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Logical arguments are everywhere. From social media posts, newspaper op-eds, TV advertisements, and academic journals, people want to convince us of the validity of their argument . They make a claim and use reasons in the form of evidence or data to convince us their argument is correct. They structure their claims and reasons so their audience can easily understand them. Arguments that use well-chosen reasons, careful reasoning, and logical structures are logical arguments.  

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Logical arguments are everywhere. From social media posts, newspaper op-eds, TV advertisements, and academic journals, people want to convince us of the validity of their argument . They make a claim and use reasons in the form of evidence or data to convince us their argument is correct. They structure their claims and reasons so their audience can easily understand them. Arguments that use well-chosen reasons, careful reasoning, and logical structures are logical arguments.

What is a Logical Argument?

A logical argument is a type of argument that uses logic to convince an audience of the validity of a claim. Logic is the use of reasoning and good argumentation .

Philosophers and rhetoricians agree that a logical argument is made up of claims and reasons. A claim is a position a writer takes in an argument. In an essay, your goal is for the audience to believe your claim. To convince your audience that your claim is correct, you will need reasons –the evidence that supports your claim.

Logical Argument Example

Let’s see how Thomas Jefferson states his claim and reasons in “The Declaration of Independence.” Jefferson believes that the British colonies on the North American continent should separate from the British government and form their own country. He writes the following claim to convince his audience of his beliefs: 1

The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.

Jefferson states his claim and then provides his evidence, which is broken down below, to prove why King George III is a tyrannical leader.

Claim: King George III imposed tyranny over the colonies.

Reason: He does not acknowledge the laws that the colonists' legislatures passed.

You must use claims with reasons to make logical arguments. Making logical arguments in essays will require you to think critically about how you want to make your claims and which reasons you want to use them.

Constructing Reasons in Logical Arguments

Writers have different ways of forming reasons to support their claims in a logical argument. The Greek philosopher Aristotle broke down these methods into two general categories: artistic and inartistic proofs.

Artistic Proofs

Artistic proofs are arguments the writer creates . Instead of using hard evidence, the writer's reasoning comes from various rhetorical appeals. These appeals include

Ethos (appealing to the writer’s credibility or morals/values).

Logos (appealing to logic).

Pathos (appealing to emotions).

Writers consider how to balance these different appeals within their essays. Most audiences are convinced by logical appeals, and you will soon learn how authors use logical reasoning. However, logical arguments incorporate ethical and emotional appeals. You can appeal to ethos by highlighting your expertise. To incorporate pathos, you can have a well-chosen anecdote as evidence to support your argument. Writers using logical arguments in their essays choose these different appeals by knowing their audience’s values and interests.

Inartistic Proofs

Inartistic proofs are arguments the writer gives in an essay. They are the hard evidence used to support logical arguments.

Using factual information, such as information from scholarly research or government reports, is crucial for writing a logical argument. If you have credible evidence, your audience will listen to your argument, even if they disagree with you. Make sure the factual information you include in your essay is from reliable sources, presented fairly, and supports your claim.

You can use statistics to strengthen a logical argument by providing concrete data about an issue. You will need to interpret this data and explain how it supports your argument. Be careful with how you present statistics in your argument to avoid presenting them in a biased manner. Since there are different ways to interpret data, make sure you understand the statistics you are using.

Expert Testimony

Expert testimonies help in making a logical argument. Expert testimonies are the stories and knowledge that come from personal experience and expertise about the topic. They can come from your own experiences with the topic or another individual's experiences with it. These narratives are compelling because they provide evidence the audience can trust and demonstrate how your topic affects people.

Study tip: To help you remember the difference between artistic and inartistic proofs, remember that artists create !

Logical Reasoning in Academic Writing

There are two main types of logical reasoning used in academic writing: deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is a type of reasoning where you use general statements to form a more specific claim. Writers use deductive reasoning in essays to lead readers to their conclusion. They begin with a broad claim and lead their audience to a specific claim using logical reasoning, using this structure:

Statement of a general claim.

Statement of another general claim. This claim has a direct connection to your first general claim.

Combining the first and second claims to make a specific claim.

Deductive reasoning follows this pattern to form general claims and combine them into a specific claim:

• X is/does Y.
• X is/does Z.
• Therefore, Z is/does Y.

Let’s see a simple example of deductive reasoning to see how general claims form a specific claim.

Hot objects burn your skin if you touch them. (General claim)

A stove that is on is a hot object. (General claim)

Therefore, a stove that is on will burn your skin if you touch it. (Specific claim)

Errors in Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is a common form of logic found in argumentation . While it is popular, you will need to make sure that your claims are true and follow the above pattern for your logic to be valid. See the example below to observe errors in deductive reasoning.

All cats are orange. (All cats are not orange!)

Pumpkins are orange. (The statement is formed around the color orange [Y], not cats [X]. )

Therefore, all cats are pumpkins. (The two errors above result in this inaccurate claim.)

