research topics on christian ethics

34 Ethical Issues All Christians Should Know

Covering an Array of Important Topics

The purpose of Wayne Grudem’s Christian Ethics: An Introduction to Biblical Moral Reasoning is to help readers apply a biblical worldview to difficult ethical issues, including wealth and poverty, marriage and divorce, birth control, abortion, euthanasia, homosexuality, business practices, environmental stewardship, telling the truth, knowing God’s will, understanding Old Testament laws, and more.

Click on a topic below to read a brief summary of each of the ethical issues Dr. Grudem addresses in his new book. You can also download a PDF version of the summaries.

No Other Gods

No carved images, purity of speech, lying and telling the truth, the sabbath commandment, authority of parents, equality and leadership in marriage, civil government, other authorities, capital punishment, self-defense, aging and death, racial discrimination, birth control, infertility, reproductive technology, and adoption, pornography, divorce and remarriage, homosexuality and transgenderism.

• Property: The Goodness and The Necessity of Private Ownership and Property

Work, Rest, Vacations, and Retirement

• Increasing Prosperity

Poverty and Wealth

Personal financial stewardship, borrowing, lending, and the question of debt, business ethics, stewardship of the environment, purity of heart.

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We are always and everywhere in the presence of God, and he will tolerate no other small “gods” at any place or any time in our lives. When societies ignore this first commandment, much evil follows. Modern Christians need to be especially cautious of things that we can be tempted to love and serve and trust more than God, such as money, material things, food and physical pleasure, the approval of other people, power, or self.

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The second commandment prohibits making carved images to worship, but it does not prohibit all visual arts. It prohibits all images of the true God, as well as images of false gods. Specifically with regard to the Trinity, the commandment prohibits images and pictures of God the Father, but it does not prohibit pictures of Jesus Christ, because he did live on earth as a man.

The third commandment prohibits foolish or worthless use of God’s name, as well as any false or irreverent speech about God. In a broader sense this commandment warns us against not only (1) taking God’s name in vain, but also against (2) cursing others who are made in the image of God. Yet another category of speech includes (3) obscene or unclean language, in which it is important to recognize the effect that using certain offensive words will have on our reputations as Christians.

It is morally acceptable for a Christian to portray a non-Christian in a movie or a theater production, but even in that situation it would not be right to take God’s name in vain. Oaths and vows are acceptable for Christians in many situations. The Bible views humor positively, but it also must be used cautiously.

The ninth commandment (against bearing false witness) is considered here out of the normal sequence because the topic is closely connected to purity of speech, and because the issues involved in considering lying and truth telling are relevant for many other topics that follow.

The following definition of lying is used: Lying is affirming in speech or writing something you believe to be false. Augustine, Calvin, and others have defined lying in a similar way. This specific definition means that “lying” (as discussed in this chapter) does not include silence, nonverbal actions, ironic statements, hyperbole, or unintentional falsehoods, and these are all topics which require separate discussions. Numerous biblical statements condemn lying in the sense of verbally affirming a falsehood. Imitating the character of God is the basis for not lying. Jesus never told a lie. The narrative examples of lying in Scripture (such as Rahab in Jericho) do not overturn this conclusion. Lying accompanies most other sins. It is morally acceptable for Christians to engage in spying and undercover police work, with certain limitations. In most cases, it is right to respond quickly and truthfully to slander rather than remaining silent. Plagiarism is another form of lying. Punctuality is a virtue.

The Sabbath commandment is not morally binding on people today, because it has been terminated along with the rest of the Mosaic covenant, and, unlike the other nine commandments, it is never reaffirmed for Christians in the new covenant. The New Testament explicitly says that Christians no longer must observe Sabbath days.

Nevertheless, it is wise for Christians to observe regular times of worship and prayer with other believers, and it is also wise to have regular days of rest from our ordinary work, and to take longer vacations from time to time. It is also a wise pattern for many businesses to remain closed on Sunday, but governmental laws should allow considerable freedom in this area for individuals and businesses to decide as they think best.

As an alternative to the viewpoint of this chapter, there is a long and highly respected tradition within the Christian church that sees Sunday as the New Testament counterpart to the Old Testament Sabbath day, and holds that Christians should treat Sunday much like the Old Testament believers treated the Sabbath.

The command to honor one’s father and mother means to treat them with respect, deference, and care, and also means that children should obey their parents, except when commanded to sin. Adult children are no longer required to obey their parents, but must still honor them and care for them as necessary and as they are able. The New Testament promises children God’s blessing on their lives in response to their obedience to their parents (Eph. 6:1–3).

Parents should love their children, discipline them, be patient with them, and teach them. Discipline of children can take many forms, including the wise use of spanking in certain circumstances, but spanking should never result in actual physical harm to the child or in physical abuse. Secular opposition to spanking opposes the explicit teaching of Scripture. Such opposition is not supported by reliable studies. Actual physical abuse is already prohibited by law, and such laws are good and necessary.

This chapter summarizes arguments given in favor of Christian parents sending their children to (1) public schools, (2) Christian schools, and (3) homeschools. Each solution may be appropriate in different situations with different children.

Men and women are equal in value and dignity before God, but men and women also have different roles in marriage as part of the way God created us from the beginning. Male leadership or headship in marriage did not come about as a result of sin, but existed in the relationship between Adam and Eve that was established by God before sin entered the world. This is evident from ten different factors in the biblical text. A husband’s headship in marriage is also the explicit teaching of the New Testament. In actual practice, it is possible for both husband and wife to slip into errors of passivity or errors of aggressiveness, but the biblical ideal is loving, humble headship on the part of the husband, and joyful, intelligent submission to a husband’s leadership on the part of the wife.

In the biblical pattern for marriage, the husband also has the primary responsibility to provide for and protect his wife and family, and the wife also has the primary responsibility to care for the home and to nurture children. The equality and differences between men and women reflect the equality and differences in the Trinity. The equality and differences between men and women are created by God and we should see them as very good.

