literature review on land pollution

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• Published: 29 October 2020

Urban and air pollution: a multi-city study of long-term effects of urban landscape patterns on air quality trends

• Lu Liang 1 &
• Peng Gong 2 , 3 , 4  

Scientific Reports volume  10 , Article number:  18618 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Most air pollution research has focused on assessing the urban landscape effects of pollutants in megacities, little is known about their associations in small- to mid-sized cities. Considering that the biggest urban growth is projected to occur in these smaller-scale cities, this empirical study identifies the key urban form determinants of decadal-long fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) trends in all 626 Chinese cities at the county level and above. As the first study of its kind, this study comprehensively examines the urban form effects on air quality in cities of different population sizes, at different development levels, and in different spatial-autocorrelation positions. Results demonstrate that the urban form evolution has long-term effects on PM 2.5 level, but the dominant factors shift over the urbanization stages: area metrics play a role in PM 2.5 trends of small-sized cities at the early urban development stage, whereas aggregation metrics determine such trends mostly in mid-sized cities. For large cities exhibiting a higher degree of urbanization, the spatial connectedness of urban patches is positively associated with long-term PM 2.5 level increases. We suggest that, depending on the city’s developmental stage, different aspects of the urban form should be emphasized to achieve long-term clean air goals.

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Introduction.

Air pollution represents a prominent threat to global society by causing cascading effects on individuals 1 , medical systems 2 , ecosystem health 3 , and economies 4 in both developing and developed countries 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 . About 90% of global citizens lived in areas that exceed the safe level in the World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines 9 . Among all types of ecosystems, urban produce roughly 78% of carbon emissions and substantial airborne pollutants that adversely affect over 50% of the world’s population living in them 5 , 10 . While air pollution affects all regions, there exhibits substantial regional variation in air pollution levels 11 . For instance, the annual mean concentration of fine particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5  \(\upmu\mathrm{m}\) (PM 2.5 ) in the most polluted cities is nearly 20 times higher than the cleanest city according to a survey of 499 global cities 12 . Many factors can influence the regional air quality, including emissions, meteorology, and physicochemical transformations. Another non-negligible driver is urbanization—a process that alters the size, structure, and growth of cities in response to the population explosion and further leads to lasting air quality challenges 13 , 14 , 15 .

With the global trend of urbanization 16 , the spatial composition, configuration, and density of urban land uses (refer to as urban form) will continue to evolve 13 . The investigation of urban form impacts on air quality has been emerging in both empirical 17 and theoretical 18 research. While the area and density of artificial surface areas have well documented positive relationship with air pollution 19 , 20 , 21 , the effects of urban fragmentation on air quality have been controversial. In theory, compact cities promote high residential density with mixed land uses and thus reduce auto dependence and increase the usage of public transit and walking 21 , 22 . The compact urban development has been proved effective in mitigating air pollution in some cities 23 , 24 . A survey of 83 global urban areas also found that those with highly contiguous built-up areas emitted less NO 2 22 . In contrast, dispersed urban form can decentralize industrial polluters, improve fuel efficiency with less traffic congestion, and alleviate street canyon effects 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 . Polycentric and dispersed cities support the decentralization of jobs that lead to less pollution emission than compact and monocentric cities 29 . The more open spaces in a dispersed city support air dilution 30 . In contrast, compact cities are typically associated with stronger urban heat island effects 31 , which influence the availability and the advection of primary and secondary pollutants 32 .

The mixed evidence demonstrates the complex interplay between urban form and air pollution, which further implies that the inconsistent relationship may exist in cities at different urbanization levels and over different periods 33 . Few studies have attempted to investigate the urban form–air pollution relationship with cross-sectional and time series data 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 . Most studies were conducted in one city or metropolitan region 38 , 39 or even at the country level 40 . Furthermore, large cities or metropolitan areas draw the most attention in relevant studies 5 , 41 , 42 , and the small- and mid-sized cities, especially those in developing countries, are heavily underemphasized. However, virtually all world population growth 43 , 44 and most global economic growth 45 , 46 are expected to occur in those cities over the next several decades. Thus, an overlooked yet essential task is to account for various levels of cities, ranging from large metropolitan areas to less extensive urban area, in the analysis.

This study aims to improve the understanding of how the urban form evolution explains the decadal-long changes of the annual mean PM 2.5 concentrations in 626 cities at the county-level and above in China. China has undergone unprecedented urbanization over the past few decades and manifested a high degree of heterogeneity in urban development 47 . Thus, Chinese cities serve as a good model for addressing the following questions: (1) whether the changes in urban landscape patterns affect trends in PM 2.5 levels? And (2) if so, do the determinants vary by cities?

City boundaries

Our study period spans from the year 2000 to 2014 to keep the data completeness among all data sources. After excluding cities with invalid or missing PM 2.5 or sociodemographic value, a total of 626 cities, with 278 prefecture-level cities and 348 county-level cities, were selected. City boundaries are primarily based on the Global Rural–Urban Mapping Project (GRUMP) urban extent polygons that were defined by the extent of the nighttime lights 48 , 49 . Few adjustments were made. First, in the GRUMP dataset, large agglomerations that include several cities were often described in one big polygon. We manually split those polygons into individual cities based on the China Administrative Regions GIS Data at 1:1 million scales 50 . Second, since the 1978 economic reforms, China has significantly restructured its urban administrative/spatial system. Noticeable changes are the abolishment of several prefectures and the promotion of many former county-level cities to prefecture-level cities 51 . Thus, all city names were cross-checked between the year 2000 and 2014, and the mismatched records were replaced with the latest names.

PM 2.5 concentration data

The annual mean PM 2.5 surface concentration (micrograms per cubic meter) for each city over the study period was calculated from the Global Annual PM 2.5 Grids at 0.01° resolution 52 . This data set combines Aerosol Optical Depth retrievals from multiple satellite instruments including the NASA Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR), and the Sea-Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor (SeaWiFS). The global 3-D chemical transport model GEOS-Chem is further applied to relate this total column measure of aerosol to near-surface PM 2.5 concentration, and geographically weighted regression is finally used with global ground-based measurements to predict and adjust for the residual PM 2.5 bias per grid cell in the initial satellite-derived values.

Human settlement layer

The urban forms were quantified with the 40-year (1978–2017) record of annual impervious surface maps for both rural and urban areas in China 47 , 53 . This state-of-art product provides substantial spatial–temporal details on China’s human settlement changes. The annual impervious surface maps covering our study period were generated from 30-m resolution Landsat images acquired onboard Landsat 5, 7, and 8 using an automatic “Exclusion/Inclusion” mapping framework 54 , 55 . The output used here was the binary impervious surface mask, with the value of one indicating the presence of human settlement and the value of zero identifying non-residential areas. The product assessment concluded good performance. The cross-comparison against 2356 city or town locations in GeoNames proved an overall high agreement (88%) and approximately 80% agreement was achieved when compared against visually interpreted 650 urban extent areas in the year 1990, 2000, and 2010.

Control variables

To provide a holistic assessment of the urban form effects, we included control variables that are regarded as important in influencing air quality to account for the confounding effects.

Four variables, separately population size, population density, and two economic measures, were acquired from the China City Statistical Yearbook 56 (National Bureau of Statistics 2000–2014). Population size is used to control for the absolute level of pollution emissions 41 . Larger populations are associated with increased vehicle usage and vehicle-kilometers travels, and consequently boost tailpipes emissions 5 . Population density is a useful reflector of transportation demand and the fraction of emissions inhaled by people 57 . We also included gross regional product (GRP) and the proportion of GRP generated from the secondary sector (GRP2). The impact of economic development on air quality is significant but in a dynamic way 58 . The rising per capita income due to the concentration of manufacturing industrial activities can deteriorate air quality and vice versa if the stronger economy is the outcome of the concentration of less polluting high-tech industries. Meteorological conditions also have short- and long-term effects on the occurrence, transport, and dispersion of air pollutants 59 , 60 , 61 . Temperature affects chemical reactions and atmospheric turbulence that determine the formation and diffusion of particles 62 . Low air humidity can lead to the accumulation of air pollutants due to it is conducive to the adhesion of atmospheric particulate matter on water vapor 63 . Whereas high humidity can lead to wet deposition processes that can remove air pollutants by rainfall. Wind speed is a crucial indicator of atmospheric activity by greatly affect air pollutant transport and dispersion. All meteorological variables were calculated based on China 1 km raster layers of monthly relative humidity, temperature, and wind speed that are interpolated from over 800 ground monitoring stations 64 . Based on the monthly layer, we calculated the annual mean of each variable for each year. Finally, all pixels falling inside of the city boundary were averaged to represent the overall meteorological condition of each city.

Considering the dynamic urban form-air pollution relationship evidenced from the literature review, our hypothesis is: the determinants of PM 2.5 level trends are not the same for cities undergoing different levels of development or in different geographic regions. To test this hypothesis, we first categorized city groups following (1) social-economic development level, (2) spatial autocorrelation relationship, and (3) population size. We then assessed the relationship between urban form and PM 2.5 level trends by city groups. Finally, we applied the panel data models to different city groups for hypothesis testing and key determinant identification (Fig.  1 ).

Methodology workflow.

Calculation of urban form metrics

Based on the previous knowledge 65 , 66 , 67 , fifteen landscape metrics falling into three categories, separately area, shape, and aggregation, were selected. Those metrics quantify the compositional and configurational characteristics of the urban landscape, as represented by urban expansion, urban shape complexity, and compactness (Table 1 ).

Area metrics gives an overview of the urban extent and the size of urban patches that are correlated with PM 2.5 20 . As an indicator of the urbanization degree, total area (TA) typically increases constantly or remains stable, because the urbanization process is irreversible. Number of patches (NP) refers to the number of discrete parcels of urban settlement within a given urban extent and Mean Patch Size (AREA_MN) measures the average patch size. Patch density (PD) indicates the urbanization stages. It usually increases with urban diffusion until coalescence starts, after which decreases in number 66 . Largest Patch Index (LPI) measures the percentage of the landscape encompassed by the largest urban patch.

The shape complexity of urban patches was represented by Mean Patch Shape Index (SHAPE_MN), Mean Patch Fractal Dimension (FRAC_MN), and Mean Contiguity Index (CONTIG_MN). The greater irregularity the landscape shape, the larger the value of SHAPE_MN and FRAC_MN. CONTIG_MN is another method of assessing patch shape based on the spatial connectedness or contiguity of cells within a patch. Larger contiguous patches will result in larger CONTIG_MN.

Aggregation metrics measure the spatial compactness of urban land, which affects pollutant diffusion and dilution. Mean Euclidean nearest-neighbor distance (ENN_MN) quantifies the average distance between two patches within a landscape. It decreases as patches grow together and increases as the urban areas expand. Landscape Shape Index (LSI) indicates the divergence of the shape of a landscape patch that increases as the landscape becomes increasingly disaggregated 68 . Patch Cohesion Index (COHESION) is suggestive of the connectedness degree of patches 69 . Splitting Index (SPLIT) and Landscape Division Index (DIVISION) increase as the separation of urban patches rises, whereas, Mesh Size (MESH) decreases as the landscape becomes more fragmented. Aggregation Index (AI) measures the degree of aggregation or clumping of urban patches. Higher values of continuity indicate higher building densities, which may have a stronger effect on pollution diffusion.

The detailed descriptions of these indices are given by the FRAGSTATS user’s guide 70 . The calculation input is a layer of binary grids of urban/nonurban. The resulting output is a table containing one row for each city and multiple columns representing the individual metrics.

Division of cities

Division based on the socioeconomic development level.

The socioeconomic development level in China is uneven. The unequal development of the transportation system, descending in topography from the west to the east, combined with variations in the availability of natural and human resources and industrial infrastructure, has produced significantly wide gaps in the regional economies of China. By taking both the economic development level and natural geography into account, China can be loosely classified into Eastern, Central, and Western regions. Eastern China is generally wealthier than the interior, resulting from closeness to coastlines and the Open-Door Policy favoring coastal regions. Western China is historically behind in economic development because of its high elevation and rugged topography, which creates barriers in the transportation infrastructure construction and scarcity of arable lands. Central China, echoing its name, is in the process of economic development. This region neither benefited from geographic convenience to the coast nor benefited from any preferential policies, such as the Western Development Campaign.

Division based on spatial autocorrelation relationship

The second type of division follows the fact that adjacent cities are likely to form air pollution clusters due to the mixing and diluting nature of air pollutants 71 , i.e., cities share similar pollution levels as its neighbors. The underlying processes driving the formation of pollution hot spots and cold spots may differ. Thus, we further divided the city into groups based on the spatial clusters of PM 2.5 level changes.

Local indicators of spatial autocorrelation (LISA) was used to determine the local patterns of PM 2.5 distribution by clustering cities with a significant association. In the presence of global spatial autocorrelation, LISA indicates whether a variable exhibits significant spatial dependence and heterogeneity at a given scale 72 . Practically, LISA relates each observation to its neighbors and assigns a value of significance level and degree of spatial autocorrelation, which is calculated by the similarity in variable \(z\) between observation \(i\) and observation \(j\) in the neighborhood of \(i\) defined by a matrix of weights \({w}_{ij}\) 7 , 73 :

where \({I}_{i}\) is the Moran’s I value for location \(i\) ; \({\sigma }^{2}\) is the variance of variable \(z\) ; \(\bar{z}\) is the average value of \(z\) with the sample number of \(n\) . The weight matrix \({w}_{ij}\) is defined by the k-nearest neighbors distance measure, i.e., each object’s neighborhood consists of four closest cites.

The computation of Moran’s I enables the identification of hot spots and cold spots. The hot spots are high-high clusters where the increase in the PM 2.5 level is higher than the surrounding areas, whereas cold spots are low-low clusters with the presence of low values in a low-value neighborhood. A Moran scatterplot, with x-axis as the original variable and y-axis as the spatially lagged variable, reflects the spatial association pattern. The slope of the linear fit to the scatter plot is an estimation of the global Moran's I 72 (Fig.  2 ). The plot consists of four quadrants, each defining the relationship between an observation 74 . The upper right quadrant indicates hot spots and the lower left quadrant displays cold spots 75 .

Moran’s I scatterplot. Figure was produced by R 3.4.3 76 .

Division based on population size

The last division was based on population size, which is a proven factor in changing per capita emissions in a wide selection of global cities, even outperformed land urbanization rate 77 , 78 , 79 . We used the 2014 urban population to classify the cities into four groups based on United Nations definitions 80 : (1) large agglomerations with a total population larger than 1 million; (2) mid-sized cities, 500,000–1 million; (3) small cities, 250,000–500,000, and (4) very small cities, 100,000–250,000.

Panel data analysis

The panel data analysis is an analytical method that deals with observations from multiple entities over multiple periods. Its capacity in analyzing the characteristics and changes from both the time-series and cross-section dimensions of data surpasses conventional models that purely focus on one dimension 81 , 82 . The estimation equation for the panel data model in this study is given as:

where the subscript \(i\) and \(t\) refer to city and year respectively. \(\upbeta _{{0}}\) is the intercept parameter and \(\upbeta _{{1}} - { }\upbeta _{{{18}}}\) are the estimates of slope coefficients. \(\varepsilon \) is the random error. All variables are transformed into natural logarithms.

Two methods can be used to obtain model estimates, separately fixed effects estimator and random effects estimator. The fixed effects estimator assumes that each subject has its specific characteristics due to inherent individual characteristic effects in the error term, thereby allowing differences to be intercepted between subjects. The random effects estimator assumes that the individual characteristic effect changes stochastically, and the differences in subjects are not fixed in time and are independent between subjects. To choose the right estimator, we run both models for each group of cities based on the Hausman specification test 83 . The null hypothesis is that random effects model yields consistent and efficient estimates 84 : \({H}_{0}{:}\,E\left({\varepsilon }_{i}|{X}_{it}\right)=0\) . If the null hypothesis is rejected, the fixed effects model will be selected for further inferences. Once the better estimator was determined for each model, one optimal panel data model was fit to each city group of one division type. In total, six, four, and eight runs were conducted for socioeconomic, spatial autocorrelation, and population division separately and three, two, and four panel data models were finally selected.

Spatial patterns of PM 2.5 level changes

During the period from 2000 to 2014, the annual mean PM 2.5 concentration of all cities increases from 27.78 to 42.34 µg/m 3 , both of which exceed the World Health Organization recommended annual mean standard (10 µg/m 3 ). It is worth noting that the PM 2.5 level in the year 2014 also exceeds China’s air quality Class 2 standard (35 µg/m 3 ) that applies to non-national park places, including urban and industrial areas. The standard deviation of annual mean PM 2.5 values for all cities increases from 12.34 to 16.71 µg/m 3 , which shows a higher variability of inter-urban PM 2.5 pollution after a decadal period. The least and most heavily polluted cities in China are Delingha, Qinghai (3.01 µg/m 3 ) and Jizhou, Hubei (64.15 µg/m 3 ) in 2000 and Hami, Xinjiang (6.86 µg/m 3 ) and Baoding, Hubei (86.72 µg/m 3 ) in 2014.

Spatially, the changes in PM 2.5 levels exhibit heterogeneous patterns across cities (Fig.  3 b). According to the socioeconomic level division (Fig.  3 a), the Eastern, Central, and Western region experienced a 38.6, 35.3, and 25.5 µg/m 3 increase in annual PM 2.5 mean , separately, and the difference among regions is significant according to the analysis of variance (ANOVA) results (Fig.  4 a). When stratified by spatial autocorrelation relationship (Fig.  3 c), the differences in PM 2.5 changes among the spatial clusters are even more dramatic. The average PM 2.5 increase in cities belonging to the high-high cluster is approximately 25 µg/m 3 , as compared to 5 µg/m 3 in the low-low clusters (Fig.  4 b). Finally, cities at four different population levels have significant differences in the changes of PM 2.5 concentration (Fig.  3 d), except for the mid-sized cities and large city agglomeration (Fig.  4 c).

( a ) Division of cities in China by socioeconomic development level and the locations of provincial capitals; ( b ) Changes in annual mean PM 2.5 concentrations between the year 2000 and 2014; ( c ) LISA cluster maps for PM 2.5 changes at the city level; High-high indicates a statistically significant cluster of high PM 2.5 level changes over the study period. Low-low indicates a cluster of low PM 2.5 inter-annual variation; No high-low cluster is reported; Low–high represents cities with high PM 2.5 inter-annual variation surrounded by cities with low variation; ( d ) Population level by cities in the year 2014. Maps were produced by ArcGIS 10.7.1 85 .

Boxplots of PM 2.5 concentration changes between 2000 and 2014 for city groups that are formed according to ( a ) socioeconomic development level division, ( b ) LISA clusters, and ( c ) population level. Asterisk marks represent the p value of ANOVA significant test between the corresponding pair of groups. Note ns not significant; * p value < 0.05; ** p value < 0.01; *** p value < 0.001; H–H high-high cluster, L–H low–high cluster, L–L denotes low–low cluster.

The effects of urban forms on PM 2.5 changes

The Hausman specification test for fixed versus random effects yields a p value less than 0.05, suggesting that the fixed effects model has better performance. We fit one panel data model to each city group and built nine models in total. All models are statistically significant at the p  < 0.05 level and have moderate to high predictive power with the R 2 values ranging from 0.63 to 0.95, which implies that 63–95% of the variation in the PM 2.5 concentration changes can be explained by the explanatory variables (Table 2 ).

The urban form—PM 2.5 relationships differ distinctly in Eastern, Central, and Western China. All models reach high R 2 values. Model for Eastern China (refer to hereafter as Eastern model) achieves the highest R 2 (0.90), and the model for the Western China (refer to hereafter as Western model) reaches the lowest R 2 (0.83). The shape metrics FRAC and CONTIG are correlated with PM 2.5 changes in the Eastern model, whereas the area metrics AREA demonstrates a positive effect in the Western model. In contrast to the significant associations between shape, area metrics and PM 2.5 level changes in both Eastern and Western models, no such association was detected in the Central model. Nonetheless, two aggregation metrics, LSI and AI, play positive roles in determining the PM 2.5 trends in the Central model.

For models built upon the LISA clusters, the H–H model (R 2  = 0.95) reaches a higher fitting degree than the L–L model (R 2  = 0.63). The estimated coefficients vary substantially. In the H–H model, the coefficient of CONTIG is positive, which indicates that an increase in CONTIG would increase PM 2.5 pollution. In contrast, no shape metrics but one area metrics AREA is significant in the L–L model.

The results of the regression models built for cities at different population levels exhibit a distinct pattern. No urban form metrics was identified to have a significant relationship with the PM 2.5 level changes in groups of very small and mid-sized cities. For small size cities, the aggregation metrics COHESION was positively associated whereas AI was negatively related. For mid-sized cities and large agglomerations, CONTIG is the only significant variable that is positively related to PM 2.5 level changes.

Urban form is an effective measure of long-term PM 2.5 trends

All panel data models are statistically significant regardless of the data group they are built on, suggesting that the associations between urban form and ambient PM 2.5 level changes are discernible at all city levels. Importantly, these relationships are found to hold when controlling for population size and gross domestic product, implying that the urban landscape patterns have effects on long-term PM 2.5 trends that are independent of regional economic performance. These findings echo with the local, regional, and global evidence of urban form effect on various air pollution types 5 , 14 , 21 , 22 , 24 , 39 , 78 .

Although all models demonstrate moderate to high predictive power, the way how different urban form metrics respond to the dependent variable varies. Of all the metrics tested, shape metrics, especially CONTIG has the strongest effect on PM 2.5 trends in cities belonging to the high-high cluster, Eastern, and large urban agglomerations. All those regions have a strong economy and higher population density 86 . In the group of cities that are moderately developed, such as the Central region, as well as small- and mid-sized cities, aggregation metrics play a dominant negative role in PM 2.5 level changes. In contrast, in the least developed cities belonging to the low-low cluster regions and Western China, the metrics describing size and number of urban patches are the strongest predictors. AREA and NP are positively related whereas TA is negatively associated.

The impacts of urban form metrics on air quality vary by urbanization degree

Based on the above observations, how urban form affects within-city PM 2.5 level changes may differ over the urbanization stages. We conceptually summarized the pattern in Fig.  5 : area metrics have the most substantial influence on air pollution changes at the early urban development stage, and aggregation metrics emerge at the transition stage, whereas shape metrics affect the air quality trends at the terminal stage. The relationship between urban form and air pollution has rarely been explored with such a wide range of city selections. Most prior studies were focused on large urban agglomeration areas, and thus their conclusions are not representative towards small cities at the early or transition stage of urbanization.

The most influential metric of urban form in affecting PM 2.5 level changes at different urbanization stages.

Not surprisingly, the area metrics, which describe spatial grain of the landscape, exert a significant effect on PM 2.5 level changes in small-sized cities. This could be explained by the unusual urbanization speed of small-sized cities in the Chinese context. Their thriving mostly benefited from the urbanization policy in the 1980s, which emphasized industrialization of rural, small- and mid-sized cities 87 . With the large rural-to-urban migration and growing public interest in investing real estate market, a side effect is that the massive housing construction that sometimes exceeds market demand. Residential activities decline in newly built areas of smaller cities in China, leading to what are known as ghost cities 88 . Although ghost cities do not exist for all cities, high rate of unoccupied dwellings is commonly seen in cities under the prefectural level. This partly explained the negative impacts of TA on PM 2.5 level changes, as an expanded while unoccupied or non-industrialized urban zones may lower the average PM 2.5 concentration within the city boundary, but it doesn’t necessarily mean that the air quality got improved in the city cores.

Aggregation metrics at the landscape scale is often referred to as landscape texture that quantifies the tendency of patch types to be spatially aggregated; i.e., broadly speaking, aggregated or “contagious” distributions. This group of metrics is most effective in capturing the PM 2.5 trends in mid-sized cities (population range 25–50 k) and Central China, where the urbanization process is still undergoing. The three significant variables that reflect the spatial property of dispersion, separately landscape shape index, patch cohesion index, and aggregation index, consistently indicate that more aggregated landscape results in a higher degree of PM 2.5 level changes. Theoretically, the more compact urban form typically leads to less auto dependence and heavier reliance on the usage of public transit and walking, which contributes to air pollution mitigation 89 . This phenomenon has also been observed in China, as the vehicle-use intensity (kilometers traveled per vehicle per year, VKT) has been declining over recent years 90 . However, VKT only represents the travel intensity of one car and does not reflect the total distance traveled that cumulatively contribute to the local pollution. It should be noted that the private light-duty vehicle ownership in China has increased exponentially and is forecast to reach 23–42 million by 2050, with the share of new-growth purchases representing 16–28% 90 . In this case, considering the increased total distance traveled, the less dispersed urban form can exert negative effects on air quality by concentrating vehicle pollution emissions in a limited space.