Deductive Reasoning Example

You can use deductive reasoning to structure the overall argument of a portion of your essay or your entire essay. Thomas Jefferson uses deductive reasoning to structure "The Declaration of Independence." The first general claim is developed in the first section of the essay. For example, in the first two paragraphs, Jefferson argues people have the right to form a new government if it acts tyrannically.

For the second claim, look toward the middle, especially where the topic transitions into a new idea. After two paragraphs, Jefferson's argument shifts toward explaining how King George III is a tyrannical leader.

To identify the final claim, find the argument at the end of the text. In the final paragraph, Jefferson concludes that the colonies have the right to form their own government since King George III does not rule fairly.

Below is the outline of Jefferson's deductive reasoning in his argument.

If their current government is tyrannical, people have the right to form a new government.

King George III's government is tyrannical.

Because King George III's government is tyrannical, the colonies have the right to form a new government.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is another form of logical reasoning commonly found in essays. With inductive reasoning, you use specific details or examples to form a general claim. Let's say you observe a classmate carrying a large instrument case, talking about going to rehearsals, and wearing the school's band t-shirt. Using inductive reasoning, you would use these specific details to form the claim that your classmate is in the school band.

Inductive reasoning is common in academic writing, especially scientific writing. You use inductive reasoning when you want to discuss patterns you observed and form a general claim based on this evidence. For example, scientists conduct clinical experiments on new medical drugs in a trial group. Based on these results, they need to make generalizations on how this drug will affect the general population to argue if the drug is effective.

Errors in Inductive Reasoning

Because inductive reasoning relies on generalizations, it is easier to have a faulty claim because you do not have enough evidence. Let's say you want to argue in an essay that all schools should decrease athletic funding. You argue that funding sports is a waste of money because you observed your school funds sports programs, and the teams always lose. This would be an example of bad inductive reasoning because your experience does not support the claim that all schools should decrease funding. Not all school teams lose their games. Observations and generalizations can help you make logical arguments, but be careful that you have sufficient and correct evidence.

Inductive Reasoning Example

Thomas Jefferson uses inductive reasoning in "The Declaration of Independence" to argue King George III is a tyrannical ruler. Jefferson forms this general claim based on his observations of the King's behavior. He lists 27 examples as his evidence. These examples vary, with multiple examples of ignoring colonial government, enforcing unpopular laws, and forcing colonists to house British soldiers in their homes. The number and variety of examples lead Jefferson to conclude that King George III is a tyrannical ruler.

Structure of Logical Arguments

Beyond forming their claims and reasons, writers also consider the structure of their essays when making logical arguments. One of the most useful methods for structuring logical arguments is based on philosopher Stephen Toulmin's method.

Toulmin Arguments

Toulmin's method of argumentation is a popular structure in advanced English Language exams and academic writing. This structure helps writers anticipate and create complex arguments using logical reasoning. Toulmin's method is useful for arguing about complex situations that lack a concrete solution. There are six main parts to Toulmin's method of argumentation.

The claim is the argument you want to prove.

Qualifiers are the limits placed on your claim. Because you are arguing about complex situations, the qualifiers moderate your claim.

Reason(s)/Evidence

You will support your claim with reasons and evidence--remember your artistic and inartistic proofs!

Warrants are the assumptions that support your claim. Arguments can have unsaid assumptions, and you are responsible for stating them.

Backing is the evidence for your warrant. Not only do you need evidence for your claim, but you will need evidence for your warrant.

Rebuttals are the potential objections to your argument. You will want to anticipate these rebuttals and address them.

Toulmin Argument Example

Considering the popularity of Toulmin's method, let's look at an example. Using the argument that teachers should not assign homework, let's outline the structure of an argument using Toulmin's method.

Claim : Teachers should not assign homework because it prevents students from pursuing responsibilities outside of school.

Qualifiers : Not all students have responsibilities outside of school, especially younger students. High school students would have more responsibilities outside of school, and you can qualify the claim to address this population.

Reasons/evidence : About 30% of students have jobs outside of school, 2 and about 80% participate in extracurricular activities. 3

Warrant : Homework is time-consuming, which leads to students not fully committing to their responsibilities outside of school.

Backing: High-school students have an average of 2.7 hours of homework per day. 4

Rebuttals: Research shows targeted homework practice on skills learned in clas s helps students' learning. 4 However, most homework is not targeted at skills, but a continuation of work started in class.

Using the outline above, try to write a paragraph using all of the elements of Toulmin's argument. Compare your paragraph with the example below. What elements are similar and different? What elements did you find easy or difficult to include? How could you incorporate this structure when writing for your exam?

Here is an example of a paragraph with the above argument based on Toulmin's method.

