key thought. To conclude, you must first understand all the data received. And only after that, it is possible to separate the main idea. At the same time, such a process shows how types of scientific papers are created, claiming to be experts in the future. The most interesting thing is that the original theory and the author’s opinion can change dramatically. This is the value: the student enriches the knowledge and adds important research to the world library.

It is a mistake to assume that reports are dry statistics. You will likely find cautious theories in different types of scientific papers, even if the author is an experienced scientist. In medicine, for example, you don’t rely on the one-time success of a vaccine. You can only talk about the effectiveness of a treatment after years of confirmed positive research.

Reports are especially often used to present data in medicine, biology, and physics. To confirm dogmatic claims, the same experiment is performed thousands of times. Discoveries are often spontaneous and accidental. At the same time, science tries to explain and confirm that even errors are part of the fact.

In these types of research papers, it is especially important to maintain accuracy. Researchers must adhere to citation and ethical rules to ensure the validity and reproducibility of their work. Indeed, effective communication of experimental results promotes scientific knowledge and informed debate in the academic community.

Survey Research Papers

All types of academic paper have a place for data obtained by talking to people. Consequently, qualitative student work involves a combination of methods for better research. Surveys, when used properly, become an important source of obtaining information.

The key aspect is to obtain a relevant sample. For example, if your paper focuses on the difficulties of young mothers, it is unlikely to be wise to reach out to child-free men aged 50+. There are also several other important factors to consider: each respondent’s place of residence, social status, and education. Example topics could range from public opinion on social issues to consumer preferences in marketing. Reporting survey research requires transparency, statistical accuracy, and consideration of potential biases. Effective survey research contributes valuable insights into human behavior and societal trends, offering a quantitative foundation for academic inquiry and decision-making in various fields.

This is one of the types of research reports with which social work students and future political scientists are particularly likely to come into contact. In the process, students learn to see the relationship between behavioral patterns and demographic factors of different categories of people.

Interpretative Paper

An interpretative paper involves a subjective analysis of a given subject matter. Unlike purely factual or objective approaches, this type of paper delves into a topic’s deeper meanings, implications, and nuances. In simple words, it is more of the author’s freedom. The structure typically includes an introduction that outlines the context and significance of the subject, a literature review to provide background and context, a detailed analysis incorporating the writer’s interpretations, and a conclusion summarizing key insights.

Essential components of interpretative papers include a clear thesis statement, a comprehensive examination of relevant literature or sources, and a well-articulated argument supported by evidence. Example topics for interpretative papers might include the analysis of symbolism in literature, the interpretation of cultural phenomena, or examining historical events from a particular perspective. Writing such papers demands critical thinking, creativity, and the ability to present a coherent narrative that reflects the author’s insights and perspectives.

The Main Points When Writing Research Papers

All types of papers in research matters for different academic purposes. To successfully complete your assignment, remember the most important thing: you are a researcher. The best student papers are born out of their sincere interest. Focus not on the beauty or imagery of speech will come later.

Are you studying a discipline and have questions about certain topics? Take that question for research: it will motivate you to learn more information. The more literature and sources you plug in, the more thoughts you will have. This already provides unconventional conclusions, and you might be the one to voice a new perspective on familiar things. Thus, you succeed in academic learning and contribute to the development of science!

Readers also enjoyed

WHY WAIT? PLACE AN ORDER RIGHT NOW!

Just fill out the form, press the button, and have no worries!

We use cookies to give you the best experience possible. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy.

We use cookies to give you the best experience possible. By continuing we’ll assume you’re on board with our cookie policy

• A Research Guide
• Research Paper Guide

Different Types of Research Papers

• According to the purpose
• According to the depth of scope
• According to the data type
• According to variables manipulation
• According to the type of inference
• According to the time in which it is carried out
• According to the sources of information
• According to how the data is obtained
• According to design
• Other research paper types

Types of research papers

As a way to make your journey through the research-type paper options a bit easier, let’s divide them by types of work.

According to the purpose:

• Theoretical. Theoretical research type is one of the most popular types of research paper as it has a clear focus. If you have to work with this type, your main objective is to generate all currently available. Even if it has no practical appliance (like in Engineering or design), you must use it anyway. You must collect data and make sure that your target audience understands what your research is about and what theory it follows. Most of such research papers will relate to theories and basic analytical work.
• Applied. This research type stands for something that can be approached scientifically based on practice. The aim here is to generate practical skills. It’s essential in Engineering, Healthcare, and Biology. For such types of papers, one can alternate between technological or scientific types of research, depending on your aims. A technological approach will be fitting if you wish to improve some processes. Now, the scientific research type would include prediction as you work with variables and design things.

According to the depth of scope:

• Exploratory. It is most suitable for research type papers where you have to explore a not-well-known subject. Start with making a hypothesis and developing research. It can be an investigation talking about the role of video games in the development of teenagers.
• Descriptive. This type of research is where you must describe certain characteristics or discuss specifics of some belief or an event. You may not have to research why something has caused these characteristic traits. You must describe and talk about how some things may change IF this or that takes place.
• Explanatory. It’s one of the popular research methods since one has to analyze specific methodologies and help the target audience trace the cause-and-effect relations. It is close to descriptive writing by nature. Still, you must create a research environment since your findings may have to be re-created by others.
• Correlational. This is where you identify the link between two or more variables. You must focus on determining whether certain research variables will be affected and see whether something is systematic regarding these changes (correlational research methodology).

According to the data type:

• Qualitative . It’s used to collect, evaluate, and explain information based on obtained information. It means you have to approach a linguistic-semiotic method to things as you research. You can turn to analysis, interviews, questionnaires, and personal surveys. This is where statistical data helps! You must ask yourself “why” instead of “how.”
• Quantitative. Such types of papers to write belong to one of the most challenging cases because quantitative stands for mathematical (think MATLAB) and computer-based software to check things. It also makes it possible to create a prognosis, which is why this type of research is usually met in engineering.
• Mixed. It’s also possible to use both methodologies if you can support your research type assignment with source information and personal examples. If you are dealing with Psychology or Experimental study, use surveys and aid yourself with AI-based evaluation tools.

According to variables manipulation:

• Experimental. Contrary to its title, you do not have to experiment per se. It’s about the design or replication of things you research. It means you have to re-create specific research conditions to discover what effects are caused by given variables. It’s where you primarily use case studies and sample groups.
• Non-experimental. They often call this research type an observational study. It means that you have to provide analysis in its natural environment. You do not have to intervene in the process but consider turning to descriptive writing. This research may include observation of animals in their natural habitat or the use of the noise effect in the urban environment.
• Quasi-experimental. These types of academic papers are not purely experimental, as you only work with two or three variables. Another aspect of this research is based on randomly chosen variables. It helps to decrease the bias in your study. It also helps to focus on relevant data and allows us to narrow things down.

According to the type of inference:

• Deductive. It means the research is basically fixed since one has to focus on laws and things that can or cannot be. It helps to come to certain conclusions. As you look at the research problem, you use deduction to create your considerations. If you make assumptions and develop reliable evidence, this work method suits you.
• Inductive. It’s one of the flexible methods to think about. The reason why it’s flexible is the way inductive research is generated. You conclude by observing and generalizing while different kinds of research occur. You have to collect data over a period, which makes the process less fixed.
• Hypothetical-deductive approach. You have to make a hypothesis for your research work and use deduction methods to come up with a conclusion. The major difference is that a researcher also takes time to evaluate whether things are correct.

According to the time in which it is carried out:

• Longitudinal. You might know this type of work as diachronic research. Despite the complex name, it focuses on the same issue or an event where a fixed period is taken. It has to track certain changes based on variables. It’s one of the most popular research papers in Healthcare, Nursing, Sociology, Psychology, and Education.
• Cross-sectional. Also known as synchronous research, it is the type of work that approaches cross-sectional design. Here, you have to look at some event or a process at a certain point by taking notes. Thus, research can be used both for sample groups or when working with a case study.

According to the sources of information:

• Primary. Most students are asked to use primary sources. It is exactly why we have a primary research paper method. The data must be collected directly (personal interviews, surveys, questionnaires, a field observation study, etc.) and represent first-hand information. It is perfect for papers in Psychology, Journalism, Healthcare, and subjects where accuracy is vital.
• Secondary. This research type of work is mainly developed with sources that represent secondary references. These include books in print or found online, scientific journals, peer-reviewed documents, etc. If another expert or a student reviews a study, it is related to secondary research; so will your project.

According to how the data is obtained:

• Documentary. As the name suggests, documentary research is based on the secondary references you used. It is a systematic review where you turn to secondary sources related to your subject of study. The most prominent types of research projects in this area are writing a literature review or working with a case study. It is one of the most accessible and clear types of research work.
• Field. It is quite popular research these days as students tend to collect information in the field or at the location where something takes place. Think about researching Fashion Studies where you attend the shows or exploring Environmental Science, where you must observe a phenomenon and take notes.
• Laboratory. The major difference in laboratory research type is working in a strictly-controlled environment where study notes are taken immediately. You must isolate unnecessary variables and use one or two scientific methods. Therefore, such type of research writing is called laboratory research. If your college professor asks for this assignment, consider keeping up with standards and rules.
• Survey. This is where you have to work with the primary information or the use of first-hand data you obtain yourself. It is especially helpful when you work with a group to obtain variables. With this research type, you can also come up with certain conclusions to support your hypothesis and thesis statement.

According to design:

• Fixed. When conducting a fixed research type, narrow things down and focus on temporal aspects. It means you have to discuss how often you will evaluate something, where your research will occur, a sample group, and other fixed variables. Working on fixed types of research reports, creating precise conditions, and follow strict protocols. Such research is related chiefly to lab reports or laboratory works mostly used in Healthcare and/or Law.
• Flexible. Now, the flexible research type will provide you with a process where certain things will change as you take step after step in your research. The examples may include case studies where you have to observe the changes that may take over time. Another example would relate to Anthropology or Geography, where you have to observe a group of people or deal with a cross-cultural analysis. It can also relate to grounded-theory studies, where you should develop theoretical knowledge based on analysis and your thinking.

Other research paper types:

• Argumentative. Also known as a persuasive research type paper, you have to persuade your target audience on your side and a point of view. You have to use at least one piece of evidence (references) to prove your point and support your argument. You must talk about different research opinions and show why your side is correct.
• Analytical. Analytical research papers should always pose a problem and collect relevant information. You can look at another researcher’s works and provide an analysis based on various points of view. The main types of research papers include analysis and must keep the tone analytical and remain neutral without showing your thoughts unless only to guide the reader.
• Definition. This research type requires describing the facts or arguments without using anything based on your opinion or an emotional constituent. You only have to offer information by including facts, yet let your data remain without analysis or bias.
• Action-based. This research type assignment must conduct your work based on a process or a certain action causing things. It can also lead to social processes where a person’s actions have led to something. It can be some research about social movements and/or manufacturing processes.
• Causal. It may relate to cause-and-effect papers where you must focus on the causes. This research type has to address the questions and explore the causes. It can be based on case studies related to business, education, environmental, educational issues, and more.
• Classification. If you have to classify, compare, and contrast things, this method will be helpful. Start with the standards and the rules by setting your classification type immediately. Once you know it, your research paper will go smoothly.
• Comparative. As a rule, this research will deal with comparative work where you take a methodology and compare two sample groups, two individuals, different beliefs, or situations. If you have to compare, discuss your objectives and then create two columns to determine differences and similarities.

What research paper type is most suitable for me?

It will always depend on the research paper objectives you wish to achieve. If you need clarification on the research type you must approach, consult your academic advisor or look closely at your grading rubric. If it says that you must develop an analytical study, it will require posing a specific research question or a problem. The next step would be to collect information on a topic and provide an analysis based on various points of view.

Likewise, if your grading rubric has the word “definition” mentioned, your research type paper must focus on the facts or argumentation. In this case, you should not provide your opinion or talk about what some author thinks. Only the definition of an object or belief is necessary.

As you can see, you only have to find out what your research must achieve. Set the purpose and look at the different types of research and possible methods to approach your problem . Once you know it, look at the research type papers and choose the most fitting option!

• Writing a Research Paper
• Research Paper Title
• Research Paper Sources
• Research Paper Problem Statement
• Research Paper Thesis Statement
• Hypothesis for a Research Paper
• Research Question
• Research Paper Outline
• Research Paper Summary
• Research Paper Prospectus
• Research Paper Proposal
• Research Paper Format
• Research Paper Styles
• AMA Style Research Paper
• MLA Style Research Paper
• Chicago Style Research Paper
• APA Style Research Paper
• Research Paper Structure
• Research Paper Cover Page
• Research Paper Abstract
• Research Paper Introduction
• Research Paper Body Paragraph
• Research Paper Literature Review
• Research Paper Background
• Research Paper Methods Section
• Research Paper Results Section
• Research Paper Discussion Section
• Research Paper Conclusion
• Research Paper Appendix
• Research Paper Bibliography
• APA Reference Page
• Annotated Bibliography
• Bibliography vs Works Cited vs References Page
• Research Paper Types
• What is Qualitative Research

Receive paper in 3 Hours!

• Choose the number of pages.
• Select your deadline.
• Complete your order.

Number of Pages

550 words (double spaced)

Deadline: 10 days left

By clicking "Log In", you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We'll occasionally send you account related and promo emails.

Sign Up for your FREE account

Get a 50% off

Study smarter with Chegg and save your time and money today!

Types of Research Papers

A research paper is forged out of an elaborate process of research, critical thinking , collection and evaluation of sources, interpretation, and finally, the act of composition followed by extensive proofreading and editing. It grows and changes organically as the student/author explores a specific topic. A research paper is supported and sustained by the primary and secondary sources that form its core; in the absence of these sources, it would change into an entirely different genre of writing such as an opinion piece or a journalistic article. The goal and purpose of a research paper is not just to add to a student’s existing knowledge of a subject; it also serves as a great opportunity for the student to learn more about the subject they are researching.

What a Research Paper Is Not

A research paper is not merely a knowledgeable synopsis of a topic based upon primary and secondary sources. It is not an opinion piece, a book report, or a summary of the topic under consideration. It is also not an unthinking regurgitation of what others have to say about a topic. 

What a Research Paper Is

A research paper presents facts, data, and information to support a specific idea or theory propounded by the author. The aim of a well-written research paper, unless it is argumentative or persuasive in nature, is to present the unbiased truth, not to defend the author’s opinion. A good research paper requires the student to spend time examining and evaluating sources in order to interpret them and offer a unique perspective on the issue. It does not use emotional persuasion. Its vocabulary is free from superlatives and emotional language and does not reveal the author’s biases.

Choosing the Right Kind of Research Paper

The type of research paper a student chooses to write depends on the topic, the research methodology, and the research design . Deciding what type of research paper to write helps students establish objectives to guide them in their writing and research.

There are eight major types of research papers:

• Analytical paper
• Argumentative paper
• Cause and effect paper
• Compare and contrast paper
• Definition paper
• Experimental paper
• Interpretative paper
• Survey paper

Let us understand each type of research paper in detail.

1. Analytical Research Paper

While writing an analytical paper, the student asks a question, collects relevant data from a variety of sources, and analyzes it. The findings, viewpoints, and conclusions presented in the source material are closely examined before proposing a unique interpretation and perspective on the topic. An analytical paper generally ends with a summary of the findings and suggests a framework for further study on the topic. While writing this type of paper, the researcher is expected to be completely objective and neutral and avoid injecting their own opinions and biases into the paper. 

Sample topics for an analytical research paper:

• The therapeutic effect of music
• Avoiding cultural dominance in multicultural families
• Drug use in sports

2. Argumentative Research Paper

An argumentative research paper usually focuses on a controversial topic and presents both sides of the argument. This type of research paper includes in-text citations from sources that present logical facts from both sides of the fence and concludes with the author analyzing the merits and demerits of each argument. Regardless of which side they favor, the author of an argumentative paper is expected to be objective and dispassionate while presenting the facts.

Sample topics for an argumentative research paper:

• Is religion the leading cause of war?
• Does the death penalty lower crime rates?
• Should working mothers be given special privileges?

3. Cause and Effect Research Paper

High school students and freshmen are often required to write this type of research paper at the beginning of the academic year. A cause and effect paper analyzes a specific action, event, choice, or situation and traces its expected or probable results in a logical progression. It also examines why something has happened or exists and speculates upon the cause(s) in order to answer questions like “Why?” or “What?”. Cause and effect papers generally follow a simple formula:

Describe situation → Present causes and effects → Draw conclusions

Sample topics for a cause and effect research paper:

• Effects of pollution on the environment
• Why do people have eating disorders?
• What are the causes of homelessness?

4. Compare and Contrast Research Paper

Compare and contrast papers examine the differences between two opposing points of view, subjects, writers, or theories. They are often used in literature courses to compare two authors or stories belonging to the same genre. They are also used to compare different theoretical viewpoints in the social sciences, various leadership styles in business studies, and differing philosophical frameworks in philosophy. The subjects of a compare and contrast paper are generally described or explained in brief; the paper largely focuses on providing compare and contrast examples that support the author’s thesis.

Sample topics for a compare and contrast research paper:

• Attending school vs. remote learning
• Similarities and differences between psychosis and antisocial disorder
• American football vs. basketball

5. Definition Research Paper

A definition paper describes a topic in a factual manner, devoid of emotions or personal opinions. While the facts or arguments presented in a definition paper may be culled from a variety of sources, they are not subjected to analysis and/or interpretation.

Despite its lack of a unique perspective or opinion, a good definition paper can be a valuable source of information for other analytical or argumentative papers on the same topic.

Sample topics for a definition research paper:

• Explain the concept of pop music.
• What is dictatorship?
• Elucidate upon the Pythagorean Theorem.

6. Experimental Research Paper

This type of research paper presents a detailed description of an experiment and its findings. Experimental papers are common in scientific areas like chemistry, biology, and physics. They seek to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with the help of evidence and analysis.

Sample topics for an experimental research paper:

• Ways to reduce free radicals in the atmosphere and contribute toward a cleaner environment
• Methods to reduce carbon emissions in industrial areas
• The role of bioreactors in biotechnology

7. Interpretative Research Paper

An interpretative paper is based on knowledge acquired from a specific case study. It uses an established theoretical framework and valid supporting data to back up the statements and conclusion(s) put forth by the author.

Sample topics for an interpretative research paper:

• The little emperor syndrome: potential complications
• The effect of marijuana on a fetus
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a result of domestic violence

8. Survey Research Paper

A survey paper requires the researcher to interview respondents as part of a survey. The collected data must then be analyzed and the findings presented in the paper. A good survey paper offers a succinct but wide-ranging review of a topic and identifies hitherto unexplored avenues for future research. Writing a survey paper helps students understand the subject thoroughly and identify gaps in existing research.

Sample topics for a survey research paper:

• Crime – How safe do respondents feel? What has their experience been with violent crime? Do they report crime to the police?
• Identity – How do respondents view themselves in relation to class and ethnic identities? Do they feel a shared sense of national identity?
• Poverty – How often do respondents experience shortages of food, water, medical care – basic essentials – in their daily lives?

an Excelsior University site

Types of Research Papers

Most research assignments ask you to engage in one of two approaches:

• Explore and evaluate (present an analysis)
• Persuade (present an argument)

The tabs below will give you more information about each type. Your professor may allow you to choose between these strategies or may ask you to use only one. If you’re not sure which type you should use, be sure to ask!

In a paper that explores and evaluates, you may present a specific analysis of a literary text, you may examine how a historical figure came to his or her beliefs, or you may analyze how changes in a particular animal’s habitat have affected its breeding patterns.