Finally, urban contiguity, observed as the most effective shape metric in indicating PM 2.5 level changes, provides an assessment of spatial connectedness across all urban patches. Urban contiguity is found to have a positive effect on the long-term PM 2.5 pollution changes in large cities. Urban contiguity reflects to which degree the urban landscape is fragmented. Large contiguous patches result in large CONTIG_MN values. Among the 626 cities, only 11% of cities experience negative changes in urban contiguity. For example, Qingyang, Gansu is one of the cities-featuring leapfrogs and scattered development separated by vacant land that may later be filled in as the development continues (Fig.  6 ). Most Chinese cities experienced increased urban contiguity, with less fragmented and compacted landscape. A typical example is Shenzhou, Hebei, where CONTIG_MN rose from 0.27 to 0.45 within the 14 years. Although the 13 counties in Shenzhou are very far scattered from each other, each county is growing intensively internally rather than sprawling further outside. And its urban layout is thus more compact (Fig.  6 ). The positive association revealed in this study contradicts a global study indicating that cities with highly contiguous built-up areas have lower NO 2 pollution 22 . We noticed that the principal emission sources of NO 2 differ from that of PM 2.5. NO 2 is primarily emitted with the combustion of fossil fuels (e.g., industrial processes and power generation) 6 , whereas road traffic attributes more to PM 2.5 emissions. Highly connected urban form is likely to cause traffic congestion and trap pollution inside the street canyon, which accumulates higher PM 2.5 concentration. Computer simulation results also indicate that more compact cities improve urban air quality but are under the premise that mixed land use should be presented 18 . With more connected impervious surfaces, it is merely impossible to expect increasing urban green spaces. If compact urban development does not contribute to a rising proportion of green areas, then such a development does not help mitigating air pollution 41 .

Six cities illustrating negative to positive changes in CONTIG_MN and AREA_MN. Pixels in black show the urban areas in the year 2000 and pixels in red are the expanded urban areas from the year 2000 to 2014. Figure was produced by ArcGIS 10.7.1 85 .

Conclusions

This study explores the regional land-use patterns and air quality in a country with an extraordinarily heterogeneous urbanization pattern. Our study is the first of its kind in investigating such a wide range selection of cities ranging from small-sized ones to large metropolitan areas spanning a long time frame, to gain a comprehensive insight into the varying effects of urban form on air quality trends. And the primary insight yielded from this study is the validation of the hypothesis that the determinants of PM 2.5 level trends are not the same for cities at various developmental levels or in different geographic regions. Certain measures of urban form are robust predictors of air quality trends for a certain group of cities. Therefore, any planning strategy aimed at reducing air pollution should consider its current development status and based upon which, design its future plan. To this end, it is also important to emphasize the main shortcoming of this analysis, which is generally centered around the selection of control variables. This is largely constrained by the available information from the City Statistical Yearbook. It will be beneficial to further polish this study by including other important controlling factors, such as vehicle possession.

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Acknowledgements

Lu Liang received intramural research funding support from the UNT Office of Research and Innovation. Peng Gong is partially supported by the National Research Program of the Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China (2016YFA0600104), and donations from Delos Living LLC and the Cyrus Tang Foundation to Tsinghua University.

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Liang, L., Gong, P. Urban and air pollution: a multi-city study of long-term effects of urban landscape patterns on air quality trends. Sci Rep 10 , 18618 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-74524-9

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Plastic pollution in the marine environment

Plastic pollution is recognized as a severe anthropogenic issue in the coastal and marine ecosystems across the world. Unprecedented and continuous accumulation of growing plastic contaminants into any respective aquatic ecosystem by the anthropogenic sources causes direct and/or indirect interruption to ecosystem structure, functions, and consequently, services and values. Land-based and sea-based sources are the primary sources of these contaminants in various modes that enter the ocean. In this review paper, we focused on highlighting different aspects related to plastic pollution in coastal and marine environments. Plastic pollutants are distributed in the ecosystems in different forms, with different size variations as megaplastic, macroplastic, mesoplastic, and microplastic. Microplastics in primary and secondary forms reveal a widespread distribution in the water, sediment, and biota of the marine and coastal habitats. The microplastic level of different coastal and marine ecosystems nearly ranged from 0.001-140 particles/m 3 in water and 0.2-8766 particles/m 3 in sediments at different aquatic environments over the world. The microplastic accumulation rate of coastal and marine organisms varied at 0.1-15,033 counts. Accordingly, plastic pollution creates several kinds of negative consequences combined with ecological and socio-economic effects. Entanglement, toxicological effects via ingestion of plastics, suffocation, starvation, dispersal, and rafting of organisms, provision of new habitats, and introduction of invasive species are significant ecological effects with growing threats to biodiversity and trophic relationships. Degradation (changes in the ecosystem state) and modifications of marine systems are associated with loss of ecosystem services and values. Consequently, this emerging contaminant affects the socio-economic aspects through negative impacts on tourism, fishery, shipping, and human health. Preventing accumulation sources of plastic pollutants, 3Rs (Reduce-Recycle-Reuse), awareness & capacity building, and producer/manufacturer responsibility are practical approaches toward addressing the issue of plastic pollution. Existing and adopted policies, legislations, regulations, and initiatives at global, regional, and national level play a vital role in reducing plastic debris in the marine and coastal zones. Development of proposals/solutions on key research gaps can open a novel pathway to address this environmental issue in an effective scientific manner. In conclusion, this paper demonstrates the current status of plastic pollution in the marine ecosystem to make aware people of a plastic-free, healthy blue ocean in the near future.

Aquatic ecology; Ecological health; Ecological restoration; Marine biology; Environmental analysis; Environmental assessment; Environmental hazard; Environmental health; Hydrology; Oceanography; Pollution; Microplastics; Plastic sources; Environmental management; Producer responsibility.

1. Introduction

Marine and coastal environment acts as a highly productive zone that consist different kinds of subsystems, such as coral reefs and seagrasses. It is a complex environment with rich biodiversity ranging from various primitive (horseshoe crab) to the advanced organisms (dolphins). The marine environment is the vast body of water that covers 71 percent of the earth's coverage. However, the global ocean system divides into five major oceans and many seas based on historical, cultural, geographical, scientific characteristics, and size variations. Five ocean basins, i.e., Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and the Antarctic, are the most known marine systems invaded by humans. The Southern Pole (Antarctic) ocean basin was recognized as the fifth ocean basin by the International Hydrographic Organization. All ocean basins act as ecologically and economically important systems for the betterment of humans. Freshwater lotic systems connect with oceans and seas, creating unique, transitional ecosystems like lagoons and estuaries ( Reddy et al., 2018 ). The continental shelf of the marine environment is the mixing place of seawater and freshwater; therefore, this area creates a unique coastal ecosystem.

Marine and coastal ecosystems provide different priceless services and values for human wellbeing and other kinds of vertebrate and invertebrate organisms. Provisioning (the domain of food, fiber, wood, water, pharmaceutical components, oil, mineral sources), regulating (carbon sequestration, maintain water quality, climate regulation), supporting (photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, nursery and breeding grounds, oxygen production), and cultural (spiritual and cultural importance, recreation and tourism) services gained from oceans and coastal ecosystems are ecologically and socio-economically imperative. Due to the massive contribution by services of the aforesaid ecosystems on the human wellbeing component, this paper will mainly focus on emerging anthropogenic threats on the marine environment as an initial step to concern conservation and sustainable management of the aquatic environment.

Aquatic ecosystems are inter-connected with the terrestrial environment; therefore, changes in one system have impacts on another. For decades, different factors, including anthropogenic activities, have stressed the coastal and marine ecosystems ( Adams, 2005 ; Richmond, 2015 ). These stresses include pollution and the physical destruction of the environment. Debris or litter accumulation is one of the human-created severe threats on marine and coastal systems due to unsustainable development and construction activities. Compared with other categories of debris such as glass, cloth, paper, food waste, metal, rubber, medical/personal hygiene-related items, smoking/firework items, and wood ( Nualphan, 2013 ; Rosevelt et al., 2013 ), plastic litter is persistent in the ocean basins due to unique characteristics of plastics (e.g., the potential of ready transportation by water current and wind due to long shelf-life). Plastic debris with counts of five trillion, weighing more than 260,000 tones, is floating over the world's ocean surface as a result of improper waste disposal ( Eriksen et al., 2014 ). Currently, plastic pollution has become a serious concern over almost all parts of ocean basins irrespective of developed or underdeveloped regions in the world ( Figure 1 ).

Overview of the global crisis of plastic pollution in the ocean. (Note; The world map is free and permitted from Cosmographics Ltd 2020 ).

The accumulated plastics in the ocean basins can be broadly classified into four levels based on their sizes: megaplastics, macroplastics, mesoplastics, and microplastics. Microplastics are found in commonly manufactured, commercial products such as personal care and cosmetic products or microplastic particles produce from in-situ environmental degradation and subsequent fragmentation of larger size plastics by physical, chemical, and biological processes ( Browne et al., 2010 ; Wang et al., 2018 ). Microplastics are mostly abundant in marine and coastal systems, while synthetic pollutants chemically interact with organic pollutants and metals ( Guo and Wang, 2019a ). The density of microplastics also affects the distribution of microplastics in the water column. Polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE) float in water due to low density of plastics, while polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyamide (PA), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) with higher density do not float in water, but deposit by inclination through the water column ( Guo and Wang, 2019a ). Accordingly, microplastic pollutants are widely distributed in every sub-zone/layer (pelagic and benthic) of coastal and marine systems. Salinity is one of the key factors affecting on chemical degradation of plastic. Hence, coastal and marine systems, which range at approximately 0.5–35°/00 (ppt: parts per thousand) of salinity, are highly susceptible to the formation of microplastics. Accordingly, scientific evidence of the distribution and persistence of microplastic pollutants must focus on ocean basins and coastal ecosystems to identify the nature of the emerging issue.

Plastic pollutants are abundantly accumulating in these zones with adverse effects on ecological aspects, including biodiversity, economic activities, and human health ( Galgani et al., 2010 ; Wang et al., 2018 ). Microplastics are ingested by different kinds of marine organisms ( Cole et al., 2013 ; Leslie et al., 2017 ). Evidence on microplastics in the aquatic environment ( Cozar et al., 2014 ; Martin et al., 2017 ) signifies the alarm on environmental issues by plastic pollution. They mark the importance of an integrated approach with international, regional, and national efforts as mitigatory strategies to improve plastic waste management by reducing the load of plastic garbage patches in the world ocean basins. Monitoring and dissemination of scientific information on distribution, contamination levels, sources, and possible effects by plastic pollution are required to identify management priorities and implementation of mitigation measures accordingly. Stakeholders should especially be aware of the current situation of the problem, degree of severity and harmfulness of the problem, novel trends, and present scenario and scientific approaches for strategies of prevention or reduction of plastic waste accumulation ( Law, 2017 ). Thus, scientific reviewing of plastic pollution in the ocean basin and coastal zones are essential to derive a clear overall picture. The systematic study of the sources, pathways, transformation modes, adverse effects, and sinks of plastics in the marine environment has been conducted only during the last decade ( Browne et al., 2015 ; Law, 2017 ). This study aims to address the above gap by comprehensively reviewing reliable scientific data on all aspects of plastic pollution in the marine and coastal habitats to give insight into protecting the world ocean basins and coastal zones. Hence, this review paper focuses on (I) seeking the sources of plastic pollution, (II) identifying the current status of the effects of plastic debris accumulation with a clear picture over the world ocean basins and coasts, (III) present an overview of the current situation and recommendations of initiatives on controlling plastic pollution at international, regional, and national levels, rules & regulations and legislation, possible management measures for the awareness of stakeholders such as politicians, decision-makers, researchers, scientists, environmental authorities, the general public, and industries, and improving the capacity building of stakeholders toward the plastic waste management.

2. Plastic accumulation sources

Plastic wastes are accumulated in the aquatic ecosystems directly and indirectly by different kinds of sources. Land and ocean-based sources are critical sources of plastic pollution in coastal and marine ecosystems through in-situ and ex-situ pathways. Major land-based plastic pollution sources are freshwater input, residential & domestic activities, tourism, and other economic actions, including harbor operations. Over 75% of marine plastic litter items are accumulated from land-based sources ( Andrady, 2011 ). Coastal zone is a highly residential, urbanized, and industrialized area. Thus, most local communities are aggregated in coastal zones. Accordingly, residential and industrialized activities are highly focused on this transitional zone. Air blasting and cosmetics used by coastal residents could directly discharge into the coastal zone. In some cases, these plastic containers are released into the wastewater treatment systems or drainage systems. Browne et al. (2007) revealed that a significant amount of plastic debris release or escape even from the treatment systems. After that, such plastic debris accumulates into the natural freshwater ecosystems such as river and streams or subject to leachate into the groundwater and finally end up in the ocean. However, lotic freshwater ecosystems with directional, fast flow rates mainly lead to the accumulation of plastic debris in coastal areas. For example, the plastic waste from two freshwater ecosystems is accumulated into the ocean system around California, and approximately two billion plastic fragments release into the sea during three days’ time ( Moore, 2008 ). Primary sources of the microplastics accumulation into the Goiana Estuary, South America, are harmed river basins ( Lima et al., 2014 ). Furthermore, Thushari et al. (2017b) identified domestic wastes and coastal residential activities significantly contribute to debris accumulation in the coastal environment by in-situ waste accumulating method. Based on the records, tourism and recreational activities have also acted as one of the major sources of marine and coastal plastic accumulation into the ocean and coastal ecosystems. Thushari et al. (2017b) revealed that >60% of beach debris from selected beaches on the eastern coast of Thailand originates from tourism and recreation-related activities. Plastic debris in beaches carries into the ocean as microplastic fragments and secondary plastics ( Cole et al., 2011 ). In the urban beach of the northeast of Brazil, plastic pellets and fragments have been reported as contaminants. The main source of those fragments was the breaking down of larger size plastic debris accumulated on the beach, while the major sources of plastic pellets were from the operational activities of nearby port facilities ( Costa et al., 2010 ). Another potential cause of plastic pollutants is persistent fishing fleet, based on the literature records ( Ivar do Sula et al., 2013 ).

The plastic accumulation rate in the ocean also enhances from land-based sources with prevailing extreme climatic conditions such as storms, hurricanes, and flooding ( Thompson et al., 2005 ). Microplastic debris density in water collected from California was six times higher compared to the normal situation due to prevailing storm conditions ( Moore et al., 2002 ). As per Thushari et al. (2017b) , the coastal debris level was lower in the wet season compared to the dry season in some beaches (e.g., Angsila) along the eastern coast of Thailand, due to dragging of coastal debris into the offshore or deep-sea region by strong monsoon during the rainy season. On the southern Californian coast, the average debris density level was approximately 18 times higher during a storm compared to the normal situation ( Lattin et al., 2004 ). In the western coastal water of Sri Lanka, an island in the Indian Ocean, the mean density of total plastic was recorded as 140.34±13.99 No.m −3 by number of items (count), during August–November 2017 (end of south-west monsoon), mainly by the sources of tourism and fishing activities ( Athawuda et al., 2018 ).

Plastic debris from the beach enters the ocean through coastal water currents. Sometimes, monofilament and nylon fishing nets are disposed of at harbor operations in the shore area and float over the ocean surface. Floated nylon debris drifts over the ocean at different locations by the effect of ocean currents ( Cole et al., 2011 ).

Offshore activities such as commercial fishery, navigation actions, waste disposal, and shellfish/fish culture are key ocean-based sources that contribute to plastic debris accumulation into the marine and coastal zones. Offshore fishing and aquaculture-related operations have been identified as a significant source of plastic pollution into the ocean basins and coastal ecosystems by the number of literature records. Damaged fishing nets and abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing nets (ALDFG) can enter the offshore by fishers during fishing operations.

Maritime and navigation activities are also another source of plastic accumulation in the offshore area of the sea. Marine vessels, intentionally or unintentionally, dump plastic litters into the ocean, with an accumulation rate of approximately 6.5 million tons per year into the deep sea by early 1990 ( Derraik, 2002 ). Thushari et al. (2017b) noted that shipping-related debris levels on the eastern coast of Thailand are significantly lower since that area is not close to the international maritime transportation route. Accidental disposal of plastic litter items during transportation through a terrestrial environment or ocean can cause the flowing of plastics into the sea directly or indirectly. Especially, improper use of plastic packaging materials causes the accumulation of plastic litter into the aquatic environment and the ocean systems ( Cole et al., 2011 ). Synthetic polymers have also been recorded in sub-surface plankton samples around Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago in the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean with an increase in average plastic densities. Plastic materials can be transported over vast distances by ocean currents ( Ivar do Sula et al., 2013 ). A study conducted by Pruter (1987) revealed that plastic pellet densities are 18/km 2 and 3500/km 2 in New Zealand coast (1970) and Sargasso Sea (1980), respectively.

Plastic can be categorized as megaplastic (>1 m), macroplastic (<1 m), mesoplastic (<2.5 cm), and microplastic (<5 mm) (defined size varies according to different literature records) according to size variations ( Wang et al., 2018 ). Another scientific literature categorizes plastic litter according to the different length ranges, as megaplastics (>100 mm), macroplastics (20–100 mm), mesoplastics (5–20 mm), and microplastics (<5 mm) ( Barnes et al., 2009 ). Mesoplastic is an intermediate size range between visible macroplastic and minute microscopic plastics. Larger size plastics visualized by the naked eye is called as macroplastics or megaplastics. A considerable portion of litter by land-based sources is accumulated in the oceans, and >65% of waste is composed of non-degradable macroplastics.

Plastics can enter the marine ecosystems as primary and secondary plastics. The larger plastic fragments sometimes directly release as megaplastic and/or macroplastic debris and convert into microplastics within the environment. Primary microplastics are the plastic debris manufactured with a microscopic size range, whereas secondary plastics are formed after exposing larger plastic debris for different forces and break down into tiny plastic debris. A fraction of the above light weight larger plastics floats on the sea surface, while the remaining portion with high density sinks into the benthic environment of the ocean due to higher molecular weight. Macroplastics are highly susceptible to degrade into micro size plastics by subjecting to different processes such as degradation (changes the state of plastic); photo-degradation, mechanical degradation, and hydrolysis. Biodegradability of plastics is also essential to understand their fate and destination in the respective environment ( Hartmann et al., 2019 ) and identify size variations of plastic pollutants accordingly after subjecting to degradation. Hence, we identified importance of scientific investigation on the aforesaid hot topic. Microplastic debris is known as plastic litter, observable only using a microscope ( Table 1 ).

Table 1

Microplastic size definitions according to the previous literature records.

As per Table 1 , microplastic is defined in several ways by scientists using size variations of debris. Microplastics can be further divided into two types as primary microplastic and secondary microplastic . Primary microplastics are the plastic types with a micro-size range and used for a specific purpose or a product. Primary microplastics are mainly used in manufacturing cosmetics (cleansers, shower gel), medicines, and air blasting medium ( Gregory, 1996 ; Zitko and Hanlon, 1991 ; Patel et al., 2009 ). Microscopic size Polyethylene and Polystyrene particles were observed in cosmetic products ( Gregory, 1996 ). Air-blasting technology also uses blasting of microplastic fragments such as Polyester in different devices such as engines, machines, and vessel/ship hulls ( Browne et al., 2007 ; Gregory, 1996 ). Manufacturing the above products using primary microplastics have rapidly increased during the very recent decades. Secondary microplastics are defined as the plastic debris resulting after the breakdown of macroplastic in the terrestrial environment and ocean ( Thompson et al., 2004 ). In the open environment, macroplastic fragments expose to chemical, biological, physical, and mechanical processes and change the typical properties of plastics such as structure and integrity. As a result, large plastics degrade into minute plastic fragments in the environment ( Andrady, 2011 ; Barnes et al., 2009 ). Fundamental forces leading to degradation of macroplastics are ultra-violet (UV) radiation (Photo-degradation) and wave abrasion physically ( Andrady, 2011 ). During photo-degradation of plastics, sunlight with UV rays subject to degrade large plastics through oxidation of polymer plastic and breakdown of structural integrity. In the beach ecosystem, macroplastic fragments directly expose to the sunlight, and the degradation rate is higher with the presence of more Oxygen ( Andrady, 2011 ; Barnes et al., 2009 ). The plastic fragments with reduced structural integrity are further exposed to the physical and mechanical forces such as wave turbulence and abrasion ( Barnes et al., 2009 ). Finally, macroplastics rapidly convert into minute particles during the degradation process. This process continues until plastics become microscopic in size, and microplastic fragments further cleavage into nano-plastic particles in some cases ( Fendall and Sewell, 2009 ). Oxidative characteristics in the atmosphere and hydrolytic properties of seawater (salinity) profoundly affect the degradation rate of plastics ( Webb et al., 2013 ), and a saline environment with prevailing lower temperature reduces the photo-degradation rate of plastics ( Cole et al., 2011 ).

On the other hand, biodegradable plastic acts as a type of microplastic ( Cole et al., 2011 ). Biodegradable plastics increase the degradation rate in composting bins under optimum conditions such as proper ventilation, humidity, and higher temperature ( Moore, 2008 ; Ryan et al., 2009 ; Thompson et al., 2004 ). A cooler environment without decomposing microbes (the biological process by microorganisms) reduced the degradation rate and caused the accumulation of biodegradable plastics in the ocean ( O'Brine and Thompson, 2010 ). The demersal environment is contaminated with microplastic pollution in Spanish coastal waters ( Bellas et al., 2016 ), and the presence of microplastics in the estuarine ecosystem was confirmed by the study of Abbasi (2018) . According to that study, Musa Estuary, Persian Gulf, was affected by microplastic accumulation and recorded ingestion of highly abundant microplastic particles by both pelagic and demersal fish. The presence of high-density microplastics in demersal biota is associated with the occurrence of plastic debris in the benthic environment, which is the final destination of plastic contaminants by sinking in the marine and coastal environment ( Neves et al., 2015 ; Bellas et al., 2016 ; Jabeen et al., 2017 ). Microplastics in estuaries are subjected to change due to the dynamic conditions by different environmental factors such as wind, tide, residence time, the geographical location of the ecosystem, and the level of anthropogenic activities within the systems ( Peters and Bratton, 2016 ). According to Lima et al. (2014) , vertical salinity gradient causes changes of the distribution of microplastics in coastal ecosystems, including estuaries. Recently, microplastic has been detected even in the traditional salt producing ponds in Indonesia ( Tahir et al., 2018 ).

3. Effects of plastic accumulation

The effects of plastic debris on marine life are within the diverse range and reported in several literature records. The degree of impact by plastic pollution on biodiversity is severe in particular marine systems, and it has been identified as one of the top threats on biota ( Gray, 1997 ). Debris accumulation and potential threats and emerging risks on biota by marine debris, including plastics, is a global concern, and plastic waste has a collective effect on the ecological level and economic aspects.

3.1. Ecological effects of plastic contamination in respective ecosystems

Entanglement and ingestion are some of the critical issues associated with macroplastic fragments. According to the records of Gall and Thompson (2015) , >13,000 individuals representing 208 species and >30,000 individuals belonging to 243 species have encountered issues related to ingestion and entanglement by macroplastic fragments, respectively. Entanglement cases were mainly recorded between the individual organisms and fishing nets or plastic rope in fishing gears. Ingestion is highly associated with individual organisms and plastic fragments ( Gall and Thompson, 2015 ) ( Figure 2 ). However, the entanglement effect is comparatively higher than the ingestion by biota in coastal and marine systems. Entanglement and ingestion of macroplastic debris can be lethal or sub-lethal. As the direct results of entanglement or ingestion, coastal and marine biotic organisms die or get injured lethally. Sub-lethal effects cause reducing capturing and swallowing food particles, impairing reproduction ability, loss of sensitivity, the inability to escape from predators, loss of mobility, decreased growth, and body condition. Comparatively, sea turtles, marine mammals, and all types of sea birds are at higher risk of entanglement and ingestion by plastic pollution. Green sea turtle, Hawksbill turtle, Fulmar, Seals, Sea Lions, Puffin, Albatross, Right whale, and Greater shearwater are recorded species negatively affected by the above consequence ( Gall and Thompson, 2015 ). Fishing hooks are also highly ingestible plastic debris types in birds ( Hong et al., 2013 ). Hong et al. (2013) noted that Black-tailed gull ingested a hook and entangled in the fishing line by the attachment of head, neck, and wings, thus, failed in moving or foraging. They have also observed >0.1g of plastic content in the gastrointestinal tract of nearly half of the northern Fulmar population. In Norwegian ocean, Nephrops norvegicus, a commercially valuable lobster species, had recorded plastic filaments in 83% of individuals of the population ( Murray and Cowie, 2011 ). As documented ( Gall and Thompson, 2015 ), species categorized as critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, and near-threatened under IUCN red list were negatively affected by the threats mentioned above by plastic litter accumulation. According to the records of Chiappone et al. (2002) , 49% of hook and line and lobster traps were responsible for tissue damage, injuries, and death of sessile organisms in Florida Key. Findings of Chiappone et al. (2005) revealed the effect of debris from fishing hooks, and the line increased by 84% with negative impacts on poriferans and coelenterates, causing sub-lethal and lethal consequences.