God established civil government as a blessing to human beings, to protect us against the great evil of anarchy. Governments should punish evil and encourage good, executing justice on wrongdoers and defending the weak and defenseless. God is sovereign over all nations even today. Citizens should obey the laws of the government except in certain circumstances.

It is important for governments to safeguard human liberty, which is essential to human flourishing on the earth. However, government cannot save people or fundamentally change human hearts. Regarding the relationship between church and state, the church should not govern “the things that are Caesar’s” and the civil government should not govern “the things that are God’s.” Civil governments should never try to compel religion but should protect freedom of religion. Governments should however support and encourage bona fide religious groups in general. It is wise for governments to establish a strong and clear separation of powers, and even rulers must be subject to the rule of law. Governments should be chosen by the consent of the people. Nations should value patriotism. Christians should seek to influence governments for good. Christians have influenced civil governments positively throughout history.

In the workplace, employees should be subject to the authority of their supervisors. They should not steal but should work diligently as serving Christ. Employers should treat their employees fairly, knowing that God will repay their good and evil deeds.

With respect to the church, church members should be subject to the authority of the elders, and elders should exercise their authority willingly, eagerly, and as examples to others.

With respect to schools, Scripture does not contain explicit teachings about the authority of teachers with respect to their students, but in a school situation parents may rightfully entrust some of their parental authority to teachers. Students should be submissive to the authority of their teachers, should honor them, and should work hard on their academic work, as serving the Lord.

God’s words to Noah after the flood in Genesis 9:5–6 established the basis for human governments to carry out capital punishment, at least for the crime of murder. That principle is reaffirmed in Romans 13:1–4. Objections based on alternative interpretations of Genesis 9, the teachings of Jesus, a “whole-life ethic,” or questions of results and fairness are not persuasive.

The commandment against murder (Ex. 20:13) does not prohibit all participation in war because the Hebrew verb used in this commandment is never used to speak of killing in war. Governments have a responsibility to defend their nations against attacks by other nations with military forces if necessary. There are eight commonly used criteria for deciding if a war should be considered a “just war,” and four commonly recognized moral restrictions on how a just war should be fought.

A Christian soldier who participates in fighting a just war is not doing something morally wrong or morally neutral, but something that is morally good in God’s sight. But it is morally wrong to serve in a war that is clearly unjust. The pacifist arguments promoted by Jim Wallis, Greg Boyd, and others are not persuasive. Now that nuclear weapons exist in the world, it is necessary for some peace-loving nations to have them in order to defend against potential aggressors. In addition, antimissile defense systems should continue to be developed and strengthened. Nations should not send women into combat situations.

Jesus’s teaching about turning the other cheek (Matt. 5:38–39) tells us not to hit back when someone slaps us as an insult, but does not prohibit us from escaping or defending ourselves against a violent attack that would do us bodily harm or even kill us. Other passages in Scripture encourage escaping from danger or even using force in self-defense if necessary, and other passages encourage us to defend other people against wrongful attacks. Jesus’s disciples carried swords, which were used for self-defense.

However, Christians should not retaliate when persecuted specifically for their Christian faith. Children should be taught to be “peacemakers” (Matt. 5:9), but if a bully continues to escalate his attacks, and if no parent or teacher will intervene, children should be taught to fight back and defend themselves with courage and determination, and also to pray for and forgive those who attack them.

If using physical force in self-defense is morally right, then use of a legally permitted weapon in self-defense is also morally right, since a weapon can overcome great inequalities in size or strength. Individual Christians will come to different conclusions about whether it is wise to own a gun for self-defense.

Several passages in the Bible indicate that an unborn child should be thought of and protected as a person from the moment of conception. There is increasing scientific evidence supporting the distinct identity of the unborn child. Objections to this viewpoint are not persuasive. Therefore abortion is the wrongful taking of an innocent human life. However, abortion to save the life of the mother is morally justified because it involves making a choice between one person dying and two persons dying.

Governments should give legal protections to the lives of people within their countries, including unborn children. Objections to this position are considered and found to be unpersuasive.

The commandment “You shall not murder” (Ex. 20:13) prohibits intentionally taking the life of another human being, even a very elderly or terminally ill person, or a person in great pain. However, there is a clear distinction between killing someone and letting someone die. We can enumerate some circumstances in which it is right to allow a person to die.

The experience of other countries shows that there can be a slippery slope from allowing euthanasia to promoting an “obligation” to die, and then even to practicing involuntary euthanasia on elderly people.

The commandment, “You shall not murder” (Ex. 20:13) also applies to suicide: you shall not murder yourself. Scripture never views suicide positively. It is consistent with Satan’s goal to destroy human beings made in the image of God. People who commit suicide injure other people very deeply, though they can be forgiven if they were believers in Christ. ##

Human death was not a part of God’s original creation, but because of the sin of Adam, all human beings grow old and eventually die. Still, the Bible reveals several blessings that accompany the process of aging, including gratitude for the dignity that belongs to the physical signs of aging.

However, the use of dental braces, hair dye, and cosmetic surgery can be morally good choices in some circumstances. Considerations of love for one’s family and wise stewardship indicate that it is important for people to prepare a will and end-of-life medical directives.

Christian should not fear death, but it is right for us to experience both grief and joy when believing loved ones die. Cremation is not necessarily wrong and can result in significant savings, but traditional burial of one’s body in a casket has the advantage of giving more visible expression to our hope of the resurrection of the body when Christ returns.

Because all human beings are made in the image of God and all have descended from Adam, the Bible provides no basis for the favoring of or discrimination against any groups of people on the basis of their racial backgrounds. All human beings are worthy of honor and respect.