Your purpose isn’t to rebut another critic’s reading of that text, challenge another writer’s analysis of that historical figure’s growth, or disprove another experimenter’s theorem. Instead, your focus is on researching and presenting your own analysis of a set of materials or experiments.

Examples of Analytical Questions

In what way is Coleridge’s poem, “Rime of the Ancient Mariner,” an extended metaphor of colonial exploration?

Why was Martin Luther King, Jr.’s stance against the Vietnam War late in his life so controversial in the civil rights movement?

What methods are available to governments and zoos to ensure the preservation of endangered tigers?

An argumentative paper takes a position on a debatable question. Here, you review the various arguments surrounding that question and present material arguing for a particular answer.

A good argument paper not only fairly and clearly presents the views of those with whom you disagree, but also points out where and how you believe those arguments are flawed.

In this paper, you need to show why your argument presents a stronger response to the question than the responses of others who might disagree with your position.

Examples of Argumentative Questions

Should employers be allowed to monitor the content of their employees’ email and internet browsing?

Write  |  Read  |  Educators

Grumble... Applaud... Please give us your feedback!

• The Research Process »
• Types of Research Papers »

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Genre and the Research Paper

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Research: What it is.

A research paper is the culmination and final product of an involved process of research, critical thinking, source evaluation, organization, and composition. It is, perhaps, helpful to think of the research paper as a living thing, which grows and changes as the student explores, interprets, and evaluates sources related to a specific topic. Primary and secondary sources are the heart of a research paper, and provide its nourishment; without the support of and interaction with these sources, the research paper would morph into a different genre of writing (e.g., an encyclopedic article). The research paper serves not only to further the field in which it is written, but also to provide the student with an exceptional opportunity to increase her knowledge in that field. It is also possible to identify a research paper by what it is not.

Research: What it is not.

A research paper is not simply an informed summary of a topic by means of primary and secondary sources. It is neither a book report nor an opinion piece nor an expository essay consisting solely of one's interpretation of a text nor an overview of a particular topic. Instead, it is a genre that requires one to spend time investigating and evaluating sources with the intent to offer interpretations of the texts, and not unconscious regurgitations of those sources. The goal of a research paper is not to inform the reader what others have to say about a topic, but to draw on what others have to say about a topic and engage the sources in order to thoughtfully offer a unique perspective on the issue at hand. This is accomplished through two major types of research papers.

Two major types of research papers.

Argumentative research paper:

The argumentative research paper consists of an introduction in which the writer clearly introduces the topic and informs his audience exactly which stance he intends to take; this stance is often identified as the thesis statement . An important goal of the argumentative research paper is persuasion, which means the topic chosen should be debatable or controversial. For example, it would be difficult for a student to successfully argue in favor of the following stance.

Perhaps 25 years ago this topic would have been debatable; however, today, it is assumed that smoking cigarettes is, indeed, harmful to one's health. A better thesis would be the following.

In this sentence, the writer is not challenging the current accepted stance that both firsthand and secondhand cigarette smoke is dangerous; rather, she is positing that the social acceptance of the latter over the former is indicative of a cultural double-standard of sorts. The student would support this thesis throughout her paper by means of both primary and secondary sources, with the intent to persuade her audience that her particular interpretation of the situation is viable.

Analytical research paper:

The analytical research paper often begins with the student asking a question (a.k.a. a research question) on which he has taken no stance. Such a paper is often an exercise in exploration and evaluation. For example, perhaps one is interested in the Old English poem Beowulf . He has read the poem intently and desires to offer a fresh reading of the poem to the academic community. His question may be as follows.

His research may lead him to the following conclusion.

Though his topic may be debatable and controversial, it is not the student's intent to persuade the audience that his ideas are right while those of others are wrong. Instead, his goal is to offer a critical interpretation of primary and secondary sources throughout the paper--sources that should, ultimately, buttress his particular analysis of the topic. The following is an example of what his thesis statement may look like once he has completed his research.

This statement does not negate the traditional readings of Beowulf ; instead, it offers a fresh and detailed reading of the poem that will be supported by the student's research.

It is typically not until the student has begun the writing process that his thesis statement begins to take solid form. In fact, the thesis statement in an analytical paper is often more fluid than the thesis in an argumentative paper. Such is one of the benefits of approaching the topic without a predetermined stance.

•   SMU Libraries
• Scholarship & Research
• Teaching & Learning
• Bridwell Library
• Business Library
• DeGolyer Library
• Fondren Library
• Hamon Arts Library
• Underwood Law Library
• Fort Burgwin Library
• Exhibits & Digital Collections
• SMU Scholar
• Special Collections & Archives
• Connect With Us
• Research Guides by Subject
• How Do I . . . ? Guides
• Find Your Librarian
• Writing Support

Types of Research Papers: Overview

• Types of Research Questions

A research paper is simply a piece of writing that uses outside sources. There are different types of research papers with varying purposes and expectations for sourcing. While this guide explains those differences broadly, disciplines and assignments vary. Ask your professor for clarification on the purpose,  types of appropriate research questions , and expectations of sources for your assignment.

Need More Help?

Related guides.

• Literature Reviews
• Annotated Bibliographies
• Starting Your Research

Research and Writing Lab

Need last minute help but didn't book an appointment? Every week we offer online drop-in labs.

Tuesdays 3:00pm - 4:30pm via Zoom @   https://smu.zoom.us/j/92637892352  and in-person, Fondren Red 1st floor (near elevators)

• Next: Types of Research Questions >>
• Last Updated: Apr 24, 2024 12:40 PM
• URL: https://guides.smu.edu/researchpapertypes

Academic Writing: FAQs: Types of Academic Writing

• Getting Started
• Types of Academic Writing
• The Writing Process
• Proofreading and Revising

Header Image

Research Papers

What is a research paper?

A research paper requires you to form an opinion on a topic, research and gain expert knowledge on that topic, and then back up your own opinions and assertions with facts found through your thorough research.

Types of Research Papers   This guide discusses the different types of research papers that you might encounter in an academic setting.

How to Write a Research Paper  This article provides step-by-step guidance on how to write a research paper.

Argumentative Essays

What is an argumentative essay?

In this paper, you make an argument about a topic or subject and use evidence and analysis to prove your argument. Your main argument is also called a thesis statement .

How to Write an Argumentative Essay   This article discusses the basics of writing an argumentative paper.

Exploratory Essays

What is an exploratory essay?

An exploratory essay considers a topic or problem and explores possible solutions. This type of paper also sometimes includes background about how you have approached the topic, as well as information about your research process. Whereas other types of essays take a concrete stance on an issue and offer extensive support for that stance, the exploratory essay covers how you arrived at an idea and what research materials and methods you used to explore it.

How to Write an Exploratory Essay   This article covers the essentials of writing an exploratory essay.

Critical Analysis Essays

What is a critical analysis essay?

A critical analysis examines and evaluates someone else’s work, such as a book, an essay, or an article. It requires two steps: a careful reading of the work and thoughtful analysis of the information presented in the work.

How to Write a Critical Analysis Essay   This resource discusses the details of critical analysis essays and provides tips for writing one.

Literature Reviews

What is a literature review?

A literature review is an assessment of sources on a chosen topic of research. The  four main objectives  of a literature review are:

• Studying  the references of your research area
• Summarizing  the main arguments
• Identifying  current gaps, stances, and issues
• Finally,  presenting  all of the above in a text

How to Write a Literature Review   This guide defines literature reviews and offers strategies for constructing them.

• << Previous: Getting Started
• Next: Research >>
• Last Updated: May 16, 2023 3:08 PM
• URL: https://paperpile.libguides.com/academic-writing-faqs

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• Types of Research Designs
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

Introduction

Before beginning your paper, you need to decide how you plan to design the study .

The research design refers to the overall strategy and analytical approach that you have chosen in order to integrate, in a coherent and logical way, the different components of the study, thus ensuring that the research problem will be thoroughly investigated. It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and interpretation of information and data. Note that the research problem determines the type of design you choose, not the other way around!

De Vaus, D. A. Research Design in Social Research . London: SAGE, 2001; Trochim, William M.K. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.

General Structure and Writing Style

The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to effectively address the research problem logically and as unambiguously as possible . In social sciences research, obtaining information relevant to the research problem generally entails specifying the type of evidence needed to test the underlying assumptions of a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately describe and assess meaning related to an observable phenomenon.

With this in mind, a common mistake made by researchers is that they begin their investigations before they have thought critically about what information is required to address the research problem. Without attending to these design issues beforehand, the overall research problem will not be adequately addressed and any conclusions drawn will run the risk of being weak and unconvincing. As a consequence, the overall validity of the study will be undermined.

The length and complexity of describing the research design in your paper can vary considerably, but any well-developed description will achieve the following :

• Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection, particularly in relation to any valid alternative designs that could have been used,
• Review and synthesize previously published literature associated with the research problem,
• Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the problem,
• Effectively describe the information and/or data which will be necessary for an adequate testing of the hypotheses and explain how such information and/or data will be obtained, and
• Describe the methods of analysis to be applied to the data in determining whether or not the hypotheses are true or false.

The research design is usually incorporated into the introduction of your paper . You can obtain an overall sense of what to do by reviewing studies that have utilized the same research design [e.g., using a case study approach]. This can help you develop an outline to follow for your own paper.

NOTE : Use the SAGE Research Methods Online and Cases and the SAGE Research Methods Videos databases to search for scholarly resources on how to apply specific research designs and methods . The Research Methods Online database contains links to more than 175,000 pages of SAGE publisher's book, journal, and reference content on quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methodologies. Also included is a collection of case studies of social research projects that can be used to help you better understand abstract or complex methodological concepts. The Research Methods Videos database contains hours of tutorials, interviews, video case studies, and mini-documentaries covering the entire research process.

Creswell, John W. and J. David Creswell. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches . 5th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2018; De Vaus, D. A. Research Design in Social Research . London: SAGE, 2001; Gorard, Stephen. Research Design: Creating Robust Approaches for the Social Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013; Leedy, Paul D. and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod. Practical Research: Planning and Design . Tenth edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2013; Vogt, W. Paul, Dianna C. Gardner, and Lynne M. Haeffele. When to Use What Research Design . New York: Guilford, 2012.

Action Research Design

Definition and Purpose

The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby initially an exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed and plans are made for some form of interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is carried out [the "action" in action research] during which time, pertinent observations are collected in various forms. The new interventional strategies are carried out, and this cyclic process repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding of [or a valid implementation solution for] the problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is intended to foster deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with conceptualizing and particularizing the problem and moving through several interventions and evaluations.

What do these studies tell you ?

• This is a collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in work or community situations.
• Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research outcomes rather than testing theories.
• When practitioners use action research, it has the potential to increase the amount they learn consciously from their experience; the action research cycle can be regarded as a learning cycle.
• Action research studies often have direct and obvious relevance to improving practice and advocating for change.
• There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the researcher.

What these studies don't tell you ?

• It is harder to do than conducting conventional research because the researcher takes on responsibilities of advocating for change as well as for researching the topic.
• Action research is much harder to write up because it is less likely that you can use a standard format to report your findings effectively [i.e., data is often in the form of stories or observation].
• Personal over-involvement of the researcher may bias research results.
• The cyclic nature of action research to achieve its twin outcomes of action [e.g. change] and research [e.g. understanding] is time-consuming and complex to conduct.
• Advocating for change usually requires buy-in from study participants.

Coghlan, David and Mary Brydon-Miller. The Sage Encyclopedia of Action Research . Thousand Oaks, CA:  Sage, 2014; Efron, Sara Efrat and Ruth Ravid. Action Research in Education: A Practical Guide . New York: Guilford, 2013; Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction . Chapter 18, Action Research. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007; Gorard, Stephen. Research Design: Creating Robust Approaches for the Social Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013; Kemmis, Stephen and Robin McTaggart. “Participatory Action Research.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research . Norman Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2000), pp. 567-605; McNiff, Jean. Writing and Doing Action Research . London: Sage, 2014; Reason, Peter and Hilary Bradbury. Handbook of Action Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2001.

Case Study Design

A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a sweeping statistical survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one or a few easily researchable examples. The case study research design is also useful for testing whether a specific theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real world. It is a useful design when not much is known about an issue or phenomenon.

• Approach excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships.
• A researcher using a case study design can apply a variety of methodologies and rely on a variety of sources to investigate a research problem.
• Design can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research.
• Social scientists, in particular, make wide use of this research design to examine contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of concepts and theories and the extension of methodologies.
• The design can provide detailed descriptions of specific and rare cases.
• A single or small number of cases offers little basis for establishing reliability or to generalize the findings to a wider population of people, places, or things.
• Intense exposure to the study of a case may bias a researcher's interpretation of the findings.
• Design does not facilitate assessment of cause and effect relationships.
• Vital information may be missing, making the case hard to interpret.
• The case may not be representative or typical of the larger problem being investigated.
• If the criteria for selecting a case is because it represents a very unusual or unique phenomenon or problem for study, then your interpretation of the findings can only apply to that particular case.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 4, Flexible Methods: Case Study Design. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Greenhalgh, Trisha, editor. Case Study Evaluation: Past, Present and Future Challenges . Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing, 2015; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Stake, Robert E. The Art of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1995; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Theory . Applied Social Research Methods Series, no. 5. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2003.

Causal Design

Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of conditional statements in the form, “If X, then Y.” This type of research is used to measure what impact a specific change will have on existing norms and assumptions. Most social scientists seek causal explanations that reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal effect (nomothetic perspective) occurs when variation in one phenomenon, an independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in variation in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.

Conditions necessary for determining causality:

• Empirical association -- a valid conclusion is based on finding an association between the independent variable and the dependent variable.
• Appropriate time order -- to conclude that causation was involved, one must see that cases were exposed to variation in the independent variable before variation in the dependent variable.
• Nonspuriousness -- a relationship between two variables that is not due to variation in a third variable.
• Causality research designs assist researchers in understanding why the world works the way it does through the process of proving a causal link between variables and by the process of eliminating other possibilities.
• Replication is possible.
• There is greater confidence the study has internal validity due to the systematic subject selection and equity of groups being compared.
• Not all relationships are causal! The possibility always exists that, by sheer coincidence, two unrelated events appear to be related [e.g., Punxatawney Phil could accurately predict the duration of Winter for five consecutive years but, the fact remains, he's just a big, furry rodent].
• Conclusions about causal relationships are difficult to determine due to a variety of extraneous and confounding variables that exist in a social environment. This means causality can only be inferred, never proven.
• If two variables are correlated, the cause must come before the effect. However, even though two variables might be causally related, it can sometimes be difficult to determine which variable comes first and, therefore, to establish which variable is the actual cause and which is the  actual effect.

Beach, Derek and Rasmus Brun Pedersen. Causal Case Study Methods: Foundations and Guidelines for Comparing, Matching, and Tracing . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2016; Bachman, Ronet. The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice . Chapter 5, Causation and Research Designs. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 2007; Brewer, Ernest W. and Jennifer Kubn. “Causal-Comparative Design.” In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 125-132; Causal Research Design: Experimentation. Anonymous SlideShare Presentation; Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction . Chapter 11, Nonexperimental Research: Correlational Designs. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007; Trochim, William M.K. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.

Cohort Design

Often used in the medical sciences, but also found in the applied social sciences, a cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over a period of time involving members of a population which the subject or representative member comes from, and who are united by some commonality or similarity. Using a quantitative framework, a cohort study makes note of statistical occurrence within a specialized subgroup, united by same or similar characteristics that are relevant to the research problem being investigated, rather than studying statistical occurrence within the general population. Using a qualitative framework, cohort studies generally gather data using methods of observation. Cohorts can be either "open" or "closed."

• Open Cohort Studies [dynamic populations, such as the population of Los Angeles] involve a population that is defined just by the state of being a part of the study in question (and being monitored for the outcome). Date of entry and exit from the study is individually defined, therefore, the size of the study population is not constant. In open cohort studies, researchers can only calculate rate based data, such as, incidence rates and variants thereof.
• Closed Cohort Studies [static populations, such as patients entered into a clinical trial] involve participants who enter into the study at one defining point in time and where it is presumed that no new participants can enter the cohort. Given this, the number of study participants remains constant (or can only decrease).
• The use of cohorts is often mandatory because a randomized control study may be unethical. For example, you cannot deliberately expose people to asbestos, you can only study its effects on those who have already been exposed. Research that measures risk factors often relies upon cohort designs.
• Because cohort studies measure potential causes before the outcome has occurred, they can demonstrate that these “causes” preceded the outcome, thereby avoiding the debate as to which is the cause and which is the effect.
• Cohort analysis is highly flexible and can provide insight into effects over time and related to a variety of different types of changes [e.g., social, cultural, political, economic, etc.].
• Either original data or secondary data can be used in this design.
• In cases where a comparative analysis of two cohorts is made [e.g., studying the effects of one group exposed to asbestos and one that has not], a researcher cannot control for all other factors that might differ between the two groups. These factors are known as confounding variables.
• Cohort studies can end up taking a long time to complete if the researcher must wait for the conditions of interest to develop within the group. This also increases the chance that key variables change during the course of the study, potentially impacting the validity of the findings.
• Due to the lack of randominization in the cohort design, its external validity is lower than that of study designs where the researcher randomly assigns participants.

Healy P, Devane D. “Methodological Considerations in Cohort Study Designs.” Nurse Researcher 18 (2011): 32-36; Glenn, Norval D, editor. Cohort Analysis . 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Levin, Kate Ann. Study Design IV: Cohort Studies. Evidence-Based Dentistry 7 (2003): 51–52; Payne, Geoff. “Cohort Study.” In The SAGE Dictionary of Social Research Methods . Victor Jupp, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), pp. 31-33; Study Design 101. Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library. George Washington University, November 2011; Cohort Study. Wikipedia.

Cross-Sectional Design

Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time dimension; a reliance on existing differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups are selected based on existing differences rather than random allocation. The cross-sectional design can only measure differences between or from among a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather than a process of change. As such, researchers using this design can only employ a relatively passive approach to making causal inferences based on findings.

• Cross-sectional studies provide a clear 'snapshot' of the outcome and the characteristics associated with it, at a specific point in time.
• Unlike an experimental design, where there is an active intervention by the researcher to produce and measure change or to create differences, cross-sectional designs focus on studying and drawing inferences from existing differences between people, subjects, or phenomena.
• Entails collecting data at and concerning one point in time. While longitudinal studies involve taking multiple measures over an extended period of time, cross-sectional research is focused on finding relationships between variables at one moment in time.
• Groups identified for study are purposely selected based upon existing differences in the sample rather than seeking random sampling.
• Cross-section studies are capable of using data from a large number of subjects and, unlike observational studies, is not geographically bound.
• Can estimate prevalence of an outcome of interest because the sample is usually taken from the whole population.
• Because cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques to gather data, they are relatively inexpensive and take up little time to conduct.
• Finding people, subjects, or phenomena to study that are very similar except in one specific variable can be difficult.
• Results are static and time bound and, therefore, give no indication of a sequence of events or reveal historical or temporal contexts.
• Studies cannot be utilized to establish cause and effect relationships.
• This design only provides a snapshot of analysis so there is always the possibility that a study could have differing results if another time-frame had been chosen.
• There is no follow up to the findings.

Bethlehem, Jelke. "7: Cross-sectional Research." In Research Methodology in the Social, Behavioural and Life Sciences . Herman J Adèr and Gideon J Mellenbergh, editors. (London, England: Sage, 1999), pp. 110-43; Bourque, Linda B. “Cross-Sectional Design.” In  The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods . Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman, and Tim Futing Liao. (Thousand Oaks, CA: 2004), pp. 230-231; Hall, John. “Cross-Sectional Survey Design.” In Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods . Paul J. Lavrakas, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 173-174; Helen Barratt, Maria Kirwan. Cross-Sectional Studies: Design Application, Strengths and Weaknesses of Cross-Sectional Studies. Healthknowledge, 2009. Cross-Sectional Study. Wikipedia.