Effects of Plastics on coastal and marine biota: a) Plastics ingestion by a blueshark: Priona ceglauca of Carlos Canales-Cerro ( Thiel et al., 2018 ; photo authorship: Dr. Carlos Canales-Cerro), b) Attachment on plastic debris by Goose Barnacle, Lepas anserifera (photo authorship: J.D.M. Senevirathna), c) Partial cover of macroplastic pollutants on Rock Oyster: Saccostrea forskalii colony (photo authorship: J.D.M. Senevirathna), d) Entanglement of nestling in a synthetic plastic string (photo authorship: Townsend and Barker, 2014 ).

Microplastic accumulation also causes complicated consequences on individual organisms and ecosystems. The density of microplastic is increasing in all oceans worldwide ( Thompson et al., 2009 ). Microplastic debris is possible in accumulating in biotic components, seawater, sediments, and coastline ( Athawuda et al., 2018 ; Thushari et al., 2017a ; Zarfl et al., 2011 ) (Tables  2 and ​ and3, 3 , Figures  2 and ​ and3). 3 ). Lightweight, low-density plastics float in the water, and high-dense particles sink into the benthic system's bottom sediments. There are literature records on contamination of microplastic particles in sub-tidal and inter-tidal ecosystems and marine and coastal surface water ( Athawuda et al., 2018 ; Ng and Obbard, 2006 ; Collignon et al., 2012 ; Browne et al., 2011 ). The size of microplastic fragments is similar to the size of feeding matter, such as planktons and suspended particles ( Wright et al., 2013 ). This characteristic feature allows invertebrates to ingest these synthetic microparticles ( Figure 2 ). The benthic organisms and suspension feeders also feed on microplastics from bottom sediments and contaminated water (Tables  2 and ​ and3). 3 ). According to Moore (2008) , non-selective feeders collect and ingest all the particles within a similar size range of items without sorting through filter-feeding and/or deposit feeding ( Browne et al., 2007 ). Ingestion of microplastic by invertebrates depends on several factors such as feeding mechanism, type, shape, and quantity of plastic matter. Ward and Shumway (2004) reported that polystyrene microparticles are highly susceptible to ingesting by filter-feeding bivalves (Figures  2 and ​ and3), 3 ), and Browne et al. (2008) recorded the translocation of polystyrene particles between the size ranges of 3–10 mm from the digestive system into the circulatory system of Mytilus edulis . Plastic particles with >80 μm deposit in epithelial cells of digestive tubules in the gastrointestinal tract causing adverse effects such as inflammatory issues on invertebrates ( Von Moos et al., 2012 ).

Table 2

Microplastic accumulation rate of water and sediments in different coastal and marine ecosystems in the world.

Table 3

Microplastic ingestion level of different coastal and marine biota of the coastal and marine ecosystems in the world.

Images of scanning electron-microscopic polystyrene (PS) (a, b) and polyamide nylon (PA) (c, d), found in the ingested microplastic samples of Rock Oyster: Saccostrea forskalii , Striped Barnacle: Balanus Amphitrite , and Periwinkle: Littoraria sp. along eastern coasts of Thailand (photo authorship: Thushari et al., 2017a ).

Various literature records are available on the accumulation of microplastic in invertebrate groups and vertebrates found on the coastal and marine environment ( Table 3 ). The microscopic size of microplastic fragments is characterized by a higher surface area: volume ratio and increasing the potential of transporting contaminants and accumulate in biota ( STAP, 2011 ).

Toxic chemicals such as Bisphenol-A (BPA), monomers, flame retardants, oligomers, metal ions, and antibiotics are incorporated with plastics, and these chemical substances can accumulate in the marine organisms that ingested plastics unintentionally ( Lithner et al., 2011 ). Fish, mollusks, and mammals have potentially toxic effects by flame retardants and phthalates incorporated in plastics ( Teuten et al., 2009 ; Oehlmann et al., 2009 ). Based on experimental conditions, BPA and phthalate in plastic causes significant impacts on reproduction, genetic mutations, and growth of organisms ( Oehlmann et al., 2009 ). Similarly, natural populations cause substantial negative consequences due to the presence of above toxic substances in their diet or surrounding environment. On the other hand, plastic materials can absorb persistent toxic chemical substances with bio-accumulation potential. Such kinds of major toxic substances are Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), which are highly resistant to biodegradation. POPs include DDT like Organochlorine pesticides, by-products of many industrial processes such as dioxins, i.e., Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins (PCDD) and Dibenzo Furans (PCDF), and industrial chemicals like Poly-Chlorinated Biphenyls (PCB). Absorbance efficiency of persistent chemicals into plastic materials is significantly higher compared to surrounding seawater ( Teuten et al., 2009 ; Rios et al., 2010 ; Hirai et al., 2011 ). Contaminated plastic debris with this kind of chemicals has high potential in causing the transportation of persistent chemicals into the marine organisms via feeding. Literature also records the high potential of interacting antibiotics and metal ions with plastics. Both microplastics and Sulfamethoxazole (SMX) are ubiquitous pollutants in aquatic ecosystems; the reaction of these two contaminants with each other is recorded in the respective environment. As a result, the adsorption of SMX into microplastics reached equilibrium within 16 hours. Sulfamethazine (SMT) has the adsorption capacity into six types of microplastics: polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyamide (PA), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). However, the adsorption rate of SMX and SMT into microplastics gradually decreased with different environmental variables like pH and salinity ( Guo et al., 2019b , 2019c ). These kinds of persistent antibiotics can cause adverse environmental impacts due to biological activity and antibacterial characters ( Dlugosz et al., 2015 ). The presence of antibiotic drugs makes changes in the population of microbes by proliferating antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in the natural aquatic environment. This would cause hazardous health threats to humans and other aquatic faunal communities ( Baran et al., 2011 ; Hoa et al., 2011 ).

The microplastic also has an affinity with metal compounds and possible in causing eco-toxicological effects. The adsorption capacity of Sr 2+ on to three types of microplastics, i.e., polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), has been detected according to literature records. The total adsorption rate of Sr 2+ into microplastics is regulated by the external mass transfer step ( Guo and Wang, 2019d ). Accumulated non-biodegradable metal ions in the ecosystems cause toxic effects in plants and animals even at lower levels, and heavy metals produce adverse health effects on humans ( Ntihuga, 2006 ).

According to Cole et al. (2013) , toxic chemical compounds can accumulate in the organisms in higher trophic levels by ingestion of seafood contaminated with plastics and persistent materials, heavy metals, and pharmaceutical compounds. Accordingly, these chemical substances can enter humans through food webs, creating health issues.

Marine litter, including plastics, is useful as a habitat for aquatic organisms. Those artificial, hard substrates act as a new surface for assemblage and colonization of coastal and marine organisms ( Figure 2 ). Invertebrate species including bivalves, crustaceans, echinoderms, gastropods, bryozoans, coelenterates, insects, sponges, and polychaetes, seagrasses, and seaweeds are the major taxa using the substrate of litter/debris as habitats ( Gall and Thompson, 2015 ) ( Figure 2 ). Abandoned fishing gears, ALDF, and their parts are used as substrates for colonization of mobile and sessile organisms ( Good et al., 2010 ; Ayaz et al., 2006 ). Plastic debris provides functional habitats for different microorganisms ( Zettler et al., 2013 ). Vibrio bacteria have preferably grown on plastic debris in the oceanic system ( GEF, 2012 ), and marine plastic waste has also been used as new habitat by observed 47 associated marine species in the Maltese Islands ( Pace et al., 2007 ). Dispersion via plastic debris is another ecological effect caused by macro- and megaplastics. Plastic debris acts as floating objects and provides a stable substrate for rafting and transportation of mobile and sessile organisms. This effect acts as a mode of introducing invasive species into a new ecosystem. Ecosystem composition, structure, and equilibrium are totally modified due to competition for resources (e.g., Food, Habitat, and Space) between native and non-native species in such systems. Plastic debris acting as rafting agents are plastic fragments, fishing gear parts, nets, ropes, fishing materials, packaging materials, and microplastic matter ( Gall and Thompson, 2015 ). Crustaceans and Annelids are the frequently observed mobile organisms rafting via litter ( Goldstein et al., 2014 ). According to Goldstein et al. (2014) , a diverse group of plastic rafting organisms was recorded from the western and eastern pacific oceanic regions during the 2009–2012 period, while 134 species belonging to 14 phyla were attached to the substrate of plastic buoys originated from aquaculture operations along the south-eastern Pacific region in Chile during 2001–2005 ( Astudillo et al., 2009 ). The floating capacity of the plastic buoys is higher and allows transporting a long distance from the place of origin over the water surface. Austrominius modestus, an exotic barnacle species attached to plastic debris, was observed in Shetland Island, United Kingdom ( Barnes and Milner, 2015 ). In the North Pacific region, various taxonomic groups attached to the floating litter were recorded during 2009–2012, and 87% of total attached debris was hard plastic fragments, as referenced in Goldstein et al. (2014) . Barnes and Milner (2015) revealed that assessing the effects of the accidental introduction of organisms by marine debris is difficult.

Assemblage or ecosystem-level effect was recorded as another consequence of plastic pollution. The degree of severity for the ecosystem level by plastic debris depends on several factors: area covered by plastic debris, type and nature of plastic debris, level of sensitivity of the respective ecosystem, and associated organisms. Based on the literature records, plastic debris accumulation modifies the habitats in the marine environment. Further, benthic, submerged ecosystems such as seagrass and coral reefs in the marine environment degrade by deposition of macro and mega plastic debris on the seafloor ( Thevenon et al., 2014 ). Degraded benthic ecosystems reduce the species richness and composition in the marine environment. Derelict fishing gears are mostly affecting debris type causing assemblage-level impacts ( GEF, 2012 ). In Oman, 69% of coral sites were negatively affected by abandoned fishing gears, or ALDF, including gill nets, and more than 20 genera of corals were adversely affected by decreasing the coral biodiversity ( Al-Jufaili et al., 1999 ). Carson et al. (2011) revealed that microplastic fragments are responsible for changing porosity and heat transferring capacity of sediments. Thus, the physical characteristics of benthic habitats will be altered accordingly, and this would make the survival of benthos difficult without optimum conditions. Plastic debris over the surface of seawater reduces the light penetration capacity and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) level in habitats; accordingly, changes of physicochemical water quality parameters affect primary productivity and tropic relationship in water negatively. Biodiversity gradually declines because of the absence of optimum conditions in the habitats and niches, since food availability and DO level are considered as the main factors (habitat factors) affecting biodiversity. Also, the presence of plastic debris on the respective niches negatively affects the behavioral changes of coastal and marine organisms ( Thevenon et al., 2014 ). Foraging capacity of the intertidal mollusk, Nassarius pullus, reduces rapidly with the presence of plastic debris ( Aloy et al., 2011 ).

3.2. Socio-economic effects by plastic pollution in respective ecosystems

Plastic pollution causes different socio-economic impacts on various aspects, such as commercial fishery, tourism, shipping, and human health, and negatively affects the national economy of the respective country by allocating an extra budget for waste removal. An overload of plastic contaminants in the ocean basins and coastal zones directly influence the commercial fishery, aquaculture, and tourism. In Scotland, debris removal, including plastic litter such as fishing gears and PVC pipes, causes loss of fishing time and extra expense for cleaning ( Ten et al., 2009 ). Ghost trapping fishing (accidental fish catch by discarded/abandoned and lost fishing gear: ALDF) was identified as one of the adverse effects on the commercial fishery sector ( Al-Masroori et al., 2004 ). Ghost fishing significantly reduces fish stocks which play a major role in commercial and recreational fishing ( Anderson and Alford, 2013 ). According to the literature records ( Al-Masroori et al., 2004 ), the expenses are approximately US$ 145 and 168 due to ghost fishing for three months and six months, respectively. Cost-benefit analysis has identified the effect of ghost fishing in Puget Sound, USA ( Gilardi et al., 2010 ), and accordingly, the cost for commercial crab fishery by ghost fishing is nearly US$ 19,656. In Indonesia, severe changes on fishing grounds were recorded by litter accumulation, and fishing gear types were identified as the main component of marine litter. Further, debris accumulation caused negative impacts on the artisanal fishery sector in Indonesia ( Nash, 1992 ). As per UNEP (2009) , an annual loss of US$ 250 million was due to the loss of the lobster fishery sector by the presence of ghost fishing gears.

Marine plastic debris can also act as a key contributor to the distribution of non-native, invasive species. CIESM (2014) has identified algae growth and the proliferation of plastic debris. The overgrowth of these algae has the potential to cause harmful algae blooms and, accordingly, depletion of ecosystem health with economic loss by fishery and tourism-related activities. Further, it induces the depletion of sensitive, submerged ecosystems such as coral reefs, destroy breeding and nursery grounds of seafood sources, and result in a substantial loss of commercial fishery catch ( GEF, 2012 ).

Moreover, microplastic pollution has a severe negative effect on the fishery sector. Organisms representing lower trophic levels are possible to ingest microplastic with food particles ( Wright et al., 2013 ). These contaminants pass to the other organisms through food webs and may accumulate toxic chemicals in higher trophic levels, including fish ( Wright et al., 2013 ), with adverse effects on capture fishery and aquaculture sector. Contaminated fishery sources have low demand, and thus, create an economic loss. If plastic pollution affects negatively on marine biodiversity, seafood safety, and availability, it will create a severe economic impact at the global level, especially in developing countries or islands where marine and coastal fishery resources are a major food source. As an example, food fish contributes, or exceeds, approximately 50% of total animal protein intake in some small islands or developing states: e.g., Bangladesh, Cambodia, Ghana, Indonesia, Sierra Leone, and Sri Lanka. The depletion of fishery resources by plastic pollution directly affects the economy of such countries described above and causes socio-economic crisis and health issues consequently ( Nerland et al., 2014 ; McKinley and Johnston, 2010 ; Johnston and Roberts, 2009 ; FAO, 2016 ).

Plastic pollution in beaches and marine environment triggers a negative effect on aesthetic value, natural beauty, and health of ecosystems ( Figure 4 ). As a result, the lowered aesthetic and recreational value in coastal shore areas and marine systems lead to a significant reduction in the total number of tourists ( Figure 4 ). On the other hand, the health of ecosystems and the possibility of involvement in most recreational activities in marine and coastal zones are proportionate. For example, offshore ocean basin and sensitive coastal ecosystems (e.g., healthy coral reef ecosystems) are associated with tourism-related activities such as coral watching, snorkeling, whale watching, turtle watching, sport fishing, and scuba diving. Death of a coral cover by plastic debris implies the loss of such kind of tourism activities and reducing the number of tourists visiting a specific region ( GEF, 2012 ). The ciliated pathogen, which acts as the causative agent of skeletal eroding band disease in corals, was identified in floating plastic in the western pacific region ( Goldstein et al., 2014 ). Accordingly, infected corals are gradually depleting and severely affect the alteration of ecosystem structure and compositions. Therefore, degraded coral systems may cause to reduce the number of tourists due to loss of aesthetic value and attraction in a certain region. Tourism is related to different parties gaining benefits via direct and/or indirect manner. As an example, a reduced number of tourists causes loss of job opportunities for local communities who depend on tourism-related activities in the respective area. Accordingly, a substantial economic loss directly interconnects with the negative effects of the social aspect. Tourism-oriented islands such as Hawaii and Maldives are economically threatened by declining the annual income through tourism due to this kind of anthropogenic factors ( Thevenon et al., 2014 ).

Negative effects of plastic pollution on coastal and marine vicinity (photo authorship: J.D.M. Senevirathna).

Plastic debris can cause direct and indirect health effects on humans through the ingestion of contaminated seafood sources, and the accumulation of poisonous, persistent chemical substances in the human body. Scuba divers have severe health risks in trapping and entangling discarded fishing nets during diving ( GEF, 2012 ). There is a high risk of loss of lives by accidents due to the accumulation of mega-size marine plastic debris in the ocean ( GEF, 2012 ). Further, polluted coastal and marine zones are associated with negative health issues on tourists and coastal residents. Polluted seawater with plastic debris has adverse impacts on tourists in recreational activities. There are also records of severe injuries by sharp cuts from plastic debris in the shore area and marine zones. Overload of plastic debris in recreational beaches and ocean systems can raise health issues such as lower blood pressure and reduce mental fitness (e.g., stress, anger, tension) in humans ( GESAMP, 2015 ). Adverse health effects can reduce the country's productivity and working efficiency with negative impacts on social and economic aspects of the affected area. In India, environmental problems, including pollution, causes serious ecological effects on the coastal ecosystems, and consequently, have a direct effect on the socio-economic status of coastal communities ( Lakshmi and Rajagopalan, 2000 ).

As the fouling of plastic debris in ships creates disturbances of operational activities, it requires cleaning of ship hulls for proper functioning. APEC (2009) recorded that the annual cost of damage from debris, including plastic litter on shipping, is US$ 279 million. In summary, both ecological and socio-economic impacts of plastic pollution are inter-related.

4. Initiatives on plastic pollution control and prevention

Several kinds of strategies have been identified to address the issue of plastic pollution. Institutional level involvement is such kind of key strategy used in treating the current topic. Global, regional, and national level institutions are essential in controlling and preventing the accumulation of plastic debris in the marine and coastal environments.

4.1. Global-scale initiatives

The United Nations (UN) General Assembly on oceans and the Law of the Sea are examples of such global initiatives that are useful for addressing this issue. The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides an international legal framework for controlling plastic contamination. Article 207 and 211 emphasize marine pollution, including plastic debris accumulation with a particular focus on the reduction, control, and prevention of plastic litter. Further, states are provisioning for controlling, reducing, and preventing pollution from different sources like land-based and sea-based sources. UN General Assembly has also delivered essential declarations to make the marine environment cleaner. That includes resolution on making partnership for awareness between the general public and private sector regarding the effects of plastic pollution on ecological, social, and economic aspects and the explicit integration for addressing the issues arising from contamination by plastic debris as aligning with a national strategic framework ( Hirai et al., 2011 ; Cole et al., 2013 ).

Further, the same resolution states that ( Chiappone et al. (2002) ) international, national, and regional organizations [e.g., International Maritime Organization, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), and sub-regional fisheries management organizations] must involve with finding solutions for preventing the accumulation of lost or abandoned fishing gears/ALDF. Plastic contamination is detected as one of the serious environmental issues ( UNEP, 2011 ). The conference of the United Nations Convention on Sustainable Development (Rio +20) raised the necessity of plastic pollution control in the ocean basins, including marine zones. It further highlighted (163) the implementation of the framework of the International Maritime Organization (IMO). It states to conduct different initiatives by identifying suitable priorities for the management of marine pollution using scientific data or evidence by 2025. This kind of scientific literature review will act as reference data for prioritizing and implementing management activities accordingly at a global level.

On the other hand, the International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution (MARPOL) focusing on activities of ships is the legislator's body useful in acquiring the above objective. That convention addresses following key areas which are directly and indirectly related to the plastic pollution control and prevention in the sea: management of garbage including plastic litter, prohibiting dumping and discarding of plastic litter into the sea with the involvement of member states, and responsibilities related to abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gears (ALDF) by minimizing the waste (including plastic debris, especially wastes/litter from fishing gears) received from capture fishery sector.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (Article no. 70) states reducing the effects of plastic pollution on coastal and marine biodiversity using strategies (e.g., Strategic Environmental Assessments: SEAs and Environmental Impact Assessments: EIAs) to prevent marine pollution. Subsidiary party on Scientific, Technical, and Technological Advice (SBSTTA) acts as the Scientific Advisory body of CBD. Following decisions were made at the 16 th meeting of SBSTTA for controlling pollution including plastic accumulation in marine and coastal zones on 2012: (i) monitoring and documentation on effects of debris on biodiversity and ecosystems, (ii) scientific research and feasible studies on management and controlling of plastic and other kinds of debris, (iii) regional level capacity building programs focusing on methods and approaches of preventing and controlling issues related to plastics and different kinds of litter accumulation.

Convention of Migratory Species (CMS) has also come to power with the implementation of following actions: (i) seeking for marine debris hotspots all over the world, (ii) assessing the effects of plastic and other kinds of litter on coastal and marine biodiversity, (iii) identification of methods and mechanism of controlling marine debris accumulating sources at the regional level, (iv) implementing an action plan to mitigate the pollution by debris deposition in the marine environment at the national level. The scientific council further recommended assessing the impacts on migratory species by marine debris, seeking emerging issues related to community awareness on marine debris accumulation, and identify best management practices on waste control for maritime ships and vessels. Although plastic pollution and waste management are interrelated components, international, legal constitution, or agreement focusing on entirely waste management has not been developed ( Thevenon et al., 2014 ).

However, several kinds of international initiatives focus on waste management, indirectly, or as a part of pollution control and prevention. UNEP council (25/8) has decided to apply a practical approach to waste management. They have addressed the national framework design under the theme of “shift from an end-of-pipe approach in waste management to an integrated waste management approach” ( UNEP, 2011 ). Mitigation of issues on marine plastic debris accumulation and plastic pollution are associated with waste management practices; thus, an internationally accepted, integrated waste management program has been recommended to address the above issue ( UNEP, 2011 ). Basel Convention is one of the most critical international legislation focused on hazardous waste and disposal. Solid plastic fragments are considered as hazardous waste with severe risks on human health ( UNEP, 2005 ). In 2008, the Basel convention implemented the Bali declaration on the theme of “Waste Management for Human Health and Livelihoods.” This declaration works for waste management. Since hazardous waste is composed of plastic debris, plastic pollution control is linked with the Basel convention. Global Partnership on Waste Management (GPWM) of UNEP opened a path for working collaboratively with the international and non-government parties for waste management that are considered as an alternative for plastic pollution control in the marine environment in 2010. Following actions were planned for implementation with a special focus on mitigation of waste accumulation and plastic pollution by GPWM: identification of related issues, suggest appropriate solutions to overcome the above-identified issues, disseminate the findings, develop the international support and involvement, awareness, political support, develop facilities, and capacity to trap wastes.

Honolulu Strategy acts as another global international framework and an initiative for working toward preventing and management of debris, including plastic wastes with the collaborative cooperation of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and UNEP. This initiative guides monitoring and mitigation of litter, including plastic debris. During 2012, the European Commission and 64 government bodies collectively agreed with the Manila declaration that addresses the accomplishment of the Global Program of UNEP's for the management of debris sources from land-based activities. Members of the Manila declaration also collectively agreed to formulate relevant national-level policies in controlling pollution, including marine debris accumulation, which harms marine ecosystems. Also, partners to the Manila declaration adopted in the implementation of the Global Partnership on Marine Litter (GPML) under the guidance of the Honolulu Strategy. It further included reducing pollution from ocean-based sources with following goals: (i) limiting contamination levels and possible effects from ocean-based sources responsible for the accumulation of debris including plastics into aquatic systems, (ii) reducing levels and impacts of marine debris including plastics on coasts, aquatic habitats, and biodiversity, and (iii) limitation of accumulation levels and effects of debris from solid wastes and land-based litter into the aquatic ecosystems.

4.2. Regional-scale initiatives

At the regional level, Regional Seas Program of UNEP proposed relevant activities for 13 regional seas: Mediterranean sea, Baltic sea, Black sea, Caspian sea, East Asian seas, Red sea, Eastern African sea, South Asian sea, Wider Caribbean sea, Northeast Atlantic sea, Gulf of Aden sea, Northwest Pacific sea, and Southeast Pacific sea. Coastal cleanup programs have been completed as a global project in all the above regions. European Union's Marine Strategy Framework Directive, MSFD, established in 2008, focuses on minimizing the amount of marine debris at a regional level. The directive aims at sustainable utilization of resources in the ecosystem while conserving ecosystems through the Ecosystem-Based Approach (EBA). This task is a collaborative effort of all European countries. Members are required to monitor marine zones and identify achievable targets by 2020. It further included the operational program for ensuring the targets are achieved. South Korea conducted a long-term project to address the issue of marine debris: an in-depth survey and monitoring, identification, prevention, elimination, treatment, and recycling of marine waste for ten years ( GEF, 2012 ). At the regional level, a discarded fishing gear collection project was implemented in Hawaii and South African Coasts through NOAA/MDP. Moreover, scientific studies are recommended to identify the distribution pattern of plastic pollutants in South America's estuarine ecosystems for effective management plans ( Chen, 2015 ; Costa and Barletta, 2015 , 2016 ). Barletta et al. (2019) also recommended the conservation plans for estuaries in South America focusing on annual variations of ecoline, retention recycling cycles, flush of environmental indicators, and effects on trophic webs over whole coverage of gradients of estuary ecosystems to overcome the emerging issues associated with pollution. Restoration of tidal and river forcing is recommended as the most appropriate decision for ecosystem rehabilitation by improving the quality of the estuarine environment in South America at the regional level ( Storm et al., 2005 ; Slater, 2016 ).