There are several examples of interracial marriage viewed positively in Scripture. Noah’s curse on Canaan in Genesis 9:25 has nothing to do with people of African descent but was fulfilled when the people of Israel conquered the Canaanites and took possession of the land of Palestine. Multiethnic churches today manifest God’s glory because they show the wisdom of God in uniting people who, apart from Christ, would be alienated from each other.

We should take reasonable care of our physical bodies because they are good gifts from God and “temples” of the Holy Spirit. Good health habits include a healthy diet, physical exercise, sleep, and vaccinations. Christians can have legitimate differences of opinion regarding organic foods. The Old Testament prohibition against tattoos (Lev. 19:28) is not binding on people today, but several factors should be considered in deciding whether getting a tattoo is a wise decision. Circumcision is no longer commanded by God in the New Testament, but brings several health benefits.

There is an interrelationship between bodily health and spiritual health. God often works through us in spite of physical weakness or illness. Wisdom is required in deciding between caring for one’s physical health and partially sacrificing it for ministry purposes.

Alcohol and Drugs

The Bible clearly forbids drunkenness and contains frequent warnings against the dangers of alcohol, but other passages view the moderate use of alcohol more positively. Individual Christians will reach different conclusions about whether they should practice moderate use of alcohol or total abstinence. Churches should not require total abstinence as a condition of membership because such a requirement cannot be demonstrated from Scripture.

Several strands of biblical teaching affirm that Christians should not use illicit recreational drugs. Christians should not support the legalization of recreational marijuana, for several reasons, but Christians should have no objection to a genuinely medical use of marijuana if it can be effectively regulated by law in the same way as all other prescription medicines, and if widespread abuse can be prevented.

Marriage according to Scripture is the legal union of a man and woman as husband and wife. It is not merely a human agreement but is also a covenant made before God. Some kind of public awareness is necessary for a marriage to occur, and sexual intercourse alone does not constitute a marriage. Marriage pictures the relationship between Christ and the church. Christians should only marry other Christians.

Sexual intimacy within marriage was created by God and is fundamentally good. Not surprisingly, recent studies indicate that faithful married couples have the highest levels of sexual fulfillment.

God’s definition of marriage was intended to apply to all people in all societies for all time. Adultery is repeatedly prohibited by Scripture, and frequently destroys a person’s entire life. Other sexual sins prohibited by Scripture include incest, homosexuality, and cohabitation before marriage. The New Testament highly values singleness as well as marriage. Civil governments should define marriage for all citizens.

Scripture views children not as a burden but as a great blessing. The world is far from being overpopulated. Birth control for a limited time is morally permissible, but some forms of birth control are morally unacceptable because they cause the death of a newly-conceived child. The arguments made by some evangelicals against all “artificial” methods of birth control are unpersuasive.

Infertility has been a source of deep sorrow, for all of human history, as is evident from several narratives in Scripture where God’s people are encouraged to trust him in the midst of such sadness. Modern medicine in general is morally good, and it is right to use medical solutions to infertility, but within the constraints of other moral principles in Scripture, including the protection of human life and the protection of marriage.

Morally acceptable types of reproductive technology include, in appropriate circumstances, artificial insemination by husband, in vitro fertilization without the destruction of embryos, embryo adoption, and prefertilization genetic screening for genetic diseases. Morally unacceptable types of reproductive technology include in vitro fertilization with selective reduction, artificial insemination by donor, surrogate motherhood, and cloning. Scripture views adoption as a wonderful blessing both for parents and for the children who are adopted.

God’s moral standards in Scripture require us to avoid longing for sexual intercourse with someone apart from being married to that person. Therefore it is morally wrong, according to Scripture, to create, acquire, and view photographs whose primary purpose is to arouse in people sexual desires that are contrary to God’s moral standards, and that is the primary purpose of pornography. Pornography brings harmful results to people’s spiritual lives, their marriages and other relationships, and their communities. It is appropriate for governments to make and enforce reasonable laws restricting the production and sale of pornography. Chapter

God’s original plan is for lifelong, monogamous marriage. The rate of divorce among Christians who attend church regularly is far smaller than that of the general population. Divorce commonly brings many harmful consequences. In some situations, God tolerated and regulated divorce in the Old Testament. In the New Testament, Jesus allowed for both divorce and remarriage on account of adultery. Paul added irreconcilable desertion as a second legitimate reason for divorce.

In cases of physical abuse, both the church and often the civil authority must act to see that the abuse is immediately stopped. Immediate physical separation is often necessary. Some evangelicals argue that physical abuse should be a third legitimate reason for divorce, but the scriptural support for that position is not sufficient. The arguments by David Instone-Brewer, that divorce should be allowed because of material or emotional neglect, are not persuasive. Divorce because of incompatibility is not justified by Scripture.

People who have been divorced for unbiblical reasons and then have married someone else should now stay married to their present spouses. Such marriages began with adultery but they are now legitimate marriages and should not be considered adulterous. The phrase “husband of one wife” (1 Tim. 3:2) should not be used to prevent divorced people from holding office in the church. The arguments in favor of the “no divorce and no remarriage” view and the “divorce but no remarriage” view are not persuasive.

God’s original design is for human sexual conduct to occur only within the context of marriage between one man and one woman. Homosexual conduct is one of several kinds of sexual relations outside of marriage that are prohibited in Scripture. The arguments of Matthew Vines and others, claiming that the Bible does not speak about persons with an unchangeable homosexual orientation, are not persuasive. The Bible’s solution to homosexuality is trusting in Christ for the forgiveness of sin, the imputation of righteousness, and the power to change.

Recent arguments that some people are “born gay,” that scientific evidence shows that some people have a homosexual genetic makeup, and that many homosexual relationships today are beneficial, are not persuasive. Attending a same-sex wedding ceremony, or using one’s artistic skills to contribute to such a ceremony, gives a public signal of approval for something that Scripture considers morally wrong.

Regarding claims of transgender identity, God created only two sexes, male and female, and the differences between male and female are inextricably tied to the differing reproductive anatomy of male and female bodies. God intends that a person’s gender identity should be determined by that person’s biological sex.