Descriptive Design

Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and how associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why. Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.

• The subject is being observed in a completely natural and unchanged natural environment. True experiments, whilst giving analyzable data, often adversely influence the normal behavior of the subject [a.k.a., the Heisenberg effect whereby measurements of certain systems cannot be made without affecting the systems].
• Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to more quantitative research designs with the general overview giving some valuable pointers as to what variables are worth testing quantitatively.
• If the limitations are understood, they can be a useful tool in developing a more focused study.
• Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important recommendations in practice.
• Appoach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.
• The results from a descriptive research cannot be used to discover a definitive answer or to disprove a hypothesis.
• Because descriptive designs often utilize observational methods [as opposed to quantitative methods], the results cannot be replicated.
• The descriptive function of research is heavily dependent on instrumentation for measurement and observation.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 5, Flexible Methods: Descriptive Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Given, Lisa M. "Descriptive Research." In Encyclopedia of Measurement and Statistics . Neil J. Salkind and Kristin Rasmussen, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2007), pp. 251-254; McNabb, Connie. Descriptive Research Methodologies. Powerpoint Presentation; Shuttleworth, Martyn. Descriptive Research Design, September 26, 2008; Erickson, G. Scott. "Descriptive Research Design." In New Methods of Market Research and Analysis . (Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2017), pp. 51-77; Sahin, Sagufta, and Jayanta Mete. "A Brief Study on Descriptive Research: Its Nature and Application in Social Science." International Journal of Research and Analysis in Humanities 1 (2021): 11; K. Swatzell and P. Jennings. “Descriptive Research: The Nuts and Bolts.” Journal of the American Academy of Physician Assistants 20 (2007), pp. 55-56; Kane, E. Doing Your Own Research: Basic Descriptive Research in the Social Sciences and Humanities . London: Marion Boyars, 1985.

Experimental Design

A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur. Experimental research is often used where there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic experimental design specifies an experimental group and a control group. The independent variable is administered to the experimental group and not to the control group, and both groups are measured on the same dependent variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used more groups and more measurements over longer periods. True experiments must have control, randomization, and manipulation.

• Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing, it allows researchers to answer the question, “What causes something to occur?”
• Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and to distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.
• Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative explanations and to infer direct causal relationships in the study.
• Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.
• The design is artificial, and results may not generalize well to the real world.
• The artificial settings of experiments may alter the behaviors or responses of participants.
• Experimental designs can be costly if special equipment or facilities are needed.
• Some research problems cannot be studied using an experiment because of ethical or technical reasons.
• Difficult to apply ethnographic and other qualitative methods to experimentally designed studies.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 7, Flexible Methods: Experimental Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Chapter 2: Research Design, Experimental Designs. School of Psychology, University of New England, 2000; Chow, Siu L. "Experimental Design." In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 448-453; "Experimental Design." In Social Research Methods . Nicholas Walliman, editor. (London, England: Sage, 2006), pp, 101-110; Experimental Research. Research Methods by Dummies. Department of Psychology. California State University, Fresno, 2006; Kirk, Roger E. Experimental Design: Procedures for the Behavioral Sciences . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013; Trochim, William M.K. Experimental Design. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Rasool, Shafqat. Experimental Research. Slideshare presentation.

Exploratory Design

An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no earlier studies to refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome . The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or undertaken when research problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation. Exploratory designs are often used to establish an understanding of how best to proceed in studying an issue or what methodology would effectively apply to gathering information about the issue.

The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following possible insights:

• Familiarity with basic details, settings, and concerns.
• Well grounded picture of the situation being developed.
• Generation of new ideas and assumptions.
• Development of tentative theories or hypotheses.
• Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.
• Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and formulation of new research questions.
• Direction for future research and techniques get developed.
• Design is a useful approach for gaining background information on a particular topic.
• Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, why, how).
• Provides an opportunity to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
• Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and develop more precise research problems.
• In the policy arena or applied to practice, exploratory studies help establish research priorities and where resources should be allocated.
• Exploratory research generally utilizes small sample sizes and, thus, findings are typically not generalizable to the population at large.
• The exploratory nature of the research inhibits an ability to make definitive conclusions about the findings. They provide insight but not definitive conclusions.
• The research process underpinning exploratory studies is flexible but often unstructured, leading to only tentative results that have limited value to decision-makers.
• Design lacks rigorous standards applied to methods of data gathering and analysis because one of the areas for exploration could be to determine what method or methodologies could best fit the research problem.

Cuthill, Michael. “Exploratory Research: Citizen Participation, Local Government, and Sustainable Development in Australia.” Sustainable Development 10 (2002): 79-89; Streb, Christoph K. "Exploratory Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Albert J. Mills, Gabrielle Durepos and Eiden Wiebe, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 372-374; Taylor, P. J., G. Catalano, and D.R.F. Walker. “Exploratory Analysis of the World City Network.” Urban Studies 39 (December 2002): 2377-2394; Exploratory Research. Wikipedia.

Field Research Design

Sometimes referred to as ethnography or participant observation, designs around field research encompass a variety of interpretative procedures [e.g., observation and interviews] rooted in qualitative approaches to studying people individually or in groups while inhabiting their natural environment as opposed to using survey instruments or other forms of impersonal methods of data gathering. Information acquired from observational research takes the form of “ field notes ” that involves documenting what the researcher actually sees and hears while in the field. Findings do not consist of conclusive statements derived from numbers and statistics because field research involves analysis of words and observations of behavior. Conclusions, therefore, are developed from an interpretation of findings that reveal overriding themes, concepts, and ideas. More information can be found HERE .

• Field research is often necessary to fill gaps in understanding the research problem applied to local conditions or to specific groups of people that cannot be ascertained from existing data.
• The research helps contextualize already known information about a research problem, thereby facilitating ways to assess the origins, scope, and scale of a problem and to gage the causes, consequences, and means to resolve an issue based on deliberate interaction with people in their natural inhabited spaces.
• Enables the researcher to corroborate or confirm data by gathering additional information that supports or refutes findings reported in prior studies of the topic.
• Because the researcher in embedded in the field, they are better able to make observations or ask questions that reflect the specific cultural context of the setting being investigated.
• Observing the local reality offers the opportunity to gain new perspectives or obtain unique data that challenges existing theoretical propositions or long-standing assumptions found in the literature.

What these studies don't tell you

• A field research study requires extensive time and resources to carry out the multiple steps involved with preparing for the gathering of information, including for example, examining background information about the study site, obtaining permission to access the study site, and building trust and rapport with subjects.
• Requires a commitment to staying engaged in the field to ensure that you can adequately document events and behaviors as they unfold.
• The unpredictable nature of fieldwork means that researchers can never fully control the process of data gathering. They must maintain a flexible approach to studying the setting because events and circumstances can change quickly or unexpectedly.
• Findings can be difficult to interpret and verify without access to documents and other source materials that help to enhance the credibility of information obtained from the field  [i.e., the act of triangulating the data].
• Linking the research problem to the selection of study participants inhabiting their natural environment is critical. However, this specificity limits the ability to generalize findings to different situations or in other contexts or to infer courses of action applied to other settings or groups of people.
• The reporting of findings must take into account how the researcher themselves may have inadvertently affected respondents and their behaviors.

Historical Design

The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or refute a hypothesis. It uses secondary sources and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such as, diaries, official records, reports, archives, and non-textual information [maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings]. The limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid.

• The historical research design is unobtrusive; the act of research does not affect the results of the study.
• The historical approach is well suited for trend analysis.
• Historical records can add important contextual background required to more fully understand and interpret a research problem.
• There is often no possibility of researcher-subject interaction that could affect the findings.
• Historical sources can be used over and over to study different research problems or to replicate a previous study.
• The ability to fulfill the aims of your research are directly related to the amount and quality of documentation available to understand the research problem.
• Since historical research relies on data from the past, there is no way to manipulate it to control for contemporary contexts.
• Interpreting historical sources can be very time consuming.
• The sources of historical materials must be archived consistently to ensure access. This may especially challenging for digital or online-only sources.
• Original authors bring their own perspectives and biases to the interpretation of past events and these biases are more difficult to ascertain in historical resources.
• Due to the lack of control over external variables, historical research is very weak with regard to the demands of internal validity.
• It is rare that the entirety of historical documentation needed to fully address a research problem is available for interpretation, therefore, gaps need to be acknowledged.

Howell, Martha C. and Walter Prevenier. From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001; Lundy, Karen Saucier. "Historical Research." In The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods . Lisa M. Given, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 396-400; Marius, Richard. and Melvin E. Page. A Short Guide to Writing about History . 9th edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2015; Savitt, Ronald. “Historical Research in Marketing.” Journal of Marketing 44 (Autumn, 1980): 52-58;  Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction . Chapter 16, Historical Research. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007.

Longitudinal Design

A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated observations. For example, with longitudinal surveys, the same group of people is interviewed at regular intervals, enabling researchers to track changes over time and to relate them to variables that might explain why the changes occur. Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of change and help establish the direction and magnitude of causal relationships. Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in variables over time. It is a type of observational study sometimes referred to as a panel study.

• Longitudinal data facilitate the analysis of the duration of a particular phenomenon.
• Enables survey researchers to get close to the kinds of causal explanations usually attainable only with experiments.
• The design permits the measurement of differences or change in a variable from one period to another [i.e., the description of patterns of change over time].
• Longitudinal studies facilitate the prediction of future outcomes based upon earlier factors.
• The data collection method may change over time.
• Maintaining the integrity of the original sample can be difficult over an extended period of time.
• It can be difficult to show more than one variable at a time.
• This design often needs qualitative research data to explain fluctuations in the results.
• A longitudinal research design assumes present trends will continue unchanged.
• It can take a long period of time to gather results.
• There is a need to have a large sample size and accurate sampling to reach representativness.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 6, Flexible Methods: Relational and Longitudinal Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Forgues, Bernard, and Isabelle Vandangeon-Derumez. "Longitudinal Analyses." In Doing Management Research . Raymond-Alain Thiétart and Samantha Wauchope, editors. (London, England: Sage, 2001), pp. 332-351; Kalaian, Sema A. and Rafa M. Kasim. "Longitudinal Studies." In Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods . Paul J. Lavrakas, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 440-441; Menard, Scott, editor. Longitudinal Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002; Ployhart, Robert E. and Robert J. Vandenberg. "Longitudinal Research: The Theory, Design, and Analysis of Change.” Journal of Management 36 (January 2010): 94-120; Longitudinal Study. Wikipedia.

Meta-Analysis Design

Meta-analysis is an analytical methodology designed to systematically evaluate and summarize the results from a number of individual studies, thereby, increasing the overall sample size and the ability of the researcher to study effects of interest. The purpose is to not simply summarize existing knowledge, but to develop a new understanding of a research problem using synoptic reasoning. The main objectives of meta-analysis include analyzing differences in the results among studies and increasing the precision by which effects are estimated. A well-designed meta-analysis depends upon strict adherence to the criteria used for selecting studies and the availability of information in each study to properly analyze their findings. Lack of information can severely limit the type of analyzes and conclusions that can be reached. In addition, the more dissimilarity there is in the results among individual studies [heterogeneity], the more difficult it is to justify interpretations that govern a valid synopsis of results. A meta-analysis needs to fulfill the following requirements to ensure the validity of your findings:

• Clearly defined description of objectives, including precise definitions of the variables and outcomes that are being evaluated;
• A well-reasoned and well-documented justification for identification and selection of the studies;
• Assessment and explicit acknowledgment of any researcher bias in the identification and selection of those studies;
• Description and evaluation of the degree of heterogeneity among the sample size of studies reviewed; and,
• Justification of the techniques used to evaluate the studies.
• Can be an effective strategy for determining gaps in the literature.
• Provides a means of reviewing research published about a particular topic over an extended period of time and from a variety of sources.
• Is useful in clarifying what policy or programmatic actions can be justified on the basis of analyzing research results from multiple studies.
• Provides a method for overcoming small sample sizes in individual studies that previously may have had little relationship to each other.
• Can be used to generate new hypotheses or highlight research problems for future studies.
• Small violations in defining the criteria used for content analysis can lead to difficult to interpret and/or meaningless findings.
• A large sample size can yield reliable, but not necessarily valid, results.
• A lack of uniformity regarding, for example, the type of literature reviewed, how methods are applied, and how findings are measured within the sample of studies you are analyzing, can make the process of synthesis difficult to perform.
• Depending on the sample size, the process of reviewing and synthesizing multiple studies can be very time consuming.

Beck, Lewis W. "The Synoptic Method." The Journal of Philosophy 36 (1939): 337-345; Cooper, Harris, Larry V. Hedges, and Jeffrey C. Valentine, eds. The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis . 2nd edition. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2009; Guzzo, Richard A., Susan E. Jackson and Raymond A. Katzell. “Meta-Analysis Analysis.” In Research in Organizational Behavior , Volume 9. (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1987), pp 407-442; Lipsey, Mark W. and David B. Wilson. Practical Meta-Analysis . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2001; Study Design 101. Meta-Analysis. The Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library, George Washington University; Timulak, Ladislav. “Qualitative Meta-Analysis.” In The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Data Analysis . Uwe Flick, editor. (Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2013), pp. 481-495; Walker, Esteban, Adrian V. Hernandez, and Micheal W. Kattan. "Meta-Analysis: It's Strengths and Limitations." Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine 75 (June 2008): 431-439.

Mixed-Method Design

• Narrative and non-textual information can add meaning to numeric data, while numeric data can add precision to narrative and non-textual information.
• Can utilize existing data while at the same time generating and testing a grounded theory approach to describe and explain the phenomenon under study.
• A broader, more complex research problem can be investigated because the researcher is not constrained by using only one method.
• The strengths of one method can be used to overcome the inherent weaknesses of another method.
• Can provide stronger, more robust evidence to support a conclusion or set of recommendations.
• May generate new knowledge new insights or uncover hidden insights, patterns, or relationships that a single methodological approach might not reveal.
• Produces more complete knowledge and understanding of the research problem that can be used to increase the generalizability of findings applied to theory or practice.
• A researcher must be proficient in understanding how to apply multiple methods to investigating a research problem as well as be proficient in optimizing how to design a study that coherently melds them together.
• Can increase the likelihood of conflicting results or ambiguous findings that inhibit drawing a valid conclusion or setting forth a recommended course of action [e.g., sample interview responses do not support existing statistical data].
• Because the research design can be very complex, reporting the findings requires a well-organized narrative, clear writing style, and precise word choice.
• Design invites collaboration among experts. However, merging different investigative approaches and writing styles requires more attention to the overall research process than studies conducted using only one methodological paradigm.
• Concurrent merging of quantitative and qualitative research requires greater attention to having adequate sample sizes, using comparable samples, and applying a consistent unit of analysis. For sequential designs where one phase of qualitative research builds on the quantitative phase or vice versa, decisions about what results from the first phase to use in the next phase, the choice of samples and estimating reasonable sample sizes for both phases, and the interpretation of results from both phases can be difficult.
• Due to multiple forms of data being collected and analyzed, this design requires extensive time and resources to carry out the multiple steps involved in data gathering and interpretation.

Burch, Patricia and Carolyn J. Heinrich. Mixed Methods for Policy Research and Program Evaluation . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2016; Creswell, John w. et al. Best Practices for Mixed Methods Research in the Health Sciences . Bethesda, MD: Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research, National Institutes of Health, 2010Creswell, John W. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014; Domínguez, Silvia, editor. Mixed Methods Social Networks Research . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014; Hesse-Biber, Sharlene Nagy. Mixed Methods Research: Merging Theory with Practice . New York: Guilford Press, 2010; Niglas, Katrin. “How the Novice Researcher Can Make Sense of Mixed Methods Designs.” International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches 3 (2009): 34-46; Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Nancy L. Leech. “Linking Research Questions to Mixed Methods Data Analysis Procedures.” The Qualitative Report 11 (September 2006): 474-498; Tashakorri, Abbas and John W. Creswell. “The New Era of Mixed Methods.” Journal of Mixed Methods Research 1 (January 2007): 3-7; Zhanga, Wanqing. “Mixed Methods Application in Health Intervention Research: A Multiple Case Study.” International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches 8 (2014): 24-35 .

Observational Design

This type of research design draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a control group, in cases where the researcher has no control over the experiment. There are two general types of observational designs. In direct observations, people know that you are watching them. Unobtrusive measures involve any method for studying behavior where individuals do not know they are being observed. An observational study allows a useful insight into a phenomenon and avoids the ethical and practical difficulties of setting up a large and cumbersome research project.

• Observational studies are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be structured around a hypothesis about what you expect to observe [data is emergent rather than pre-existing].
• The researcher is able to collect in-depth information about a particular behavior.
• Can reveal interrelationships among multifaceted dimensions of group interactions.
• You can generalize your results to real life situations.
• Observational research is useful for discovering what variables may be important before applying other methods like experiments.
• Observation research designs account for the complexity of group behaviors.
• Reliability of data is low because seeing behaviors occur over and over again may be a time consuming task and are difficult to replicate.
• In observational research, findings may only reflect a unique sample population and, thus, cannot be generalized to other groups.
• There can be problems with bias as the researcher may only "see what they want to see."
• There is no possibility to determine "cause and effect" relationships since nothing is manipulated.
• Sources or subjects may not all be equally credible.
• Any group that is knowingly studied is altered to some degree by the presence of the researcher, therefore, potentially skewing any data collected.

Atkinson, Paul and Martyn Hammersley. “Ethnography and Participant Observation.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research . Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994), pp. 248-261; Observational Research. Research Methods by Dummies. Department of Psychology. California State University, Fresno, 2006; Patton Michael Quinn. Qualitiative Research and Evaluation Methods . Chapter 6, Fieldwork Strategies and Observational Methods. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002; Payne, Geoff and Judy Payne. "Observation." In Key Concepts in Social Research . The SAGE Key Concepts series. (London, England: Sage, 2004), pp. 158-162; Rosenbaum, Paul R. Design of Observational Studies . New York: Springer, 2010;Williams, J. Patrick. "Nonparticipant Observation." In The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods . Lisa M. Given, editor.(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 562-563.

Philosophical Design

Understood more as an broad approach to examining a research problem than a methodological design, philosophical analysis and argumentation is intended to challenge deeply embedded, often intractable, assumptions underpinning an area of study. This approach uses the tools of argumentation derived from philosophical traditions, concepts, models, and theories to critically explore and challenge, for example, the relevance of logic and evidence in academic debates, to analyze arguments about fundamental issues, or to discuss the root of existing discourse about a research problem. These overarching tools of analysis can be framed in three ways:

• Ontology -- the study that describes the nature of reality; for example, what is real and what is not, what is fundamental and what is derivative?
• Epistemology -- the study that explores the nature of knowledge; for example, by what means does knowledge and understanding depend upon and how can we be certain of what we know?
• Axiology -- the study of values; for example, what values does an individual or group hold and why? How are values related to interest, desire, will, experience, and means-to-end? And, what is the difference between a matter of fact and a matter of value?
• Can provide a basis for applying ethical decision-making to practice.
• Functions as a means of gaining greater self-understanding and self-knowledge about the purposes of research.
• Brings clarity to general guiding practices and principles of an individual or group.
• Philosophy informs methodology.
• Refine concepts and theories that are invoked in relatively unreflective modes of thought and discourse.
• Beyond methodology, philosophy also informs critical thinking about epistemology and the structure of reality (metaphysics).
• Offers clarity and definition to the practical and theoretical uses of terms, concepts, and ideas.
• Limited application to specific research problems [answering the "So What?" question in social science research].
• Analysis can be abstract, argumentative, and limited in its practical application to real-life issues.
• While a philosophical analysis may render problematic that which was once simple or taken-for-granted, the writing can be dense and subject to unnecessary jargon, overstatement, and/or excessive quotation and documentation.
• There are limitations in the use of metaphor as a vehicle of philosophical analysis.
• There can be analytical difficulties in moving from philosophy to advocacy and between abstract thought and application to the phenomenal world.