Teachers should minimize the amount of homework assigned to high school students because it prevents students from dedicating themselves to their responsibilities outside of school. While research shows learning gains with targeted homework practice, homework often is a timely continuation of classwork. 4 Unless teachers can give short assignments targeted at skills, they should not assign homework. Not only is assigned homework failing to follow best practices, but it prevents students from not fully committing to their responsibilities outside of school. Many students have other activities they complete outside of school. About 30% of students have jobs, 2 and about 80% participate in extracurricular activities. 3 The amount of time it takes to complete homework can prevent students from participating in these activities. On average, high-school students spend 2.7 hours each weekday on homework. 4 This amount of time spent on homework leads students to put less time into jobs or extracurriculars that they may be interested in joining. To help students participate and tend to their responsibilities outside of school, teachers should assign less homework.

Logical Arguments in Essays - Key Takeaways

• A logical argument is a type of argument that uses logic to convince an audience of the validity of a claim. Logic is the use of reasoning and good argumentation.
• An argument contains claims and reasons . Claims are the position you take in an argument. Reasons are the evidence you use to support your claims.
• You can form logical claims using different types of reasons. You can create reasons using rhetorical appeals ( artistic proofs ) or give reasons using hard evidence ( inartistic proofs ).
• You can improve the logical reasoning of your claims by using deductive and inductive reasoning .
• A common essay structure for logical reasoning is Toulmin's method. This structure prompts critical thinking about your claims, reasons, and rebuttals to construct a highly logical argument.

1. Thomas Jefferson, "The Declaration of Independence," 1776.

2. Chris Kolmar, "High School Job Statistics [2022]," 2022.

3. Kristin Moore and Jennifer Ehrle, "Children’s Environment and Behavior: Participation in Extracurricular Activities," 2000.

4. Challenge Success, "Quality over Quantity: Elements of Effective Homework," 2020.

Frequently Asked Questions about Logical Arguments in Essays

--> what is an example of a logical argument.

A logical argument uses logic to convince readers of a claim. Thomas Jefferson uses logical arguments in "The Declaration of Independence." He claims that King George III is a despot. He uses logic to support this claim by supplying reasons. Jefferson lists 27 reasons why King George III is a despot. Jefferson supporting his claim with a variety of evidence and reasons is an example of a logical argument. 

--> How do you write a logical structure for an argumentative essay?

You can use several logical structures for an argumentative essay. One of the most common is Toulmin's method. This structure contains six parts (claims, qualifiers, reasons/evidence, warrants, backing, and rebuttals). Toulmin's method produces logical and well-developed essays. 

--> What is in a logical argument?

Logical arguments contain claims and reasons. Writers select a variety of different types of reasons, such as hard evidence or different rhetorical appeals, to support their claims. They also use logical reasoning, such as deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning, to structure their claims.

--> How do you use logic in an essay?

You can use logic in an essay by using deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is where you guide the audience from a general claim to a specific claim. With inductive reasoning, you use overwhelming evidence and observations to form a general claim. 

--> What are the types of logical arguments?

There are two types of logical arguments: deductive and inductive arguments. Deductive reasoning is where you guide the audience from a general claim to a specific claim. With inductive reasoning, you use overwhelming evidence and observations to form a general claim. 

Test your knowledge with multiple choice flashcards

"Teachers should assign less homework because students spend an average of 2.7 hours on it." What type of reason does this statement use?

"Teachers should assign less homework because the amount of time it takes to complete homework violates students' human rights." What type of reason does this statement use?

Which type of reasons includes facts, statistics, and expert testimony?

Your score:

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What is a logical argument?

A type of argument that uses logic to convince an audience of the validity of a claim.

What is logic?

The use of reasoning and good argumentation.

​What are claims? 

 A position a writer takes in an argument

What are reasons?

The evidence that supports your claim

"Teachers should assign less homework because students spend an average of 2.7 hours on it." 

What type of reason does this statement use?

Inartistic Proof

"Teachers should assign less homework because the amount of time it takes to complete homework violates students' human rights." 

Artistic proof

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Relevance in Logical Arguments

Definition of relevance in logical arguments.

In the world of logical arguments, ‘relevance’ is a key to checking if the ideas you’re saying are really helpful for what you’re trying to prove or explain. Imagine relevance as a magnet. Just like a magnet only sticks to some metals, relevance means your point or information specifically sticks to the topic you’re dealing with. If you’re having a discussion about space, and you bring up something about the ocean, unless you’re comparing planets to the deep sea, that point may not stick—it’s not relevant.

Moreover, relevance is also like the ingredients in a recipe. If you’re baking a cake, ingredients like flour, eggs, and sugar are relevant because they’re part of the recipe. But if you toss in ketchup, that doesn’t belong—it’s not relevant to your baking. So when you share a point, think to yourself, “Is this like flour for my cake, or is it like ketchup?” If it doesn’t make your ‘cake’ better, it’s probably not what you need.