Property: The Goodness and Necessity of Private Ownership of Property

The commandment “You shall not steal” implies private ownership of property, because it implies that there are some things that belong to certain people and not to others. The moral goodness of the idea of private property is reaffirmed in both the Old and New Testaments. Communism seeks to abolish private property, and is therefore horribly dehumanizing. Ownership of property is a stewardship responsibility given by God, and God entrusts different people with greater or lesser stewardships. Property provides many opportunities for glorifying God but also many temptations to sin, and it should prompt our hearts to joy and thanksgiving to God.

Stewardship of all types provides the basis for human achievement and human flourishing on the earth. The opposite errors of materialism and asceticism must both be avoided. The modern “health and wealth gospel” is inconsistent with the teachings of the New Testament, especially in its teaching that if you are a faithful Christian God will make you rich, for often he will not. But the movement is not monolithic and a balanced assessment is needed.

The Bible views productive work itself as a good thing and part of God’s original purpose for human beings before there was any sin in the world. Work can take various forms, including several kinds of unpaid work that do good for others. Work provides opportunities for the joy that comes from “earned success,” gives us the privilege of creating something of value for other people, and enables us to support ourselves and express our individual identities. Work became more difficult and included painful toil after the fall, yet we can still find joy in work. Christians can work to please the Lord in almost any occupation. Work also provides many temptations to sin.

It is pleasing to God when we take regular times of rest from work and occasional longer vacations. The common assumption that people should “retire” around age sixty-five and then do no productive work for the rest of their lives finds no support in Scripture. However, most people will find themselves able to work less with advancing age, and people who no longer need to earn a regular income may decide to retire from full-time paid employment and find much fulfillment in volunteer work in helping others.

Increasing Prosperity: Is More Prosperity a Good Thing?

Over the last 250 years, the population of the entire world, on average, has come to experience a level of material prosperity approximately sixty times greater per person than what was experienced at the time of Christ. Such increasing prosperity is part of what God originally intended for the human race to accomplish, but material prosperity is still a matter of secondary importance, and it carries significant dangers. God created human beings with an innate desire to create more and better economic goods. We must take the biblical warnings about the temptations of materialism seriously, but they should not cause us to abandon the blessings of increased prosperity.

Poverty can only be solved by increased prosperity in nations, not by attempting to compel equality. The influence of the Bible’s moral teachings has historically brought increasing material prosperity to nations.

In a world where people have different abilities and interests and receive appropriate payment for their work, some inequality of possessions will necessarily result. Inequality in itself is not necessarily wrong, because will be inequality of stewardships even in heaven. However, Scripture encourages us to help those who are poor and to seek to overcome poverty. The phrase “social justice” does not occur in Scripture and can be used with many different meanings today, with the result that it tends to confuse rather than clarify discussions of solutions to poverty.

Christians should seek to alleviate poverty both through helping individual people and through bringing about biblically-oriented changes in the laws, governmental policies, and cultural values in a society. Immediate short-term efforts to alleviate poverty through work by individuals, Christian organizations, and government welfare programs are all important and must be continued, but short-term help is not enough.

For individuals, the permanent solution to poverty is providing opportunities and skills for productive jobs, and these primarily come through private businesses. For entire nations, the only permanent solution to poverty is increasing the nation’s gross domestic product, and this must be brought about through changes in multiple factors in a nation’s economic system, governmental laws, and cultural beliefs and values.

Scripture contains numerous warnings about the dangers of wealth but does not contain an outright condemnation of having much wealth. Governments must punish those who have gained wealth by illegal and immoral activities, but must also allow freedom for anyone to become wealthy by legal means. An analysis of the influential book Rich Christians in an Age of Hunger by Ron Sider shows that it contains several helpful emphases, but he incorrectly identifies the main problem as “affluence” rather than poverty, and incorrectly identifies the primary solution as “generosity” and increased government control rather than increased economic productivity and increased economic freedom.

Stewardship of our personal property in accordance with biblical teachings will include (1) wise giving, (2) wise saving, and (3) wise spending. Both the Old and New Testaments teach that God’s people should give away some of what they earn. The Old Testament standard was to give a tithe (ten percent) plus other offerings and sacrifices. The New Testament does not specify a percentage but encourages generous giving, motivated by trust in God, and promises several blessings for those who give. Giving an inheritance to one’s children is appropriate, but requires wisdom.

It is right to save for a time when we cannot support ourselves, for unforeseen emergencies, and for other purposes, but saving money also carries temptations. It is possible to save too much, or to save too little. There are advantages and disadvantages in different types of saving and investing.

We must spend something to provide ourselves with food, clothing, shelter, and other things. Spending turns money into goods and services that we should use and enjoy with thanksgiving to God. It is possible to spend too much, and it is possible to spend too little. Scripture does not contain any explicit prohibition against gambling, but it is usually an unwise use of a person’s money. Gambling businesses bring several harmful consequences to society.

Various kinds of borrowing and lending are remarkably beneficial human activities, and they are sometimes viewed positively in Scripture. Borrowing and lending multiply the usefulness of the wealth in a society. They are uniquely human activities that give opportunities to imitate God in ways the rest of creation cannot do.

Old Testament prohibitions against charging interest were limited to certain kinds of situations, particularly taking advantage of the poor in their poverty, but the New Testament does not prohibit the charging of interest (usury), and throughout many centuries of church history, Christian leaders increasingly came to see the moral legitimacy of charging interest in many situations. There are both wise and foolish reasons for borrowing, and both borrowing and lending carry with them temptations and dangers.

Six core ethical convictions from Scripture establish boundaries for making business decisions: (1) truthfulness, (2) not stealing, (3) honoring marriage, (4) loving your neighbor as yourself, (5) confidence that there is always a right decision available, and (6) trust in God.