Burton, Dawn. "Part I, Philosophy of the Social Sciences." In Research Training for Social Scientists . (London, England: Sage, 2000), pp. 1-5; Chapter 4, Research Methodology and Design. Unisa Institutional Repository (UnisaIR), University of South Africa; Jarvie, Ian C., and Jesús Zamora-Bonilla, editors. The SAGE Handbook of the Philosophy of Social Sciences . London: Sage, 2011; Labaree, Robert V. and Ross Scimeca. “The Philosophical Problem of Truth in Librarianship.” The Library Quarterly 78 (January 2008): 43-70; Maykut, Pamela S. Beginning Qualitative Research: A Philosophic and Practical Guide . Washington, DC: Falmer Press, 1994; McLaughlin, Hugh. "The Philosophy of Social Research." In Understanding Social Work Research . 2nd edition. (London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 2012), pp. 24-47; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University, 2013.

Sequential Design

• The researcher has a limitless option when it comes to sample size and the sampling schedule.
• Due to the repetitive nature of this research design, minor changes and adjustments can be done during the initial parts of the study to correct and hone the research method.
• This is a useful design for exploratory studies.
• There is very little effort on the part of the researcher when performing this technique. It is generally not expensive, time consuming, or workforce intensive.
• Because the study is conducted serially, the results of one sample are known before the next sample is taken and analyzed. This provides opportunities for continuous improvement of sampling and methods of analysis.
• The sampling method is not representative of the entire population. The only possibility of approaching representativeness is when the researcher chooses to use a very large sample size significant enough to represent a significant portion of the entire population. In this case, moving on to study a second or more specific sample can be difficult.
• The design cannot be used to create conclusions and interpretations that pertain to an entire population because the sampling technique is not randomized. Generalizability from findings is, therefore, limited.
• Difficult to account for and interpret variation from one sample to another over time, particularly when using qualitative methods of data collection.

Betensky, Rebecca. Harvard University, Course Lecture Note slides; Bovaird, James A. and Kevin A. Kupzyk. "Sequential Design." In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 1347-1352; Cresswell, John W. Et al. “Advanced Mixed-Methods Research Designs.” In Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioral Research . Abbas Tashakkori and Charles Teddle, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003), pp. 209-240; Henry, Gary T. "Sequential Sampling." In The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods . Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman and Tim Futing Liao, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004), pp. 1027-1028; Nataliya V. Ivankova. “Using Mixed-Methods Sequential Explanatory Design: From Theory to Practice.” Field Methods 18 (February 2006): 3-20; Bovaird, James A. and Kevin A. Kupzyk. “Sequential Design.” In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010; Sequential Analysis. Wikipedia.

Systematic Review

• A systematic review synthesizes the findings of multiple studies related to each other by incorporating strategies of analysis and interpretation intended to reduce biases and random errors.
• The application of critical exploration, evaluation, and synthesis methods separates insignificant, unsound, or redundant research from the most salient and relevant studies worthy of reflection.
• They can be use to identify, justify, and refine hypotheses, recognize and avoid hidden problems in prior studies, and explain data inconsistencies and conflicts in data.
• Systematic reviews can be used to help policy makers formulate evidence-based guidelines and regulations.
• The use of strict, explicit, and pre-determined methods of synthesis, when applied appropriately, provide reliable estimates about the effects of interventions, evaluations, and effects related to the overarching research problem investigated by each study under review.
• Systematic reviews illuminate where knowledge or thorough understanding of a research problem is lacking and, therefore, can then be used to guide future research.
• The accepted inclusion of unpublished studies [i.e., grey literature] ensures the broadest possible way to analyze and interpret research on a topic.
• Results of the synthesis can be generalized and the findings extrapolated into the general population with more validity than most other types of studies .
• Systematic reviews do not create new knowledge per se; they are a method for synthesizing existing studies about a research problem in order to gain new insights and determine gaps in the literature.
• The way researchers have carried out their investigations [e.g., the period of time covered, number of participants, sources of data analyzed, etc.] can make it difficult to effectively synthesize studies.
• The inclusion of unpublished studies can introduce bias into the review because they may not have undergone a rigorous peer-review process prior to publication. Examples may include conference presentations or proceedings, publications from government agencies, white papers, working papers, and internal documents from organizations, and doctoral dissertations and Master's theses.

Denyer, David and David Tranfield. "Producing a Systematic Review." In The Sage Handbook of Organizational Research Methods .  David A. Buchanan and Alan Bryman, editors. ( Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2009), pp. 671-689; Foster, Margaret J. and Sarah T. Jewell, editors. Assembling the Pieces of a Systematic Review: A Guide for Librarians . Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2017; Gough, David, Sandy Oliver, James Thomas, editors. Introduction to Systematic Reviews . 2nd edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2017; Gopalakrishnan, S. and P. Ganeshkumar. “Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis: Understanding the Best Evidence in Primary Healthcare.” Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 2 (2013): 9-14; Gough, David, James Thomas, and Sandy Oliver. "Clarifying Differences between Review Designs and Methods." Systematic Reviews 1 (2012): 1-9; Khan, Khalid S., Regina Kunz, Jos Kleijnen, and Gerd Antes. “Five Steps to Conducting a Systematic Review.” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 96 (2003): 118-121; Mulrow, C. D. “Systematic Reviews: Rationale for Systematic Reviews.” BMJ 309:597 (September 1994); O'Dwyer, Linda C., and Q. Eileen Wafford. "Addressing Challenges with Systematic Review Teams through Effective Communication: A Case Report." Journal of the Medical Library Association 109 (October 2021): 643-647; Okoli, Chitu, and Kira Schabram. "A Guide to Conducting a Systematic Literature Review of Information Systems Research."  Sprouts: Working Papers on Information Systems 10 (2010); Siddaway, Andy P., Alex M. Wood, and Larry V. Hedges. "How to Do a Systematic Review: A Best Practice Guide for Conducting and Reporting Narrative Reviews, Meta-analyses, and Meta-syntheses." Annual Review of Psychology 70 (2019): 747-770; Torgerson, Carole J. “Publication Bias: The Achilles’ Heel of Systematic Reviews?” British Journal of Educational Studies 54 (March 2006): 89-102; Torgerson, Carole. Systematic Reviews . New York: Continuum, 2003.

• << Previous: Purpose of Guide
• Next: Design Flaws to Avoid >>
• Last Updated: Apr 24, 2024 10:51 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

Get science-backed answers as you write with Paperpal's Research feature

What is an Academic Paper? Types and Elements 

Written by students, early career scholars and researchers, an academic paper presents original research findings and case studies with the aim of contributing to the existing body of knowledge on a particular subject. Characterized by their rigorous and systematic approach to research, academic papers contribute to building a researcher’s reputation as an expert within their field, with the number of citations received serving as a measure of the impact that the researcher’s work has had. Unlike other forms of writing, academic papers demand a stringent adherence to specific formats, the use of formal language, and careful attention to detail. Typically, the information shared in academic papers is presented in well-defined sections like title and abstract, introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. Many types of academic papers are employed for different situations and scopes. Let’s take a look at some of the different types of academic papers. 

Types of academic papers

Academic papers are differentiated based on the context of the paper, its length and structure, its purpose and who it addresses.  

• Research papers  are the most common type of academic paper and present original research, usually conducted by PhD students who conduct in-depth investigations in their chosen field of study.  
• Review papers, or literature reviews are academic papers that provide a comprehensive analysis and synthesis of existing research on a specific topic. They only assess existing literature on a subject and do not involve any empirical experiment. The methodology mentioned in review papers refers to the methods used to collect research.  
• Case studies:   Researchers create this type of academic paper when they want to undertake and present their study on particular subjects, concepts, or incidents. Typically involving reasonably in-depth analysis of a topic, case studies can be beneficial for understanding certain historical events in recent times, such as market crashes or natural disasters, especially for future uses.  
• Position papers:   Academic   papers that present an author’s stance on a particular issue or topic are called position papers. Researchers must present facts and evidence to support their views systematically. This kind of academic paper is commonly used in policy-making and legal professions.  
• Conference papers:  These constitute a summary of any of the above types of academic papers to a length that can be appropriately discussed at a meeting or conference. Conference papers are usually presented when researchers want to introduce a new concept or gather insights from other experts on their work.  
• Theoretical reports:  These are articles written by researchers who are working on formulating new theories based on existing research and provide an in-depth look at a specific topic based on existing literature and theoretical foundations. 

Elements of an academic paper

Research papers are different from fiction writing as they require rigorous citations, adherence to structure and appropriate styles to be accepted in academia. Every research paper has some key elements which make it identifiable as a research paper and make the theme of the paper clearly understood, along with the process involved with the said paper. As such, these rules must be adhered to while writing academic papers. Many publishing journals will have their guidelines, so be prepared to tweak your format in accordance with those guidelines. A typical format consists of the following key elements –  

• Title and Abstract:  The title introduces the topic of the academic paper in a catchy, concise way, while the abstract gives us a summary of the whole paper. The abstract helps readers get an idea about the paper without having to read the entire paper.  
• Introduction:  Usually placed at the start of an academic paper, the introduction enables researchers to better understand the topic of study. It highlights the research question, the scope of the research, its context, and its relevance. 
• Methodology:  This section of the academic paper typically constitutes its main body. Researchers must provide a detailed, step-by-step account of the methodology followed to arrive at the findings. This section is important as it helps readers understand how you arrived at your conclusions and enables them to recreate the experiment—not just to verify the findings but also perhaps to build on it in the future.  
• Results:  Typically placed towards the later part of an academic paper, the results section is where researchers can present their research findings in an accurate and detailed manner. Experts suggest using visual tools like graphs, tables and infographics when sharing numeric data and statistics. The results must be communicated in simple, clear, unambiguous language that readers can easily understand. 
• Discussion:   Sometimes grouped with the results section, the discussion section is where research findings are discussed in detail. Researchers discuss the implications and limitations of their work and share the potential for further research.  
• Conclusion:  The conclusion summarizes the entire academic paper, from the introduction and methodology to the results and discussion. It reinforces key messages and highlights important concepts and themes. 
• References : This section of the academic paper lists the sources of information mentioned in the article as a bibliography so that the reader is able to refer to the sources. Ensuring accuracy in citations is imperative to avoid allegations of plagiarism, even if it was inadvertent. 

Different types of academic papers are employed based on the context of the paper, its length and structure, its purpose, and who it addresses. While each type of academic paper has its unique features, they all share a common set of critical elements that make them identifiable as research papers. By understanding and following these essential elements, researchers can effectively communicate their research findings and make meaningful contributions to their field of study.

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.   

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed.  Try for free or  upgrade to Paperpal Prime   starting at US$19 a month  to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.   Experience the future of academic writing –  Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!

Related Reads:

What are the different types of research papers.

• How to Write Effective Brief Communications
• How to Write a Good Humanities Research Paper
• Ethical Research Practices For Research with Human Subjects

Should You Use AI Tools like ChatGPT for Academic Writing?

Authorship in academia: ghost, guest, and gift authorship, you may also like, phd qualifying exam: tips for success , quillbot review: features, pricing, and free alternatives, 9 steps to publish a research paper, how to make translating academic papers less challenging, 6 tips for post-doc researchers to take their..., presenting research data effectively through tables and figures, ethics in science: importance, principles & guidelines , jenni ai review: top features, pricing, and alternatives, 8 most effective ways to increase motivation for....

Community Blog

Keep up-to-date on postgraduate related issues with our quick reads written by students, postdocs, professors and industry leaders.

Types of Research – Explained with Examples

• By DiscoverPhDs
• October 2, 2020

Types of Research

Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail with the aim of generating new knowledge about it.

It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or refute hypotheses based on clearly defined parameters, environments and assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently contribute to knowledge as it allows research to be verified and replicated.

Knowing the types of research and what each of them focuses on will allow you to better plan your project, utilises the most appropriate methodologies and techniques and better communicate your findings to other researchers and supervisors.

Classification of Types of Research

There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study, analysed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note that a research project will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use several.

According to its Purpose

Theoretical research.

Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating knowledge , regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research question.

Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are usually based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the reflection of high-level researchers.

Applied Research

Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer science and medicine.

This type of research is subdivided into two types:

• Technological applied research : looks towards improving efficiency in a particular productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said productive processes.
• Scientific applied research : has predictive purposes. Through this type of research design, we can measure certain variables to predict behaviours useful to the goods and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of commercial projects.

According to your Depth of Scope

Exploratory research.

Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis from which an in-depth study can be developed that will enable conclusive results to be generated.

Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied phenomena, it relies less on theory and more on the collection of data to identify patterns that explain these phenomena.

Descriptive Research

The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it.

In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to intervene in the observed object or phenomenon, as its behaviour may change if an external factor is involved.

Explanatory Research

Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible for establishing cause-and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to similar realities. It is closely related to descriptive research, although it provides additional information about the observed object and its interactions with the environment.

Correlational Research

The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between two or more variables. A correlational study aims to determine whether a variable changes, how much the other elements of the observed system change.

According to the Type of Data Used

Qualitative research.

Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.

In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected must be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective, since not all data can be fully controlled. Therefore, this type of research design is better suited to extracting meaning from an event or phenomenon (the ‘why’) than its cause (the ‘how’).

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them . This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over time.

According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

Experimental research.

It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the scientific method.

Non-Experimental Research

Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement to measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research.

Quasi-Experimental Research

It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups or populations . This is to ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study.

According to the Type of Inference

Deductive investigation.

In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and the inductive method is applied correctly.

Inductive Research

In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a generalisation. It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories.

Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation

It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a conclusion and finally verify or reject it through experience.

According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

Longitudinal study (also referred to as diachronic research).

It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in medical, psychological and social areas .

Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects at a given time.

According to The Sources of Information

Primary research.

This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information.

Secondary research

Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher.

According to How the Data is Obtained

Documentary (cabinet).

Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of existing sources of information on a particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly used when undertaking literature reviews or producing a case study.

Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location where the observed phenomenon occurs.

From Laboratory

Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a dependent variable and establish its relationship with other variables through scientific methods.

Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory

Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and primary sources through field or laboratory research.

Is it really possible to do a PhD while working? The answer is ‘yes’, but it comes with several ‘buts’. Read our post to find out if it’s for you.

You’ll come across many academics with PhD, some using the title of Doctor and others using Professor. This blog post helps you understand the differences.

In the UK, a dissertation, usually around 20,000 words is written by undergraduate and Master’s students, whilst a thesis, around 80,000 words, is written as part of a PhD.

Join thousands of other students and stay up to date with the latest PhD programmes, funding opportunities and advice.

Browse PhDs Now

When you should and shouldn’t capitalise the names of chemical compounds and their abbreviations is not always clear.

A concept paper is a short document written by a researcher before starting their research project, explaining what the study is about, why it is needed and the methods that will be used.

Dr Tuohilampi gained her PhD in Mathematics Education from the University of Helsinki in 2016. She is now a lecturer at the University of Helsinki, a Research Fellow at the University of New South Wales, Sydney and has also founded the company Math Hunger.

Dr Nikolov gained his PhD in the area of Anthropology of Architecture from UCL in 2020. He is a video journalist working with Mashable and advises PhDs consider options outside of academia.

Join Thousands of Students

• Dissertation
• PowerPoint Presentation
• Book Report/Review
• Research Proposal
• Math Problems
• Proofreading
• Movie Review
• Cover Letter Writing
• Personal Statement
• Nursing Paper
• Argumentative Essay
• Research Paper
• Discussion Board Post

Types of Research Papers

Table of Contents

Writing a research paper requires a special approach, depending on its type. Students associate completing this type of academic assignment with spending long hours on difficult writing. But writing academic work can be less challenging if you know how to distinguish different paper types. You will better understand what aspect to emphasize and how to present the information the right way. The paper type determines the tone of your work.

Let’s find what popular research work types and their main features to make your academic writing journey captivating and flawless are.

What Is a Research Paper?

Before moving to paper-type details, let’s find out what research work is and how it differs from other written assignments. A research article is a form of academic writing providing analysis, evaluation, or interpretation of a topic based on empirical evidence. Research papers use statistical data and a strict code for citations. The structure of a research paper depends on assignment requirements. However, generally, it consists of:

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Recommendations
• Limitations
• Acknowledgements
• Figures and Tables

The language of your article should be formal, objective, hedged, and responsible. Plan and organize your writing carefully and precisely. It is required to use complex sentence structures and impersonal pronouns. When writing your research work, avoid wordiness, a vague thesis statement, informal language, description without analysis, and not citing sources. Use one style manual (MLA, APA, or Chicago) to cite them consistently.

Features of research articles are clear focus established by the thesis statement, straightforward structure, statements supported by evidence, and impersonal tone. The length of a research paper ranges from 4,000 to 6,000 words. However, depending on the assignment, your work can be 2,000 words or even 10,000 words. Your academic level and the assignment complexity influence the essay length.

Simple Steps for Writing Different Types of Research Papers

There are nine simple steps you should follow if you wonder: “how can I write my research paper?”

• Carefully read the assignment guidelines.
• Select an engaging article topic.
• Do early research.
• Create a powerful thesis statement.
• Find reliable sources.
• Write a paper outline.
• Create an essay draft.
• Follow citation and formatting rules.
• Thoroughly edit and proofread your work.

When you need research paper help for some reason, you can find a lot of professional writing services and buy research work.

Different Types of Research Article

There are seven main research work types. Explore them to know what approach to take to create a high-quality paper in the future. Here you can find each type’s specifics and differences to prepare for your assignment the best way. If you have some issues with task completion, choose a reliable service and buy a research paper.

#1 Argumentative Research Papers

Creating an argumentative paper requires a writer to present arguments related to the topic from different points of view. They should analyze the two sides and propose their pros and cons. After that, an author should choose one viewpoint and prove its correctness using evidence from primary sources. There is a special argumentative paper structure that is aimed at persuading the reader to support the writer’s opinion. Thus, describe the problem from two different viewpoints, suggest their pros and cons, and give preference to one.

#2 Analytical Research Papers

It may seem challenging to write an analytical work, but once you find its features, structure, and guidelines, there’s nothing to worry about. A writer should analyze in their paper ideas, facts, events, or issues. It requires an objective analysis and critical thinking to provide strong arguments. You should not take any viewpoint and neutrally describe every point supporting them with relevant information. The analytical paper is based on describing multiple points of view, analyzing all points, and drawing a general conclusion.

#3 Cause and Effect Research Papers

These papers are created to find what is the cause of the expected result. Students without much writing experience are generally assigned to complete such research works. In their papers, they have to describe a situation, present effects, and causes, and draw a conclusion. But this paper type is not as simple as it seems at first sight. Depending on your academic level and subject, a professor may ask you to determine the possible result if conditions change.

#4 Problem-Solution Research Papers

Dealing with this paper type, a writer should describe the problem, present their solution to it, and prove why it is correct. Your task is to find a relevant issue that will be interesting to solve and to engage the readers to explore your solution. Provide reliable data to support your opinion. Consider adding some examples, statistics, and data.