4.3. National-level initiatives

Most of the national level legislation addresses the issue of solid waste management and waste production while reducing plastic pollution in marine and coastal ecosystems. In the US, Marine Debris Research, Prevention, and Reduction Act and Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act are key legislative pieces important in mitigation of plastic pollution at the national level. In South Korea, the Practical Integrated System of Marine debris was established to prevent marine debris accumulation from 1999-2009, for ten years. Scotland developed a Scottish marine litter strategy in 2013. In Sri Lanka, national-level regulations on polythene and other types of plastic management were introduced in 2017. This legislation made following efforts under the National Environmental Act No. 47 of 1980 with the 19 th amendment: (i) prohibition of manufacturing polythene products of 20 microns or below, food wrappers (lunch sheets), any bag with high density (grocery bags) and food containers, plates, cups, spoons from expanded Polystyrene (2034/33-35 and 38), (ii) prohibition of the burning of combustible and rejected matters including plastic (2034/36), and (iii) banning the use of polythene products as decorative items (2034/37) ( CEA, 2017 ).

Marine Pollution Prevention Act No. 35 of 2008 is another national regulation to control, prevent, and manage pollution in the marine environment in Sri Lanka. Marine Environment Protection Authority (MEPA) is the apex party established by the government of Sri Lanka under the above act. MEPA is responsible for finding solutions and remedies for overcoming pollution-related issues in the marine zones of Sri Lanka. With the growth of oceanic pollution by plastics, invasive species, oil spills, ballast water, and maritime traffic in the coastal and marine environments, MEPA has modernized the Policy Strategies and National Action Plan for marine protection in Sri Lanka with the support of IUCN, to suit current scenario during August 2017–January 2018. This Policy Strategies and National Action Plan focus on addressing the issue of plastic pollution in marine water in Sri Lanka as one of grave concern ( IUCN, 2018 ). The capacity-building project was accomplished to manage the marine debris under four key activities: education and awareness, research and scientific study, creating facilities, and policy formulation ( IUCN, 2018 ). Short-life plastic bags are a serious concern among all forms of plastics; thus different control and preventive measures (e.g., the prohibition of polythene bags usage, applying charges, levy, and taxes) have been used by several countries: Switzerland, China, Italy, Rwanda, South Africa, Kenya, Congo, Hong Kong, Bangladesh, Mexico, some states in the USA, several states in India, Australia, Ireland, Denmark, South Korea, Romania, Japan, state of Sao Paolo in Brazil, and New Zealand, at a national level ( European Commission, 2013 ). Implementation of effective national-level initiatives by prioritizing site-specific management needs is recommended toward the plastic-free environment by the current study. Also, the approach on Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) (Please refer to the section of “ EPR towards producer responsibility” for more details) includes a scheme of plastic container deposition in Asia, Europe, Australia, US, and Canada as a national-level plastic pollution control measure.

4.4. Eco-friendly concepts for controlling plastic pollutio; Reuse, Recycle, and Reduction (3Rs) of plastic

The 3Rs of plastic wastes are a major environmentally friendly concept toward plastic-free ecosystems. Different strategies have been introduced as aligning with this 3Rs concept. Reducing plastic and packaging material usage is one of the key alternatives under the EPR (Please refer to the section of “ EPR towards producer responsibility” for more details). Actions of stakeholders related to plastic production and usage can play a vital role in reducing and reusing plastics. These actions can be either individual or collective activities toward reducing plastic accumulation in the ocean. Product manufacturers and sellers are recommended to follow a sustainable environmental management program with the production and selling. Eco-labeled products allow consumers to distinguish environmentally friendly, non-polluting products for making sustainable decisions during the purchasing of items or goods. Over 25 programs are conducted under the Global Eco-Labeling Network (GEN) toward the plastic-free environment. Ten countries use 43 types of greener packaging labels ( GEN, 2019 ) by signifying the effort in reducing plastic pollution at the national level. Also, New Zealand has awarded eco-labels for plastic products having recycling potential. The environmentally friendly and pollution-free packaging materials and products can be sustained through green procurement. Accordingly, improvement of recycling capacity and minimum packaging is required on green procurement. Biodegradable plastic packaging materials are also possible options for selected plastic products ( Mudgal et al., 2012 ) to control plastic debris accumulation.

On the other hand, positive incentives (financial or physical) are useful in promoting the collection and recycling process of plastics. If these initiatives are encouraged further at the national, regional, and global levels, it will provide more economic benefits to the society as an additional advantage, while preventing the accumulation of plastics in marine and coastal ecosystems.

4.5. EPR towards a plastic-free environment

EPR concept addresses the responsibility towards a greener and cleaner environment even after completion of the production chain. The manufacturers of plastic products and packaging items or material can be encouraged to collect packaging (e.g., food and beverage containers) and recycle plastic through funding and operational activities toward the EPR. Currently, developed countries (Japan, Europe, and Canada) use EPR programs, while the developing nations still do not practice this approach on a large scale. However, this approach is one of the best practices for minimizing the plastic accumulation rate in the environment. This paper recommends establishing a sound strategic mechanism focusing on the EPR concept, mainly for developing countries at the national level. Responsibilities for collecting, recycling, reusing, and managing plastic debris are usually held by stakeholder groups such as producers, importers, suppliers, and brand owners. EPR programs can focus on residential areas and public places such as markets, city plaza, pedestrian areas, municipal parks, and city squares, which experience higher accumulation of plastic debris, including packaging matter ( British Columbia Recycling Regulation Amendment, 2011 ). Segregated litter bins and recyclable plastic collecting centers must be established in a sustainable manner (toward EPR) to prevent plastic waste disposal.

4.6. Collaborative approach for plastic-free zones: engagement with business companies

One of the most crucial strategies for controlling plastic pollution is the engagement with private companies and business associations related to plastic products and packaging items. As stakeholder parties, these internationally recognized companies and associations can play a vital role in the management of plastic litter by working with government agencies collaboratively. In the USA, the American Chemistry Council had conducted awareness programs on reuse and recycle plastic bottles. Plastic Europe is one such internationally recognized association, and they conduct series of programs (e.g., campaign for “zero plastic in landfills” program on plastic pellet treatment at the production line) focusing on prevention and management of marine litter accumulation ( European Commission, 2013 ). Since there is a lack of more information, this study recommends the establishment of powerful Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) with collective engagement between the government agencies and private-sector for large-scale scientific research projects toward controlling the plastic pollution and waste management in a country level.

4.7. Economic instruments

Ordinances and fees are kinds of instruments or tools to prevent usage of plastic items and containers. Banning and penalties are other options for plastic pollution control, which acts as an enforceable mitigation measure. Some countries designed policies or legislation to ban the use and import of plastic items, including bags, at the national level (please refer to the section of “ National level initiatives ” for more details). Prohibition of improperly discarding and removal of plastic wastes is another strategy for preventing the accumulation of plastics. Most EPR projects have already introduced a penalty system for producers for violation of rules and regulations related to waste management and improper disposal. The user fee payment system can be introduced to manage plastic wastes based on the concept of charging/fine for consuming plastic items. The introduction of the secondary market for recycled materials is another alternative to reduce the plastic level in the environment. Plastic producers have the responsibility to recycle plastic products and packaging items (EPR) ( UNEP, 2018 ). As a result, they can financially invest in feasible studies, research, and developments to identify innovative alternatives as secondary materials. Sustainable Materials Management (SMS) is another initiative for pollution control toward a cleaner environment ( UNEP, 2018 ). Japan is one of the developed countries following the SMS using the legal framework since 1997.

4.8. Awareness and capacity building campaigns

Changing attitudes toward conservation and sustainable management of the environment is one of the potent tools in enhancing the quality of marine and coastal ecosystems. Improving the public awareness on litter generation, removal, and effects on marine and coastal environment is such kind of strategy for creating new attitudes among local communities. Blue Flag is such an international program conducted in Europe to reduce marine and coastal debris accumulation ( Blue Flag, 2019 ). According to the guidelines of this program, facilitating the segregation of recyclable plastic matter and positioning the disposal bins and containers are compulsory actions. Information related to this issue (e.g., effects from the accumulation of marine debris, marine debris accumulating sources, different approaches on mitigating overload of plastic debris, and the role of a local community toward this issue) can be publicized via social media, local media, distributing printed materials, and displaying in public areas. Beach cleaning and waste removal campaigns are also conducted with the participation of stakeholders as a step of awareness and capacity building of the local community on this emerging issue. However, the success and effectiveness of this kind of cleaning and debris removal programs depend on the involvement of the local community. As a basement for the future, this paper recommends incorporating environmental education into the syllabus of schools and making all possible efforts to adapt the mindset and attitudes of children on protecting the environment, starting from the nursery and/or primary school stage, because the primary level of children is the most effective stage to make changes in the ideas and attributes toward conservation of the environment.

4.9. Scientific investigations and monitoring

Scientific studies and researches are other approaches to address the issue of plastic pollution in a systematic mechanism. Still, knowledge gaps remain in some aspects (e.g., transport, sources, fate, impacts, and solutions of plastic in the environment) related to plastic pollution. Scientific knowledge and evidence of all aspects of plastic pollution would provide clear overall snapshot and guidance to stakeholders (e.g., local community, policymakers, politicians, consumers, and manufacturers) for implementing most suitable behavioral, technological, and policy solutions to address the issue of marine plastics effectively ( IUCN, 2020 ). Continuous research and scientific studies with frequent monitoring is a significant approach in the management of plastic pollution. Feasible studies on innovations would help to identify the related technology, alternative materials, or products to replace plastics. Authors recommend comprehensive scientific studies, regular monitoring of ecosystems, and innovations with the support of governments, private sectors, NGOs, and international organizations to efficiently address plastic pollution.

5. Conclusion

The marine and coastal ecosystems are complex and dynamic ecosystems that provide ecological and commercial values with services by ensuring human wellbeing. Currently, all oceans and many coastal zones are adversely affected by different kinds of natural and anthropogenic activities. Industrialization and urbanization are recognized as major factors for human-induced pollution, including plastic debris accumulation in the marine and coastal habitats. Estuaries are one of the major coastal ecosystems affected by plastic pollution. Currently, plastic pollution is caused by primary and secondary sources with a terrestrial or ocean-based origin. Megaplastic, macroplastic, mesoplastic, and microplastic (in primary and secondary forms) are major plastic pollutants that can be classified based on size variations. Megaplastic, macroplastic, and mesoplastic are bulk plastic debris, while primary and secondary microplastics are minute (microscopically observed) pollutants with the size range of 1–6 mm or <1 mm. Larger debris are also subjected to the formation of microplastics through physical, chemical, and biological processes. Mainly, estuarine ecosystems in some countries (e.g., several countries of the South American and Asian region) are negatively affected by the distribution of microplastics in sediment and water column.

Plastic pollution causes various ecological impacts at the individual, assemblage, and ecosystem levels. Since the size of microplastics is similar to the food particles which are consumed by most marine and coastal organisms in lower trophic levels, these micro-contaminants are highly susceptible to accumulation in such biota through ingestion with harmful impacts. Microplastic would also concentrate on humans and other organisms representing higher trophic levels through food chains and webs. Plastic pollutants interact with other toxic chemical compounds such as POPs, antibiotics, and heavy metal ions, and gradually produce the eco-toxicological effects. Accumulation of plastic debris causes not only negative ecological consequences to the ecosystem but also threatening to the socio-economic aspects of human life in various ways. However, the ecological and socio-economic impacts of plastic pollution are interconnected.

The necessity of mitigation and managing plastic pollution in marine and coastal environments at global, regional, and national scales is widely recognized. Recently, various international organizations and non-profit social groups actively work together with the kind mind of saving the ocean from plastic pollution in different countries and regions. Regional level mechanisms have already recommended evaluating the estuarine contamination by focusing on plastic pollution for the brackish water ecosystems in some countries such as South America. At the national level, some governments have declared legislations to control the plastic pollution issue by prohibiting the usage of plastic products and enhancing reuse and recycling of plastics with novel technologies at regional and national levels. Implementation of environmental governance with pollution control was recommended after thoroughly considering biological and ecological settings of respective ecosystems in countries like South America. However, initiatives on plastic pollution controlling and prevention need to be further improved at aforesaid levels. Therefore, the current study recommends selected productive approaches to address this issue with sound attention from different stakeholders. Reuse, Recycle, and Reduction (3Rs) of plastic pollutants, encouraging the collection of re-usable plastic debris, EPR towards manufacturer accountability, eco-friendly programs through Public-Private Partnerships, awareness and capacity building campaigns focusing on the cleaner environment, scientific studies on nature and severity of this emerging environmental issue, and innovations are suggested as ultimate, effective solutions for reducing and controlling the plastic pollution in these valuable aquatic ecosystems.

Finally, this review paper reveals the overall scenario of global marine and coastal plastic pollution under different aspects. This secondary data would be further useful as baseline information for the site-specific plastic pollution control and management programs. Human acts are one component of the biosphere; thus, our responsibility is to provide the maximum contribution for zero plastic, cleaner, and the greener environment as an eco-friendly living-being.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development and the writing of this article.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

Acknowledgements

Authors would like to acknowledge Uva Wellasse University for all supports.

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A Literature Review of the Effects of Energy on Pollution and Health

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This paper reviews recent economic studies that estimate the impacts of energy accidents and energy-related policies and regulations on pollution and health. Using difference-in-differences and regression discontinuity designs, most papers show that energy accidents and consumption significantly increased pollution and had adverse health effects. However, the enforcement of clean energy policies and strict regulations have improved air quality and mitigated the negative effects on health. Hence, future research should focus more on the health effects of clean energy in developing countries.

I. Introduction

Many people live in places where the average air quality is above the World Health Organization’s suggested limits for pollutants. Pollution is currently the most severe environmental problem and public health concern in the world, especially in developing countries. Studies have mostly focused on the causal effect of pollution on health, and numerous economic studies have documented that pollution is severely harmful to human health, in both developed and developing countries.

With rapid industrialization, energy consumption has increased dramatically. As energy raises our quality of life to higher levels, it also puts our health at risk. There is now a growing literature on the impacts of energy accidents and consumption on pollution and health. It finds that pollution is the most relevant channel related to the health impacts of energy. Recent research suggests that the health of pregnant women, children, and infants is at greater risk of being adversely affected by pollution (e.g., Currie & Neidell , 2005; Janke , 2014 ). Many studies suggest that infants are sensitive to the pollution caused by oil spills and coal smoke. In addition, studies are increasingly suggesting that clean energy policies and environmental regulations can abate the negative health effects of energy-related pollution.

This paper reviews the recent literature that studies the effects of energy on pollution and health. The core of this causal evaluation addresses the endogeneity problem. Using exogenous energy accidents and policy experiments and regulations as exogenous events to test causality, the literature is mainly based on difference-in-differences and regression discontinuity designs.

On the one hand, given the population explosion and rapid urbanization, energy consumption and the volume of long-distance energy transnational transportation has increased rapidly, and energy accidents, such as the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 and the nuclear leak of Fukushima Daiichi in Japan, are occurring frequently. Therefore, research has documented the impacts of energy accidents on pollution and human health. In response to public concerns over the increasing pollution threat from energy consumption and accidents, governments can put forward various policies and regulations to mitigate the negative health effects. Therefore, this paper aims to review the recent literature and determine how energy affects pollution and health.

II. Impacts of energy accidents and consumption on pollution and health

Table 1 lists and categorizes selected economic studies on the impacts of energy accidents and consumption on pollution and health. Environmental disasters caused by energy accidents and general energy consumption can cause pollution, and the problem of human exposure to pollution is attracting greater attention. The literature on the health effects of oil pollution has also been growing rapidly. Many recent papers find oil to have a negative impact on pollution and health. Beland and Oloomi (2019) and Marcus (2021) quantify the health impact of petroleum pollution on infant health in the United States by using the 2010 oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico and the leakage of underground storage tanks as exogenous events. Exploiting a difference-in-differences design, Beland and Oloomi (2019) find that the oil spill of 2010 raised concentrations of PM 2.5 , NO 2 , SO 2 , and CO in the affected coastal counties and increased the incidence of low-birthweight and prematurely born infants. Marcus (2021) finds that exposure to a leaking underground storage tank during gestation increases the probability of both low birthweight and preterm birth by 7–8%. In addition, all the studies mentioned above find that prenatal exposure to pollution had a heterogeneous impact on mothers with different individual characteristics (age, race, marital status, etc.). The infants of black, Hispanic, less educated, unmarried, and younger mothers suffer from more pronounced adverse health outcomes (Beland & Oloomi , 2019) . Marcus (2021) also finds that the adoption of preventative technologies mitigated the entire effect of storage tank leak exposure on birthweight, and information increased avoidance and moving among highly educated mothers.

In addition to environmental disasters such as oil spills and leakage, general energy consumption has an impact on air quality and health. In particular, the decline in air quality caused by coal fires and straw burning leads directly to an increase in mortality. Beach and Hanlon (2018) provide the first estimate of the mortality effects of British industrial coal use in 1851–1860. The results indicate that local industrial pollution had a powerful impact on mortality. Raising local industrial coal use by one standard deviation above the mean increased infant mortality by roughly 6–8% and mortality among children under five by 8–15%.

Farmers often burn straw after a harvest, which is the main cause of seasonal air pollution in developing countries. Based on agricultural straw burning satellite data, He et al. (2020) use non-local straw burning as an instrumental variable for air pollution to estimate the impact of straw burning on air pollution and health. The results show that straw burning increased particulate matter pollution and caused people to die from cardiorespiratory diseases. Middle-aged individuals and the elderly in rural areas are more sensitive to such pollution. Furthermore, using a difference-in differences approach, the authors find that China’s recent straw recycling policy has effectively improved the country’s air quality.

III. Impacts of energy policies and regulations on pollution and health

Due to the negative impacts of energy accidents and consumption on pollution and health, more and more energy-related policies and regulations are established by governments to alleviate the negative effects of air quality on health. These policies and regulations provide exogenous shocks for identifying a causal relationship. A growing research literature has begun to focus on how energy policies and energy-related environmental regulations can affect pollution and health. As Table 2 shows, many papers examine the causal relationship between energy policies or regulations and pollution (health), using a difference-in-differences design and regression discontinuity analyses. Imelda (2020) investigates the health impacts of household access to cleaner fuel through a nationwide fuel-switching program. The results suggest that the program led to a significant decline in infant mortality and that fetal exposure to indoor air pollutants is an important channel. Fan et al. (2020) focus on China’s coal-fired winter heating systems, the country with the largest and most expensive energy welfare policies in the developing world. The authors estimate the contemporaneous impact of winter heating on air pollution and health by using regression discontinuity designs and find that such winter heating systems increased the weekly Air Quality Index by 36% and mortality by 14%. Fan et al. (2020) and Imelda (2020) both suggest that the health impact of air pollution can be mitigated by improving socioeconomic conditions.

Based on the fact that coal and gasoline fuels emit a huge number of harmful pollutants, many targeted environmental regulations have been enforced to reduce pollution and improve health welfare. Yang and Chou (2018) find that the shutdown of power plants located upwind of New Jersey reduced the likelihood of having a low-birthweight or preterm infant by 15% and 28%, respectively. Strict command-and-control energy regulation policies have obvious effects. Because of limited financial resources and staff, developing countries are constrained in terms of their regulatory capacity to enforce regulations. Evidence from better developed economies might not be readily generalizable to the developing world. Li et al. (2020) and Zhu and Wang (2021) examine the causal effects of China’s prefecture-level fuel standards and fuel content regulation on air pollution at ports. Their papers bridge the gap by documenting novel empirical evidence and measure the benefits of fuel standards in the world’s largest developing country. Li et al. (2020) find that the enforcement of high-quality gasoline standards significantly reduced average pollution by 12.9%, and improved air quality. Their conclusion demonstrates the importance of fuel quality. Zhu and Wang (2021) show that fuel content regulation at ports immediately reduced major types of pollutants by more than 15%.

IV. Conclusion

To sum up, the economic studies on the impact of energy on pollution and health are becoming richer. Methodologically, these studies typically use difference-in-differences and regression discontinuity designs to evaluate the causal effects of energy accidents, policies, and regulations on pollution and health. Several studies support negative effects on air quality and infant health, and all of these find that energy policies and regulations can reduce regional pollution and improve health welfare, especially in less developed countries and areas. Furthermore. resources and information should target pregnant women to help mitigate poor infant health. The findings can have important implications for countries besides China, including developing ones.

The papers covered in this review contribute to cost–benefit analysis by quantifying the pollution and health effects from energy accidents, policies, and regulations. The largest energy transition projects are being attempted in many developing countries, and further research is needed to fully understand the long-term health effects of clean energy in developing countries.

REVIEW article

What shall we do with a sea of plastics a systematic literature review on how to pave the road toward a global comprehensive plastic governance agreement.

• Department of Climate and Environment, SINTEF Ocean, Trondheim, Norway

In February 2022, the United Nations Environmental Assembly (UNEA) is expected to mandate negotiations for a legally binding plastic agreement. In preparations for such discussions, it is important to understand the academic research behind what a global treaty on plastic will require to succeed. Therefore, a systematic literature review was conducted on 64 peer-reviewed articles published before July 4 th , 2021, that focused on global plastic governance and avenues to mitigate our pollution crisis. Once reviewed, the articles were organized into a series of four main categories: (1) plastic pollution overview articles, (2) top-down solutions, (3) bottom-up solutions, and finally a (4) global treaty as a solution. The analysis of these articles enabled an overarching review and discussion of what the literature suggested is required for the creation of a global plastics agreement. First, the researchers argued that previous global plastics governance literature is characterized by an optimist governance perspective, i.e., a view of governance as a problem-solving mechanism. Second, global plastics governance as a research field could make headway by engaging in further empirical investigation of current negotiations and solutions at the national level, especially in developing nations. In the end we found that a global agreement is feasible if it allows for multi-stakeholder solutions involving industry, governance, stakeholders, and citizens.

Introduction

The research community began publishing studies on plastic and marine litter as early as 1968 and 1975 ( Borja and Elliott, 2019 ). These became regular topics in the literature from 1981 to 1987, respectively, but with a decidedly heavy focus on contamination (waste that enters nature) and pollution (when the contamination causes harm to humans or animals). This focus is corroborated by the agreements stemming from this period, namely the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, MARPOL, and the Basel Convention. The focus has now, however, shifted to seafood with microplastics ending up on our dinner tables as well as entangled in marine wildlife ( Borja and Elliott, 2019 ). This type of research has set the tone for human emotion in the plastic arena, where citizens react to eating and visually seeing the harm of plastic in the global environment.

These voices in the research community have overwhelming made a substantial contribution to the scientific literature around plastics. With new research on the topic being published continuously, it has become easier to understand the biodiversity, ecological, and health effects of plastic on the marine environment and human health. The focus has now, however, shifted to how this global crisis will be solved from a governance perspective ( Vince and Stoett, 2018 ). The fragmented nature of past agreements is neither efficient nor effective paths for halting plastic pollution. We argue that a new legally binding agreement, whose pre-negotiations started in 2017 at the United Nations Environmental Assembly (UNEA) 3, is our current only concrete path toward an internationally legally binding instrument (ILBI) for curbing plastic pollution. Although plastic pollution is perceived as a marine only issue for many, it originates from a failure to control our land-based waste ( Raubenheimer and McIlgorm, 2018b ). As such, an ILBI must address all sources of pollution, both from land and sea. At the time of writing 143 countries have signaled their support for mandating negotiations on a globally binding plastic agreement 1 , which has also been welcomed by industry, government and NGOs, signaling that the time to act is now.