Buying and selling are in themselves not morally evil or merely morally neutral, but morally good activities which ordinarily bring benefit to both parties. Other morally good components of business activity include earning a profit, competition, advertising, and limited liability corporations, though all of these also carry temptations to sin. There are good reasons for corporations to make charitable contributions to the communities in which they function.

When multinational corporations establish some operations in poor countries, the results are generally beneficial for the poor countries, but sometimes corrupt government officials in poor countries accept bribes and make harmful agreements with large corporations. Both sides share in the blame for such harmful agreements, and such practices are rightfully prohibited by United States law and by the laws of other nations.

The natural world, as God originally created it on earth, was “very good” (Genesis 1:31). Because Adam and Eve sinned, God placed a curse on the entire natural world. As a result, the earth now contains “thorns and thistles” (Genesis 3:18) and many other dangerous and harmful things. Therefore what we now think of as “natural” is not always good. God intends us to learn how to improve on fallen nature, making natural products better. God also wants human beings to develop the earth’s resources and to use them wisely and joyfully.

God created an Earth that has abundant natural resources. An evaluation of data on long-term, worldwide trends shows that, with the wise use of natural resources, human beings can reasonably expect to be able to live on the earth for the indefinite future, enjoying ever-increasing prosperity and never exhausting its resources.

Predictions of catastrophic global warming caused by increasing production of carbon dioxide have been based on computer models whose results depend on the formulas entered into them. But these predictions have repeatedly been falsified by actual temperature measurements in succeeding years, especially because of faulty estimates of “climate feedbacks.” Climate science has been highly politicized, and multiple instances of data tampering have been exposed. Scientific opinion is in fact strongly divided about the dangers of global warming.

Biblical teachings indicate that God designed a resilient earth, not a fragile one, and he did not design it so that we would destroy it by obeying his commands to subdue the earth and have dominion over it. Carbon fuels (especially coal, oil, and natural gas) are portable, efficient, and abundant sources of energy, and we should consider them to be good gifts from God and use them wisely and safely.

The commandment “You shall not covet” (Exodus 20:17) shows that God requires not only right actions but also purity of heart. It warns us not to long for something that is not rightfully ours and that we cannot rightfully obtain. The New Testament repeatedly warns against coveting, and instead encourages contentment. Coveting implies that we do not trust God, that we dislike his provisions for our lives, and that we want something more than him. On a human level, coveting is horribly destructive.

This article is adapted from Christian Ethics: An Introduction to Biblical Moral Reasoning by Wayne Grudem.

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Studies in Christian Ethics

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Studies in Christian Ethics is an English-language journal devoted exclusively to theological questions arising in the field of Christian ethics and moral theology. The journal is published in conjunction with the Society for the Study of Christian Ethics based in the UK, whose annual conference furnishes the themed material for the first issue of each volume. By publishing contributions from international scholars and influential theologians and philosophers, the journal seeks to strengthen debate and to foster research on the wide range of topics that emerge in this fast-growing field.

" Studies in Christian Ethics has today established itself as the leading English-language journal in theological ethics. While continuing to offer first-rate work by British theologians and ethicists, it also showcases the best in North American and Continental scholarship in the field. It holds a secure place internationally as one of a few indispensable sources for cutting-edge work in theological ethics, political theology, and related fields." Jean Porter, Rev. John A. O'Brien Professor of Theology, University of Notre Dame

" Studies in Christian Ethics is the leading English language Christian Ethics journal in Europe. It is a high impact journal which publishes cutting edge research papers by leaders in the field on both sides of the Atlantic, and has done since its founding in 1988. It is essential reading for those looking for Christian scholarly writing on contemporary moral problems." Michael S. Northcott, Professor of Ethics, University of Edinburgh " Studies in Christian Ethics has gone from strength to strength over the past decade to establish itself as the premier journal of theological ethics in the English speaking world. If you want to know the field, you have to know this journal." Brian Brock, Reader in Moral and Practical Theology, King’s College, Aberdeen " Studies in Christian Ethics is the leading Anglophone journal in theological ethics, and one of only two in religious ethics. Originally British, it now attracts material from around the world and from every Christian tradition. The coverage of its book reviews is unequalled, making it essential for keeping one's finger on the pulse of the field." Nigel Biggar, Regius Professor of Moral and Pastoral Theology, Christ Church Oxford

SCE has been included in the top category in the European Reference Index for the Humanities. This journal is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)

Studies in Christian Ethics is an English-language peer-reviewed journal devoted exclusively to questions arising in the field of Christian ethics and moral theology. The journal is published in conjunction with the Society for the Study of Christian Ethics based in the UK, whose annual conference furnishes the themed material for the first issue of each volume. By publishing contributions from international scholars and influential theologians and philosophers, the journal seeks to strengthen debate and to foster research on the wide range of topics that emerge in this fast-growing field.

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• What do we publish? 1.1 Aims & Scope 1.2 Article types 1.3 Writing your paper
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Studies in Christian Ethics  follows its own journal style. Authors should study recent previous issues of the journal carefully and follow these guidelines:

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Book titles are in italics.

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• Barrett, 'Theology as Grammar: Regulative Principles or Paradigms and Practices?',  Modern Theology  25.2 (1988), pp. 155-72.

Colin E. Gunton,  The One, The Three and The Many  (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd edn, 1993), pp. 56-59.