#5 Experimental Research Papers

If you study biology, physics, chemistry, or sociology, this paper type is right for you. When creating an experimental work, a writer should describe their experimental process. This paper provides useful experience and relevant data. Conclude the paper proving that your experiment makes a great contribution to the field.

#6 Report Research Papers

A report paper provides a logical and detailed summary of a case study. A researcher outlines what has been done for the research. The paper includes information, data characteristics, and necessary facts to summarize the findings.

#7 An Interpretive Essay

Such essays are assigned to social science and literature students to show their theoretical knowledge of the subject. Interpret someone’s piece of writing and identify their methods. It is required to support the thesis statement and findings with relevant data.

Types of a Research Article

Research articles are often associated with research articles, and there is no difference between them. Some scholars suggest that works are longer and more detailed. So let’s see what six types of research articles are:

• The original research article is a manuscript for a journal.
• A review article is a comprehensive research summary consisting of a systematic review, literature review, and meta-analysis.
• Short communications are a type of research article that provides a summary of research data.
• A book chapter is a separate section of a book.
• The book review is a brief report of a book consisting of an introduction, author profile, book format, and content.
• Conference materials are article types that can be presented as conference abstracts, posters, and presentation extracts.

Research Paper Styles

If you need research work help, check out the main research article styles. Educational institutions worldwide require their students to adhere to one of the following paper formats or styles:

American Medical Association (AMA) Style

AMA style is commonly used in medical publications. It has a special citation format with in-text references cited numerically in consecutive order using Arabic numerals. Double-space and 12-point font are preferable.

Associated Press Style

The AP style is used mainly for writing news. It’s characterized by consistency, logic, and brevity. Writers avoid offensive and stereotypical language in their works. This style is essential for print journalism.

Chicago Manual of Style

Chicago format style is used in history, physical, natural, and social sciences by many writers and scientists. It is crucial to know about this style that the note numbers are placed within the text, and the sources are found at the end of the chapter.

American Psychological Association (APA) Style

This format is one of the most widely used in academic writing. Students benefit from the APA style frequently in the social sciences. It is also easy to read due to its 12-point font. There are many features of this style, but you should remember that it differs by a left-aligned running header with the title of your study on each page.

Modern Language Association (MLA) Style

MLA style is one of two of the most popular article formats. It is widely used for writing papers on humanities, literature, and English. This style is simple and easy; just use double-spaced throughout the paper and a 12-point font.

Can Research Papers Have Opinions?

Giving your opinion on the issue presupposes subjective evaluation, and in the article, we found that a research paper should be written in an impersonal, objective tone. That’s a controversial question, and we’ll try to handle it.

You can include opinions of prominent scholars in the field and give citations and references to their works. An author should show in their work that they have a personal view on the question and can substantiate it by research and literature. Persuade readers in your paper that your opinion is worth considering using arguments.

Besides, there is an opinion research paper type that aims at presenting the writer’s opinion on a specific topic. Here you are welcome to express your viewpoint but support it with reliable sources and documents.

Writing a research paper seems an insurmountable task with many aspects to consider. Determine your paper type, and your writing process will be much easier as you will have special guidelines.

Contact a research paper writer if you require academic assistance.

Choosing Topic For A Research Paper On The Death Penalty

How to Write Your Dissertation Chapter 3?

APA Format: Easy Explanations And Samples

• Translators
• Graphic Designers

Please enter the email address you used for your account. Your sign in information will be sent to your email address after it has been verified.

The 7 Types of Academic Papers and Journal Articles

In the vast universe of journal articles, writers are tasked with creating many different kinds of papers, all with specific purposes and audiences in mind. If you're just stepping into this fascinating world, take a minute or two to familiarize yourself with the types of papers you might need to write – understanding all of these different types can turbocharge your writing journey. While academic papers could fit into an endless list of categories, it's helpful to get started with a few common types you're likely to encounter (and write!) in the academic community.

1. Original research

You know a text is original research if the report is written by the researchers who ran the study. Written by experts for other experts, original research articles usually undergo the peer review process before submission to an academic journal.

In an original article, the authors outline their research by first presenting their hypothesis and research questions . Here they describe the purpose of their study. They detail the research methods they applied, lay out the results of their research, and present the results. Original research also includes implications and interpretations of the study to give other experts in the field new information on all of the subjects. What's really interesting about original research is that, upon reading a study, future researchers will generate ideas to build on articles with their own original research and keep the advancement of knowledge acquisition going. The possibilities are endless!

Within the category of original research, you will encounter some specific kinds of research articles. Some studies can include elements of more than one type:

• Exploratory research Exploratory studies involve a kind of thought experiment and don't often include actual testing of a theory. Without the funding (and the time, technology, and commitment) to actually travel to other planets, a physicist might propose a new method to find other planets that could support life beyond Earth.
• Constructive research A person undergoing constructive research builds something that will lead to new information and knowledge and solve a real-life problem. If a computer scientist creates a new algorithm and tests it out to see what it can show us, they are demonstrating constructive research.
• Controlled experiments This type of research is usually conducted in a lab under controlled conditions. The benefit of isolating one aspect of a study is that it provides a clear result of an experiment without the need to discount your findings in the presence of other factors that could skew the outcome. For example, a medical researcher might use this type of study to determine how a virus responds to an antiviral drug in development.
• Field research An experiment in which some, but not all, aspects can be controlled is an example of field research. For example, a study on the effects of a pesticide on outdoor flowering plants involves a few outside forces that researchers might not be able to successfully manage. A researcher could compare the plants exposed to the pesticide with a plant without pesticide exposure, but they would have little control over the seed quality, sun exposure, rain amounts, or other natural factors.
• Natural study Under a natural experiment, a researcher takes a purely observational role and has little to no control over the factors involved. For example, a natural experiment could measure the effects of a free lunch program piloted in multiple schools over a period of time.
• Cohort study A cohort study offers an observational study design in which researchers follow a group of individuals over time and observe common characteristics or exposure to a specific element. The researchers then examine within that cohort of people the outcomes related to a particular factor, compared to people in a similar group without that factor. For example, a study might examine the long-term health effects of smoking and identify a group of individuals who smoke. The study would look at the development of lung cancer or other diseases within that group of smokers and compare the prevalence of disease compared to a group of non-smokers.

2. Retrospective study

A retrospective study looks back through time to observe the relationship between a characteristic or level of exposure and a health outcome that arises in individuals. This type of study uses existing records and data sources for its observations. An example of a retroactive study is one that examines the connection between the use of a medication and the prevalence of a specific side effect.

3. Case study

A research case study involves an in-depth investigation of a particular individual, group, or situation with a goal to understand the effect of complex factors. A researcher performing a case study collects a variety of data on a case, including interviews, observations, and documents, and analyzes them to identify patterns, themes, and insights that can help to understand the case in greater depth.

Research case studies are often used in fields such as psychology, sociology, and education to explore complex human behaviors and experiences. Researchers in various fields can apply this type of study to investigate the effects of a particular intervention on a specific individua or group or the factors that contribute to successful outcomes in a particular setting. For example, a case study could examine a successful company known for its innovative management practices. The researcher could conduct interviews with employees and managers, review company documents and reports, and observe the company's operations to uncover the factors that contribute to its success.

Research case studies provide a rich and detailed understanding of a particular situation, which supplies the researcher with powerful tools and insights for future research.

4. Methodology study

A methodology study focuses on evaluating and improving research methods and techniques for application to a research question or field of study. This type of study can examine the validity and reliability of a particular research instrument, such as a survey or questionnaire. In such an analysis, researchers can collect data from a sample of participants using a specific research instrument and then examine the data to assess the validity and reliability of the instrument. They could also compare the results obtained with the instrument to the results obtained using other research methods.

Methodology studies advance the research field by developing more effective methodologies and improving the quality of research conducted.

5. Opinion article

An opinion article expresses the author's personal viewpoint on a topic. Unlike a research article, an opinion article is not based on objective reporting or research but offers the author's subjective analysis without the need for evidence or peer review. Opinion articles can be found in newspapers, magazines, and online publications, often written by journalists or experts in a field who want to share their views.

An example of an opinion article is an op-ed piece in a newspaper or online publication. Op-eds are typically published on the editorial page of a newspaper or magazine and are written by individuals who are not affiliated with the publication. An op-ed article might argue in favor of or against a particular policy, offer a personal reflection on a current event, or provide commentary on a controversial issue. The author would use persuasive language and evidence to support the argument and try to convince readers to adopt the same viewpoint.

Opinion articles provide individuals with a way to share their ideas with a broader audience and to contribute to public debate and discourse.

6. Review article

A review article summarizes and synthesizes existing research. The goal is to provide a comprehensive overview and identify gaps in the current knowledge to see what further research should be done. Review articles are typically published in academic journals by researchers or experts in a field. They can take the form of narrative reviews, systematic reviews, or meta-analyses.

An example of a review article is a narrative review of the literature on the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for the treatment of anxiety disorders. The author might summarize and analyze randomized controlled trials and observational studies on the use of CBT, providing an overall assessment of the effectiveness of CBT for anxiety disorders and pointing out any yet unanswered questions about its application.

7. Short report

A short report presents the findings of a particular study or investigation. Named for its brevity, it is typically shorter in length than a full research paper or report and is intended to serve as a summary of the study's main findings.

Short reports include an introduction that provides background information on the study, a summary of the research methodology, a presentation of the key findings, and a conclusion that summarizes the main implications of the study. Short reports help researchers communicate their findings in a clear and concise manner and provide a summary of key information for different audiences.

If you're dipping your toes into academic writing or scholarly publishing, you'll find a world of different paper types, each with its own style, aim, and intended readers. It might seem like a lot to take in at first, but understanding these formats can seriously boost your ability to share your research and ideas. Plus, knowing the ins and outs of these various types means you can sift through published works more effectively, picking out the best sources for your own work. At the end of the day, this rich variety of academic papers and journal articles is what keeps the conversation lively in the scientific community, helping us all to keep learning and growing.

Header image by Dom Fou .

Related Posts

IEEE Citation: A Quick Guide

100 Sociology Research Topics You Can Use Right Now

• Academic Writing Advice
• All Blog Posts
• Writing Advice
• Admissions Writing Advice
• Book Writing Advice
• Short Story Advice
• Employment Writing Advice
• Business Writing Advice
• Web Content Advice
• Article Writing Advice
• Magazine Writing Advice
• Grammar Advice
• Dialect Advice
• Editing Advice
• Freelance Advice
• Legal Writing Advice
• Poetry Advice
• Graphic Design Advice
• Logo Design Advice
• Translation Advice
• Blog Reviews
• Short Story Award Winners
• Scholarship Winners

Need an academic editor before submitting your work?

Types of Research Papers

In this blog, we will discuss types of research papers. So, let’s get started.

When you study in university or college, you will have to write a research paper because it is an important part of the curriculum. In general, when you will produce this academic paper, you will have to do research on numerous technical, scientific, or social components of a phenomenon, and then organize the results. It is not simple. If you have never done academic writing before, the task may be difficult or even impossible. What makes it challenging?

There are numerous problems that make the process more difficult, and the majority of people get stopped at the initial stage – selecting appropriate research paper topics. Others are unable to complete the assignment on their own.  Fortunately, there is an easy answer for the second problem, as there are numerous professional essay writer services that can assist you with your paper. All you have to do is ask them to “ write my research paper .” For some of you, it might be a good option.

What is Research Paper?

• Table of Contents

A Research paper is a piece of academic writing or a long essay that presents the original and independent research of the author on any topic and the analysis and interpretation of the research findings. The research paper must be clear, concise, focussed, structured and backed up by evidence. It has a formal tone and style, but it is not complex and does not require the use of long sentences and complicated vocabulary because its purpose is to aid the reader’s understanding. Here we will be knowing about the “Types of Research papers”.

Research papers are of different types and identifying what type of research paper to use is a way critical task. The most suitable research paper type is always chosen to keep in mind your research paper topics, your research methodologies and the manner by which you analyze your data.

Top 10 Different types of Research Papers

Analytical Research Paper

Argumentative research paper.

• Cause and Effect Research Paper

Experimental Research Paper

Problem-solution research paper, report paper, survey research paper.

• Definition Research papers
• Compare and contrast Research papers
• Interpretative

Describe multiple points of view → Analyze all points → Conclude.

Analytical Research Papers imply an analysis of facts, events, issues, and ideas. In this, the researcher first describes multiple points of view pertaining to the research problem, then analyze all the described points by collecting relevant information from various other researchers, and finally concludes. During Analytical Research, the researcher must remain neutral i.e. paper should not favor one point and oppose another.

In Analytic Research Paper, the researcher does not face difficulty in describing multiple points of view but in analyzing them. There are many Homework Help websites available to ease your work. It is the first type of research paper.

Describe the problem from two different viewpoints → Propose pros and cons → Give preference to one.

An argumentative Research Paper, as the name suggests, involves arguments about the research topic from two viewpoints. In this type, the researcher must describe the problem with two opposing viewpoints, analyze them to propose their pros and cons, and finally supports one viewpoint. This research paper mainly focuses on getting the readers to favor your point of view. It is the second type of research paper.

Cause and effect research papers

Describe situation → Present causes/effects → Draw a conclusion

This paper is usually assigned to the freshers. The main aim of this paper is to teach the researcher on how to write a research paper. This paper includes

• A detailed study of various research topics
• Organization of the writing process
• Application of certain styles to text
• Citations and references

In this research paper, the researcher first describes the problem, then explain its causes and effects and finally gives the conclusion. It is the third types of research papers.

Experiment → Share useful experience → Provide data and sum up.

While writing an Experimental research paper, the researcher must describe the whole experimental process in detail. In this, the researcher conducts the experiment, then shares his useful experiences, and then finally provides the relevant data and sums up his research. These research papers are usually written for biology , chemistry, physics, psychology, and sociology. In this research paper, the researcher must describe his experiment with supporting data and experimental analysis.

Describe the problem → Propose a solution → Defend it

As the name suggests, the Problem-Solution Research Paper aims at finding solutions to certain problems. In this research paper, the researcher describes the problem, analyze the available information, find some possible solutions and prove their effectiveness by giving examples, details, statistical data etc.

Outline the work done on a particular topic –> Sum up findings

In the Report Paper, the researcher needs to gather all the information about the research topic, describes the most valuable characteristics of data and finally sum up his findings. This paper aims at providing all the facts and necessary information about the research topic.

Quick Links

• An Absolute Guide On How To Write A Research Paper Outline
• Best Tips On How To Write An Introduction In A Research Paper

Conduct a survey → Analyze findings → Draw conclusions

In this paper, the researcher has to do the research, interpret data, analyze findings and then finally draw conclusions. In this, the survey is conducted by asking questions to respondents. This analyzes behavior in different conditions.

8. Definition Research papers

It is known as self–an explanatory research paper because, in this kind of research paper, you aren’t required to stay neutral or support one side. The foremost objective is to deliver details about the topic offered without researching and reviewing the studies of further researchers at all. You can contain additional data from additional sources even without analyzing them entirely.

9. Compare and contrast Research papers

It is another type of research paper. These are used to compare two distinct researchers or writers with different perspectives. For example, two businessmen are compared to where their position is researched. The most crucial thing is that you have to represent both sides’ opinions in your research paper, but don’t forget to compare and contrast both sides and, in the end, support one side.

10. Interpretative

Students mostly write these research papers to share their ideas and knowledge from researching a certain field or case. For example, a literature student is invited to report a research paper on the poetry they have read, and then they have to compose this research paper. Or a company case in any analysis course. The most significant thing in this kind of research paper is that the points the student has written based on it and has supported the data should be reasonable.

What are the 3 types of research reports?

The research report is the report which records all collected data. Statisticians or researchers organize it. They analyze the data and then collect it to make a company report. All data collected by analyzers is reliable and original because it is organized with proper research and analysis. Moreover, the data is contained in two forms: it may be in the form of qualitative or whether it is in the form of survey.

1. Original Research Report

It is a primary source research report. Original research is based on the researchers because they have written it themselves. They did the proper study to write an original research report data. These are the following points that researchers describe in their report.

• Research question.
• Purpose of the study.
• Describe their hypothesis.
• Also, they give the details of their research methods. 
• Follow the IMRAD structure.

2. Methodologies Research Report Method

It provides the following data;

• how to conduct the research.
• Various research methods.
• Reasons for choosing those methods.

3. Short Reports or Letters

These consist of vital details about a topic to report to a reader. A short report may either be written or oral in the report structure of a letter or memo. It typically consists of an overview of the report, a defined goal, a brief background, and a determination.

What Are The 4 Types Of Report?

A good report is a report that fully avoids unclear words, is written in simple language, and also avoids vagueness. Its main message should be self-explanatory. The following are the types of external reports.

What Is The Format Of Common Research Paper?

10 Parts Of A Common Research Paper Format

• The Cover page/Title page
• Introduction
• Body paragraphs (research description and methods)
• Bibliography/reference list
• Appendix (if any add-ons were available)

Conclusion (Types Of Research Papers)

These all are different types of research paper. If you have any queries or want any other information regarding research papers, please do tell us in the comment section. If you are having any difficulty in determining the type of research paper or in making a research paper feel free to take Research Paper help from our experts

Types Of Research Papers FAQ

What is a good research title.

A good research title should give an idea of the content of the research and should be interesting.

Where can I find reliable sources for research Papers?

Trusted and well-known Journals and books that are written by researchers are the most reliable sources for writing research papers.

What are the 4 goals of research?

Description, prediction, explanation, and application are four goals of the research.

What are the most common errors made in research papers?

Usage of irrelevant tables and figures, lack of strong thesis statements, lack of planning, weak supporting statements are the most common errors in research papers.

Similar Articles

How To Do Homework Fast – 11 Tips To Do Homework Fast

Homework is one of the most important parts that have to be done by students. It has been around for…

How to Write an Assignment Introduction – 6 Best Tips

In essence, the writing tasks in academic tenure students are an integral part of any curriculum. Whether in high school,…

Leave a Comment Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Learn how your comment data is processed .

• Privacy Policy

Buy Me a Coffee

Home » Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Methodology

Definition:

Research Methodology refers to the systematic and scientific approach used to conduct research, investigate problems, and gather data and information for a specific purpose. It involves the techniques and procedures used to identify, collect , analyze , and interpret data to answer research questions or solve research problems . Moreover, They are philosophical and theoretical frameworks that guide the research process.

Structure of Research Methodology

Research methodology formats can vary depending on the specific requirements of the research project, but the following is a basic example of a structure for a research methodology section:

I. Introduction

• Provide an overview of the research problem and the need for a research methodology section
• Outline the main research questions and objectives

II. Research Design

• Explain the research design chosen and why it is appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Discuss any alternative research designs considered and why they were not chosen
• Describe the research setting and participants (if applicable)

III. Data Collection Methods

• Describe the methods used to collect data (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations)
• Explain how the data collection methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or instruments used for data collection

IV. Data Analysis Methods

• Describe the methods used to analyze the data (e.g., statistical analysis, content analysis )
• Explain how the data analysis methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or software used for data analysis

V. Ethical Considerations

• Discuss any ethical issues that may arise from the research and how they were addressed
• Explain how informed consent was obtained (if applicable)
• Detail any measures taken to ensure confidentiality and anonymity

VI. Limitations

• Identify any potential limitations of the research methodology and how they may impact the results and conclusions

VII. Conclusion

• Summarize the key aspects of the research methodology section
• Explain how the research methodology addresses the research question(s) and objectives

Research Methodology Types

Types of Research Methodology are as follows:

Quantitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data using statistical methods. This type of research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Qualitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as words, images, and observations. This type of research is often used to explore complex phenomena, to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular topic, and to generate hypotheses.