Types of Relevance in Logical Arguments

While debating or discussing, there are different ways to make sure your points fit the puzzle. People don’t usually break down relevance into strict categories, but we can look at it from different angles, like:

• Logical Relevance: Just like pieces in a puzzle, it’s about connecting facts and thoughts in a way that makes a clear picture when you put them all together.
• Topical Relevance: This is about keeping the conversation focused. If you’re talking about a movie, stay on the topic of the movie rather than shifting to your weekend plans.

Even if these angles of relevance seem separate, they actually work together like a team to make sure everything in your argument is helpful and ties back to the main point you are discussing.

Examples of Relevance in Logical Arguments

• While debating the benefits of fruits and veggies, mentioning that carrots are good for your eyesight is relevant because it’s a fact directly connected to the topic—health benefits of food.
• In a discussion about internet safety, bringing up strong passwords counts as relevant since it’s a practice that’s directly linked to keeping your information safe online.
• If a class is discussing pollution, talking about car emissions is relevant because it’s one of the causes of air pollution, showing a direct link to the topic.

Why is Relevance Important?

Relevance helps your argument stay on track, much like a train follows its rails. It’s essential for your train of thought to reach its destination—the point you want to make. When every piece of your argument is relevant, it fits to form a clear picture, convincing others more effectively. Unrelated information is like extra weight that slows the train down, and it might even lead others to believe you’re not sure about your own point.

In everyday situations, like school or talking with friends, staying relevant keeps the conversation meaningful. If you’re discussing a project with your team, focusing on relevant tasks helps you get the job done without wasting time. Relevance isn’t just for formal debates, it’s part of every effective conversation.

Related Topics

Understanding relevance is great, but it’s also connected to other ideas in arguments and discussions:

• Evidence: The solid facts and information that you use to support your arguments need to be not just true but also relevant to what you’re arguing about.
• Coherence: This is about making sure your argument makes sense as a whole; relevance of each point to the main argument contributes to its coherence.

To put it all together, relevance is like the glue that keeps all the parts of your argument sticking to the main point. By making sure every piece of information has a clear connection to the topic at hand, your argument will be stronger and more likely to convince others. Next time you’re in a discussion, keep relevance in mind—it’s your secret weapon for building an argument that’s hard to knock down.

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Argumentative Essays

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

The Modes of Discourse—Exposition, Description, Narration, Argumentation (EDNA)—are common paper assignments you may encounter in your writing classes. Although these genres have been criticized by some composition scholars, the Purdue OWL recognizes the wide spread use of these approaches and students’ need to understand and produce them.

What is an argumentative essay?

The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic; collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner.

Please note : Some confusion may occur between the argumentative essay and the expository essay. These two genres are similar, but the argumentative essay differs from the expository essay in the amount of pre-writing (invention) and research involved. The argumentative essay is commonly assigned as a capstone or final project in first year writing or advanced composition courses and involves lengthy, detailed research. Expository essays involve less research and are shorter in length. Expository essays are often used for in-class writing exercises or tests, such as the GED or GRE.

Argumentative essay assignments generally call for extensive research of literature or previously published material. Argumentative assignments may also require empirical research where the student collects data through interviews, surveys, observations, or experiments. Detailed research allows the student to learn about the topic and to understand different points of view regarding the topic so that she/he may choose a position and support it with the evidence collected during research. Regardless of the amount or type of research involved, argumentative essays must establish a clear thesis and follow sound reasoning.

The structure of the argumentative essay is held together by the following.

• A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay.

In the first paragraph of an argument essay, students should set the context by reviewing the topic in a general way. Next the author should explain why the topic is important ( exigence ) or why readers should care about the issue. Lastly, students should present the thesis statement. It is essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in the assignment. If the student does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an effective or persuasive essay.

• Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and conclusion.

Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical progression of thought, the reader is unable to follow the essay’s argument, and the structure will collapse. Transitions should wrap up the idea from the previous section and introduce the idea that is to follow in the next section.

• Body paragraphs that include evidential support.

Each paragraph should be limited to the discussion of one general idea. This will allow for clarity and direction throughout the essay. In addition, such conciseness creates an ease of readability for one’s audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph. Some paragraphs will directly support the thesis statement with evidence collected during research. It is also important to explain how and why the evidence supports the thesis ( warrant ).

However, argumentative essays should also consider and explain differing points of view regarding the topic. Depending on the length of the assignment, students should dedicate one or two paragraphs of an argumentative essay to discussing conflicting opinions on the topic. Rather than explaining how these differing opinions are wrong outright, students should note how opinions that do not align with their thesis might not be well informed or how they might be out of date.

• Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal).