• Stephen Long,  John Wesley’s Moral Theology  (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 2005)

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7. Further information

Any correspondence, queries or additional requests for information on the manuscript submission process should be sent to the Studies in Christian Ethics editorial office as follows:

Dr Susan F. Parsons Cackle Hill Cottage Snelston Ashbourne Derbyshire DE6 2DL EMAIL:  [email protected]

The books for review need to be sent to:

Kevin Hargaden Reviews Editor,  Studies in Christian Ethics Jesuit Centre for Faith and Justice 54-72 Gardiner Street Upper Dublin 1, DO1 TX23 Ireland

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Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions pp 362–366 Cite as

Christian Ethics

• Kevin Jung 3  
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Description

Christian ethics is an enormously rich and diverse field of study that investigates a wide range of ethical topics and issues using moral resources often drawn from but not necessarily limited to the Christian tradition. As a critical reflection on Christian morality, Christian ethics seeks to answer hard questions about the sources and criteria of moral knowledge as well as the normative claims made by Christian morality in response to various ethical issues and problems. Despite the fact that the phrase “Christian morality” may seem to suggest otherwise, all Christians of course do not hold the same moral views; the Christian moral tradition is more like a huge repository of many divergent ideas, beliefs, and practices born out of distinct Christian communities than a monolithic system. Thus, it should be of no surprise that there are a number of ways in which the study of Christian ethics is done and can be done. So how should we attempt to canvass this vast field in a...

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Fletcher, J. F. (1966). Situation ethics: The new morality . Philadelphia: Westminster Press.

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Hauerwas, S. (1981). A community of character: Toward a constructive Christian social ethic . Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.

Lindbeck, G. A. (1984). The nature of doctrine: Religion and theology in a postliberal age . Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press.

Niebuhr, H. R. (1963). The responsible self: An essay in Christian moral philosophy . New York: Harper & Row.

Porter, J. (1995). Moral action and Christian ethics . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ramsey, P. (1968). The case of the curious exception. In G. H. Outka, P. Ramsey, & F. S. Carney (Eds.), Norm and context in Christian ethics . New York: Scribner.

Ruether, R. R. (2005). Integrating ecofeminism, globalization, and world religions . Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.

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Dr. Kevin Jung

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Department of Systematic Theology, Faculty of Theology, Copenhagen University, Copenhagen, Denmark

Anne L. C. Runehov

Pontificia Universita Antonianum, Roma, Italia

Lluis Oviedo

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Jung, K. (2013). Christian Ethics. In: Runehov, A.L.C., Oviedo, L. (eds) Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_235

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(Re)-Emerging Challenges in Christian Bioethics: Leading Voices in Christian Bioethics

Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina,, USA

This is the third installment in a Christian Bioethics series that gathers leading voices in Christian bioethics to examine the themes and issues they find most pressing. The papers address fundamental theoretical questions about the nature of Christian bioethics itself, long-standing ethical issues that remain significant today, including physician-assisted suicide, euthanasia, the definition of death, the allocation of scarce resources, and finally, more futuristic questions regarding transhumanism. The contributions underscore the enduring significance of Christian engagement in bioethics.

I. Introduction

This is the third installment in a Christian Bioethics series that gathers leading voices in Christian bioethics to examine the themes and issues they find most pressing. The papers address fundamental theoretical questions about the nature of Christian bioethics itself, long-standing ethical issues that remain significant today, including physician-assisted suicide (PAS), euthanasia, the definition of death, and the allocation of scarce resources, and, finally, more futuristic questions regarding transhumanism. The contributions underscore the enduring significance of Christian engagement in bioethics.

II. FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS: WHAT IS CHRISTIAN BIOETHICS AND WHAT SHOULD IT BE?

As a founding coeditor of the journal and a scholar who often has examined broad theoretical issues, B. Andrew Lustig appropriately examines the question of how Christians should engage in bioethics, what the character of Christian scholarship in bioethics should be, and how Christians should engage each other and the secular world with respect to bioethics. He joins a long line of vibrant contributors to Christian Bioethics over the years who have advanced the understanding of the field (see, e.g., Cozby, 2005 ; Engelhardt, 2005 ; Verhey, 2005 ; Waters, 2005 ; O’Mathúna, 2014 ; Beckwith, 2019 ). Lustig is especially interested in understanding what it means or should mean for Christian scholarship to be nonecumenical, an orientation that could encourage divisiveness or that could foster the discovery of common ground through the study of difference. Lustig looks back to past scholarly contributions and, in looking ahead, challenges authors and journal editors to pursue

a disciplined discourse that honors the requirements of a shared forum: viz., academic dialogue that respectfully acknowledges differences, that makes a case for why they matter, and that appreciates that such conversations require attention to what one might call the “tools of the trade,” namely, the recognition of certain basic patterns that inevitably structure theological conversations both within and between communities. ( 2022 , 17)

Here, Lustig draws a parallel between differences among Christians and differences in secular ethical theory. He points to efforts in secular clinical ethics to secure common ground to resolve differences at a practical level despite background disagreements. Christians, he thinks, can learn from those efforts. Thus, he argues for an optimistic and fruitful understanding of “non-ecumenical” scholarship in Christian bioethics, one that leads us “to search for commonality across apparent differences of ethos and culture” grounded in the “recognition that God is the single source of all truth” ( 2022 , 23).

Lustig’s hope is that through the exploration of differences, Christian bioethics scholars will find common ground. He charges authors, readers, and editors with a responsibility to do that. Given the vast differences among Christians today on topics ranging from abortion, research involving human embryos including embryonic stem cell research, PAS, and euthanasia, to understandings of sex and gender, even the most sincere efforts to fulfill Lustig’s charge likely will reveal limits in their shared approach to a range of challenging issues (see, e.g., Waters and Cole-Turner, 2003 ; Delkeskamp-Hayes and Imrényi, 2013 ; Bader-Saye, 2019 ; Cherry, 2020 ; Dozier et al., 2020 ; Ford, 2020 ; Franks, 2020 ; Savage, 2020 ; Watt, 2020 ; Keown, 2022 ).

III. NEW TWISTS ON OLD TURNS: LONG-STANDING ISSUES IN CHRISTIAN BIOETHICS

Physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia.