Plastics on the Global Stage

Worldwide plastic production rates have reached well over 380 million tonnes in 2018 alone ( Ritchie and Roser, 2018 ). This number has grown exponentially during the COVID-19 pandemic where production and consumption has been intensified from the use of disposable personal protective equipment (e.g., face masks) and takeaway containers to avoid cross-contamination ( Tessnow-von Wysocki and Le Billon, 2019 ). No recycling system can handle the utter volume of plastic we accumulate. In 2015, 320 million tonnes of plastic waste were generated, from which 24% was incinerated and 58% landfilled or discarded ( Geyer et al., 2017 ) in the environment. The problem is only growing, with scholars stating how increasingly difficult it has and will become to clean up the waste leaked into the environment which is expected to reach up to 53 million tonnes in 2030 alone ( Borrelle et al., 2020 ). This plastic crisis is estimated to cost the world’s economies nearly 2.5 trillion USD each year alone ( Beaumont et al., 2019 ). Currently, the only long-term and comprehensive solution to the plastic crisis is to tackle it at its roots and end the constant flow of plastic to the marketplace and ultimately the ocean. Plastic extends beyond the capacity of any one nation to solve, as our oceans create a planetary cross-border crisis of marine pollution. Experts argue that the best solution can be found in the form of a globally binding agreement or an ILBI [ Carlini and Kleine (2018) , Dauvergne (2018b) , Raubenheimer and McIlgorm (2018b) , Tiller and Nyman (2018) , Vince and Hardesty (2018) , Tessnow-von Wysocki and Le Billon (2019) ]. Our current agreements, situated at different governance levels and fragmented at best, are neglecting to make actors legally and financially accountable, as well as failing to fully address the crisis on a global scale.

In light of this, we conducted a systematic peer-reviewed literature review to examine the various approaches that the scientific community have developed on how to best govern plastic pollution to assess the potentials for success for a future ILBI if initiated by UNEA in 2022. Systematic reviews provide the ability to gather evidence, so policymakers can make informed decisions. We made the methodological choice to utilize only peer-reviewed articles that examine the plastic crisis on a global scale. This type of systematic review has not yet been conducted and we therefore believe it is of utmost importance to publish before the upcoming plastic treaty negotiations talks begin at UNEA 5.2, planned for February 2022 in Nairobi, Kenya. Civil society has numerous valuable reports on the same topic, and we therefore saw the need for an academic contribution to the literature, which will provide future scholars with the relevant references in the global plastics governance arena. UNEA is unique in that it is currently the worlds highest-level decision-making body on the environment. Moreover, in May 2021 both Peru and Rwanda announced they would table a resolution at UNEA 5.2 to establish an intergovernmental negotiating committee to begin developing an ILBI for global plastic governance ( UNEP, 2021 ).

Borja and Elliott (2019) may have been right when they asked the question “ when will we have enough papers on microplastics and ocean litter”? Yet, we argue that media and society has been too focused on the crisis and not the solution for moving forward, and as such, there still is not enough. Plastic pollution has been a growing discussion in the media and successively in citizen opinions over the past decades ( Tiller et al., 2019 ). For this literature review, we therefore chose to focus on aspects relating to the governance of not just pollution, but the product itself throughout its lifecycle, instead. To solve the plastic crisis, we argue that a comprehensive ILBI must be adopted that precisely addresses the comprehensive life cycle governance need of plastics.

Methodology

This review contains all available peer-reviewed academic literature encompassing global plastic governance found via Google Scholar up until July 4 th , 2021. To date there are no holistic systematic peer-reviewed literature reviews which present an overview of the key authors and global actors effecting and driving global plastic governance. This review will aid in preventing replication of research, while highlighting the areas of focus laid out by key authors in global plastic governance. We believe the timing of the article is important given the timeline of the UNEA discussions on how to solve the world’s plastic pollution crisis culminating after having been ongoing since its first meeting in 2014. In recent years this has developed into a more coherent need to produce a concrete global agreement and we believe this review will provide a holistic guide to the research arguments on said topic and highlight where we need more focused attention.

Literature Search

We collected and assessed our data using a six-stage process as laid out by Pacheco-Vega (2018) .

1) Key citations and authors

2) Citation tracing process

3) Mind map of key authors and topics

4) Choose 3–7 articles per topic and 3–5 per subtopic

5) Read and;

6) Expand mind map

The first step was to identify the key authors and citations within the wider debate on plastic governance globally. We utilized Boolean search citation tracing via Google Scholar by searching the words “plastic” AND “governance” OR “management.” This search contained 241,000 results . To guarantee the literature encompassed the marine environment, where our initial interest laid, whether the pollution source is marine or land-based, we then updated our search to “plastic governance marine” OR “oceans .” This provided more precise articles and included 40,600 results as of July 2021. We then begun step two which we combined with step three of Pacheco-Vega’s process which involved citation tracing and mind mapping. As we were two researchers working on this review, one of us was on the computer reading out and citing the authors and articles while the other was creating a first rough draft of our mind map as seen below in Figure 1 .

Figure 1. Mind Map of key authors and topics covered.

Limitations

Despite the effort to provide a comprehensive review of the peer-reviewed body of literature, this review, like many, has its limitations. First, only documents written in English were included in this review, leaving out articles in other languages that could be highly relevant for these purposes. Second, the review only utilized peer-reviewed articles. Our search found several conference proceedings, dissertations and gray literature documents that were deliberately not included among our results. The gray literature specifically from civil society and industry stakeholders has significantly impacted the discourse around a globally binding plastic treaty. However, for the means of this review we chose to examine the academic case for such a treaty. The gray literature especially stemming from WWF and the Ellen MacArthur Foundation arguably leads to additional insights that are valuable in-and-of themselves such as The Business Case for a United Nations Treaty on Plastic Pollution and various others ( Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2020 ; WWF et al., 2020 ; WWF, 2021 ). Third, the academic literature was searched using only one database, Google Scholar. Although this database covers a significant majority of international peer-reviewed journals, other, more specialized databases might cover other potentially relevant journals. Using Google Scholar was a methodological choice as it is highly accessible to all, and recent studies have highlighted how databases such as Web of Science and Scopus have limited coverage of the social sciences and humanities ( Mingers and Meyer, 2017 ). Moreover, Google Scholar has been highly underestimated and according to a study by Gusenbauer, it is currently the most comprehensive academic search engine ( Gusenbauer, 2019 ) and therefore the reason behind its use within this literature review.

We used mind mapping methodology as strategic research and writing tool. To ensure the results were global in focus, we excluded all peer reviewed articles and regulations that were country or region specific (such as case studies on plastics governance solutions in x-local community in Norway or Single Use Plastic regulations in the EU), technological solutions focused (waste-water treatment plants or recycling technology for example), and/or did not have a clear focus on governance of plastic pollution in the abstract. The reason for this was to emphasis the global crisis of plastics, although regional regulations are positive in their nature, the pollution happens on a global scale and therefore needs global solutions. We also excluded any results that had to do with the life cycle of plastics in terms of chemistry and biology as these topics did not focus on global plastic governance, which was often alluded to in the conclusion section as “something that should be initiated.” After the first 50 pages of reviewing results on Google Scholar, we reached a saturation where no additional articles of relevance directly related to global plastic governance were found. We therefore decided to end the online search while continuing to cross check the reference list of articles we had already established as relevant to find literature that may have been missed in our Google Scholar search. By cross referencing the articles reference lists, we were indeed able to find 19 new peer reviewed articles that our search results had missed, bringing the total to 64 articles. Overall, we had 193 authors & co-authors writing about the topic of global plastics governance. Of those authors only five were reoccurring lead authors of one or more articles (Borrelle 2, Dauvergne 3, Raubenheimer 5, Rochman 2, Simon 2, Vince 3, Tiller 2, Stoett 1, Hardesty 1, Carlini 1 ) while others were also co-authoring on more than one article (Hardesty 4, McIlgorm 4, Wilcox 2, Vince 2, Stoett 2, Rochman 2, Costa 2, Carlini 2, Urho 2).

After having a full overview of the peer-reviewed literature on global plastic governance the next step was to narrow down the key authors and which topic or subtopic their articles belonged in. Our findings were then sorted in a database that matched each author and article to one of our four key topics (Overview, top-down driven, bottom-up driven, treaty solution). Once categorized, we read the abstracts of each followed by an in-depth read of each article. While doing this, we also assessed the open access availability of all the full text publication. Though we belong to a research institute that has wide access to scientific publications, we still had to purchase three sources of literature as they were not available on open access. The remaining 67 articles were all either open access or available through our institution’s subscriptions. The sources included are listed below:

• Barboza, L. G. A., Cózar, A., Gimenez, B. C., Barros, T. L., Kershaw, P. J., and Guilhermino, L. (Barboza et al.). Macroplastics pollution in the marine environment. In World seas: An environmental evaluation (pp. 305–328). Academic Press. – Paid 30.00 USD

• VanderZwaag, D., and Powers, A. (2008). The protection of the marine environment from land-based pollution and activities: gauging the tides of global and regional governance. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 23(3), 423-452. – Paid 35.00 USD

• Schröder, P., Anantharaman, M., Anggraeni, K., and Foxon, T. J. (Eds.). (Schröder and Chillcott). The circular economy and the Global South: Sustainable lifestyles and green industrial development. Routledge. – Paid 45.00 USD

Data Collection

The data collected from the study was organized into a Microsoft excel spreadsheet. The following information was collected for each article we included in this review and organized by category (overview, top-down, bottom-up solutions):

1) Digital object identifier (DOI)

4) Journal type

6) Summary of main findings

7) Type of article

8) Key words

After the search was complete, we narrowed down the key journals which have published articles on global plastic governance, as seen in Table 1 .

Table 1. The number of publications on global plastic governance in repeating journals.

Next, we analyzed the key years of publications on global plastic governance. As shown in Table 2 below the year 2018 brought global plastic governance to the forefront of discussion in research discussion. The UNEA 2017 first talks of truly establishing a global agreement on plastic waste could be hypothesized to have pushed the literature to the forefront.

Table 2. The number of publications per year contained within the scope of the review.

In the following section, we examine and describe the results of the systematic review. First, we present our findings of each of the overarching themes that were addressed throughout the articles. Next, we examine the common elements throughout each of our thematic areas, ultimately providing information on the best paths forward for a global agreement as identified by these articles.

The following Figure 2 is our expanded Mindmap which provides an overview of where each article is categorized. It is important to note that these were organized by overarching themes as many articles provided information able to fall under various categories of this review.

Figure 2. Lucidchart demonstrating the final categories each article is placed in.

The Problem (Overview)

In this first section of the review, we analyzed the peer-reviewed literature that provided contextual knowledge on the main drivers of plastic pollution, while also setting the scene for new international solutions ( Figure 2 – path 2 from left). The literature from our sample identified several issues regarding global plastic governance and the pollution brought forth through lack of a binding agreement with punitive procedures. A common theme throughout the literature was how our current international laws and agreements fail to match the scale and severity of plastic pollution ( Chen, 2015 ; Dauvergne, 2018b ; Haward, 2018 ; Vince and Hardesty, 2018 ; Schröder and Chillcott, 2019 ). Due to marine litter’s complexity and inability to trace its origins and management process, authors suggest that for significant change to occur, a multilateral agreement on scale to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer would need to be enacted ( Gold et al., 2014 ; Chen, 2015 ; Haward, 2018 ). The protocol has been widely renowned as it is considered the most successful multilateral agreement in resolving an environmental issue while also achieving global cooperation by attaining set targets. The international instruments, and current legislation in place now are nowhere near effective as they focus on prevention and mitigation ( Borrelle et al., 2017 ). We argue that for a globally binding treaty to work it needs to account for all phases of plastics lifecycle (production, consumption, disposal, and contamination). The international efforts date back to the 1970s, and unlike the Montreal Protocol, five decades later the world is waiting for leadership to enact meaningful change on plastics. In Table 3 we lay out the current international agreements in place and their main inhibiting factors as to why they fail to address the plastic crisis on a global scale as identified by the authors reviewed ( Haward, 2018 ; Landon-Lane, 2018 ; Raubenheimer and McIlgorm, 2018b ; Vince and Hardesty, 2018 ).

Table 3. Current international instruments related to Marine Plastic Pollution and their pitfalls.

Major deficiencies are found within regulation enforcement (national, international, and industry level) and cooperation, as well as overall waste management. Due to this lack of accountability, soft law (non-binding agreements) has dominated the plastic governance arena ( Vince and Hardesty, 2018 ). Future guidelines, such as those up for discussion at UNEA 5.2 must clearly provide binding and punitive solutions, ones that also address production of plastic from land and not pollution that is simply ship based ( Nyka, 2019 ). For example, UNCLOS (1982) uses phrases such as “…Nations shall endeavor” or “best practical means…” which fails to tackle the crisis associated with adequate accountability and sufficient economic penalties ( Gold et al., 2014 ). These terms also offer mere facilitative bottom-up procedures that do not ensure compliance.

Economy of Change?

Vince and Hardesty (2017) examine the value of economic and market-based instruments within the framework of a global agreement. Third party certifications and a “Plastic Stewardship Council” ( Landon-Lane, 2018 ) are argued to provide impactful policies that are not solely self-regulated, so long it is industry endorsed, though Misund et al. (2020) found in a study from three European nations that the consumer willingness to pay for such labels (plastic free for example) were inversely linked to political trust in the given country. The use of industry licensing with Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) schemes are also identified as integral parts in future agreements ( Monroe, 2013 ; Chen, 2015 ; Borrelle et al., 2017 ; Lam et al., 2018 ; Landon-Lane, 2018 ; Forrest et al., 2019 ; Schröder and Chillcott, 2019 ; Raubenheimer and Urho, 2020 ) and are examined later in this review as a separate approach. These schemes could force producer and/or manufacturers to pay the clean-up and recovery fees for discarded plastic, however, they must hold producers accountable for the previous years of pollution as argued by Monroe (2013) . Moreover, the lobbying efforts backed by the plastic industry are hindering the political effort to implementing these schemes. Schröder and Chillcott (2019) , describe the worldwide efforts plastic producers and manufacturers have in halting EPR schemes and taxes on virgin polymers. Economies of change should include binding agreements to end fossil fuel subsides ( Borrelle et al., 2017 ), which could help bring the price of virgin plastic up and generate a stronger industry for recycled plastic.

The buck does not stop current ideas on EPR schemes though. The previous two decades have proved that governing the industry is increasingly difficult. Profit and industry interest are far above the will of the people, from 2005 to 2018 more plastic was produced than any other time in history combined ( Geyer et al., 2017 ). Moreover, regardless of bottom-up governance improvement efforts, there is currently a lack in keeping pace with the rising environmental costs associated with globalization of plastic waste ( Dauvergne, 2018b ). Packaging waste from plastic generates substantial negative externalities, and in 2014 marine plastic litter was conservatively estimated to costs the world 13 billion USD per year, a number now estimated to be closer to 2 trillion USD per year ( Beaumont et al., 2019 ; Schröder and Chillcott, 2019 ). Merely recycling our way out of this disaster is not expected to provide meaningful impacts. However, changing economies will require global funds to assist nations with underdeveloped waste and recycling system, this framework could be similar to that of the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change’s fund ( Borrelle et al., 2017 ).

Missed Opportunities

Arguing that waste management and clean-up are serious governance solutions has previously been endorsed ( Mendenhall, 2018 ). Other scholars also consider that the governance aspects of plastic are so diverse it will be nearly impossible to govern on a global scale ( Dauvergne, 2018b ). Dauvergne also stated that the endless rise in production and our growing consumption of plastics is leading to obscured views of responsibility. The missed opportunities lie within the extreme complexities and difficulties we currently face in documenting pollution and assigning responsibility, which must be addressed in a global agreement. Currently, however, international law is severely limited as the agreements in place poorly acknowledge that 80% of marine plastic debris originates from land not the sea ( Simon and Schulte, 2017 ; Vince and Hardesty, 2017 ; Landon-Lane, 2018 ). Finally, China’s National Sword policy, which banned the importation of waste, demonstrated that if we remove barriers to investment and open new markets for recycling, we can protect the environment, public, global markets, and industry itself ( Raubenheimer et al., 2018 ). This is a solution that is currently not utilized by the rest of the world.

Proposed Solutions

Vince and Hardesty summarized in the “tragedy of the plastic commons” ( Vince and Hardesty, 2018 ) that there is a need for a holistic governance approach in order for us to be able to actually reduce our plastic waste, as we are currently facing uncontrollable exploitation of our oceans ( Haward, 2018 ). The tragedy can , however, be solved with effective global policy and public will, and lead to a highly anticipated global agreement to drive change ( Vince and Hardesty, 2018 ). There is a need for coherent international action with measurable targets, these actions could include bringing back the 1964 “common heritage” of our interconnected seas and oceans by modeling the agreement after the Montreal Protocol ( Haward, 2018 ). Hard-hitting industry regulations on the domestic level as well as scaled up international treaties are seemly the only way out of the plastic crisis ( Raubenheimer and McIlgorm, 2017 ; Worm et al., 2017 ; Dauvergne, 2018b ). The agreement would need to cover all aspects of the value chain, Starting with producers. Offering producers incentives to design better products and making recycled materials cheaper by taxing virgin plastics is a good place to start.

It is important to remember though that international agreements take time to develop and implement ( Haward, 2018 ). For a plastic ILBI to actually create change, important global state actors like the United States (US), China, and India must be onboard – both as major plastic users and producers ( Schröder and Chillcott, 2019 ). Therefore, achieving EPR and hindering consumer waste will be vital for inclusion in future agreements. In the end, authors also emphasize three aspects that need to be considered – the producer, the consumer, and the government – and all need to take responsibility in different ways, from ensuring the safety of the product, following the three Rs (reduce, reuse and recycle) and establishing an international convention for the tracing and governance of plastic pollution ( Law, 2017 ; Lam et al., 2018 ).

On the Micro-Level

The literature continues to examine the harmful impacts of how plastic breaks down and degrades in our oceans. Microplastic pollution has been written about in terms of the harmful widescale effects on marine biotas and ecosystems, and more recently, the possible effects on human health ( Dauvergne, 2018a ; Gallo et al., 2018 ; Lam et al., 2018 ; Barboza et al., 2019 ; da Costa et al., 2020 ). In 2015 you could still regularly find products, typically for personal care, that included microbeads (toothpaste, face wash, etc.). At the time scholars began debating the difficulties associated with wide-scale beach clean-up initiatives and then began to stress the best solution to fighting plastic pollution was source reduction ( Rochman et al., 2015 ). This has worked on a national level thus far in terms of banning microbeads and introducing plastic bag bans ( Dauvergne, 2018a ). The time has now come to determine wither or not the same type of policy would translate to the global scale. As the crisis of plastics is on a global scale, only global solutions will be able to solve it.

Microbead researchers have sounded the alarm to the downsides of EPR schemes as Dauvergne, Dauvergne (2018a) emphasized. Companies most responsible for microbead pollution are the ones who benefit the most from claims of environmental sustainability and corporate responsibility, as little to no financial penalties are in place for the pollution they caused before the ban ( Dauvergne, 2018a ). Incorporating elements from the microbead ban will need to take corporations and profiteers into account and create schemes to make producers and manufacturers pay for past pollution. A final thought when assessing future governance by examining past microplastic pollution comes from Thompson (2015) . Thompson believes there is an inevitability regarding microplastic in the environment, regardless of new regulation. He argues that even if we stop all new forms of plastic from entering the ocean today, fragmentations of already ocean bound plastic items will continue to degrade and break into smaller pieces in the decades to come ( Thompson, 2015 ). Due to previously insufficient legislation, future governance mechanism must be inclusive, multi-sectoral, and acceptable by stakeholders ( Barboza et al., 2019 ), leading to a complete overturn of the way we think of plastic.

Plastic Pollution and Climate Change

The research community is seeking to add plastics to the same level of urgency as climate change is addressed. Although some scholars believe that the plastic crisis is addressed too much by science ( Stafford and Jones, 2019 ; Tiller et al., 2019 ), the two are, in fact, inadvertently intertwined. Plastic pollution disrupts our worlds food chains, ultimately upending our oceans ecosystems from regulating themselves from the disaster of climate change ( Stoett and Vince, 2019 ). Both tragedies are interlinked and need to be considered when discussions resume on either of the two. A reduction in our plastic resource utilization is considered one of most viable solutions to plastic pollution as no legally binding international agreements are available. Similar to that of plastic pollution and climate change, successful governing of the former will require holistic approaches to address pathways of pollution knowledge gaps ( Vince and Hardesty, 2017 ). The crisis is comparable, wither it be to modeling the treaty after the Montreal Protocol, or taking swift action like in silent spring ( Worm et al., 2017 ) as a first step.

Environmental Norms

Dauvergne (2018b) examines how environmental norms have power, and change depending on what is happening in our world. For example, when science is strong, activism is high, and political and corporate resistance is weak. Our current values and behaviors around plastic do not align with coherent governance mechanisms despite that science is strong ( Loges and Jakobi, 2020 ). Loges and Jakobi argue that regardless of researchers proposing an international agreement, it will not overcome the de-centeredness of norm dynamics as well as agencies ineffectiveness to monitor and govern. Moreover, Duvic-Paoli (2020) argue that our environmental norms should be based on the foundational prevention principal, meaning environmental damage is better avoided than repaired. Principals like these can foster creative and effective law-making as well as adaption to current legal frameworks. Policies like these must be implemented at the national level, literature on top-down solutions are examined in the next section.

Top-Down Solutions

Though there is an abundance of work in the academic literature from a governance perspective that focuses on the problem itself, some also examine solutions. The main category we placed the literature in was that of top-down driven solutions ( Figure 2 , path 3 from left). Scholars are in consensus that top-down driven solutions on plastic governance overwhelmingly requires systematic change at the local, regional, and national levels as they will be enforced with strong regulatory obligations. Various authors argue that the best form of change is shifting to a circular based economy ( Löhr et al., 2017 ; Ten Brink et al., 2018 ; Forrest et al., 2019 ). The circular economy model, if implemented in a global agreement, would minimize the overuse of resources as well as limit carbon emissions, waste, and pollution. An overturn of society will seem daunting until states recognize a circular economy would create jobs, boost economic competitiveness, provide resource savings, and prevent harmful waste such as plastic for entering our oceans. Lack of political harmony within and across borders is inhibiting these efforts of change ( van der Maesen, 2018 ) without understanding that the responsibility falls on all states to act ( Ten Brink et al., 2018 ).

National implementation and compliance on a global agreement must be fully integrated with domestic policies ( Vince and Hardesty, 2017 ). However, authors Ferraro and Failler (2020) argue that there is a complex set of factors that prevent nations from implementing international agreements on the ground. To overcome these obstacles, coherency across national policies will require adoption strategic plans and involvement of stakeholders in the process from the ground up ( van der Maesen, 2018 ; Ferraro and Failler, 2020 ; Wu, 2020 ). Strategic plans from the top should therefore include building up waste management infrastructure on a national and regional basis, while including stakeholders in the transformation process to ensure that new infrastructures work for all citizens. These infrastructures must incorporate economic incentive. One such incentive has been documented to reduce plastic pollution to the ocean is container deposit legislation (CDL) ( Schuyler et al., 2018 ). The amount of plastic pollution found in coastal areas is 40% lower when CDL are in place. The simple method of charging consumers extra when they buy a plastic bottle, only to return said investment through bottle schemes is considered vital for all nations to avoid heaps of plastic accumulating in our environments.

Can One Size Fit All?

Policies at the top level have also thus far been insufficient ( Löhr et al., 2017 ; van der Maesen, 2018 ). This must change as a global agreement needs to be able to be translated to national and regional levels for successful implementation and compliance. This will require top-down driven change while simultaneously pushing for citizen behavioral change ( Ogunola et al., 2018 ). What happens when change for developed nations in a global agreement does not work the same as in developing ones? We turn to Alpizar et al. (2020) to understand the various problems that developing nations face with equality in global agreements, which was one of the few articles found within the methodological literature search.

When a global agreement on plastic governance gets on the global governance agenda, it needs to not only include attainable solutions, but it must consider how plastic becomes used, discarded, and renewed at national levels worldwide. A challenge identified by Simon et al. (2021) is that waste pickers have become a common job in less developed countries, leading to employment of otherwise unemployed citizens. We argue that a global agreement must take this into consideration and enhance the jobs available for recycling facilities in all countries. The one size fitting all dilemma must also consider how plastic pollution arrives from various countries, with several explanations for pollution leakages depending on where you live ( Alpizar et al., 2020 ). For example, Tanzania has an 84% rate of inadequately managed plastic waste and resorts to open burning and dumping of said waste. In Vietnam plastic leaks from agriculture and aquaculture activities, which overwhelms rivers, pushing plastic out to the sea during the rainy season ( Alpizar et al., 2020 ). India on the other hand, has high recycling collection rates, yet low quality wastewater treatment and insufficient landfills, leaving plastic to leak into local and eventually marine environments. Although there is no one size fits all guideline for each country, a global agreement would need to consider the challenges between average incomes and regions. This information should be used to set up a fund to implement the agreement worldwide. Diversity of knowledge, cultures, and indigenous perspectives must therefore have a seat at the negotiation table.