The argumentative essay requires well-researched, accurate, detailed, and current information to support the thesis statement and consider other points of view. Some factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal evidence should support the thesis. However, students must consider multiple points of view when collecting evidence. As noted in the paragraph above, a successful and well-rounded argumentative essay will also discuss opinions not aligning with the thesis. It is unethical to exclude evidence that may not support the thesis. It is not the student’s job to point out how other positions are wrong outright, but rather to explain how other positions may not be well informed or up to date on the topic.

• A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence provided.

It is at this point of the essay that students may begin to struggle. This is the portion of the essay that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it must be effective and logical. Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion; rather, synthesize the information presented in the body of the essay. Restate why the topic is important, review the main points, and review your thesis. You may also want to include a short discussion of more research that should be completed in light of your work.

A complete argument

Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a conversation or debate with a classmate. If I were to discuss the cause of World War II and its current effect on those who lived through the tumultuous time, there would be a beginning, middle, and end to the conversation. In fact, if I were to end the argument in the middle of my second point, questions would arise concerning the current effects on those who lived through the conflict. Therefore, the argumentative essay must be complete, and logically so, leaving no doubt as to its intent or argument.

The five-paragraph essay

A common method for writing an argumentative essay is the five-paragraph approach. This is, however, by no means the only formula for writing such essays. If it sounds straightforward, that is because it is; in fact, the method consists of (a) an introductory paragraph (b) three evidentiary body paragraphs that may include discussion of opposing views and (c) a conclusion.

Longer argumentative essays

Complex issues and detailed research call for complex and detailed essays. Argumentative essays discussing a number of research sources or empirical research will most certainly be longer than five paragraphs. Authors may have to discuss the context surrounding the topic, sources of information and their credibility, as well as a number of different opinions on the issue before concluding the essay. Many of these factors will be determined by the assignment.

Issue Analysis / Logical Argument

Prewriting & developing support for a logical argument.

Identify an issue about which you can make a claim and develop a logical argument. Remember, an issue is a concept with at least two sides, an idea that can be debated.

For example, making the claim that “many people use social media” would not be debatable. But writing that “social media are hurting the communication skills of young Americans” would be debatable because the author must prove both that there is a problem with the communication skills of younger Americans and that social media are the cause of it.

developing a thesis for an argument about an issue

One way of creating a thesis for an argument essay about an issue is to understand that an argument is a claim with reasons – it has those two parts, which are indicated in the thesis.

In other words, the thesis both makes a claim and indicates a conclusion, often in a “because”  or “as” statement.  Each part of the thesis, the claim and the reasons or conclusions, supports the other.

For example:

• A flat percentage income tax should be instituted because it can simplify taxation, make taxation fairer by requiring the same income percentage from everyone, and generate more income by eliminating loopholes for the wealthy.
• Even though they may help some smokers quit, flavored e-cigarettes should be banned because they target young smokers to start smoking, they are just as addictive as regular cigarettes, they have the potential for delivering even more nicotine than traditional cigarettes through extra-strength cartridges, and they may cause severe respiratory and other health problems.
• Technological change has diminished human communication, as it has influenced written language to become terse and has lessened the propensity for people to talk to one another in public spaces.

Once you identify an issue, consider five questions to start prewriting and developing your thesis and support for a logical argument.  Questions are at the core of arguments. Academics, business people, scientists, and other professionals all make arguments to determine what to do or think, or to solve a problem by enlisting others to do or believe something they otherwise would not. What matters is not just that you believe that what you have to say is true, but that you give others good reasons to believe it as well—and also show them that you have considered the issue from multiple angles. To do that, build your argument out of the answers to the five questions any rational person will expect you to answer.

• What do you want me to do or think?
• Why should I do or think that?
• How do I know that what you say is true?
• What about this other idea, fact, or consideration?
• What general principles ground your argument?

When you make a good argument , you anticipate and respond to each of these questions with a particular part of argument:

• The answer to What do you want me to do or think? is your claim (thesis) : “I claim that you should do or think X.”
• The answer to Why should I do or think that? states your reasons (topic sentences) : “You should do or think X because . . .”
• The answer to How do I know that what you say is true? presents your evidence (support) : “You can believe my reasons because they are supported by these facts . . .”
• The answer to What about this other idea, fact, or conclusion? acknowledges that your readers might see things differently and then responds to that alternative view.
• The answer to Why should I accept that your reasons support your claim? states your general principle of reasoning, called a warrant : “My specific reason supports my specific claim because whenever this general condition is true, we can generally draw a conclusion like mine.”

Here’s a fuller example of a way to use these five questions to prewrite and develop support for an issue analysis/logical argument essay:

Question #1—“What do you want me to do or think?”

This question means that the reader is ready to hear your claim . You know how to answer this question because you make arguments like this every day. Suppose, for example, that Sally is having coffee with her friend Jim. Jim points out a story on the front page of his newspaper:

Jim: So did you hear about the hurricane that’s headed for New Orleans? Sally: Yes, I think they should evacuate the city as soon as possible.