In the face of ever-expanding support for PAS and euthanasia, John Keown makes an important contribution to understanding how Christians approach these practices. Keown critically engages calls by two prominent Anglican leaders, Desmond Tutu and Lord George Carey, to legalize various forms of physician-assisted death. Keown argues that they fail “to engage with the arguments, both principled and practical, against legalization,” and that those principled and practical arguments should matter to any Christian taking up this issue ( 2022 , 25). His carefully argued paper offers a substantive, point-by-point refutation of Tutu and Carey’s defense of these practices. I highlight only a few here.

Keown argues that some of what Tutu and Carey focus on in advocating for euthanasia is irrelevant to the question at hand. In their statements supporting the so-called “right to die,” for instance, both Tutu and Carey object to the idea that life should be prolonged as much as possible. They seem to assume that rejecting a commitment to the mere prolongation of life necessarily commits one to supporting euthanasia. Keown shows that this does not follow and that such a claim is a distraction, since

The Christian moral tradition and professional medical ethics have long held that human life is not the supreme good; that it is not the role of doctors to preserve life at all costs; that the patient has the primary responsibility to make decisions in relation to his or her health, a responsibility that should be respected by the doctor; that it is proper for a competent patient to refuse treatments that are either futile (i.e., offer no reasonable prospect of therapeutic benefit) or excessively burdensome (as being, for example, too painful or expensive) or, if the patient is incompetent, for a physician to withhold or withdraw such treatments. ( 2022 , 30–31)

Christian scholars have distinguished between licit decisions to withhold or withdraw life-sustaining interventions and killing (see, e.g., Lavery et al., 1997 ; Engelhardt, 2000 , ch. 6; Flannery, 2011 ).

One area of particular concern for Keown is what he sees as Tutu and Carey’s failure to distinguish often-maligned slippery slope arguments from logical slope and practical slope arguments. In rejecting slippery slope arguments against various “right to die” practices, Tutu and Carey fail to realize that there are relevant practical and logical slope arguments against these practices that should concern Christians. He illustrates these concerns with a series of events in some jurisdictions with permissible “right to die” laws that Christians should find objectionable. Well-intentioned concern with compassion and suffering can lead people, including Christians, to “misguidedly . . . support . . . a campaign that would radically undermine the sanctity of life, one of the most fundamental principles of Christian ethics, professional medical ethics, and criminal law” ( Keown, 2022 , 37). In addition to reports of nonvoluntary euthanasia, reports of euthanasia in Belgium and the Netherlands for patients who do not fit the conditions used to justify the laws permitting euthanasia, namely, unbearable suffering where there was no potential for improvement, concern Keown. In the Netherlands and Belgium, euthanasia has been approved for conditions including tinnitus ( Yuill, 2015 ), alcoholism ( “My alcoholic brother chose euthanasia,” 2016 ), and various mental health problems ( Bostaz, 2016 ). Precisely, because of concerns about the practical slope, some authors argued against efforts to expand the Dutch law to recognize euthanasia requests from persons who are “tired of living” (see, e.g., Florijin, 2018 ).

Finally, Keown’s elegant analysis can be read as a warning about the ways in which terms and themes such as dignity, mercy, and compassion are used in radically different ways to justify opposite positions. Appreciation and awareness of this may help Christians to resist the corruption of fundamental Christian virtues and commitments and prevent them from being misled into supporting euthanasia or PAS.

When Are the Dead Dead?

Patrick Lee continues an important discussion among many Roman Catholic thinkers, including Jason Eberl (2015 , 2020 ), Melissa Moschella (2016 , 2019 ), and Josef Seifert (2018) , regarding how to understand death, particularly the use of neurological criteria to define death. Lee focuses on how a Roman Catholic understanding of the human person and the soul informs an understanding of death. His contribution is particularly timely, given the vibrant debate in the current literature and public policy settings regarding the definition and diagnosis of death. At the time of this writing, we are awaiting the decision of the Uniform Law Commission (ULC) regarding establishment of a Drafting Committee to revise the Uniform Determination of Death Act. In July of 2020, the ULC Committee appointed a Study Committee to assess the need for a revision to the law ( ULC, 2020 ). At issue are a number of factors that have been the subject of extensive debate in the medical, legal, and bioethical literature for years, including the “lack of uniformity in the medical standards used to determine death by neurologic criteria, the relevance of hormonal functions, and whether notice should be provided before a determination of death” ( ULC, 2020 ). Numerous concerns with the existing law or application of it, as well as proposals for revising the UDDA, have been published in recent years (see, e.g., Lewis et al., 2019 ; Shewmon, 2021 ).

In his contribution to this issue, Lee defends the use of neurological criteria to define death on his understanding of what it is to be a human being. Contrary to Seifert’s (2018) objection to Lee and Grisez’s (2012) previous work on brain death, Lee argues here that his defense of “brain death” does not reflect a reductionist view of the human person. Rather, it is grounded in a particular understanding of the nature and connections among the human being, human person, soul, and brain:

Conscious sensation in human beings presupposes brain activity. In human beings conscious sensation is an activity that requires the brain as part of the bodily organ of that activity. So, if an entity lacks a brain, and lacks the capacity to develop a brain, then it lacks the radical capacity for conscious sensation, and the radical capacity for rational action. It follows that a brain-dead body—which lacks both a brain and the capacity to develop a brain—lacks the radical capacities for conscious sensation and rational action, and so a brain-dead body is not a rational animal, not a human being. ( Lee, 2022 , 43)

Amidst ongoing secular debates regarding neurological criteria for death and the diagnostic criteria that should be applied to diagnose death, Lee’s analysis elucidates some of the differences among Roman Catholic thinkers on this matter in helpful ways.

Allocating and Rationing Scarce Resources

Maura Ryan (2022) explores long-standing ethical issues related to resource allocation, the rationing of scarce resources, and access to health care more generally as they arose in pandemic. Resource allocation refers to the distribution of resources. This includes decisions to dedicate resources to health care versus other areas of spending, such as education or transportation, as well as decisions to allocate resources to particular types of health care. When resources are scarce, they are rationed, that is, some people who could benefit from a resource will be excluded and denied access to the resource in question.