Transnational Solutions and Goals

Löhr et al. (2017) , argue that the framework involving Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response can be used as a management tool to map out potential responses to plastic pollution and provide solutions for sustainable development. The UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) are argued to provide a means of measurement and compliance when a global agreement is in place. Marine plastic pollution should then be linked to justice issues as it is interconnected to the SDG goals ( Stoett and Vince, 2019 ).

Transnational governance is in fact argued by some scholars as the only true answer to the plastic crisis ( McIntyre, 2020 ; Wu, 2020 ). International agreements as they stand today do not provide sufficient governance mechanisms to address marine plastic pollution. Wu (2020) for example found that overall, international success depends on domestic laws and policy reforms. States must adapt and enforce current global legally obligating procedures to better transition to a more demanding agreement when one arrives. The legal landscape of plastic governance is furthermore very fragmented ( Nyka, 2019 ; McIntyre, 2020 ) and would benefit from cohesion between national and supranational agreements already in place.

Bottom-Up Driven Solutions

In this section we step away from the ILBI angle and examine some of the bottom-up solutions to a global plastic agreement that are discussed in the peer-reviewed literature as well – such as certifications, industry driven solutions, corporate social responsibility, and networks ( Figure 2 , path 4 from left). In terms of prevention and regulatory strategies, Ogunola et al. (2018) considered ecolabeling (private companies, and voluntary scheme – for public acceptance and marketability) and imposing fees (i.e., on plastics bags) as some of the most important drivers within bottom-up solutions. Market based strategies are also an integral part of Xanthos and Walker (2017) proposed solution. Rochman (2016) created a scenario to help describe the benefit of bottom-up driven solutions as followed; If a water pipe in your basement were to burst, would you turn off the source of water, or simple mop up the mess while water continues to spew? While swift action (turning off the tap) is an important first step, it will take a variety of mixed solutions (mopping up the mess) to be built into a global agreement.

Industry Responsibility

One of the arguments is that the first of these solutions should be industry based, where consumers and governments apply pressure on the plastic industry. Industry focused governance strategies must include an EPR scheme, where producers, manufacturers and importers have a legal responsibility to ensure circularity and recapture of their products at the end-of-life stage. Incentives are also mentioned as a mitigation method for ensuring that products are recycled or disposed of responsibly, whether it concerns bottles, plastic bags or other items for single-use –even fishing gear ( Monroe, 2013 ; Landon-Lane, 2018 ; Forrest et al., 2019 ). Incentives generally include wanting to adapt to consumers demands, but may include support from governments to transition into solely manufacturing sustainable plastic ( Landon-Lane, 2018 ). Generally, behavioral change at the individual level is what is critical to curb the flow of plastics into the ocean ( Ogunola et al., 2018 ), but it will take industry action to curb the crisis as a whole.

The literature has been stagnant on what bottom-up actors must do without including innovative solutions to achieving goals, until Raubenheimer and Urho (2020) examined the possibility of a global EPR scheme. Previously the idea was discussed at the national level, however, it is now important to rethink the role of industry withing a global agreement. In general, EPR schemes force producers to be responsible for the entire lifecycles of the products they produce, both financially and in other cases physically. A global EPR scheme would be developed through global standards to make products more sustainable and easier to reuse. These schemes must also, at the global level, provide incentives for producers to build better designs into their products ( Raubenheimer and Urho, 2020 ). Moreover, EPR schemes also must include financial penalties for the pollution they caused before an agreement is in place ( Dauvergne, 2018a ). Others argue that we must evolve EPR schemes to comply with a global audit system, able to protect against fraud in the system by implementing blockchain technologies to track provenance ( Forrest et al., 2019 ). These schemes must also be obligatory and include monitoring on various levels, with reporting including both quantitative and qualitative data sets. If these measures are implemented it will help transform the entire value chain of plastics, create competitive advantages to producers and retailers, create jobs, and ensue healthy ecosystems and livelihoods ( Simon et al., 2021 ).

Marine Debris Networks

Marine debris networks (MDN) could play another key role in stopping marine plastic pollution and creating new policies for prevention ( Kandziora et al., 2019 ). Instead of traditional profiteering ways, these networks do not pursue profit. Instead, they provide platforms for engagement and education. Marine debris networks exist in multiple countries around the world reaching nearly every continent. The approach is bottom-up with networks active on not only regional and national levels, but also globally. This integrated approach works well as the global networks can reach policymakers, researchers, and industry, the national and regional networks are able to create change locally by engaging with stakeholders ( Kandziora et al., 2019 ). Marine debris networks also have their pitfalls though. First and foremost, by including the word “marine” it automatically excludes the importance of plastic waste from land. Moreover, without setting up collaborative platforms to meet and share information, the networks can fail to communication relevant information. To overcome this, like the EPR global scheme, marine debris networks may require a global fund. Multilateral agreements considered successful on societal and behavioral change on a global scale are those who have funding mechanisms and monitoring compliances ( Raubenheimer and McIlgorm, 2018a ).

Science-Policy Interface

The field researching plastic pollution is vastly distinct, ranging from marine biologist, chemist, geologist, social and political scientist, and various others. By having such diverse research, the underlying issues of plastic pollution, is brought home, regardless of if we live on the coast. Vegter et al. (2014) has documented how science brought us to where we are today with discussions soon starting on a global plastic governance agreement. Any governance solution will require a broad range of actors from the ground up on multiple levels of policymakers, industry, and stakeholders. The years following an agreement a framework must be in place as a science-policy interface must support the transfer of knowledge between the expert community and policymakers ( Simon et al., 2021 ).

Global Agreement as a Solution

The literature, however, has landed on – rather than top-down - or bottom-up solutions exclusively attempting to curb plastic pollution, there being a need for an ILBI to address the entire life cycle of plastic ( Figure 2 , path 5 from left). The solution to stop plastic pollution inevitable making its way to the sea, is not observed in recycling alone, or banning plastic bags in “x country.” Recycling rates of plastic also varies geographically and accounting to the type ( Hopewell et al., 2009 ). The systematic societal change as examined in the previous section will require a complete 180-degree transformation in the way products are designed. To date products have been designed with our throw-a-way culture, without taking the circular economy into consideration. Food packaging most typically includes multiple layers of materials (I.e., aluminum, plastic, paper, etc.) which has become a nightmare in the recycling industry. Due to lack of regulation and legally binding consequences for the disregard to the environment, most plastic packaging is only for single-use and therefore does not currently have market post consumption. Meanwhile, consumers have kept a good consciousness by believing anything with the recycling symbol indicates it can be recycled. The recycling industry has come up with a name to describe consumers who believe all types of plastic are recyclable, “wishcycling”. 3 A globally binding treaty as a solution to the plastics crisis will require adaptive changes to products from their design stage, and enforcement programs to incentivize compliance, while deterring non-compliance ( Tessnow-von Wysocki and Le Billon, 2019 ). By changing the way products are designed on a global scale, new markets for recycled materials will arise and in turn create jobs across the world.

As explored throughout the literature in each section of this review, the plastic crisis has no chance of an equitable resolution without a global an ILBI. Various authors encourage us the draw on the prosperities and pitfalls of agreements of the past when creating a new one ( Dauvergne, 2018b ; Raubenheimer and McIlgorm, 2018b ; Tiller and Nyman, 2018 ; Tessnow-von Wysocki and Le Billon, 2019 ). Lessons can be learnt from swift legally binding action as found in the Montreal Protocol, as well as the failures of recognizing plastic as a marine only problem, which leaves out the most treacherous source of pollution, land based. International policy has thus far been focused on ocean-based pollution ( Raubenheimer and McIlgorm, 2018a ) this has deviated attention from the mass amounts of pollution from land-based sources ( Haward, 2018 ; Vince and Hardesty, 2018 ).

The time has passed to question if a global agreement is necessary, the extent of damage witnessed to our land and marine ecosystems has reached a critical tipping point. Plastic pollution is creating ecosystem-alterations within the chemical components of our planetary boundaries, that scientist believe are irreversible ( Villarrubia-Gómez et al., 2018 ; Stoett and Vince, 2019 ). Though we still find gaps of knowledge as to the sources, pathways, and impacts of plastic pollution ( Mendenhall, 2018 ), there is overwhelming evidence favoring an globally binding plastics treaty. This evidence transpires from science ( Kirk, 2015 ) and it is our best weapon to understanding what knowledge is needed to design a treaty.

Treaty Design

As such, increasingly, authors are discussing treaty design when discussing the governance of plastics. An agreement would need to be met with complex interdisciplinary solutions ( Stoett and Vince, 2019 ). A common idea for treaty design is adopting principles of responsibilities that are common between parties but differentiated ( Carlini and Kleine, 2018 ; Tessnow-von Wysocki and Le Billon, 2019 ). This is considered within the contextual setting of the excessive levels of plastics being produced and consumed in developed countries and exported to developing countries – in addition, around, 50% of the waste generated in Europe is exported to areas where there is no waste management infrastructure. Still, or perhaps because of this, most leakage of plastic derives from middle-income states in Asia – and developing countries do not have the funds to invest in high level industrialized waste management infrastructure and recycling of plastics. As such, treaty design needs to take into account this skewed responsibility across the life cycle of plastics and respect both history and financial means of states so that participation is comprehensive in such a treaty ( Tessnow-von Wysocki and Le Billon, 2019 ).

A global treaty must also link the issue to the global trade of plastics, while having financial mechanisms in place to support implementation measures. This is especially needed in developing countries – for example polluters pay options, must associate costs with recovery and disposal of products into a product it to begin with ( Tessnow-von Wysocki and Le Billon, 2019 ). Moreover, due to the shortcomings in managing the global plastic industry, made up of small to large multinational companies ( Raubenheimer et al., 2018 ) it has proved difficult to govern globally. Raubenheimer and Urho (2020) provide four goals that a new global agreement should entail. These include (1) sustainable waste management, (2) Elimination of problematic products, (3) Reduction in chemical hazards, and (4) Sustainable management of products.

We can achieve this by reducing production of virgin plastics ( Simon et al., 2021 ), increasing profitability of post-consumer plastic, eliminating harmful chemicals, and providing legislative support to the recycling industry ( Raubenheimer and McIlgorm, 2018b ). Embedded within the agreement must be encouragement of private investment in collection and sorting centers, full recycling of post-consumer material, and shifting economies to the circular model ( Raubenheimer and McIlgorm, 2018a ). Raubenheimer ultimately stood out as the key author in the literature on designing a global plastic agreement. Some of the key objectives for design included the need to be followed up via measurable targets and caps on production and consumption 4 . Moreover, trade restrictions were found to help multinational agreements in treaty participation, control, and compliance ( Raubenheimer and McIlgorm, 2018b ; Tessnow-von Wysocki and Le Billon, 2019 ). In the end, when designing a treaty we must start at the source – product design and virgin plastic materials. A treaty must include an agreed upon goal to reduce the production and consumption of virgin materials while circularizing economies to incentivize better product designs ( Simon et al., 2021 ), which would in turn create more profitability in recycling centers (once hazardous chemicals are removed from plastics life cycle) especially when products are designed to be easily recycled.

The following section synthesizes the results of the peer reviewed global plastic governance literature as examined in this review ( Figure 2 , path 6 from left). In doing so, it offers critical reflections on researchers’ findings, lack of attention in other fields, and recommended path forward actions in creating a global treaty.

Are There More Important Treaties?

We identified gaps in the literature, mainly concerning how such an agreement can effectively and overarchingly be implemented on a global scale. The findings indicated that the literature is significantly lacking research from developing nations and their primary solution perspectives beyond that of case studies which were not included in the review. There was also a significant deficiency of literature on other topics within the subject of how to protect our environmental and ecosystems health. We then discovered authors who believe there are more important topics to address first. One of these authors examines why climate change and overfishing are more serious crises that have yet to be adequately addressed ( Stafford and Jones, 2019 ). Despite their beliefs, the authors claim that they want to highlight how the media makes it convenient to focus on the plastic problem without taking systematic action to tackle climate change. Other literature has focused on ocean acidification as a separate and not equal issue that threatens our lifestyles ( Tiller et al., 2019 ), an arguably invisible crises that is far more dangerous, and yet further away on the political agenda. The general public has become well-versed in the crisis of plastic, and the urgency deserves to be transferred to other threats that are less tangible and manageable, they argue. Overall marine debris and plastic pollution governance must either compete or cooperate with ocean warming and acidification ( Raubenheimer and McIlgorm, 2018a ; Tiller et al., 2019 ). The focus of plastic pollution is argued to not be marine based at all, as the pollution stems from land-based actions in the first place.

Human Health

We made the methodological decision to not include the vast literature on health and social justice in this review as it was not found in our literature search within the framework of this review. However, future studies could contribute greatly to the addition of the growing health concern plastic poses on society and ecosystems. Mattsson et al. (2017) for example demonstrates how for the first time, direct links between nanoplastic and brain tissues were able to observe behavioral disorders from the smallest plankton to the largest apex predator. Nanoplastics are not only believed to disrupt our environment and wildlife, but even believed to make their way up to the top of all food chains, Humans. Other scholars corroborate how this is not an ocean only problem, as nanoplastics can be found in our drinking water, land-based food sources, as well as the air we breathe ( Revel et al., 2018 ). Research on how plastic effects human health can drive change on par with the Montreal Protocol, the unfortunate question needed to be asked is, when? Notwithstanding, environmental norms gain strength when an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence of the harm is consolidated, activism is intensified, and political and corporate resistance is weak ( Dauvergne, 2018a ). Therefore, research must continue to be funded to allow for better understanding of plastics effects on all walks of life to create an agreement that addresses the plastic crisis at the appropriate scale.

Conclusion: A Global Agreement Ahead

The literature on the need for a global solution is growing, and this review observed significant publications in 2018 following the third UNEA session in 2017. In 2021 at the fifth UNEA session the idea adopting a mandate to begin negotiations was widely accepted, and that mandate is expected at UNEA 5.2 in February 2022. Throughout this literature review we have examined the overarching crisis of plastic pollution and how our current international instruments in place are nowhere near effective enough to implement, enforce, and monitor a global agreement ( Chen, 2015 ; Rochman, 2016 ; Borrelle et al., 2017 ; Dauvergne, 2018b ; Haward, 2018 ; Lam et al., 2018 ; Mendenhall, 2018 ; Raubenheimer and McIlgorm, 2018b ; Vince and Hardesty, 2018 ; Nyka, 2019 ; Schröder and Chillcott, 2019 ). The literature was also found to have strong links to plastics at the micro level, where scholars believe there are lessons to be learned in how governments took swift action on banning the material in consumer products ( Rochman et al., 2015 ; Thompson, 2015 ; Dauvergne, 2018a ; Gallo et al., 2018 ; Barboza et al., 2019 ; da Costa et al., 2020 ).

A legally binding global agreement on plastics will need to include market-based solutions, EPR schemes (which include recovering and recirculation into the circular economy), as well as active markets. With active markets we can include proven initiatives such as recycling material quotas, strategic targets, as well as full transparency for consumers on environmental impacts when purchasing products. We have a need for more than just descriptions of problems – we need solutions as well. As Borja and Elliott (2019) asked, “…what are the solutions to this land-based…problem given that we cannot put the genie back in the (non-recycled) bottle?” Various authors have also discussed what they believe an agreement would need to include in terms of its design ( Carlini and Kleine, 2018 ; Raubenheimer and McIlgorm, 2018b ; Tiller and Nyman, 2018 ; Stoett and Vince, 2019 ; Tessnow-von Wysocki and Le Billon, 2019 ). The overarching theme from the beginning was clear that an ILBI must learn from the prosperities and pitfalls of past environmental agreements and norms ( Stoett and Vince, 2019 ; Loges and Jakobi, 2020 ; Thushari and Senevirathna, 2020 ).

Moreover, the topic of top-down solutions demonstrated that without action at the local, regional, and national levels an international agreement will be meaningless in preventing land-based pollution from entering the oceans ( Wu, 2020 ). Solutions vary depending on where you live and what type of infrastructure your community already has in place, but change must be promoted across levels of governance ( Löhr et al., 2017 ; Ten Brink et al., 2018 ). Transforming current linear economies into circular ones is an effective first step to the solution as well. Finally, diversity is of utmost importance to understand the needs and struggles between countries to implement what is to come on an international plastic agreement ( Alpizar et al., 2020 ).

As such, the literature suggests that mixed solutions to a global agreement is an important step to building an agreement. One of the most prominent is industry responsibility ( Rochman, 2016 ; Ogunola et al., 2018 ). Industry must be pressured with EPR schemes to ensure legal responsibility on products from creation to end of life ( Monroe, 2013 ; Landon-Lane, 2018 ; Forrest et al., 2019 ; Raubenheimer and Urho, 2020 ). Incentives should be included to foster better products in the design stage, which will translate over to the recycling phase. In this sense it is vital to take the science-policy interface into account to include diverse research into how we can better design products to be easily recycled instead of the current, easily discarded. Moreover, marine debris networks can be key to ensuring global compliance withing an agreement. These networks, which aim to stop pollution from entering our oceans, aim to provide platforms of engagement and education through a bottom-up approach ( Kandziora et al., 2019 ; Stoll et al., 2020 ). This should be included in future agreements to allow networking and collaboration between the various actors involved in the agreement creation.

Finally, for a globally binding plastic agreement to work it will require excellent design. There is no one size fits all guideline for the world. That means that an agreement must consider challenges between and within nations and include a fund to ensure no countries are left behind. This review identified scholars who have excelled in examining the best practices for designing a plastic agreement ( Carlini and Kleine, 2018 ; Raubenheimer and McIlgorm, 2018b ; Tiller and Nyman, 2018 ; Tessnow-von Wysocki and Le Billon, 2019 ; Simon et al., 2021 ). The authors suggested targets including mixed methods of both top-down and bottom-up driven solutions will be best for a global agreement. The question now lays on the back of the UNEA 5.2 committee to finally begin negotiations of a global plastic agreement.

Author Contributions

RT and EC contributed to conception and design of the study, organized the database, and wrote sections of the manuscript. EC wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors contributed to manuscript revision, read, and approved the submitted version.

The publication is part of a project that has received funding from The Research Council of Norway under project number 318730 – PLASTICENE. The research has also received funding from the European Union Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme under grant agreement no. 774499 – GoJelly project. This publication reflects the views of the authors, and neither the Research Council of Norway nor European Union can be held responsible for any use which might be made of the information contained therein.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

• ^ WWF has complied a ‘Global Plastic Navigator’ which demonstrates each country that has publicly called for a new legally binding agreement as well as countries that agree to consider an agreement. Available at: https://plasticnavigator.wwf.de/
• ^ Aurisano et al. (2021) states that currently the Stockholm Convention is our only agreement in place to regulate the production phase of plastic. It fails in that it only includes a limited amount of chemicals prohibited from the list, while more than 1500 chemicals used in plastic production have been identified as harmful, yet not prohibited.
• ^ https://discardstudies.com/2021/02/15/on-wishcycling/
• ^ The agreement must set strict pollution prevention targets which will be implemented at the local, national, and supranational levels based on analyses of plastic flows ( Simon et al., 2021 ).

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Keywords : plastic pollution, extended producer responsibility, global plastic governance, international agreement, literature review

Citation: Cowan E and Tiller R (2021) What Shall We Do With a Sea of Plastics? A Systematic Literature Review on How to Pave the Road Toward a Global Comprehensive Plastic Governance Agreement. Front. Mar. Sci. 8:798534. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2021.798534

Received: 20 October 2021; Accepted: 01 November 2021; Published: 30 November 2021.

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Copyright © 2021 Cowan and Tiller. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Emily Cowan, [email protected]

† ORCID: Emily Cowan, orcid.org/0000-0002-3550-0449 ; Rachel Tiller, orcid.org/0000-0002-2505-9194

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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An overview of the environmental pollution and health effects associated with waste landfilling and open dumping

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• Volume 29 , pages 58514–58536, ( 2022 )

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• John N. Hahladakis   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8776-6345 1 &
• Wadha Ahmed K A Al-Attiya 2  

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Landfilling is one of the most common waste management methods employed in all countries alike, irrespective of their developmental status. The most commonly used types of landfills are (a) municipal solid waste landfill, (b) industrial waste landfill, and (c) hazardous waste landfill. There is, also, an emerging landfill type called “green waste landfill” that is, occasionally, being used. Most landfills, including those discussed in this review article, are controlled and engineered establishments, wherein the waste ought to abide with certain regulations regarding their quality and quantity. However, illegal and uncontrolled “landfills” (mostly known as open dumpsites) are, unfortunately, prevalent in many developing countries. Due to the widespread use of landfilling, even as of today, it is imperative to examine any environmental- and/or health-related issues that have emerged. The present study seeks to determine the environmental pollution and health effects associated with waste landfilling by adopting a desk review design. It is revealed that landfilling is associated with various environmental pollution problems, namely, (a) underground water pollution due to the leaching of organic, inorganic, and various other substances of concern (SoC) contained in the waste, (b) air pollution due to suspension of particles, (c) odor pollution from the deposition of municipal solid waste (MSW), and (d) even marine pollution from any potential run-offs. Furthermore, health impacts may occur through the pollution of the underground water and the emissions of gases, leading to carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects of the exposed population living in their vicinity.

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Introduction

Environmental pollution has inherently been associated with health issues including the spread of diseases, i.e., typhoid and cholera, some of which are largely seen as waterborne diseases (Zhao et al. 2015 ). There are also non-communicable diseases (NCDs) that are brought about due to environmental pollution, such as cancer and asthma, or several defects evident at birth among infants (Reinhart and Townsend 2018 ). The significant adverse effects of environmental pollution on health-related outcomes have largely been evidenced in low-income countries, where an estimated 90% of the deaths are, in fact, caused by that type of pollution. The two most established forms of pollution in low-income countries are those of air and water. This is contrary to the economies that are rapidly developing, where the toxicity of chemicals and pesticides constitutes the main forms of environmental pollution (Xu et al. 2018 ).

Several human activities that include, among others, technological applications to change the ecosystems may, also, result in environmental pollution (Nadal et al. 2016 ). Other forms of pollution may be energy oriented, e.g., light, heat, sound, or several other chemical substances of concern (SoC). The pollutants can either be foreign energies/substances or contaminants that occur naturally (Gworek et al. 2016 ).

The urbanization and industrialization growth around the world has resulted into introduction of several SoC into the air, hence bringing about the respective type of pollution. It is through the earth’s atmosphere that life on our planet is fully supported (Duan et al. 2015 ).

Yang et al. ( 2018 ) identified five classes of pollutants: particulates, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide (CO). In their study, they reported that in cities and centers, like Karachi and Islamabad, the leading air pollutants included carbon emissions and lead (Pb) (Yang et al. 2018 ). On the other hand, several types of water pollution exist, resulting in waterborne diseases (Joshi et al. 2016 ). Some of these waterborne diseases include typhoid, amoebiasis, and ascariasis. Various elements, depending on the concentration they occur, are considered toxic to humans. Therefore, if such an element is released in the air, water, or land, it can result into health complications/issues.

The different types of pollutants can be classified into inorganic, organic, or biological. Organic pollutants include the domestic, agricultural, and industrial waste that adversely harm the life and health of animals and human beings living on the earth. Inorganic pollutants mostly include the potentially toxic elements (PTEs), like mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd). Most of these SoC get accumulated within supply chains, thereby largely harming the earth living organisms (Majolagbe et al. 2017 ). There are, also, biological pollutants that are anthropogenic derived. The key types of biological pollutants within the environment include viruses, bacteria, and/or several forms of pathogens (Marfe and Di Stefano 2016 ).

PTEs are regarded as one of the most important environmental pollutants, mainly due to their non-degradability, high persistence, and toxicity (Hahladakis et al. 2013 , 2016 ). In their simplest form, PTEs occur naturally, and they have high atomic weight and density as compared to the one that water has. Of all the pollutants, greater attention has been given to PTEs (Mazza et al. 2015 ). Usually, these PTEs are present in trace levels in the naturally produced water, but the key challenge is that some of these PTEs are equally toxic even at low concentration levels. Some of these metals like zinc (Zn), cobalt (Co), Hg, Cd, and Pb and the metalloid arsenic (As) have high toxicity even when present in traces. When the body metabolizes these PTEs, they become toxic, being accumulated on soft tissues. There are various avenues through which these PTEs can gain access to human bodies, for instance, through absorption via the skin, food, and air, as well as water (Damigos et al. 2016 ).