Sally has made a claim: a statement of her view of what someone should do: New Orleans should be evacuated. Note that this is not a statement of fact but of Sally’s idea, her judgment about the best course of action. She takes a position on a problem without an obvious solution; other rational people could disagree. Some might claim that the hurricane is not strong enough to warrant evacuation or that this time New Orleans is properly prepared for a hurricane. Sally has made a claim because her statement is up for debate.

Question #2—“Why should I think that?”

This question is about what reasons support your claim. Most readers won’t question your argument until they know your reasons. Let’s look at how Jim responds to Sally’s claim:

Jim: Really? Why do you say that? Sally: Well, New Orleans is surrounded by water and it’s mostly below sea level. If a hurricane breaks the levees that keep the water out, the city will flood. Houses could be destroyed, and people would be at risk.

Sally answers Jim’s question by giving him a few reasons why she thinks New Orleans should be evacuated. New Orleans is (1) surrounded by water, (2) mostly below sea level, and (3) protected by levees. So if the levees break and let the water in, (4) houses will be destroyed, and (5) people will be at risk.

Question #3—“How do I know that your reasons are true?”

This question asks for factual evidence to support the given reasons. Jim asks Sally a version of this question to push her for more information:

Jim: Will the levees actually break? Why do you think that they’re in danger of failing? Sally: Remember Hurricane Katrina in 2005? The levees failed then, and the city was almost ruined. It’s right there in the newspaper story: many of the levees have been rebuilt or reinforced since Katrina, but the government is way behind and there are a lot of levees that are just like the ones that failed after Katrina. And even the ones that have been rebuilt will not protect against the worst storm surges.

When Jim asks what makes Sally believe that the levees are in danger of failing, she must respond with facts. For her factual evidence, Sally points to a real, historical event as a precedent, and she cites facts she found in a reliable newspaper. In an academic argument, you’ll also need to give evidence that your ideas are based on real-world facts. These facts can take the form of quotations, events, statistics, dates, or other data that you found in a reliable source, but they must be something that your readers accept as true in order for your readers to see them as evidence. Taken together, your claim, reasons, and evidence make up the core of your argument. While your claims, reasons, and evidence do answer your readers’ questions, they are also mostly about you, what you think and why. Your argument may be complete with just these three parts, but to fully address your readers’ concerns, you also need to address what they think and why.

Question #4—“What about this other idea, fact, or conclusion? Or: What if I think about this topic differently than you do?”

You can expect that for any serious claim about a significant problem, there will be some readers who don’t see things the way you do. They may take a different approach to the problem; they may want to consider different evidence; or they may even think that your reasons and evidence point to a different conclusion. If so, you have to anticipate that they will ask, “What about my way of thinking about this?” In order for your argument to be the most effective, you have to address these objections, counterarguments, varying perspectives, and so on. The best way to do this is to acknowledge your readers’ possible alternative positions and then respond to them. Here, Jim raises a question based on a fact that he thinks Sally has not fully considered:

Jim: Sure, the Katrina flood was a disaster. But this new hurricane is not as strong as Katrina. It poses much less danger. And evacuation is expensive. Sally: That’s true; the hurricane is weaker than Katrina now. But hurricanes often get stronger as they approach land, and you can’t wait until the last minute to evacuate—people will just get stuck out on the roads. So I think that everyone should evacuate even if it is expensive and at the moment seems that it may not be necessary. Better safe than sorry.

Sally acknowledges that Jim has a point: the current danger may in fact be less than that posed by Katrina. But she responds with more facts: hurricanes can get stronger and evacuation takes time, so that it will be too late to evacuate if the hurricane intensifies as it approaches land. She then restates her claim: people should evacuate.

Question #5—“Why should I accept that your reasons support your claim?”

This last question forces us to consider the logical assumptions on which we base our arguments. Many arguments never address these assumptions because writers assume that their readers will reason as they do. So we rarely see the answer to the fifth question, a statement of a general principle of reasoning or warrant . But if you think your readers may not share your general principles, you should state them in your argument. In Sally’s response to Jim’s point about balancing the risk of flooding against the cost of evacuation, we see that they are following different principles:

Jim: I don’t know. Being too safe may not be smart. I’m not sure that the risk of flooding is enough to force an evacuation. Sally: Well, I believe that no cost is too high to save lives. So whenever we can anticipate a reasonable possibility that lives will be endangered, we should be willing to accept a reasonable cost to avoid the loss of life. Even though the hurricane may not cause flooding, there is enough chance that it will. The cost of an evacuation is not too high a price to pay to save lives.

Jim may still not accept Sally’s principle: he may think that the costs are too high. But what is important is that he can now see the complete basis of Sally’s argument: he knows her claim, her reasons, her evidence, how she responds to his alternative views, and what principle she applies to connect her reasons to her claim. Applying these five questions to your own argument – and creating a hypothetical conversation in this way – may help you prewrite and develop support for an essay analyzing an issue and creating a logical argument.