Mixed-Methods Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative research. This approach can be particularly useful for studies that aim to explore complex phenomena and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular topic.

Case Study Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves in-depth examination of a single case or a small number of cases. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and anthropology to gain a detailed understanding of a particular individual or group.

Action Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves a collaborative process between researchers and practitioners to identify and solve real-world problems. Action research is often used in education, healthcare, and social work.

Experimental Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables to observe their effects on a dependent variable. Experimental research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Survey Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection of data from a sample of individuals using questionnaires or interviews. Survey research is often used to study attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.

Grounded Theory Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the development of theories based on the data collected during the research process. Grounded theory is often used in sociology and anthropology to generate theories about social phenomena.

Research Methodology Example

An Example of Research Methodology could be the following:

Research Methodology for Investigating the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Reducing Symptoms of Depression in Adults

Introduction:

The aim of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. To achieve this objective, a randomized controlled trial (RCT) will be conducted using a mixed-methods approach.

Research Design:

The study will follow a pre-test and post-test design with two groups: an experimental group receiving CBT and a control group receiving no intervention. The study will also include a qualitative component, in which semi-structured interviews will be conducted with a subset of participants to explore their experiences of receiving CBT.

Participants:

Participants will be recruited from community mental health clinics in the local area. The sample will consist of 100 adults aged 18-65 years old who meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder. Participants will be randomly assigned to either the experimental group or the control group.

Intervention :

The experimental group will receive 12 weekly sessions of CBT, each lasting 60 minutes. The intervention will be delivered by licensed mental health professionals who have been trained in CBT. The control group will receive no intervention during the study period.

Data Collection:

Quantitative data will be collected through the use of standardized measures such as the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7). Data will be collected at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and at a 3-month follow-up. Qualitative data will be collected through semi-structured interviews with a subset of participants from the experimental group. The interviews will be conducted at the end of the intervention period, and will explore participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Data Analysis:

Quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and mixed-model analyses of variance (ANOVA) to assess the effectiveness of the intervention. Qualitative data will be analyzed using thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns in participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Ethical Considerations:

This study will comply with ethical guidelines for research involving human subjects. Participants will provide informed consent before participating in the study, and their privacy and confidentiality will be protected throughout the study. Any adverse events or reactions will be reported and managed appropriately.

Data Management:

All data collected will be kept confidential and stored securely using password-protected databases. Identifying information will be removed from qualitative data transcripts to ensure participants’ anonymity.

Limitations:

One potential limitation of this study is that it only focuses on one type of psychotherapy, CBT, and may not generalize to other types of therapy or interventions. Another limitation is that the study will only include participants from community mental health clinics, which may not be representative of the general population.

Conclusion:

This research aims to investigate the effectiveness of CBT in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. By using a randomized controlled trial and a mixed-methods approach, the study will provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the relationship between CBT and depression. The results of this study will have important implications for the development of effective treatments for depression in clinical settings.

How to Write Research Methodology

Writing a research methodology involves explaining the methods and techniques you used to conduct research, collect data, and analyze results. It’s an essential section of any research paper or thesis, as it helps readers understand the validity and reliability of your findings. Here are the steps to write a research methodology:

• Start by explaining your research question: Begin the methodology section by restating your research question and explaining why it’s important. This helps readers understand the purpose of your research and the rationale behind your methods.
• Describe your research design: Explain the overall approach you used to conduct research. This could be a qualitative or quantitative research design, experimental or non-experimental, case study or survey, etc. Discuss the advantages and limitations of the chosen design.
• Discuss your sample: Describe the participants or subjects you included in your study. Include details such as their demographics, sampling method, sample size, and any exclusion criteria used.
• Describe your data collection methods : Explain how you collected data from your participants. This could include surveys, interviews, observations, questionnaires, or experiments. Include details on how you obtained informed consent, how you administered the tools, and how you minimized the risk of bias.
• Explain your data analysis techniques: Describe the methods you used to analyze the data you collected. This could include statistical analysis, content analysis, thematic analysis, or discourse analysis. Explain how you dealt with missing data, outliers, and any other issues that arose during the analysis.
• Discuss the validity and reliability of your research : Explain how you ensured the validity and reliability of your study. This could include measures such as triangulation, member checking, peer review, or inter-coder reliability.
• Acknowledge any limitations of your research: Discuss any limitations of your study, including any potential threats to validity or generalizability. This helps readers understand the scope of your findings and how they might apply to other contexts.
• Provide a summary: End the methodology section by summarizing the methods and techniques you used to conduct your research. This provides a clear overview of your research methodology and helps readers understand the process you followed to arrive at your findings.

When to Write Research Methodology

Research methodology is typically written after the research proposal has been approved and before the actual research is conducted. It should be written prior to data collection and analysis, as it provides a clear roadmap for the research project.

The research methodology is an important section of any research paper or thesis, as it describes the methods and procedures that will be used to conduct the research. It should include details about the research design, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and any ethical considerations.

The methodology should be written in a clear and concise manner, and it should be based on established research practices and standards. It is important to provide enough detail so that the reader can understand how the research was conducted and evaluate the validity of the results.

Applications of Research Methodology

Here are some of the applications of research methodology:

• To identify the research problem: Research methodology is used to identify the research problem, which is the first step in conducting any research.
• To design the research: Research methodology helps in designing the research by selecting the appropriate research method, research design, and sampling technique.
• To collect data: Research methodology provides a systematic approach to collect data from primary and secondary sources.
• To analyze data: Research methodology helps in analyzing the collected data using various statistical and non-statistical techniques.
• To test hypotheses: Research methodology provides a framework for testing hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on the analysis of data.
• To generalize findings: Research methodology helps in generalizing the findings of the research to the target population.
• To develop theories : Research methodology is used to develop new theories and modify existing theories based on the findings of the research.
• To evaluate programs and policies : Research methodology is used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and policies by collecting data and analyzing it.
• To improve decision-making: Research methodology helps in making informed decisions by providing reliable and valid data.

Purpose of Research Methodology

Research methodology serves several important purposes, including:

• To guide the research process: Research methodology provides a systematic framework for conducting research. It helps researchers to plan their research, define their research questions, and select appropriate methods and techniques for collecting and analyzing data.
• To ensure research quality: Research methodology helps researchers to ensure that their research is rigorous, reliable, and valid. It provides guidelines for minimizing bias and error in data collection and analysis, and for ensuring that research findings are accurate and trustworthy.
• To replicate research: Research methodology provides a clear and detailed account of the research process, making it possible for other researchers to replicate the study and verify its findings.
• To advance knowledge: Research methodology enables researchers to generate new knowledge and to contribute to the body of knowledge in their field. It provides a means for testing hypotheses, exploring new ideas, and discovering new insights.
• To inform decision-making: Research methodology provides evidence-based information that can inform policy and decision-making in a variety of fields, including medicine, public health, education, and business.

Advantages of Research Methodology

Research methodology has several advantages that make it a valuable tool for conducting research in various fields. Here are some of the key advantages of research methodology:

• Systematic and structured approach : Research methodology provides a systematic and structured approach to conducting research, which ensures that the research is conducted in a rigorous and comprehensive manner.
• Objectivity : Research methodology aims to ensure objectivity in the research process, which means that the research findings are based on evidence and not influenced by personal bias or subjective opinions.
• Replicability : Research methodology ensures that research can be replicated by other researchers, which is essential for validating research findings and ensuring their accuracy.
• Reliability : Research methodology aims to ensure that the research findings are reliable, which means that they are consistent and can be depended upon.
• Validity : Research methodology ensures that the research findings are valid, which means that they accurately reflect the research question or hypothesis being tested.
• Efficiency : Research methodology provides a structured and efficient way of conducting research, which helps to save time and resources.
• Flexibility : Research methodology allows researchers to choose the most appropriate research methods and techniques based on the research question, data availability, and other relevant factors.
• Scope for innovation: Research methodology provides scope for innovation and creativity in designing research studies and developing new research techniques.

Research Methodology Vs Research Methods

About the author.

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and...

Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and...

Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

In the brain, bursts of beta rhythms implement cognitive control

Bursts of brain rhythms with “beta” frequencies control where and when neurons in the cortex process sensory information and plan responses. Studying these bursts would improve understanding of cognition and clinical disorders, researchers argue in a new review.

The brain processes information on many scales. Individual cells electrochemically transmit signals in circuits but at the large scale required to produce cognition, millions of cells act in concert, driven by rhythmic signals at varying frequencies. Studying one frequency range in particular, beta rhythms between about 14-30 Hz, holds the key to understanding how the brain controls cognitive processes—or loses control in some disorders—a team of neuroscientists argues in a new review article.

Drawing on experimental data, mathematical modeling and theory, the scientists make the case that bursts of beta rhythms control cognition in the brain by regulating where and when higher gamma frequency waves can coordinate neurons to incorporate new information from the senses or formulate plans of action. Beta bursts, they argue, quickly establish flexible but controlled patterns of neural activity for implementing intentional thought.

“Cognition depends on organizing goal-directed thought, so if you want to understand cognition, you have to understand that organization,” said co-author Earl K. Miller , Picower Professor in The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory and the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences at MIT. “Beta is the range of frequencies that can control neurons at the right spatial scale to produce organized thought.”

Miller and colleagues Mikael Lundqvist, Jonatan Nordmark and Johan Liljefors at the Karolinska Institutet and Pawel Herman at the KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden, write that studying bursts of beta rhythms to understand how they emerge and what they represent would not only help explain cognition, but also aid in diagnosing and treating cognitive disorders.

“Given the relevance of beta oscillations in cognition, we foresee a major change in the practice for biomarker identification, especially given the prominence of beta bursting in inhibitory control processes … and their importance in ADHD, schizophrenia and Alzheimer’s disease,” they write in the journal Trends in Cognitive Sciences .

Experimental studies covering several species including humans, a variety of brain regions, and numerous cognitive tasks have revealed key characteristics of beta waves in the cortex, the authors write: Beta rhythms occur in quick but powerful bursts; they inhibit the power of higher frequency gamma rhythms; and though they originate in deeper brain regions, they travel within specific locations of cortex. Considering these properties together, the authors write that they are all consistent with precise and flexible regulation, in space and time, of the gamma rhythm activity that experiments show carry signals of sensory information and motor plans.

“Beta bursts thus offer new opportunities for studying how sensory inputs are selectively processed, reshaped by inhibitory cognitive operations and ultimately result in motor actions,” the authors write.

For one example, Miller and colleagues have shown in animals that in the prefrontal cortex in working memory tasks, beta bursts direct when gamma activity can store new sensory information, read out the information when it needs to be used, and then discard it when it’s no longer relevant. For another example, other researchers have shown that beta rises when human volunteers are asked to suppress a previously learned association between word pairs, or to forget a cue because it will no longer be used in a task.

In a paper last year, Lundqvist, Herman, Miller and others cited several lines of experimental evidence to hypothesize that beta bursts implement cognitive control spatially in the brain , essentially constraining patches of the cortex to represent the general rules of a task even as individual neurons within those patches represent the specific contents of information. For example, if the working memory task is to remember a pad lock combination, beta rhythms will implement patches of cortex for the general steps “turn left,” “turn right,” “turn left again,” allowing gamma to enable neurons within each patch to store and later recall the specific numbers of the combination. The two-fold value of such an organizing principle, they noted, is that the brain can rapidly apply task rules to many neurons at a time and do so without having to re-establish the overall structure of the task if the individual numbers change (i.e. you set a new combination).

Another important phenomenon of beta bursts, the authors write, is that they propagate across long distances in the brain, spanning multiple regions. Studying the direction of their spatial travels, as well as their timing, could shed further light on how cognitive control is implemented.

New ideas beget new questions

Beta rhythm bursts can differ not only in their frequency, but also their duration, amplitude, origin and other characteristics. This variety speaks to their versatility, the authors write, but also obliges neuroscientists to study and understand these many different forms of the phenomenon and what they represent to harness more information from these neural signals.

“It quickly becomes very complicated, but I think the most important aspect of beta bursts is the very simple and basic premise that they shed light on the transient nature of oscillations and neural processes associated with cognition,” Lundqvist said.“This changes our models of cognition and will impact everything we do. For a long time we implicitly or explicitly assumed oscillations are ongoing which has colored experiments and analyses. Now we see a first wave of studies based on this new thinking, with new hypothesis and ways to analyze data, and it should only pick up in years to come.” 

The authors acknowledge another major issue that must be resolved by further research—How do beta bursts emerge in the first place to perform their apparent role in cognitive control?

“It is unknown how beta bursts arise as a mediator of an executive command that cascades to other regions of the brain,” the authors write.

The authors don’t claim to have all the answers. Instead, they write, because beta rhythms appear to have an integral role in controlling cognition, the as yet unanswered questions are worth asking.

“We propose that beta bursts provide both experimental and computational studies with a window through which to explore the real-time organization and execution of cognitive functions,” they conclude. “To fully leverage this potential there is a need to address the outstanding questions with new experimental paradigms, analytical methods and modeling approaches.”

Related Articles

Paper: to understand cognition—and its dysfunction—neuroscientists must learn its rhythms.

Study reveals a universal pattern of brain wave frequencies

Anesthesia blocks sensation by cutting off communication within the cortex

Anesthesia technology precisely controls unconsciousness in animal tests

World-first “Cybercrime Index” ranks countries by cybercrime threat level

Following three years of intensive research, an international team of researchers have compiled the first ever ‘World Cybercrime Index’, which identifies the globe’s key cybercrime hotspots by ranking the most significant sources of cybercrime at a national level.

The Index, published today in the journal PLOS ONE , shows that a relatively small number of countries house the greatest cybercriminal threat. Russia tops the list, followed by Ukraine, China, the USA, Nigeria, and Romania. The UK comes in at number eight.

‘The research that underpins the Index will help remove the veil of anonymity around cybercriminal offenders, and we hope that it will aid the fight against the growing threat of profit-driven cybercrime,’ Dr Bruce said.

‘We now have a deeper understanding of the geography of cybercrime, and how different countries specialise in different types of cybercrime.’

‘By continuing to collect this data, we’ll be able to monitor the emergence of any new hotspots and it is possible early interventions could be made in at-risk countries before a serious cybercrime problem even develops.’

The data that underpins the Index was gathered through a survey of 92 leading cybercrime experts from around the world who are involved in cybercrime intelligence gathering and investigations. The survey asked the experts to consider five major categories of cybercrime*, nominate the countries that they consider to be the most significant sources of each of these types of cybercrime, and then rank each country according to the impact, professionalism, and technical skill of its cybercriminals.

Co-author Associate Professor Jonathan Lusthaus , from the University of Oxford’s Department of Sociology and Oxford School of Global and Area Studies, said cybercrime has largely been an invisible phenomenon because offenders often mask their physical locations by hiding behind fake profiles and technical protections.

'Due to the illicit and anonymous nature of their activities, cybercriminals cannot be easily accessed or reliably surveyed. They are actively hiding. If you try to use technical data to map their location, you will also fail, as cybercriminals bounce their attacks around internet infrastructure across the world. The best means we have to draw a picture of where these offenders are actually located is to survey those whose job it is to track these people,' Dr Lusthaus said.

Figuring out why some countries are cybercrime hotspots, and others aren't, is the next stage of the research. There are existing theories about why some countries have become hubs of cybercriminal activity - for example, that a technically skilled workforce with few employment opportunities may turn to illicit activity to make ends meet - which we'll be able to test against our global data set. Dr Miranda Bruce  Department of Sociology, University of Oxford and UNSW Canberra   

Co-author of the study, Professor Federico Varese from Sciences Po in France, said the World Cybercrime Index is the first step in a broader aim to understand the local dimensions of cybercrime production across the world.

‘We are hoping to expand the study so that we can determine whether national characteristics like educational attainment, internet penetration, GDP, or levels of corruption are associated with cybercrime. Many people think that cybercrime is global and fluid, but this study supports the view that, much like forms of organised crime, it is embedded within particular contexts,’ Professor Varese said.

The World Cybercrime Index has been developed as a joint partnership between the University of Oxford and UNSW and has also been funded by CRIMGOV , a European Union-supported project based at the University of Oxford and Sciences Po. The other co-authors of the study include Professor Ridhi Kashyap from the University of Oxford and Professor Nigel Phair from Monash University.

The study ‘Mapping the global geography of cybercrime with the World Cybercrime Index’ has been published in the journal PLOS ONE .

*The five major categories of cybercrime assessed by the study were:

1.   Technical products/services (e.g. malware coding, botnet access, access to compromised systems, tool production).

2.   Attacks and extortion (e.g. denial-of-service attacks, ransomware).

3.   Data/identity theft (e.g. hacking, phishing, account compromises, credit card comprises).

4.   Scams (e.g. advance fee fraud, business email compromise, online auction fraud).

5.   Cashing out/money laundering (e.g. credit card fraud, money mules, illicit virtual currency platforms).

DISCOVER MORE

• Support Oxford's research
• Partner with Oxford on research
• Study at Oxford
• Research jobs at Oxford

You can view all news or browse by category

More From Forbes

Venus exploration remains key to understanding exo-earths, says paper.

• Share to Facebook
• Share to Twitter
• Share to Linkedin

NEW YORK, NY - JUNE 5: In this handout image provided by NASA, Liz Heller and Andriel Mesznik watch ... [+] the transit of Venus on June 5, 2012 in New York, New York. The Transit of Venus involves the planet Venus crossing in front of the sun. The next pair of events will not happen again until the year 2117 and 2125. (Photo by Bill Ingalls/NASA via Getty Images)

To paraphrase Winston Churchill, our sister planet Venus remains a riddle, wrapped in a mystery, inside an enigma. Remarkably similar in size, mass, and bulk makeup, today, Earth and Venus couldn't be more different. Earth is an ecological utopia while Venus is a poster child for planetary desolation.

The conventional view is that Venus simply formed too close to our evolving yellow dwarf star to maintain liquid water at its surface. But in the last few decades, that view has come to be seen as simplistic. That’s because this explanation fails to adequately answer why Venus came to have surface temperatures hot enough to melt lead and atmospheric surface pressures ninety times that of Earth.

Even so, the authors of a new paper being published today in the journal Nature Astronomy argue that Venus remains crucial to understanding earth-mass and earth-like planets circling other stars.

Venus represents an astrobiological cautionary tale. That’s because observations of terrestrial mass exoplanets that —- at first glance —- would appear to be habitable may simply be producing an abundance of abiotic oxygen. That is, oxygen that has nothing to do with life on the planets’ surfaces.

Venus. The planet Venus, the second planet from the Sun, has the longest rotation period (243 days) ... [+] of any planet in the Solar System. It orbits the Sun every 224.7 Earth days, making a Venusian year shorter than an Earth year. Artist NASA. (Photo by Heritage Space/Heritage Images/Getty Images)

Huawei s Pura 70 Ultra Beats iPhone With Pioneering New Feature

Sixers justified in fury toward officiating after game 2 meltdown vs. knicks, litter robot 4 review the best self cleaning litter box on the market.

In the late 1970s, NASA’s Pioneer Venus orbiter mission detected evidence for the catastrophic outgassing of an ocean’s worth of water. The abiotic oxygen produced during this outgassing would have been readily visible to alien astronomers if they were looking our way. We can only speculate whether some other intelligent civilization at the time might have misinterpreted our own Venus as being habitable due to this putative abundance of abiotic oxygen.

Such scenarios only illustrate how difficult it is going to be to say with any certainty that a given exoplanet may harbor life.

Venus As Research Lab

We are extremely lucky to have Venus right next door; it's likely the only other large rocky world we will ever get to, Paul Byrne, a planetary scientist at Washington University in St. Louis, and the paper’s co-author, told me via email. Earth-size worlds in other planetary systems are light years away; we have no foreseeable means of reaching them, says Byrne.