There are various adverse environmental effects related with the PTEs. The majority of the PTEs are non-biodegradable and thus cannot go through degradation either chemically or microbially. Hence, their long-term influence is released via the ground and through the soil. At the same time, the PTEs can slowly find their way through drinking water which enters the human body. Reportedly, the contamination of water by PTEs has significant influence on all forms of animals (Annamalai 2015 ).

Toxic chemicals have emerged as a critical source of pollution all over the world. Their situation as environmental pollutants has largely been demonstrated and underpinned among low-income countries, where poor or inappropriate environmental controls take place. Common examples of toxic chemicals being major pollutants include any exposure to PTEs, e.g., Pb and Hg. Of the entire population across the planet, children are the most affected people when it comes to environmental pollution since any particle getting through their system may potentially results in long-term disabilities, as well as premature deaths (Kumar et al. 2017 ).

In an effort to prevent the aforementioned forms of environmental pollution, most countries have devised ways of preventing or minimizing any occurring impacts through proper disposal and/or burying of waste. Two ways are the most commonly applied: open dumping and/or landfilling. A dump is considered as an opening on the ground that is used for burying trash (Gavrilescu et al. 2015 ). On the other hand, a landfill is seen as a structure properly designed and built into or on the top of the ground. It is through a landfill that the necessary isolation of waste from the surrounding occurs. A controlled landfill ensures that waste is buried in an engineered manner, isolated from the ground water, while mostly maintaining the waste in a dry form (Indelicato et al. 2017b ).

The rationale for the increased use of landfills is the environmental protection and prevention of pollutants entering the soil and, in turn, the underground water. This is obtained via a two way procedure: (a) application of a clay liner to ensure waste does not leave the landfill (sanitary landfills) and (b) application of synthetic liners, including plastic, to ensure that the landfilled waste is separated from the land (municipal landfill) (Mmereki et al. 2016 ). Although landfilling is structured with the aim of reducing waste, it may affect the three types of media previously identified and usually polluted (land, air, and water). After the waste is disposed in landfills, they are compacted to fill the entire area before being buried (Joshi et al. 2017 ). The rationale for this is to ensure that it will not come into contact with the environment. It, also, ensures that the waste is kept as dry as possible, limiting its contact with air so that it does not easily rot. It has been estimated that about 55% of the waste generated in the USA in 2008 was landfilled (US EPA 2008 ). Due to its widespread use, it is important to examine environmental pollution and health issues related with the landfills that have emerged across the world presently (Domingo et al. 2015 ).

Methodology

The present study will adopt a desk review methodology. Przydatek and Kanownik ( 2019 ) define desk study as the collection of information from available sources, and it is one of the low-cost techniques, compared to field work (Przydatek and Kanownik 2019 ). During desk review, the study scans the available body of literature, carries out an analysis of the secondary data in place, and establishes a reference list at the end of the information/data collected. This helps in ensuring that the produced document is well organized and presented in a manner that is easily accessible.

Various scientific databases have been searched for this purpose, such as ResearchGate, ScienceDirect, eNature, JSTOR, LiveScience, Google Scholar, and Scopus. Different terms have been used in the search field areas, like “Water landfilling” AND “Health impacts” OR “Uncontrolled filling” AND “environment” “Health impacts” OR “Opened dump sites” AND “Health” OR “Landfills” OR “Pollution” OR “Dumpsite” “Environmental issues” OR “Health issues” OR “Waste management.” The produced results were narrowed down to include the last 10 years of publication from 2010 to 2020 to have an updated and critical review. The selected articles included both research and review articles. Upon this selection, the final results were then scanned for relevance to the review by previewing the abstracts and the titles. The relevant articles were then downloaded and reviewed thoroughly.

In the present review article, the delivered information will be organized under the following themes and sections: the third section, “Waste landfilling”; the fourth section, “Waste landfilling and environmental pollution”; and the fifth section, “Waste landfilling and human health risks.”

• Waste landfilling

A landfill is an engineered pit, particularly designed for receiving compacted solid waste and equipped with specific covering, so that the waste can be disposed of. There is a lining at the bottom of the landfill so to ensure that the waste does not pollute underground water (see Fig. 1 ). The design of landfills is such that they accept concentrated wastes in compacted layers so as to lower the volume.

Typical layout of a waste landfill. (Redrawn from source: available at http://ocw.jhsph.edu )

The bottom of a landfill is protected to ensure that underground water is not contaminated. In essence, the deposited waste should be covered by soil at the end of each day. This will ensure that animals and flies are not able to dig up the waste. It also prevents undesired odors to get in the air and pollute the environment. In advanced — engineered — landfills, the bottom comprises of liner systems on the sides; there is also a leachate system and an underground monitoring system, as well as a gas extraction system. The gas extracted from landfills is used for energy production. There are, also, landfills possessing anaerobic or aerobic bioreactors: these help in accelerating the process of decomposition of organic waste within the landfill. The overall system provides, also, a conducive environment for microorganisms to decompose the existing waste.

The construction of landfills nearby residential areas is usually associated with effects like the accumulation of CH 4 gases and contamination of underground water, as well as destruction of properties. This is particularly evident when landfills are not well engineered and/or maintained in a decent operational state; in such cases, there might be some leakages within the underground water, adversely affecting the life of the adjacent residents. In such a situation, people might need to consider relocating. In rural areas, most of the landfills are closed and small in size that rarely affect the quality of living; however, there might influence the value of the nearby properties.

Types of waste landfills

The most commonly used types of landfills are (a) municipal solid waste landfills, (b) industrial waste landfills, and (c) hazardous waste landfills. There is, also, an emerging landfill type called “green waste landfill” that is, occasionally, being used. All the aforementioned types should, above all, be sanitary. So, before analyzing each independent type separately, it is considered necessary to elaborate and describe the “sanitary” term and present the main characteristics of a sanitary landfill.

Sanitary landfills

A sanitary landfill is simply a pit whose bottom is protected with a lining so that waste and other forms of trash are buried in layers, thus making it more solid/stable. It is at the sanitary landfills that waste is isolated from the environment in such a way that it is rendered safe. The waste is only considered to be safe after it has undergone complete biological, chemical, and physical degradation. The degree waste isolation within the sanitary landfills differs on the basis of the classification of the economies. For instance, in high-income economies, the degree of isolation is deemed to be very high (Ziraba et al. 2016 ).

The key role in the sanitary landfill is to ensure that all waste is placed in as safe as possible manner. It, also, facilitates safe decomposition of waste with the layers playing an important role in speeding up the process. The CH 4 gas produced by the decomposition of the landfilled waste is harnessed and used to generate energy. Furthermore, the existing clay layer within the sanitary landfills ensures waste isolation from the environment (Rahmat et al. 2017 ). In addition, various designs and engineering methods are implemented since this is considered an important step in ensuring that there is no environmental contamination from the solid waste disposed in the sanitary landfills. In the event that the land used for the purpose of landfilling is filled up, impervious clay is used for sealing it and rendering it safe, so that the area can be further used for other activities (Qasim and Chiang 2017 ).

As earlier indicated, sanitary landfills largely operate by ensuring that waste is layered in large holes. There are various levels of layering that facilitate the entire process of waste decomposition, besides trapping the released toxic gases. The structure of these layers is such that the bottom part carries the smallest volume of waste, whereas the top part should bear the largest one. This is important to ensure that the surrounding land area does not collapse.

There are four specific layers within the sanitary landfills that play an important role in the entire process of the waste decomposition. The first layer is the one found at the bottom, which acts as the foundation of the sanitary landfill. This layer is made of dense and compact clay so that there is no waste seepage and thus no environmental (underground) pollution. It is on the basis of this reason that the clay used within the sanitary landfills is regarded as impervious (Rajaeifar et al. 2015 ).

The second layer is the drainage system. This layer protects the landfill from any decomposing that any waste oriented liquids could cause. Since this liquid is regarded as highly toxic, any seepage past the liner layer should be prevented. The role of the drainage system is to drain away the toxic liquids so that it does not get close to the liner system. At the same time, rainfall as well as snow may also create liquids that need to be drained out by this layer. Most of these liquids may contain contaminants that could result into corrosion of the liner system and/or contaminate the soil. In order to reduce these risks, the upper part of the landfills has perforated pipes on the greater part of the liner system. These pipes help to collect the liquids that may access the bottom of the landfills via leaching, hence the name leachates. This leachate is then directed to treatment plants via a plumbing system where it is treated for being reused (Adamcová et al. 2017 ).

The gas collection system constitutes the third layer of the sanitary landfills. Just as the way the liquids are produced within the landfills, gases are, also, naturally produced. One of these gases is CH 4 . CH 4 is toxic, as well as volatile; thereby, its release to the atmosphere could significantly contribute to the global warming effect. To prevent this from happening, extraction pipes are used to ensure the CH 4 gas is trapped and then transported to the plants for treatment and/or for generation of electricity.

Finally, the fourth layer is used to store the waste. This is the top and largest layer, used to store the waste collected by various companies. To minimize the space needed, the waste is compacted on a daily basis. At the end of this compaction process, a layer of compacted soil is applied on the surface of the sanitary landfill, so as to reduce any odors and the growth of microorganisms that are harmful, e.g., flies and pests.

Generally, sanitary landfills are designed to extend as deep as hundreds of feet, and it can take up to several years before being fully filled, after the compaction process. In the event that they are filled up, a capping is applied. In that case, a clay or plastic layer that is synthetic is introduced in the same manner as at the bottom. This is done to ensure that CH 4 gas does not escape to the atmosphere and to prevent undesirable odors. At the same time, the top layers are firmly reinforced with an approximately 2–3 feet soil layer, and then plants are planted. In turn, this land may be reclaimed and used for other reasons.

However, despite all these safety processes and measures, there is a large possibility of underground contamination due to the high toxicity of the water oriented from the buried waste. The potential pathways of these toxic wastes may include the water, as well as cultivated soil for the production of edible plants. To minimize the risk, any filled or repurposed for gardening sanitary landfills are regularly monitored for decades. Their soil is, also, regularly tested to identify any irregularities. In the event any plants are dying, it could be an indication of CH 4 release from the land. Only when the land has been tested and proven to be safe it can be used for other purposes. However, any heavy-duty activities, i.e., construction works, are not permitted in any case.

Municipal waste landfills

Municipal waste (also known as trash or garbage) is composed of all solid or semi-solid state waste and mostly includes domestic or household waste. The municipal landfills are one of the preferred methods for dealing with the largely increasing solid waste challenge. Municipal waste landfills are specifically designed so as to receive the household waste and other non-hazardous waste (Krčmar et al. 2018 ). As of 2009, there are approximately 1,908 municipal landfills in the USA, and these are managed by the states within the area of establishment (US EPA 2009 ).

Industrial waste landfills

An industrial waste landfill is where industrial waste is disposed of. While any type of solid industrial waste can be brought to these landfills, they are most often used for construction and demolition (C&D) waste disposal, which is why they are commonly known as C&D landfills. Waste could include concrete, gypsum, asphalt, bricks, and other building components (US EPA 2011 ).

Hazardous waste landfills

For obvious reasons, these types of landfills are the most closely regulated and structured landfills. They are specifically designed to hold hazardous wastes in a way that virtually eliminates the chance of it being leached and/or released into the environment. Some of the design requirements for hazardous waste landfills include double liners, double leachate collection and removal systems, leak detection systems, dispersal controls, construction quality assurance, etc. In addition to these design specifications, hazardous waste landfills undergo inspection multiple times a year to ensure that the facility is according to the latest high standards (Hazardous Waste Experts 2019 ; US EPA 2022 ).

Green waste landfills

While these landfills are not officially sanctioned landfills by the EPA, many municipalities are starting to adopt them for placing organic materials so as to get naturally decomposed. These composting sites are on the rise because most standard landfills and transfer stations are not accepting organic waste like fruits and vegetables.

Common types of green waste will include mulch, weeds, leaves, tree branches, flowers, biodegradable food waste, grass trimmings, etc.

The EPA has estimated that green waste landfills are making a bit of a difference with more than 24,000 tons of yard trimmings sent to these landfills in 2017 (US EPA 2017 ). The purpose of green waste landfills is to save space in other MSW landfills by keeping a material out that is meant to naturally decompose on its own.

Theoretical underpinning

Various theories have been developed to explain the waste management and environmental conservation achieved through the establishment of landfills. These theories include the theory of environmentally responsible behavior (ERB), the reasoned/responsible action theory, the theory of planned behavior, the environmental citizenship, the model of human interaction with the environment and the value–belief–norm theory of environmentalism. The ERB theory was originally formulated by Hines, Hungerford, and Tomera in 1986 (Hines et al. 1986 ). The theory argues that having an intention to act is a key factor that influences responsible behavior for taking care of the environment. Moreover, it debates that the intention of acting, the locus of control, the attitudes, the sense of responsibility at the personal level, and knowledge are key tenets influencing the overall ERB (Akintunde 2017 ; Hines et al. 1986 ).

The various interactions between the tenets of ERB are summarized in Fig. 2 . According to this theory, the internal control center has an influence on the intention of people to act.

Schematic representation of the “Theory of Environmentally Responsible Behavior” (ERB). (Redrawn from source: Akintunde ( 2017 )

In the management of waste, no single factor exists that brings about a change in current behavior. For instance, despite the existence of stiff regulations forbidding people from damping waste materials, some people still damp waste or other materials in large cities. As indicated in Fig. 2 , knowledge on its own is not adequate enough to lead to responsible actions and behaviors towards the environment.

The reasoned/responsible action theory was initially introduced by Martin Fishbein in 1967 and advanced and extended by Fishbein and Icek Ajzen (Akintunde 2017 ; Fishbein 1967 ). The theory argues that the various human behaviors are influenced and shaped by rational thoughts. According to this theory, there is a link between intentions to act and the final behavior of an individual as predicted by the attitudes. They are the subjective beliefs and norms that shape these attitudes. The theory of reasoned action is used to account for the time when individuals are guided by good intentions, but ensuring that these intentions are translated in good actions is affected by inadequate confidence Fig. 3 .

Theory of reasoned/responsible action. (Redrawn from source: Akintunde ( 2017 ))

Waste landfilling and environmental pollution

Landfills have been regarded as the leading avenues that contribute towards emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) across the globe. This is because a large portion of gases, including carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and carbon IV oxide are released by the landfills to the air. It is the degradation process that results into all these gases polluting the environment (Papargyropoulou et al. 2015 ). In addition, the operations carried out at the landfills have been associated with contamination of the underground water sources through the produced landfill leachate. This occurs, particularly, when the liners within the landfills are not as adequate as required. There are, also, odors coming from the landfills that pollute the air, especially of those living in nearby areas. Other pollutants associated with landfills include dust, liter, and rodents (Ilankoon et al. 2018 ).

According to Hossain et al. ( 2014 ), landfill pollution is traditionally classified in several aspects. Maybe the most common categories are those that deal with the receiving air (emissions), water (effluents), and soil (dumps and disposals). A slightly more advanced breakdown would differentiate between inland and marine waters, surface and groundwater, and troposphere and stratosphere, and perhaps, considering the satellites and other types of debris, we should probably add outer space, as well. Most of the debate and regulation of pollution is based around these classifications, but focus is increasingly moving to inter-media impacts, such as the acidification of lakes and streams induced by air pollution or the disposal of sludge and other residuals from air and water pollution control measures on soil or in the ocean.

There are several factors that shape and determine the emission of landfill by-products: the quantity, as well as quality of deposited waste, the number of years a landfill has been operating for, and the climatic factors that surround it. There are some complicated microbiological and chemical reactions occurring within landfills that create gases to the air and hence air pollution. Some of the gases being released from landfills include sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) and as well as nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), and these gases have an adverse effect on the environment. Inhaling any of these gases could result into throat and nose irritations that could potentially create asthma. Some of the landfill gases expose people that live around the area of such establishments with respiratory infections (Cucchiella et al. 2017 ).

The rainfall on landfill sites results in dissolution of inorganic and organic elements of the landfilled waste. In turn, this releases toxic chemicals that leak to the underground water systems. Such type of water shall have high metal content, and it will be toxic if consumed by humans. In the event that these chemicals get towards the lake or river systems may pose adverse influence on aquatic life (Zhang et al. 2016 ). Waste landfills have, also, been associated with air pollution across the world. For instance, it is projected that about two-third of the landfills are made of organic materials that are biodegradable. The decomposition of these materials results into release of CH 4 gas (Babayemi et al. 2016 ). This CH 4 gas helps in trapping heat in the atmosphere since it is regarded as a GHG. The effect of waste landfilling on underground water pollution is illustrated in Fig. 4 .

Route of underground water pollution-oriented landfills due to leaching. (Redrawn from source: SPREP ( 2010 ))

The development of waste landfilling affects, also, the biodiversity. For instance, developing the landfills implies that some 30–300 animal species are lost in every hectare. At the same time, there are some changes among the local species, where some of the birds and mammals are replaced with species feeding of refuse like crows and rats.

Njoku et al. ( 2019 ) performed a study in South Africa attempting to establish the link between landfills and environmental pollution. The formulated hypothesis was that the decomposed materials on landfills impact the environment of the surrounding area. It was shown from the results that about 78% of the people who live around these landfills are affected by air pollution. The people living close to landfills report, also, higher health issues including irritation of their eyes and flu. In this study, it was recommended to proper cover the landfill at the end of each day and place agents to dilute the odors (Njoku et al. 2019 ).

Vaverková et al. ( 2018 ) examined, also, landfills and their influence on the environment. In this study, it was shown that the investigated landfill had no direct and/or significant influence on the quality of water (Vaverková et al. 2018 ).

Danthurebandara et al. ( 2013 ) investigated the environmental impact of landfills and concluded that landfills do, actually, play a key role (Danthurebandara et al. 2013 ). However, it is from these landfills that approximately 20% of the global CH 4 quantity is obtained. Besides CH 4 , there are gases released from these landfills that have high level of toxicity. It is possible that leachate can find its way through the underground water mainly via the flaws found on the liners. Constructing landfills may have an adverse influence in the life of fauna and flora.

Paul et al. ( 2019 ) reported in his study that municipal solid waste (MSW) treatment in Bangladesh had a large impact on the environment. More specifically, they reported that MSW leachate caused water pollution affecting, in turn, aquatic species. They, also, reported that open dumping caused soil pollution in Islamabad, affecting soil quality and thereby crop growth, production, and agriculture. Open dumping of solid waste in Nepal led to the spread of infectious diseases. They also reported that as landfills age, the process of mineralization of waste occurs which increases the leaching properties of the waste in the landfill (Paul et al. 2019 ).

Aljaradin and Persson ( 2012 ) studied the influence of landfills on the environment in Jordan. It was shown that the most widely used method for waste management is landfilling (Aljaradin and Persson 2012 ). However, it was reported that most of the landfills are associated with higher levels of pollution, with periodic leachate and the gas release to the underground water, creating an alarming environmental situation.

Mouhoun-Chouaki et al. ( 2019 ) conducted a study on landfills and their influence on the environment. Their specific focus was on establishing the influence of disposal of solid waste on the quality of soil within Nigerian landfills (Mouhoun-Chouaki et al. 2019 ).

Conte et al. ( 2018 ) examined the influence of landfills on air pollution with reference to Italy. It was found that landfills result to air, land, and water pollution to a large degree (Conte et al. 2018 ).

Adamcová et al. ( 2017 ) conducted a study on the environmental assessment of the effects of a municipal landfill on the content and distribution of PTEs in Tanacetum vulgare. Much attention was drawn to the effect of landfills on water sources, underpinning the need of taking mitigating actions since most of the population in the area depends on the water on a daily basis. It was, furthermore, reported that in terms of environmental contamination, social inclusion, and economic sustainability, landfill mismanagement is a worldwide problem that needs integrated assessment and holistic approaches/methods for its solution. Attention should be paid in developing and developed countries, where unsustainable solid waste management is prevalent. Differences should be identified between the development of large towns and rural regions where management problems differ, particularly with regard to the quantity of waste produced and the equipment available for landfill management (Adamcová et al. 2017 ).

Wijesekara et al. ( 2014 ) investigated the fate and transport of pollutants through a MSW landfill leachate in Sri Lanka. Due to the fast pace of natural resource exploitation, technological growth, and industrial expansion, the most striking reason for the landfill and thus worldwide environmental crisis is the deteriorating relationship between man and environment. The pace of change in the environment and its resulting degradation induced by human operations has been so rapid and common. Man’s effect on the environment through his financial operations is diverse and extremely complicated, as the natural situation and process transformation or alteration leads to a sequence of modifications in the biotic and abiotic components of the environment. Landfill mismanagement causes severe toxic metal pollution in water, soil, and crops, whereas open burning causes atmospheric pollutant emissions like CO 2 . Toxic metal-oriented environmental pollution is considered one of the most harmful types of contamination, particularly to human health. Finally, the authors of that study concluded that mismanagement of landfill is a serious danger to the environment as it inhibits sustainable development growth (Wijesekara et al. 2014 ).

Huda et al. ( 2017 ) investigated the treatment of raw landfill leachate via electrocoagulation and with the use of iron-based electrodes; all the parameters involved in the process were studied and optimized. Man’s environmental effects can either be direct and intentional or indirect and unintentional. Direct or deliberate effects of human activity are pre-planned and premeditated because man is conscious of the effects, both positive and negative, of any program initiated to alter or modify the natural environment for the economic development of the region involved. Within a brief period of time, the impacts of anthropogenic modifications in the setting are noticeable and reversible. On the other side, the indirect environmental effects of human operations are not premeditated and pre-planned, and these effects arise from those human operations aimed at accelerating the pace of economic growth, particularly industrial development. After a long time, when they become cumulative, the indirect effects are encountered (Huda et al. 2017 ). These indirect impacts of human economic activity can alter the general natural environment structure, and the chain impacts sometimes degrade the environment to such a degree that it becomes suicidal to humans.

Kalčíková et al. ( 2015 ) investigated the application of multiple toxicity tests in monitoring the landfill leachate treatment efficiency. Landfilling is still the prevalent option globally. It has been the main disposal technique of MSW in the latest decades as it is the easiest and most economical practice in many nations, especially in developing ones. Unfortunately, by hosting various stray animals and proliferating insect vectors of a lot of illnesses, these open landfills lead to severe health hazards. By producing both leachate and biogas, they also pose nuisance and significant environmental effects. The leachate conveys a significant pollution load that mainly consists of toxic metals, organic matter, and a significant community of pathogenic organisms: it causes organic, bacteriological, and toxic metal pollution of soil, surface water, and groundwater by leaching and ground infiltration.

Talalaj and Biedka ( 2016 ) conducted a study on the quality assessment of groundwater near landfill sites using the landfill water pollution index (LWPI). Due to the increase in human population and industrial and technological revolutions, waste management has become increasingly challenging and complicated, while processes that regulate the destiny of waste in the soil are complicated and some even poorly known. Sanitary landfill is the most popular and convenient technique of MSW disposal. Sanitary landfills provide better odor-free esthetic control. Often, however, unknown content industrial waste is mixed with domestic waste. Infiltration of groundwater and water supply contamination are prevalent. Unless properly managed, leaching and migration of SoC from waste sites or landfills and the release of various pollutants from sediments (under certain circumstances) pose a high threat to groundwater resources. Protection of groundwater has become a major environmental problem that needs to be addressed. Open dumps are the oldest and most popular way to dispose solid waste, and while thousands have been closed in the latest years, many are still being used (ISWA 2016 ). Some of the MSW disposal techniques that are frequently used include composting, sanitary landfilling, pyrolysis, recycling, and reuse (Talalaj and Biedka 2016 ).

Jayawardhana et al. ( 2016 ) investigated on MSW biochar for preventing pollution from landfill leachate. The immediate input of (primarily human) waste materials into the environment is usually connected with conventional or classic pollutants. Rapid urbanization and fast population growth have resulted in sewage issues as treatment facilities have failed to keep pace with the need. Untreated sewage from municipal wastewater systems and septic tanks in untreated fields contribute important amounts of nutrients, suspended solids, dissolved solids, petroleum, metals/metalloids (As, Hg, Cr, Pb, Fe, and Mn), and biodegradable organic carbon to the water ecosystem. Conventional pollutants can cause a multitude of issues with regard to water pollution. Excess suspended solids block the sun’s energy and thus influence the process of transformation of carbon dioxide–oxygen, which is essential for maintaining the biological food chain. In addition, elevated levels of suspended solids silt up waterways and channels of navigation, necessitating frequent dredging. For drinking and crop irrigation, excess dissolved solids render the water undesirable (Jayawardhana et al. 2016 ).

Another study conducted on an unlined MSW landfill in the Varanasi district of Uttar Pradesh in India showed that rainfall can have a major impact on the migration of leachate such as Fe, nitrate (NO 3 − ,) total dissolved solids (TDS), phosphate (PO 4 − ), and ions responsible for the electrical conductivity. Post monsoon, the groundwater quality, at several sampled stations, dropped either below the acceptable limit or the extent of groundwater pollution increased (Mishra et al. 2019 ).