Other ways of developing support include:

• listing pros and cons related to the issue
• identifying the information you’d need to “convince a jury” of the validity of your argument
• applying basic logic concepts (determining your audience’s values, ethos-pathos-logos)
• Prewriting & Developing Support for a Logical Argument. Revision and adaptation of the page Argument: The Basic Principle at https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-englishcomposition1/chapter/text-introduction-to-argument/ which is a revision and adaptation of the pages listed below. Authored by : Susan Oaks. Provided by : Empire State College, SUNY OER Services. Project : College Writing. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Argument: The Basic Principle. Provided by : Lumen Learning. Located at : https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-englishcomposition1/chapter/text-introduction-to-argument/ . Project : English Composition I. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Argument: The Basic Principle. Provided by : Grounds for Argument. Located at : http://www.groundsforargument.org/drupal/argument/build/basic-principle . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• image of two comment bubbles showing exchange of ideas. Authored by : grealt. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : https://pixabay.com/en/feedback-exchange-of-ideas-debate-2466833/ . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
• image of Scrabble tiles spelling People, Connections, Issues, Ideas. Authored by : nzchrissy2. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : https://pixabay.com/en/connections-issues-people-ideas-990699/ . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
• image of two baskets, one Pro, one Contra. Authored by : Alexas_Fotos. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : https://pixabay.com/en/pros-and-cons-weigh-compare-baskets-2028471/ . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
• CORE 101: Academic Argument Essay. Provided by : Radford University. Located at : https://lcubbison.pressbooks.com/chapter/core-101-academic-argument-essay/ . Project : Radford University Core Handbook. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright

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9.6: Logical Arguments

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• Page ID 58381
• Lumen Learning

Learning Objectives

• Examine the elements of an argument

Logical Arguments

Anything you read that includes an attempt to persuade you to think a certain way is likely to include logical argument as part of that persuasion. Philosophers are trained to study arguments, the reasoning and logic behind them, and the validity of their claims. In an English course, you will not analyze arguments in as much depth or detail as you would in a course on Philosophy or Logic, but you should still be familiar with key components of argumentation. Knowing the basic elements of an argument will help you identify the logic behind any arguments you read and also help you construct effective arguments in your own writing.

Elements of an Argument

An argument is a claim that contains premises which support a conclusion. In analyzing arguments, you can first look for the claim , or a statement or opinion on a topic. Claims are also called statements or propositions. For example, all of the following are claims:

• This class is easy.
• The Detroit Lions have the potential to make the NFL playoffs.
• Democratic socialism is superior to a pure democracy.

Each of these could be the start of an argument, but they are incomplete arguments as-in; an argument needs both a claim and a conclusion. A premise is a claim, or piece of evidence, that supports the conclusion, and a conclusion is the main idea (or the “so what?”) of the argument, which is supported by the premises. Now let’s look at the examples above as premises, and we add in a conclusion to make them an argument. For example:

• This class is easy so it should not be mandatory.
• The Detroit Lions have the potential to make the NFL playoffs because they have three of the best players in the league.
• Democratic socialism is superior to a pure democracy because it results in better outcomes and greater equality for more people.

An argument is an assertion that contains both a conclusion and a supporting premise. It is a statement of fact or opinion that is based on evidence, or premises. Keep in mind that not all statements are arguments, and some statements may contain multiple arguments.

This video explains the components of an argument.

You can view the transcript for “What is an Argument?” here (opens in new window) .

https://assessments.lumenlearning.co...essments/20278

A conclusion is the main claim of an argument that is supported by one or more premises. It is the logical result of the relationship between the premises. Identifying the conclusion is the first step in understanding the argument.

But how do you identify the conclusion? Follow these steps:

• Ask, “Is the statement the main point, or is it a claim given to support another statement in the argument?”
• as a result
• it follows that
• that’s why
• this suggests
• consequently
• accordingly

https://assessments.lumenlearning.co...essments/20279

A premise is a reason offered as support, or evidence, for another claim. It is often indicated by these words:

• inasmuch as
• as shown by
• as indicated by
• the reason is that

Consider the following statement:

• Today’s freshmen cannot write very well. Joe is a freshman, so he must be a poor writer.

The premises and conclusion are identified as follows:

Practice identifying the premises and conclusions

In order to identify the premises and conclusion, you should first rewrite the argument in standard form. You do this by identifying which claim is the conclusion, then working backward to identify which claims are premises that support the conclusion. It should look like this:

Click through the following presentation for some review and additional practice in identifying premises and conclusions.

Evaluating Arguments

A formal argument may be set up so that, on its face, it looks logical. However, no matter how well-constructed the argument is, the premises must be true or any inferences based on the premises will be unsound.