In order to really understand how you obtain conditions which are suitable for life to form in the first place, you really need to understand the past the present and future of planets and how they evolve with time, Stephen Kane, the paper’s lead author and a planetary astrophysicist at the University of California, Riverside, told me via phone. That's why we argue that Venus is really the key to that because it shows an extremely different evolution from Earth, he says.

In contrast to Earth, Venus has a rotational period of 243 days. Its atmosphere is almost entirely Carbon Dioxide CO2 (with a small amount of nitrogen and trace abundances of other gases) such as sulfur dioxide, argon and water vapor, the authors write. Moreover, the planet is cloaked in a global layer of sulfuric acid clouds, they note.

Byrne points out that although Venus and Earth formed in the same manner as the other rocky planets in our solar system, it’s still a puzzle as to why they took such divergent evolutionary paths.

If you move a planet too close to the star, then it's going to lose the primary atmosphere that it formed with and it's going to create a secondary atmosphere, says Kane. But if it's too close to the star, the planet will also lose its secondary atmosphere, he says.

Illustration of NASA's Pioneer Venus Orbiter mission.

Kane says that one of the most interesting things about Earth is that it has had surface liquid water for about 4 billion years. This means that Earth has had to maintain a very narrow temperature range, which he calls “extraordinary.”

As For A Solar System Without A Venus Analog?

If we did not have Venus, you can only imagine what we would be inferring about the Earth size planet population that we're currently discovering around other stars, says Kane. That’s because our models would never predict Venus, he says.

Earth and Venus are the same size and the same mass, but on a planetary scale everything else about Venus is different, says Kane. The magnetic field is different, the rotation rate is different, and Venus doesn't have a moon, so its axial tilt is different, he says.

Kane is also puzzled by Venus’ slow rotation rate and how it’s changed over time.

With Venus, we now think that the atmosphere itself has slowed the planet down, says Kane. It’s been assumed that Venus always was a slow rotator, but we don't know that, he says. And we don't fully understand the effect that the change in Venus' rotation rate has had on its climate evolution, says Kane.

Is there hope of ever understanding our sister planet?

For a start, a fleet of spacecraft will investigate Venus over the next decade, says the European Space Agency. They include ESA’s Envision mission, NASA’s VERITAS orbiter and DAVINCI probe, and India’s Shukrayaan orbiter.

These upcoming missions represent the best next step in making Venus a research priority.

As we discover more and more Earth- size worlds orbiting other stars we'll need to figure out how to distinguish those that are like Venus from those that are like Earth, says Byrne. If it's solely based on distance to the host star, then distinguishing that will be straightforward, he says. But if it's more complicated, and Earth-like worlds can form and be stable closer in to their parent stars, then we're going to have to understand why Venus and Earth turned out so differently, Byrne notes.

But Was Venus Ever Earth-Like?

Whether the answer is yes or no, figuring out this mystery is going to be a big deal, says Byrne.

And it will help us better understand our own planet.

Figuring out when, why, and how Venus ended up different to Earth will tell us how Earth has managed to stay habitable for almost its entire lifetime, says Byrne.

• Editorial Standards
• Reprints & Permissions

This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 23.4.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Electronic Media Use and Sleep Quality: Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Authors of this article:

• Xiaoning Han * , PhD   ; 
• Enze Zhou * , MA   ; 
• Dong Liu * , PhD  

School of Journalism and Communication, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China

*all authors contributed equally

Corresponding Author:

Dong Liu, PhD

School of Journalism and Communication

Renmin University of China

No. 59 Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District

Beijing, 100872

Phone: 86 13693388506

Email: [email protected]

Background: This paper explores the widely discussed relationship between electronic media use and sleep quality, indicating negative effects due to various factors. However, existing meta-analyses on the topic have some limitations.

Objective: The study aims to analyze and compare the impacts of different digital media types, such as smartphones, online games, and social media, on sleep quality.

Methods: Adhering to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, the study performed a systematic meta-analysis of literature across multiple databases, including Web of Science, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, and Google Scholar, from January 2018 to October 2023. Two trained coders coded the study characteristics independently. The effect sizes were calculated using the correlation coefficient as a standardized measure of the relationship between electronic media use and sleep quality across studies. The Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software (version 3.0) was used to perform the meta-analysis. Statistical methods such as funnel plots were used to assess the presence of asymmetry and a p -curve test to test the p -hacking problem, which can indicate publication bias.

Results: Following a thorough screening process, the study involved 55 papers (56 items) with 41,716 participants from over 20 countries, classifying electronic media use into “general use” and “problematic use.” The meta-analysis revealed that electronic media use was significantly linked with decreased sleep quality and increased sleep problems with varying effect sizes across subgroups. A significant cultural difference was also observed in these effects. General use was associated with a significant decrease in sleep quality ( P <.001). The pooled effect size was 0.28 (95% CI 0.21-0.35; k =20). Problematic use was associated with a significant increase in sleep problems ( P ≤.001). The pooled effect size was 0.33 (95% CI 0.28-0.38; k =36). The subgroup analysis indicated that the effect of general smartphone use and sleep problems was r =0.33 (95% CI 0.27-0.40), which was the highest among the general group. The effect of problematic internet use and sleep problems was r =0.51 (95% CI 0.43-0.59), which was the highest among the problematic groups. There were significant differences among these subgroups (general: Q between =14.46, P =.001; problematic: Q between =27.37, P <.001). The results of the meta-regression analysis using age, gender, and culture as moderators indicated that only cultural difference in the relationship between Eastern and Western culture was significant ( Q between =6.69; P =.01). All funnel plots and p -curve analyses showed no evidence of publication and selection bias.

Conclusions: Despite some variability, the study overall confirms the correlation between increased electronic media use and poorer sleep outcomes, which is notably more significant in Eastern cultures.

Introduction

Sleep is vital to our health. Research has shown that high sleep quality can lead to improvements in a series of health outcomes, such as an improved immune system, better mood and mental health, enhanced physical performance, lower risk of chronic diseases, and a longer life span [ 1 - 5 ].

Electronic media refers to forms of media or communication that use electronic devices or technology to create, distribute, and display content. This can include various forms of digital media such as smartphones, tablets, instant messaging, phone calls, social media, online games, short video platforms, etc. Electronic media has permeated every aspect of our lives [ 6 ]. Many prefer to use smartphones or tablets before sleep, which can negatively affect sleep in many aspects, including delayed sleep onset, disrupted sleep patterns, shortened sleep duration, and poor sleep quality [ 7 - 10 ]. Furthermore, problematic use occurs when the behavior surpasses a certain limit. In this study, problematic use of electronic media is not solely determined by the amount of time spent on these platforms, but rather by behavioral indicators that suggest an unhealthy or harmful relationship with them.

Smartphones or tablet use can affect sleep quality in many ways. At first, the use of these devices may directly displace, delay, or interrupt sleep time, resulting in inadequate sleep quantity [ 11 ]. The sound of notifications and vibrations of these devices may interrupt sleep. Second, the screens of smartphones and tablets emit blue light, which can suppress the production of melatonin, the hormone responsible for regulating sleep-wake cycles [ 12 ]. Third, consuming emotionally charged content, such as news, suspenseful movies, or engaging in online arguments, can increase emotional arousal, making it harder to relax and fall asleep. This emotional arousal can also lead to disrupted sleep and nightmares [ 13 ]. Finally, the use of electronic devices before bedtime can lead to a delay in bedtime and a shortened sleep duration, as individuals may lose track of time while engaging with their devices. This can result in a disrupted sleep routine and decreased sleep quality [ 14 ].

Some studies have conducted meta-analyses on screen media use and sleep outcomes in 2016, 2019, and 2021 [ 15 - 17 ]. However, these studies had their own limitations. First, the sample size included in their meta-analyses was small (around 10). Second, these studies only focused on 1 aspect of the effect of digital media on sleep quality. For example, Carter et al [ 16 ] focused only on adolescents, and both Alimoradi et al [ 15 ] and Kristensen et al [ 17 ] only reviewed the relationship between problematic use of digital media or devices and sleep quality. Despite of the high heterogeneity found in the meta-analyses, none have compared the effects of different digital media or devices. This study aims to clarify and compare the effects of these different channels.

Literature Search

The research adhered to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines ( Multimedia Appendix 1 ) and followed a predetermined protocol [ 18 , 19 ]. As the idea and scope of this study evolved over time, the meta-analysis was not preregistered. However, the methodology was defined a priori and strictly followed to reduce biases, and the possible influence of post hoc decisions was minimized. All relevant studies in English, published from January 1, 2018, to October 9, 2023, were searched. We searched the following databases: Web of Science, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The abstracts were examined manually. The keywords used to search were the combination of the following words: “sleep” OR “sleep duration” OR “sleep quality” OR “sleep problems” AND “electronic media” OR “smartphone” OR “tablet” OR “social media” OR “Facebook” OR “Twitter” OR “online gaming” OR “internet” OR “addiction” OR “problematic” ( Multimedia Appendix 2 ). Additionally, the reference lists of relevant studies were examined.

Two trained coders independently screened the titles and abstracts of the identified papers for eligibility, followed by a full-text review of the selected studies. Discrepancies between the coders were resolved through discussion until a consensus was reached. The reference lists of the included studies were also manually screened to identify any additional relevant studies. Through this rigorous process, we ensured a comprehensive and replicable literature search that could contribute to the robustness of our meta-analysis findings.

Inclusion or Exclusion Criteria

Titles and abstracts from search results were scrutinized for relevance, with duplicates removed. Full texts of pertinent papers were obtained, and their eligibility for inclusion was evaluated. We mainly included correlational studies that used both continuous measures of time spent using electronic media use and sleep quality. Studies must have been available in English. Four criteria were used to screen studies: (1) only peer-reviewed empirical studies, published in English, were considered for inclusion in the meta-analysis; (2) the studies should report quantitative statistics on electronic media use and sleep quality, including sample size and essential information to calculate the effect size, and review papers, qualitative studies, case studies, and conference abstracts were excluded; (3) studies on both general use and problematic use of electronic media or devices should be included; and (4) only studies that used correlation, regression, or odds ratio were included to ensure consistency.

Study Coding

Two trained coders were used to code the characteristics of the studies independently. Discrepancies were discussed with the first author of the paper to resolve. Sample size and characteristics of participants were coded: country, female ratio, average age, publication year, and electronic types. Effect sizes were either extracted directly from the original publications or manually calculated. If a study reported multiple dependent effects, the effects were merged into one. If a study reported multiple independent effects from different samples, the effects were included separately. Additionally, to evaluate the study quality, the papers were classified into 3 tiers (high, middle, and low) according to Journal Citation Reports 2022 , a ranking of journals based on their impact factor as reported in the Web of Science. The few unindexed papers were rated based on their citation counts as reported in Google Scholar.

Meta-Analysis and Moderator Analyses

The effect sizes were calculated using the correlation coefficient ( r ) as a standardized measure of the relationship between electronic media or device use and sleep quality across studies. When studies reported multiple effect sizes, we selected the one that best represented the overall association between electronic media use and sleep quality. If studies did not provide correlation coefficients, we converted other reported statistics (eg, standardized regression coefficients) into correlation coefficients using established formulas. Once calculated, the correlation coefficients were transformed into Fisher z scores to stabilize the variance and normalize the distribution.

Previous meta-studies have shown high levels of heterogeneity. Hence, the random effects model was adopted for all analyses. To explore potential factors contributing to the heterogeneity and to further understand the relationship between electronic media use and sleep quality, we conducted moderator analyses. The following categorical and continuous moderators were examined: media types (online gaming, social media, smartphone, or intent), participants’ average age, culture, female ratio, and sleep quality assessment method. For categorical moderators, subgroup analyses were performed, while for continuous moderators, meta-regression analyses were conducted. All analyses were completed in the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software (version 3.0; Biostat, Inc).

Publication Bias

We used statistical methods such as funnel plots to assess the presence of asymmetry and a p -curve test to test the p -hacking problem, which may indicate publication bias. In case of detected asymmetry, we applied techniques such as the trim-and-fill method to adjust the effect size estimates.

By addressing publication bias, we aimed to provide a more accurate and reliable synthesis of the available evidence, enhancing the validity and generalizability of our meta-analytic findings. Nevertheless, it is essential for readers to interpret the results cautiously, considering the potential limitations imposed by publication bias and other methodological concerns.

Search Findings

A total of 98,806 studies were identified from databases, especially Scopus (n=49,643), Google Scholar (n=18,600), Science Direct (n=15,084), and Web of Science (n=11,689). Upon removing duplicate records and excluding studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria, 754 studies remained for the screening phase. After screening titles, abstracts, and full texts, 703 studies were excluded. A total of 4 additional studies were identified from the references of relevant reviews. Finally, 55 studies [ 20 - 74 ] were included in the meta-analysis. The flow diagram of the selection is shown in Figure 1 .

Characteristics of Included Studies

In 20 studies, 21,594 participants were included in the analysis of the general use of electronic media and sleep quality. The average age of the sample ranged from 9.9 to 44 years. The category of general online gaming and sleep quality included 4 studies, with 14,837 participants; the category of general smartphone use and sleep quality included 10 studies, with 5011 participants; and the category of general social media use and sleep quality included 6 studies, with 1746 participants.

These studies came from the following countries or areas: Germany, Serbia, Indonesia, India, China, Italy, Saudi Arabia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States, Spain, Qatar, Egypt, Argentina, and Portugal. The most frequently used measure of electronic media use was the time spent on it. The most frequently used measure of sleep was the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index.

In 35 studies, 20,122 participants were included in the analysis of the problematic use of electronic media and sleep quality. The average age of the sample ranged from 14.76 to 65.62 years. The category of problematic online gaming and sleep quality included 5 studies, with 1874 participants; the category of problematic internet use and sleep quality included 2 studies, with 774 participants; the category of problematic smartphone use and sleep quality included 18 studies, with 12,204 participants; and the category of problematic social media use and sleep quality included 11 studies, with 5270 participants. There was a study that focused on both social media and online gaming, which led to its inclusion in the analysis. These studies came from 14 countries or areas: Turkey, the United States, Indonesia, China, France, Taiwan, India, South Korea, Hong Kong, Iran, Poland, Israel, Hungary, and Saudi Arabia. The most frequently used measures of problematic electronic media use were the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form, Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Form, and Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale.

With respect to study quality, the 56 papers were published in 50 journals, 41 of which were indexed in Journal Citation Reports 2022 , while the remaining 9 journals were rated based on their citation counts as reported in Google Scholar. As a result, of the 56 papers included in the study, 22 papers were assigned a high rating, 18 papers were assigned a middle rating, and 16 papers were assigned a low rating. More information about the included studies is listed in Multimedia Appendix 3 [ 20 - 74 ].

Meta-Analysis

The results of the meta-analysis of the relationship between general electronic media use and sleep quality showed that electronic media use was associated with a significant decrease in sleep quality ( P <.001). The pooled effect size was 0.28 (95% CI 0.21-0.35; k =20), indicating that individuals who used electronic media more frequently were generally associated with more sleeping problems.

The second meta-analysis showed that problematic electronic media use was associated with a significant increase in sleep problems ( P ≤.001). The pooled effect size was 0.33 (95% CI 0.28-0.38; k =36), indicating that participants who used electronic media more frequently were more likely to have more sleep problems.

Moderator Analyses

At first, we conducted subgroup analyses for different media or devices. The results are shown in Tables 1 and 2 . The effect of the relationship between general online gaming and sleep problems was r =0.14 (95% CI 0.06-0.22); the effect of the relationship between general smartphone use and sleep problems was r =0.33 (95% CI 0.27-0.40); and the effect of the relationship between general social media use and sleep problems was r =0.28 (95% CI 0.21-0.34). There are significant differences among these groups ( Q between =14.46; P =.001).

The effect of the relationship between problematic gaming and sleep problems was r =0.49, 95% CI 0.23-0.69; the effect of the relationship between problematic internet use and sleep problems was r =0.51 (95% CI 0.43-0.59); the effect of the relationship between problematic smartphone use and sleep problems was r =0.25 (95% CI 0.20-0.30); and the effect of the relationship between problematic social media use and sleep problems was r =0.35 (95% CI 0.29-0.40). There are significant differences among these groups ( Q between =27.37; P <.001).

We also used age, gender, and culture as moderators to conduct meta-regression analyses. The results are shown in Tables 3 and 4 . Only cultural difference in the relationship between Eastern and Western culture was significant ( Q between =6.694; P =.01). All other analyses were not significant.

a Not applicable.

All funnel plots of the analyses were symmetrical, showing no evidence of publication bias ( Figures 2 - 5 ). We also conducted p -curve analyses to see whether there were any selection biases. The results also showed that there were no biases.

Principal Findings

This study indicated that electronic media use was significantly linked with decreased sleep quality and increased sleep problems with varying effect sizes across subgroups. General use was associated with a significant decrease in sleep quality. Problematic use was associated with a significant increase in sleep problems. A significant cultural difference was also observed by the meta-regression analysis.

First, there is a distinction in the impact on sleep quality between problematic use and general use, with the former exhibiting a higher correlation strength. However, both have a positive correlation, suggesting that the deeper the level of use, the more sleep-related issues are observed. In addressing this research question, the way in which electronic media use is conceptualized and operationalized may have a bearing on the ultimate outcomes. Problematic use is measured through addiction scales, while general use is predominantly assessed by duration of use (time), leading to divergent results stemming from these distinct approaches. The key takeaway is that each measurement possesses unique strengths and weaknesses, and the pathways affecting sleep quality differ. Consequently, the selection of a measurement approach should be tailored to the specific research question at hand. The duration of general use reflects an individual’s comprehensive involvement with electronic media, and its impact on sleep quality is evident in factors such as an extended time to fall asleep and reduced sleep duration. The addiction scale for problematic use illuminates an individual’s preferences, dependencies, and other associations with electronic media. Its impact on sleep quality is evident through physiological and psychological responses, including anxiety, stress, and emotional reactions.

Second, notable variations exist in how different types of electronic media affect sleep quality. In general, the positive predictive effects of smartphone, social media, and online gaming use durations on sleep problems gradually decrease. In the problematic context, the intensity of addiction to the internet and online gaming has the most significant positive impact on sleep problems, followed by social media, while smartphones exert the least influence. On one hand, longitudinal comparisons within the same context reveal that the content and format of electronic media can have varying degrees of negative impact on sleep quality, irrespective of whether it involves general or problematic use. On the other hand, cross-context comparisons suggest that both general and problematic use play a role in moderating the impact of electronic media types on sleep quality. As an illustration, problematic use reinforces the positive impact of online gaming and social media on sleep problems, while mitigating the influence of smartphones. Considering smartphones as electronic media, an extended duration of general use is associated with lower sleep quality. However, during problematic use, smartphones serve as the platform for other electronic media such as games and social media, resulting in a weakened predictive effect on sleep quality. Put differently, in the context of problematic use, the specific type of electronic media an individual consumes on their smartphones becomes increasingly pivotal in shaping sleep quality.

Third, cultural differences were found to be significant moderators of the relationship between electronic media use and sleep problems in both our study and Carter et al [ 16 ]. Kristensen et al [ 17 ], however, did not specifically address the role of cultural differences but revealed that there was a strong and consistent association between bedtime media device use and sleep outcomes across the studies included. Our findings showed that the association between problematic social media use was significantly larger in Eastern culture. We speculate that the difference may be attributed to cultural differences in social media use patterns, perceptions of social norms and expectations, variations in bedtime routines and habits, and diverse coping mechanisms for stress. These speculations warrant further investigation to understand better the underlying factors contributing to the observed cultural differences in the relationship between social media use and sleep quality.