The impact of landfill on the surrounding environment can be diverse depending on the different processes or methods that have been employed to it. In the work conducted by Yadav and Samadder ( 2018 ), different scenarios of MSW landfilling were studied, such as collection and transportation (S 1 ); recycling, open burning, open dumping, and unsanitary landfilling without energy recovery (S 2 ); composting and landfilling (S 3 ); recycling, composting and landfilling (S 3 ); and recycling, composting, and landfilling of inert waste without energy recovery (S 4 ). It was found that each of the scenarios showed different degrees of environmental impact. For example, S 1 had the highest contribution to ecotoxicity in the marine ecosystem; S 2 contributed largely to global warming, acidification, eutrophication, and human toxicity; S 3 had high impact on the depletion of abiotic resources such as fossil fuels and also responsible for aquatic and terrestrial ecotoxicity among others (Yadav and Samadder 2018 ). This demonstrates how a variety of processes can interplay in the landfill system to create a number of impacts, even with human interventions.

Although improper waste disposal results in the emissions of unwanted environmental pollutants such as GHG, a study conducted by Araújo et al. ( 2018 ) confirmed that simple sanitary landfills generated the highest amount of CO 2 , followed by sanitary landfill with CH 4 collection, municipal incineration, and finally reutilization of woody waste (Araújo et al. 2018 ). This sheds some hope that proper intervention, such as reutilization and controlled release of pollutants, can be a potential method to reduce the emissions from landfilling.

Kazour et al. ( 2019 ) focused on the sources of microplastic pollution in the marine ecosystem. The study concluded that landfills close to the coastal waters were important sources of microplastic pollution in the ocean. Microplastics (MPs) were found in the leachate of active and closed landfills, suggesting that the location of the landfill also plays significant role in its characteristics of releasing plastics. The study found that inner lagoons with low water movement accumulated large amounts of MPs than the outer lagoon, which suggests that these MPs will be available as a contaminant in the marine environment (Kazour et al. 2019 ).

Another study conducted by He et al. ( 2019 ) reported that landfills that accumulate plastics do not act as final sinks for plastics but rather as a new source of MPs. They suggested that these MPs undergo breakdown due to exposure to the UV light and the prevalent conditions in the landfill (He et al. 2019 ). This study underpinned the impact of the landfill on coastal environments which are considered fragile ecosystems harboring large diversities.

Meanwhile, a study conducted by Brand and Spencer ( 2019 ) investigated the ecological impact of historical landfills located in the coastal zones. They reported that changing climate and proximity to coast can increase the changes of waste release into the waters due to erosion, storms, or even the collapse of the landfill due to age and infiltration of water. Historic landfills are unregulated as they predate modern environmental regulations and are no longer maintained or managed by previous operators. Thus, unmanaged landfills have detrimental impact especially because such landfills can have a wide mixture of waste. The authors of this study speculated that any metal release (derived from the wastes) to the adjacent Thames estuary, should they erode completely, will, i.e., increase the copper (Cu) levels 6.4 times. This will have long-term ecological impacts on the flora and fauna in the immediate vicinity and throughout the marine ecosystem. As of now, most metals exceed interim sediment quality guidelines (ISQG) levels (Brand and Spencer 2019 ). This study highlights the importance of maintaining the landfills of today’s society and their maintenance. Future considerations must also be made to existing landfills so that they may be managed well into the future without threatening the societal ecological balance.

Adamcová et al. ( 2017 ) pointed in two ominous directions: (a) towards big and increasing release of certain chemicals, primarily from burning fossil fuels, which are now considerably modifying natural systems on a worldwide scale, and (b) towards constant rises in the use and release of countless biocide goods and poisonous substances into the atmosphere. These raise a more severe issue presenting tremendous problems to the societies, both developed and developing. They concluded that several large-scale social and technological transitions are required to tackle the severe pollution problems in the coming decades (Adamcová et al. 2017 ).

Guerrero-Rodriguez et al. ( 2014 ) suggested that today’s pollution from landfill is integrally linked to financial manufacturing, contemporary technology, lifestyles, sizes of populations of humans and animals, and a host of other variables. Except for wide macro-transitions with various social benefits, it is unlikely to yield. These transitions include moving away from fossil fuels and waste-intensive techniques, bringing to bear our most advanced science, changing prices and other financial incentives, perceiving emissions as either trans boundary or global, and moving towards world population that is very stable (Guerrero-Rodriguez et al. 2014 ).

According to Majolagbe et al. ( 2017 ), land is frequently used as a waste treatment recipient, accepting spills of waste. Land pollution is the degradation of the earth’s land surface by bad farming methods, mineral exploitation, industrial waste dumping, and indiscriminate urban waste disposal. For a lot of municipal and some industrial waste, recycling of materials is practical to some extent, where a tiny, but increasing percentage of solid waste, is being recycled. However, when waste is mixed, recovery becomes hard and costly.

The former statement has been analyzed, along with new proposed methods in order to sort ferrous and nonferrous metals, plastics, paper, glass, etc., and many communities are implementing recycling programs that require separation of commingled waste. Developing better handling techniques, inventing new products for recycled materials, and finding new markets for them still remain crucial problems for the recycling sector (Hahladakis and Aljabri 2019 ; Hahladakis and Iacovidou 2018 , 2019 ; Hahladakis et al. 2018 ; Majolagbe et al. 2017 ).

Waste landfilling and human health risks

Love Canal is one of the most widely acknowledged landfill which is located in New York. During the periods of the 1930s to the 1940s, a huge volume of toxic materials was deposited. This was followed by establishing residential houses and learning institutions around this landfill in the 1950s. As of the mid-1970s, a number of chemicals were detected to have been leaked to the nearby streams and sewers. This has resulted into various studies being carried out to explore how this affected the human health. Most of the studies carried out have revealed that landfilling has, indeed, been associated with health issues, as a result of emissions of SoC to the air.

In Italy, studies have been carried out to reveal any effects associated with living closer to areas where there is landfilling. It was revealed that hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) was associated with lung cancer and other respiratory health issues. The most affected part of the population was the children.

Vrijheid ( 2000 ) reported on the health issues that are related with people living closer to landfilling. The trigger point for this study was the fact that some specific form of cancer and defects at birth as well as low birth weight have been linked with individuals that live closer to landfilling areas. It was shown that living closer to landfilling areas is associated with respiratory diseases like asthma. This is largely attributed to the emissions of the gases to the air that affect the health outcomes of individuals (Vrijheid 2000 ).

Limoli et al. ( 2019 ) reported that illegal landfilling has adverse health effects on people living near the landfills and that it is more harmful to children, as their immune systems are still developing and because they spend most of the time outside their homes. They noted that health impacts can range from acute intoxication to carcinogenicity, endocrine-related toxicity, genotoxicity, and mutagenicity, depending on the contaminants. Upon contact with water, some contaminants dissolve and leach into the soil and contaminate the underwater table. Such pollutants that dissolve into the liquid phase include ammonium nitrogen that can cause eutrophication, chlorides that can alter the reproductive rates of marine animals and plants, organic matter that contributes to the deterioration of the water quality, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) that can cause bioaccumulation, and biomagnification in the food chain and sulfates that may increase nutrient levels in the water body, leading to eutrophication, in addition to fostering the production of methylmercury by some bacteria which is toxic. As part of the gaseous emissions, NOx triggers photochemical smog and contributes to acid rain and phytotoxic, particulate organic matter reduces photosynthetic rate and aids in photochemical smog formation, sulfur oxides cause acid rains, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) cause the formation of harmful ground-level ozone. Besides these, many types of hazardous wastes can also be added such as PTEs that lower water quality; radionuclides and pathogenic waste are severely harmful for the living organisms (Limoli et al. 2019 ).

Mattiello et al. ( 2013 ) sought to determine how disposing solid waste in landfills affects health outcomes. The study systematically reviewed the available information on the subject under consideration. It was shown that the health issues linked with landfills include respiratory diseases and possible hospitalization especially among children (Mattiello et al. 2013 ). Maheshwari et al. ( 2015 ) focused on landfill waste and its influence on health outcomes. The review of information showed that landfills are associated with air, water, and land pollution problems around the world. These forms of pollution have adverse influence on people especially children who have weak immunity systems. Pollution of the environment through dumping of waste is associated with health issues on a long-term basis. The gases that are emitted from the landfills result into environmental pollution, and they are also associated with a number of issues related with cancer (Maheshwari et al. 2015 ).

Xu et al. ( 2018 ) conducted a study to find out the correlation of air pollutants associated with land filling on the respiratory health of children living in the proximity of a particular landfill in china. They reported that CH 4 , H 2 S, CO 2 , NH 4 , and other air pollutants were released with anaerobic decomposition of waste in the MSW landfills. While the concentration of these pollutants have been published to be lower than regulatory limits, any exposure to land fill gases (LFG) such as those of H 2 S and NH 4 , even at lower concentrations, had a negative impact on the respiratory system and the general immunity of children living near the landfill. Children living closer to the landfills showed lower levels of lysozyme associated with exposure to CH 4 and H 2 S and lower SIgA levels associated with H 2 S and NH 3 . These two factors are measured as they are among the first line of defense in the human body, and their lower levels in children reduced their immunity. They, also, established that as the distance from landfill increases, the effects are reduced (Xu et al. 2018 ). This experiment yet again establishes the health impact landfills have on young children as a manifestation of a pathology and as an impact on their immune system and its development.

Triassi et al. ( 2015 ) conducted a study on the environmental pollution from illegal waste disposal and health effects. Improper landfill management and shipments of illegal waste can have adverse environmental and public health effects. Different handling and disposal operations may result in negative effects arising in land, water, and air pollution. Insufficiently disposed or untreated waste can trigger severe health issues for communities surrounding the disposal zone. Waste leakages can contaminate soils and streams of water and cause air pollution by, i.e., emissions of PTEs and POPs, thereby creating eventually health risks. Other nuisances created by uncontrolled or mismanaged landfills that can negatively impact individuals include local-level effects such as deterioration of the landscape, local water, air pollution, and littering. Therefore, proper and environmentally sound management of landfill is essential for health purposes (Triassi et al. 2015 ).

A study conducted in Serbia revealed similar findings of high concentration of PTEs, such as Cu and Pb in groundwater and Hg in soil due to the leaching from uncontrolled local MSW landfills. Hg was reported to have high ecological risk for that region (Krčmar et al. 2018 ).

Melnyk et al. ( 2014 ) conducted a study on chemical pollution and toxicity of water samples from stream receiving leachate from a controlled MSW landfill. A relevant factor concerning health effects of landfill management is how much and which population is involved in such risks. Unlike in the case of urban air pollution, exposure to pollution from landfill mismanagement facilities does not affect all the inhabitants of an urban area but only a small proportion of the population residing nearby the landfill. Living in the vicinity of a landfill can pose a health danger to citizens as they may be subjected to pollutants through various routes: inhalation of SoC emitted by the site and contact with water or polluted soil, either directly or through the consumption of products or contaminated water. The greatest issues are illegal, uncontrolled landfills that receive waste at source without any choice (Melnyk et al. 2014 ).

Palmiotto et al. ( 2014 ) conducted a study on the influence of a MSW landfill in the surrounding environment. Landfill has been regarded as the oldest form of waste treatment and the most prevalent technique of structured waste disposal and has remained so in many parts of the globe. A modern landfill is an engineered establishment, specially built and equipped with protected cells. Despite the reality that growing quantities of waste are being reused, recycled, or energetically valued, landfills still play a significant role in the waste management infrastructure of many countries. The degradation of waste in the landfill results in the production of leachate and gases. These emissions pose potential threats to human health and environmental quality. Landfilling has environmental impacts, primarily because of the long-term manufacturing of CH 4 and leachate (Palmiotto et al. 2014 ).

A research by Abd El-Salam and Abu-Zuid ( 2015 ) on the effect of waste leachate on soil quality in Egypt proposed the need to adjust variables to enhance anaerobic biodegradation leading to leachate stability in relation to ongoing groundwater surveillance and leachate therapy procedures. Landfill construction and management have ecological impacts that can lead to modifications in the landscape, habitat loss, and wildlife displacement. Socio-economic effects of landfills include hazards to public health arising from leachate contamination of the ground or groundwater, the spread of litter into the wider setting, and insufficient recycling operations on site. Nuisances like flies, odors, smoke, and noise are often cited among the reasons why people do not want to live near landfills. However, depending on the real distance from the landfill, landfills are likely to have an adverse impact on housing values (Abd El-Salam and Abu-Zuid 2015 ).

Furthermore, Rezapour et al. ( 2018 ) found that uncontrolled leak of leachate from landfills drastically increased the concentration of various PTEs in the soil which interacted with the crops grown there. They reported that a number of metals were found in moderate quantities, except Cd which was above limits and posed moderate intensity non-carcinogenic risk to the people consuming the wheat. This study however reported that the cancer risk to the local resident was low. This study illustrates the extent of landfilling-generated pollution. The PTEs could interact with the soil system and enter the food chain, thus causing harmful effects to the human population (Rezapour et al. 2018 ).

Giusti ( 2009 ) stated that the ways of exposure that result in health effects associated with waste landfilling are inhalation, consumption, and the food chain. He, also, noted that the health risks associated with individuals directly involved in the waste management system is much higher due to their proximity to the hazard and that the cases of adverse effects are higher among workers than the residents near the landfill. Moreover, he underpinned the fact that the waste management industry has the highest occupational accidents than other professions. For populations living in close proximity to landfills, the risk of birth defects and cancer increased (Giusti 2009 ).

A study conducted in the island of Mauritius, dealt with the impact of non-hazardous solid waste coming from the only landfill of the island. It was found that vomiting and nausea were consistent symptoms among the population. A large difference in the body mass index of men as compared to their control group was, also, noticed, a pattern that was not observed among women or children, thereby indicating that the effects of pollution can vary on the gender of the individual. Interestingly, it was also found that many other symptoms of health issues were reported; however, they were attributed to either the confounding factors or to a “pan symptom” effect, personal bias. Although this exclusion may be due to the nature of this study being dependent on patient’s information, it provides new dimension to think about personal bias or the placebo effects especially when counteracting seemingly non-threatening diseases associated with landfills, unless proved otherwise by medicinal science (Goorah et al. 2009 ).

Other studies conducted by various researchers showed that there was an increased risk of malformation of babies among women who lived close to hazardous landfill sites in Washington state and the risk increased among those living in urban areas compared to rural areas (Kuehn et al. 2007 ).

In the research of Damstra ( 2002 ), it was stated that exposure to endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) can put women at risk for breast cancer among other factors, although there are no studies that show a direct increase in the levels of breast cancer with exposure to EDC. However, Damstra claimed that the time of exposure of these chemicals in these women’s lifespan determines the risk. He also reported that studies have shown that exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in newborn and young children has resulted in neurobehavioral changes, such as immaturity in motor functions, abnormal reflexes, and low psychomotor scores, and these changes may continue into their childhood. He, also, reported that studies suggest that when mothers exposed to low levels of PCBs give birth, the babies have subtle neurobehavioral alterations (Damstra 2002 ).

Martí ( 2014 ) performed a human health risk assessment of a landfill based on volatile organic compounds emission, emission, and soil gas concentration measurements. Direct dumping of untreated waste in rivers, seas, and lakes can cause severe health hazards to accumulate toxic substances in the food chain through the plants and animals that feed on it. Human health may be affected by exposure to hazardous waste, with kids being more susceptible to these pollutants. Indeed, immediate exposure can lead to illnesses through chemical exposure, as chemical waste release into the atmosphere leads to chemical poisoning (Martí 2014 ).

Agricultural and industrial waste can also pose severe health hazards. Other than this, the co-disposal of municipal, industrial, and hazardous waste can expose individuals to chemical and radioactive risks. Uncollected solid waste can also obstruct the runoff of storm water, leading to the formation of stagnant water bodies that become the disease’s breeding ground. Waste dumped near a source of water also causes water body or groundwater source contamination (Krčmar et al. 2018 ).

Sharifi et al. ( 2016 ) performed a risk assessment on sediment and stream water polluted by toxic metals released by a MSW composting plant. Solid waste disposed of in landfills is generally subjected to complicated biochemical and physical procedures resulting in both leachate and gaseous emissions being produced. When leachate leaves the landfill and reaches water resources, it can lead to pollution of surface water and groundwater. Gas and leachate generation, mainly due to microbial decomposition, climatic circumstances, refuse features, and landfilling activities are unavoidable implications of the practice of solid waste disposal in landfills. In both current and new installations, the migration of gas and leachate away from landfill limits and their release into the atmosphere pose severe environmental concerns. These issues result to fires and explosions, vegetation harm, unpleasant odors, landfill settlement, groundwater pollution, air pollution, and worldwide warming in addition to potential health risks (Sharifi et al. 2016 )

Liu et al. ( 2016 ) conducted a study on health risk impact analysis of fugitive aromatic compound emissions from the working face of a MSW landfill in China. Over the past three decades, worldwide concern has been growing with regard to the effects of landfill mismanagement on public health. Human exposure to pollution from landfill is thought to be more intense in human life now more than ever. Pollution from landfills can, also, be caused by human activity and natural forces. The significance of environmental factors to the health and well-being of human populations is increasingly apparent. Landfill is a global issue, and it has a huge ability to impact human population health.

Landfill, in the densely settled urban-industrial centers of the more developed countries, reaches its most severe proportions. More than 80% of polluted water was used for irrigation in poor nations around the globe, with only 70–80% of food and living safety in urban and semi-urban-industrial regions (Assou et al. 2014 ).

Kret et al. ( 2018 ) conducted a study on respiratory health survey of a subsurface smoldering landfill. The water we drink is vital to our well-being and a healthy life, but unfortunately polluted water and air are prevalent worldwide. Landfill is tangled with unsustainable anthropogenic activity, leading to significant public health issues. Some of the illnesses connected with landfill pollution are infectious diseases such as cancer, birth defects, and asthma. Environmental health issues are not just a conglomerate of worries about radiological health, treatment of water and wastewater, control of air pollution, disposal of solid waste, and occupational health, but also a danger to future generation (Kret et al. 2018 ).

By looking at its definition, pollution is considered to be very harmful, too much of which occurs at the incorrect location. However, some erstwhile pollutants are useful in suitable amounts. Aquatic life requires phosphates and other plant nutrients; however, too much of these nutrients and the outcomes of eutrophication are harmful. CO 2 in the atmosphere helps to maintain the earth warm enough to be habitable, but the accumulation of vast amounts of surplus CO 2 , generated by the use of fossil fuel and other sources, is now threatening to change the climate of the planet. Other pollutants, such as dioxin and PCBs, are so toxic that even the smallest quantities pose health risks, such as cancer and impairment of reproduction. Pollutant releases to the environment are most frequently the casual by-product of some helpful activity, such as electricity generation or cow rearing. This sort of pollution is a form of waste disposal. It happens when the financial expenses of eliminating pollution are greater than the financial advantages, at least the polluter benefits (Zhang et al. 2016 ).

Although nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus are vital to the aquatic habitat, they may trigger over fertilization and accelerate the lakes’ natural aging (eutrophication) cycle. In turn, this acceleration generates an overgrowth of aquatic vegetation, huge overall shifts, and a general change in the biological community from low productivity with many varied species to elevated productivity with big numbers of a few less desirable species (Koda et al. 2017 ). Bacterial action oxidizes organic carbon that is biodegradable and consumes dissolved oxygen in water which may cause a threat to the aquatic life. In extreme cases where the loading of organic carbon is high, oxygen consumption may result in an oxygen depression that is adequate to cause fish killing and severely interrupt the development of related organisms that require oxygen to survive. A result of this pollution is water hyacinth and other floating aquatic vegetation.

It was deemed appropriate and necessary to tabulate the rest of the articles reviewed in an effort to include as much information as possible on the environmental and health effects associated with landfilling. Table 1 summarizes and depicts a consolidated view of these articles reviewed, together with any associated environmental and/or health impact of the various types of landfills reported therein.

Conclusions

This study aimed at assessing the environmental pollution and health effects associated with waste landfilling. A desk review design was adopted, and information was gathered from the already available sources. The literature review was centered along three themes: waste landfilling, waste landfilling and environmental pollution, and waste landfilling and health issues.

From the reviewed information, it was established that landfills play an important role as far as disposal of solid waste is concerned. It was shown that majority of the countries have adopted landfilling as waste management systems. The literature indicates that some landfills have lining at the bottom to prevent leakage of the waste into the underground water. The present review revealed, also, that landfills are meant to create conducive environment that enhances microorganisms’ activities and thus decomposition of the waste.

Despite the role played by landfills in the waste management sector, the reviewed literature showed that they are linked with environmental pollution. Landfills were seen to have an influence on biodiversity and the flora and fauna, as well as the aquatic life. Literature indicates that landfills are associated with environmental pollutants including mice and other rodents. The gases released from landfills result into air pollution of the area surrounding the establishment, in addition to the release of bio-contaminants. Landfills are, also, associated with pollution of the underground water, especially when the lining at the bottom is not sufficient to prevent leakage of the waste and a large body of literature supports this.

This article investigated, also, the health issues associated with landfilling. It was concluded that through landfills, there are possible chances of emission of gases into the air like CO 2 , H 2 S, CH 4 , and NO x . These gases have been associated with respiratory health challenges and some specific types of cancer, e.g., lung cancer. Carcinogenic risks were found to vary between studies but were mostly attributed to the varying characteristics of the landfill. A variety of literature suggests, also, that the environmental pollution caused by landfills creates greater risks to children living in the vicinity of the landfills. Teratogenic effects of certain elements found in the contaminated groundwater were, also, observed. Unarguably, humans produce a large amount of waste, and landfills provide the easiest and relatively efficient way of tackling these waste. However, landfilling has larger deleterious effects that seem to overweigh the benefits it provides. Better technological involvement in waste segregation and appropriate waste management techniques, stronger enforcement of regulations surrounding landfills, and setting up a larger concrete minimum distance for settlements are some of the necessary measures to be seriously considered and taken in the near future.

Data availability

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

California bearing ratio

Electrical conductivity

Endocrine-disrupting compounds

Greenhouse gases

Interim sediment quality guidelines

Landfill gas

Landfill water pollution index

Microplastics

Municipal solid waste

Non-communicable diseases

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers

Polychlorinated biphenyls

Polychlorinated dibenzofurans

Persistent organic pollutants

Potentially toxic elements

Substances of concern

Total dissolved solids

United Nations Environment Programme

US Environmental Protection Agency

United States of America

Volatile organic compounds

World Health Organization

Bisphenol A

Carbon monoxide

Hydrogen sulfide

Nitrogen oxides

Secretory immunoglobulin A

Sulfur dioxide

Secondary organic aerosols

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• Landfilling is still the predominant waste management option in many countries.

• Open dumping entails numerous environmental and, more importantly, health risks.

• Even a controlled landfill may pose environmental and human health implications.

• As per the waste hierarchy, landfilling should be the final waste management option.

• Open burning/dumping should be eliminated, and open dumpsites should close.

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Siddiqua, A., Hahladakis, J.N. & Al-Attiya, W.A.K.A. An overview of the environmental pollution and health effects associated with waste landfilling and open dumping. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29 , 58514–58536 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21578-z

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The impacts of mining industries on land tenure in ghana: a comprehensive systematic literature review.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. keyword combination, 2.2. inclusion and exclusion criteria, 2.3. literature screening and selection, 2.4. data analysis, 2.5. limitation, 3.1. legal and regulatory framework, 3.2. changes in land ownership, 3.3. environmental consequences, 3.3.1. health, 3.3.2. water pollution, 3.3.3. air and noise pollution, 3.3.4. vegetation, 3.3.5. destruction of farmlands, 3.4. socio-economic impacts, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Adjei, B.; Tudzi, E.P.; Owusu-Ansah, A.; Kidido, J.K.; Durán-Díaz, P. The Impacts of Mining Industries on Land Tenure in Ghana: A Comprehensive Systematic Literature Review. Land 2024 , 13 , 1386. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091386

Adjei B, Tudzi EP, Owusu-Ansah A, Kidido JK, Durán-Díaz P. The Impacts of Mining Industries on Land Tenure in Ghana: A Comprehensive Systematic Literature Review. Land . 2024; 13(9):1386. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091386

Adjei, Bridget, Eric Paul Tudzi, Anthony Owusu-Ansah, Joseph Kwaku Kidido, and Pamela Durán-Díaz. 2024. "The Impacts of Mining Industries on Land Tenure in Ghana: A Comprehensive Systematic Literature Review" Land 13, no. 9: 1386. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091386

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