One way to test the accuracy of a premise is to determine whether the premise is based upon a sample that is both representative and sufficiently large, and ask yourself whether all relevant factors have been taken into account in the analysis of data that leads to a generalization. Another way to evaluate a premise is to determine whether its source is credible. Are the authors identified? What is their background? Was the premise something you found on an undocumented website? Did you find it in a popular publication or a scholarly one? How complete, how recent, and how relevant were the studies or statistics discussed in the source? Take all of these things into consideration when evaluating an argument.

argument : a claim containing premises which support a conclusion.

claim : a statement or opinion that is either true or false

conclusion : the main claim in an argument that each premise supports.

premises : claims that support an argument’s conclusion

Contributors and Attributions

• Modification, adaptation, and original content. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Understanding Logical Argumentation, Structure, and Reasoning, modified. Authored by : mrbelprez. Located at : http://www.slideshare.net/mrbelprez/part-2-5-fixed-all-sections-2014-logic-and-argumentation . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• The Argument Diagram. Authored by : Kirsten Devries . Provided by : Let's Get Writing. Located at : viva.pressbooks.pub/letsgetwriting/chapter/chapter-3-argument/. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• What is an Argument?. Authored by : Kevin deLaplante. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nq8-w2BAJkU&feature=youtu.be . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
• The Logical Structure of Arguments. Authored by : Radford University. Located at : lcubbison.pressbooks.com/chapter/core-201-analyzing-arguments/. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright

50 Argumentative Essay Topics

Illustration by Catherine Song. ThoughtCo. 

• M.Ed., Education Administration, University of Georgia
• B.A., History, Armstrong State University

An argumentative essay requires you to decide on a topic and take a position on it. You'll need to back up your viewpoint with well-researched facts and information as well. One of the hardest parts is deciding which topic to write about, but there are plenty of ideas available to get you started.

Choosing a Great Argumentative Essay Topic

Students often find that most of their work on these essays is done before they even start writing. This means that it's best if you have a general interest in your subject, otherwise you might get bored or frustrated while trying to gather information. (You don't need to know everything, though.) Part of what makes this experience rewarding is learning something new.

It's best if you have a general interest in your subject, but the argument you choose doesn't have to be one that you agree with.

The subject you choose may not necessarily be one that you are in full agreement with, either. You may even be asked to write a paper from the opposing point of view. Researching a different viewpoint helps students broaden their perspectives. 

Ideas for Argument Essays

Sometimes, the best ideas are sparked by looking at many different options. Explore this list of possible topics and see if a few pique your interest. Write those down as you come across them, then think about each for a few minutes.

Which would you enjoy researching? Do you have a firm position on a particular subject? Is there a point you would like to make sure to get across? Did the topic give you something new to think about? Can you see why someone else may feel differently?

50 Possible Topics

A number of these topics are rather controversial—that's the point. In an argumentative essay, opinions matter and controversy is based on opinions, which are, hopefully, backed up by facts.   If these topics are a little too controversial or you don't find the right one for you, try browsing through persuasive essay and speech topics  as well.

• Is global climate change  caused by humans?
• Is the death penalty effective?
• Is our election process fair?
• Is torture ever acceptable?
• Should men get paternity leave from work?
• Are school uniforms beneficial?
• Do we have a fair tax system?
• Do curfews keep teens out of trouble?
• Is cheating out of control?
• Are we too dependent on computers?
• Should animals be used for research?
• Should cigarette smoking be banned?
• Are cell phones dangerous?
• Are law enforcement cameras an invasion of privacy?
• Do we have a throwaway society?
• Is child behavior better or worse than it was years ago?
• Should companies market to children?
• Should the government have a say in our diets?
• Does access to condoms prevent teen pregnancy?
• Should members of Congress have term limits?
• Are actors and professional athletes paid too much?
• Are CEOs paid too much?
• Should athletes be held to high moral standards?
• Do violent video games cause behavior problems?
• Should creationism be taught in public schools?
• Are beauty pageants exploitative ?
• Should English be the official language of the United States?
• Should the racing industry be forced to use biofuels?
• Should the alcohol drinking age be increased or decreased?
• Should everyone be required to recycle?
• Is it okay for prisoners to vote (as they are in some states)?
• Is it good that same-sex couples are able to marry?
• Are there benefits to attending a single-sex school ?
• Does boredom lead to trouble?
• Should schools be in session year-round ?
• Does religion cause war?
• Should the government provide health care?
• Should abortion be illegal?
• Are girls too mean to each other?
• Is homework harmful or helpful?
• Is the cost of college too high?
• Is college admission too competitive?
• Should euthanasia be illegal?
• Should the federal government legalize marijuana use nationally ?
• Should rich people be required to pay more taxes?
• Should schools require foreign language or physical education?
• Is affirmative action fair?
• Is public prayer okay in schools?
• Are schools and teachers responsible for low test scores?
• Is greater gun control a good idea?
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