Fourth, it was observed that gender and age had no significant impact on sleep quality. The negative effects of electronic media use are not only confined to the sleep quality of adults, and the association with gender differences remains unclear. Recent studies point out that electronic media use among preschoolers may result in a “time-shifting” process, disrupting their sleep patterns [ 75 ]. Similarly, children and adolescent sleep patterns have been reported to be adversely affected by electronic media use [ 76 - 78 ]. These findings underscore the necessity of considering age group variations in future research, as electronic media use may differently impact sleep quality across age demographics.

In conclusion, our study, Carter et al [ 16 ], and Kristensen et al [ 17 ] collectively emphasize the importance of understanding and addressing the negative impact of electronic media use, particularly problematic online gaming and smartphone use, on sleep quality and related issues. Further research is warranted to explore the underlying mechanisms and specific factors contributing to the relationship between electronic media use and sleep problems.

Strengths and Limitations

Our study, supplemented with research by Carter et al [ 16 ] and Kristensen et al [ 17 ], contributes to the growing evidence supporting a connection between electronic media use and sleep quality. We found that both general and problematic use of electronic media correlates with sleep issues, with the strength of the correlation varying based on the type of electronic media and cultural factors, with no significant relationship observed with age or gender.

Despite the vast amount of research on the relationship between electronic media use and sleep, several gaps and limitations still exist.

First, the inclusion criteria were restricted to English-language, peer-reviewed empirical studies published between January 2018 and October 2023. This may have led to the exclusion of relevant studies published in other languages or before 2018, potentially limiting the generalizability of our findings. Furthermore, the exclusion of non–peer-reviewed studies and conference abstracts may have introduced publication bias, as significant results are more likely to be published in peer-reviewed journals.

Second, although we used a comprehensive search strategy, the possibility remains that some relevant studies may have been missed. Additionally, the search strategies were not linked with Medical Subject Headings headers and may not have captured all possible electronic media types, resulting in an incomplete representation of the effects of electronic media use on sleep quality.

Third, the studies included in our meta-analysis exhibited considerable heterogeneity in sample characteristics, electronic media types, and measures of sleep quality. This heterogeneity might have contributed to the variability in effect sizes observed across studies. Although we conducted moderator analyses to explore potential sources of heterogeneity, other unexamined factors may still have influenced the relationship between electronic media use and sleep quality.

Fourth, our meta-analysis relied on the correlation coefficient ( r ) as the primary effect size measure, which may not fully capture the complex relationships between electronic media use and sleep quality. Moreover, the conversion of other reported statistics into correlation coefficients could introduce additional sources of error. The correlational nature of the included studies limited our ability to draw causal inferences between electronic media use and sleep quality. Experimental and longitudinal research designs would provide stronger evidence for the directionality of this relationship.

Given these limitations, future research should aim to include a more diverse range of studies, examine additional potential moderators, and use more robust research designs to better understand the complex relationship between electronic media use and sleep quality.

Conclusions

In conclusion, our updated meta-analysis affirms the consistent negative impact of electronic media use on sleep outcomes, with problematic online gaming and smartphone use being particularly impactful. Notably, the negative effect of problematic social media use on sleep quality appears more pronounced in Eastern cultures. This research emphasizes the need for public health initiatives to increase awareness of these impacts, particularly for adolescents. Further research, including experimental and longitudinal studies, is necessary to delve deeper into the complex relationship between electronic media use and sleep quality, considering potential moderators like cultural differences.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the Journalism and Marxism Research Center, Renmin University of China (MXG202215), and by funds for building world-class universities (disciplines) of Renmin University of China (23RXW195).

A statement on the use of ChatGPT in the process of writing this paper can be found in Multimedia Appendix 4.

Data Availability

The data sets analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) 2020 checklist.

Search strategies.

Characteristics of included studies.

Large language model statement.

• Brink-Kjaer A, Leary EB, Sun H, Westover MB, Stone KL, Peppard PE, et al. Age estimation from sleep studies using deep learning predicts life expectancy. NPJ Digit Med. 2022;5(1):103. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Killgore WDS. Effects of sleep deprivation on cognition. Prog Brain Res. 2010;185:105-129. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Lee S, Mu CX, Wallace ML, Andel R, Almeida DM, Buxton OM, et al. Sleep health composites are associated with the risk of heart disease across sex and race. Sci Rep. 2022;12(1):2023. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Prather AA. Sleep, stress, and immunity. In: Grandner MA, editor. Sleep and Health, 1st Edition. Cambridge. Academic Press; 2019;319-330.
• Scott AJ, Webb TL, Martyn-St James M, Rowse G, Weich S. Improving sleep quality leads to better mental health: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Sleep Med Rev. Dec 2021;60:101556. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Guttmann A. Statista. 2023. URL: https://www.statista.com/topics/1536/media-use/#topicOverview [accessed 2023-06-10]
• Hysing M, Pallesen S, Stormark KM, Jakobsen R, Lundervold AJ, Sivertsen B. Sleep and use of electronic devices in adolescence: results from a large population-based study. BMJ Open. Feb 02, 2015;5(1):e006748. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Lavender RM. Electronic media use and sleep quality. Undergrad J Psychol. 2015;28(1):55-62. [ FREE Full text ]
• Exelmans L, Van den Bulck J. Bedtime mobile phone use and sleep in adults. Soc Sci Med. 2016;148:93-101. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Twenge JM, Krizan Z, Hisler G. Decreases in self-reported sleep duration among U.S. adolescents 2009-2015 and association with new media screen time. Sleep Med. 2017;39:47-53. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Exelmans L. Electronic media use and sleep: a self-control perspective. Curr Sleep Med Rep. 2019;5:135-140. [ CrossRef ]
• Jniene A, Errguig L, El Hangouche AJ, Rkain H, Aboudrar S, El Ftouh M, et al. Perception of sleep disturbances due to bedtime use of blue light-emitting devices and its impact on habits and sleep quality among young medical students. Biomed Res Int. 2019;2019:7012350. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Munezawa T, Kaneita Y, Osaki Y, Kanda H, Minowa M, Suzuki K, et al. The association between use of mobile phones after lights out and sleep disturbances among Japanese adolescents: a nationwide cross-sectional survey. Sleep. 2011;34(8):1013-1020. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Smith LJ, Gradisar M, King DL, Short M. Intrinsic and extrinsic predictors of video-gaming behaviour and adolescent bedtimes: the relationship between flow states, self-perceived risk-taking, device accessibility, parental regulation of media and bedtime. Sleep Med. 2017;30:64-70. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Alimoradi Z, Lin CY, Broström A, Bülow PH, Bajalan Z, Griffiths MD, et al. Internet addiction and sleep problems: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med Rev. 2019;47:51-61. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Carter B, Rees P, Hale L, Bhattacharjee D, Paradkar MS. Association between portable screen-based media device access or use and sleep outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr. 2016;170(12):1202-1208. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Kristensen JH, Pallesen S, King DL, Hysing M, Erevik EK. Problematic gaming and sleep: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Psychiatry. 2021;12:675237. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, PRISMA Group. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009;6(7):e1000097. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021;372:n71. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Akçay D, Akçay BD. The effect of computer game playing habits of university students on their sleep states. Perspect Psychiatr Care. 2020;56(4):820-826. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Alahdal WM, Alsaedi AA, Garrni AS, Alharbi FS. The impact of smartphone addiction on sleep quality among high school students in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Cureus. 2023;15(6):e40759. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Alam A, Alshakhsi S, Al-Thani D, Ali R. The role of objectively recorded smartphone usage and personality traits in sleep quality. PeerJ Comput Sci. 2023;9:e1261. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Almeida F, Marques DR, Gomes AA. A preliminary study on the association between social media at night and sleep quality: the relevance of FOMO, cognitive pre-sleep arousal, and maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation. Scand J Psychol. 2023;64(2):123-132. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Alshobaili FA, AlYousefi NA. The effect of smartphone usage at bedtime on sleep quality among Saudi non-medical staff at King Saud University Medical City. J Family Med Prim Care. 2019;8(6):1953-1957. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Alsulami A, Bakhsh D, Baik M, Merdad M, Aboalfaraj N. Assessment of sleep quality and its relationship to social media use among medical students. Med Sci Educ. 2019;29(1):157-161. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Altintas E, Karaca Y, Hullaert T, Tassi P. Sleep quality and video game playing: effect of intensity of video game playing and mental health. Psychiatry Res. 2019;273:487-492. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Asbee J, Slavish D, Taylor DJ, Dietch JR. Using a frequentist and Bayesian approach to examine video game usage, substance use, and sleep among college students. J Sleep Res. 2023;32(4):e13844. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Bae ES, Kang HS, Lee HN. The mediating effect of sleep quality in the relationship between academic stress and social network service addiction tendency among adolescents. J Korean Acad Community Health Nurs. 2020;31(3):290-299. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chatterjee S, Kar SK. Smartphone addiction and quality of sleep among Indian medical students. Psychiatry. 2021;84(2):182-191. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Chung JE, Choi SA, Kim KT, Yee J, Kim JH, Seong JW, et al. Smartphone addiction risk and daytime sleepiness in Korean adolescents. J Paediatr Child Health. 2018;54(7):800-806. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Demir YP, Sumer MM. Effects of smartphone overuse on headache, sleep and quality of life in migraine patients. Neurosciences (Riyadh). 2019;24(2):115-121. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Dewi RK, Efendi F, Has EMM, Gunawan J. Adolescents' smartphone use at night, sleep disturbance and depressive symptoms. Int J Adolesc Med Health. 2018;33(2):20180095. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Eden A, Ellithorpe ME, Meshi D, Ulusoy E, Grady SM. All night long: problematic media use is differentially associated with sleep quality and depression by medium. Commun Res Rep. 2021;38(3):143-149. [ CrossRef ]
• Ellithorpe ME, Meshi D, Tham SM. Problematic video gaming is associated with poor sleep quality, diet quality, and personal hygiene. Psychol Pop Media. 2023;12(2):248-253. [ CrossRef ]
• Elsheikh AA, Elsharkawy SA, Ahmed DS. Impact of smartphone use at bedtime on sleep quality and academic activities among medical students at Al -Azhar University at Cairo. J Public Health (Berl.). Jun 15, 2023.:1-10. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gaya AR, Brum R, Brites K, Gaya A, de Borba Schneiders L, Duarte Junior MA, et al. Electronic device and social network use and sleep outcomes among adolescents: the EHDLA study. BMC Public Health. 2023;23(1):919. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Gezgin DM. Understanding patterns for smartphone addiction: age, sleep duration, social network use and fear of missing out. Cypriot J Educ Sci. 2018;13(2):166-177. [ CrossRef ]
• Graham S, Mason A, Riordan B, Winter T, Scarf D. Taking a break from social media improves wellbeing through sleep quality. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2021;24(6):421-425. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Guerrero MD, Barnes JD, Chaput JP, Tremblay MS. Screen time and problem behaviors in children: exploring the mediating role of sleep duration. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2019;16(1):105. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Hamvai C, Kiss H, Vörös H, Fitzpatrick KM, Vargha A, Pikó BF. Association between impulsivity and cognitive capacity decrease is mediated by smartphone addiction, academic procrastination, bedtime procrastination, sleep insufficiency and daytime fatigue among medical students: a path analysis. BMC Med Educ. 2023;23(1):537. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Herlache AD, Lang KM, Krizan Z. Withdrawn and wired: problematic internet use accounts for the link of neurotic withdrawal to sleep disturbances. Sleep Sci. 2018;11(2):69-73. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Huang Q, Li Y, Huang S, Qi J, Shao T, Chen X, et al. Smartphone use and sleep quality in chinese college students: a preliminary study. Front Psychiatry. 2020;11:352. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Hussain Z, Griffiths MD. The associations between problematic social networking site use and sleep quality, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, depression, anxiety and stress. Int J Ment Health Addict. 2021;19:686-700. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ]
• Imani V, Ahorsu DK, Taghizadeh N, Parsapour Z, Nejati B, Chen HP, et al. The mediating roles of anxiety, depression, sleepiness, insomnia, and sleep quality in the association between problematic social media use and quality of life among patients with cancer. Healthcare (Basel). 2022;10(9):1745. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Jeong CY, Seo YS, Cho EH. The effect of SNS addiction tendency on trait-anxiety and quality of sleep in university students'. J Korean Clin Health Sci. 2018;6(2):1147-1155. [ CrossRef ]
• Karaş H, Küçükparlak İ, Özbek MG, Yılmaz T. Addictive smartphone use in the elderly: relationship with depression, anxiety and sleep quality. Psychogeriatrics. 2023;23(1):116-125. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Kater MJ, Schlarb AA. Smartphone usage in adolescents: motives and link to sleep disturbances, stress and sleep reactivity. Somnologie. 2020;24(4):245-252. [ CrossRef ]
• Kharisma AC, Fitryasari R, Rahmawati PD. Online games addiction and the decline in sleep quality of college student gamers in the online game communities in Surabaya, Indonesia. Int J Psychosoc Rehabil. 2020;24(7):8987-8993. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kumar VA, Chandrasekaran V, Brahadeeswari H. Prevalence of smartphone addiction and its effects on sleep quality: a cross-sectional study among medical students. Ind Psychiatry J. 2019;28(1):82-85. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Lee Y, Blebea J, Janssen F, Domoff SE. The impact of smartphone and social media use on adolescent sleep quality and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Hum Behav Emerg Technol. 2023;2023:3277040. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ]
• Li L, Griffiths MD, Mei S, Niu Z. Fear of missing out and smartphone addiction mediates the relationship between positive and negative affect and sleep quality among Chinese university students. Front Psychiatry. 2020;11:877. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Li Y, Mu W, Sun C, Kwok SYCL. Surrounded by smartphones: relationship between peer phubbing, psychological distress, problematic smartphone use, daytime sleepiness, and subjective sleep quality. Appl Res Qual Life. 2023;18:1099-1114. [ CrossRef ]
• Luo X, Hu C. Loneliness and sleep disturbance among first-year college students: the sequential mediating effect of attachment anxiety and mobile social media dependence. Psychol Sch. 2022;59(9):1776-1789. [ CrossRef ]
• Luqman A, Masood A, Shahzad F, Shahbaz M, Feng Y. Untangling the adverse effects of late-night usage of smartphone-based SNS among university students. Behav Inf Technol. 2021;40(15):1671-1687. [ CrossRef ]
• Makhfudli, Aulia A, Pratiwi A. Relationship intensity of social media use with quality of sleep, social interaction, and self-esteem in urban adolescents in Surabaya. Sys Rev Pharm. 2020;11(5):783-788. [ CrossRef ]
• Ozcan B, Acimis NM. Sleep quality in Pamukkale university students and its relationship with smartphone addiction. Pak J Med Sci. 2021;37(1):206-211. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Peltz JS, Bodenlos JS, Kingery JN, Abar C. Psychological processes linking problematic smartphone use to sleep disturbance in young adults. Sleep Health. 2023;9(4):524-531. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Pérez-Chada D, Bioch SA, Schönfeld D, Gozal D, Perez-Lloret S, Sleep in Adolescents Collaborative Study Group. Screen use, sleep duration, daytime somnolence, and academic failure in school-aged adolescents. PLoS One. 2023;18(2):e0281379. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Przepiorka A, Blachnio A. The role of Facebook intrusion, depression, and future time perspective in sleep problems among adolescents. J Res Adolesc. 2020;30(2):559-569. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Rudolf K, Bickmann P, Froböse I, Tholl C, Wechsler K, Grieben C. Demographics and health behavior of video game and eSports players in Germany: the eSports study 2019. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(6):1870. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Sami H, Danielle L, Lihi D, Elena S. The effect of sleep disturbances and internet addiction on suicidal ideation among adolescents in the presence of depressive symptoms. Psychiatry Res. 2018;267:327-332. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Scott H, Woods HC. Fear of missing out and sleep: cognitive behavioural factors in adolescents' nighttime social media use. J Adolesc. 2018;68:61-65. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Spagnoli P, Balducci C, Fabbri M, Molinaro D, Barbato G. Workaholism, intensive smartphone use, and the sleep-wake cycle: a multiple mediation analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16(19):3517. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Stanković M, Nešić M, Čičević S, Shi Z. Association of smartphone use with depression, anxiety, stress, sleep quality, and internet addiction. empirical evidence from a smartphone application. Pers Individ Differ. Jan 2021;168:110342. [ CrossRef ]
• Tandon A, Kaur P, Dhir A, Mäntymäki M. Sleepless due to social media? investigating problematic sleep due to social media and social media sleep hygiene. Comput Hum Behav. Dec 2020;113:106487. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang PY, Chen KL, Yang SY, Lin PH. Relationship of sleep quality, smartphone dependence, and health-related behaviors in female junior college students. PLoS One. 2019;14(4):e0214769. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Wang Q, Zhong Y, Zhao G, Song R, Zeng C. Relationship among content type of smartphone use, technostress, and sleep difficulty: a study of university students in China. Educ Inf Technol. Aug 02, 2022;28(2):1697-1714. [ CrossRef ]
• Wong HY, Mo HY, Potenza MN, Chan MNM, Lau WM, Chui TK, et al. Relationships between severity of internet gaming disorder, severity of problematic social media use, sleep quality and psychological distress. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(6):1879. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Xie X, Dong Y, Wang J. Sleep quality as a mediator of problematic smartphone use and clinical health symptoms. J Behav Addict. 2018;7(2):466-472. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Yang SY, Chen KL, Lin PH, Wang PY. Relationships among health-related behaviors, smartphone dependence, and sleep duration in female junior college students. Soc Health Behav. 2019;2(1):26-31. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yıldırım M, Öztürk A, Solmaz F. Fear of COVID-19 and sleep problems in Turkish young adults: mediating roles of happiness and problematic social networking sites use. Psihologija. 2023;56(4):497-515. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhai X, Ye M, Wang C, Gu Q, Huang T, Wang K, et al. Associations among physical activity and smartphone use with perceived stress and sleep quality of Chinese college students. Mental Health and Physical Activity. Mar 2020;18:100323. [ CrossRef ]
• Zhang MX, Wu AMS. Effects of smartphone addiction on sleep quality among Chinese university students: the mediating role of self-regulation and bedtime procrastination. Addict Behav. 2020;111:106552. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Zhang MX, Zhou H, Yang HM, Wu AMS. The prospective effect of problematic smartphone use and fear of missing out on sleep among Chinese adolescents. Curr Psychol. May 24, 2021;42(7):5297-5305. [ CrossRef ]
• Beyens I, Nathanson AI. Electronic media use and sleep among preschoolers: evidence for time-shifted and less consolidated sleep. Health Commun. 2019;34(5):537-544. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Mazurek MO, Engelhardt CR, Hilgard J, Sohl K. Bedtime electronic media use and sleep in children with autism spectrum disorder. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2016;37(7):525-531. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• King DL, Delfabbro PH, Zwaans T, Kaptsis D. Sleep interference effects of pathological electronic media use during adolescence. Int J Ment Health Addict. 2014;12:21-35. [ CrossRef ]
• Kubiszewski V, Fontaine R, Rusch E, Hazouard E. Association between electronic media use and sleep habits: an eight-day follow-up study. Int J Adolesc Youth. 2013;19(3):395-407. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ]

Abbreviations

Edited by G Eysenbach, T Leung; submitted 20.04.23; peer-reviewed by M Behzadifar, F Estévez-López, R Prieto-Moreno; comments to author 18.05.23; revised version received 15.06.23; accepted 26.03.24; published 23.04.24.

©Xiaoning Han, Enze Zhou, Dong Liu. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 23.04.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.