In her contribution to this issue, Ryan connects this inquiry into decision-making regarding resources during the pandemic to larger questions about how Christians understand the purpose of health care and obligations to the ill and dying among us. Ryan’s piece challenges readers to examine allocation and rationing decisions with an honest, critical eye to see which lives are “de-valued” and how implicit assumptions about social worth and quality of life shape them. As states and institutions developed crisis standards of care during the COVID-19 pandemic, some patients were deemed ineligible for treatment or de-prioritized so much that they would be unlikely to receive treatment. Although allocation decisions often are described as grounded in the “best available objective medical evidence,” Ryan demonstrates that such judgments often are said to be “not entirely objective.” In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, claims that allocation decisions were based on “objective medical evidence” were especially problematic, given the lack of evidence available and the significant amount of unreliable information that was treated as “evidence.”

Allocation decisions and policies during the pandemic, Ryan argues, reflected often-unacknowledged social worth judgments. Such judgments are not new to health-care allocation decisions. The Seattle “God Committee” on dialysis is a familiar example of applying social worth criteria to allocation decisions ( Alexander, 1962 ). The literature on allocating other scarce resources, such as organs for transplantation, also addresses the role of explicit and implicit value judgments in decision making ( Frank, 2014 ; Cahn-Fuller and Parent, 2017 ). Even where there are no concerns about rationing, that is, allocating scarce resources, other routine practices and recommendations in medicine may reflect similar judgments. For instance, decisions to recommend prenatal genetic diagnosis or prenatal testing for particular conditions and not others may reflect views about lives of persons with certain disabilities and judgments, what kinds of lives are worth living and which ones are not ( Iltis, 2016 ).

Drawing on the long history of thinking about allocating health-care resources and rationing scarce resources in the Roman Catholic tradition, Ryan argues that secular utilitarian reasoning problematically informs many efforts to justify particular distribution schemes. Moreover, distribution decisions get an inappropriate amount of attention. They should not be the ultimate focus of inquiry and assessment in bioethics. She situates such choices in the broader context of “tragic choices” and argues that the obligations we have to those who receive low priority or are deemed ineligible for aggressive treatment merit serious consideration. The obligation to care does not end when treatment is denied.

IV. THE FUTURE OF BEING HUMAN

Jason Eberl examines Transhumanism, “a cohesive movement guided by a particular set of tenets articulated in the ‘ Transhumanist Declaration’ (2012) ” and identifies “fundamental differences between Christianity and Transhumanism” that render them incompatible ( 2022 , 76). He also distinguishes Transhumanism, which he sees as a “quasi-religion,” from “human enhancement using biotechnological means” and argues that some “moderate forms of human enhancement using biotechnological means” are licit within the Christian context, even though Christianity and Transhumanism are incompatible ( Eberl, 2022 , 76). The central tension between Transhumanism and Christianity arises from “their respective anthropologies—that is, their diverse understandings of whether there is an essential nature shared by all human persons and, if so, whether certain features of human nature may be intentionally altered in ways that contribute how each views human flourishing” as well as their “competing concepts of the future for both humanity and the cosmos” ( Eberl, 2022 , 77–78). Their competing views of the relationship between children and parents underlying Christianity and Transhumanism also puts them at odds. Eberl notes that “Christianity views children as a ‘gift’ from God, whereas Transhumanism allows for children to be viewed as a ‘product’ to be fashioned” ( 2022 , 79). Finally, Christians and Transhumanists have different understandings of the future. Whereas “Transhumanists seek to make the future by shaping the actualization of human potentialities and those of nature more broadly . . . Christians live in hope of the coming of God’s Kingdom . . .” ( Eberl, 2022 , 78). This hope and focus, he notes, “does not entail passivity” or a rejection of the application of science to promote human flourishing; rather, it involves an orientation to God and a fulfillment of His Kingdom that Transhumanists lack.

Although Christianity and Transhumanism are incompatible, Eberl demonstrates that not all human enhancement is properly situated under the umbrella of Transhumanism and that Christianity is compatible with and might even call for certain forms of human enhancement. He examines Roman Catholic and other Christian accounts of enhancement and human flourishing and argues in favor of some forms of human enhancement. Eberl draws on a number of authors, including H. Tristram Engelhardt, Jr., in beginning to elucidate the Christian constraints on human enhancement:

Any account of the proper use of genetic engineering will need to be embedded in Christianity’s rich knowledge of the meaning of the universe, human history, and the moral significance of human nature. Central to all reflections in this matter is the circumstance that God created human nature as good and appropriate, and that this very nature, albeit fallen, was taken on by Christ and redeemed. ( Engelhardt, 2008 , 80 in Eberl, 2022 , 79)

Eberl sums up a Christian understanding of limits on human enhancement this way:

The normative limit on forms of human enhancement is to ensure that the subject of enhancement remains human and is not transformed into a “posthuman” whose self-identity, needs, interests, and teloi (both natural and supernatural) are so fundamentally altered as to be unrecognizable to the subject prior to enhancement. ( 2022 , 85)

Human enhancement should aim at the human ideal and not at creating entities that are different from human beings.

In addition to articulating limits on enhancement, Eberl opens up the possibility that on some Christian views, certain forms of enhancement are to be encouraged. Permissible and perhaps even laudatory forms of enhancement are to be “aimed at appropriate teloi oriented toward the actualization of natural human potentialities relative to our existence as living, sentient, social, and rational animals” ( Eberl, 2022 , 85). Among the examples Eberl offers are “increased memory capacity, a more robust immune system, alleviation of moderate social anxiety, and elimination of certain cognitive biases that contribute to poor practical reasoning and subsequent unethical behavior” ( 2022 , 85).

Eberl’s contribution comes at a time when the possibility of new forms of human enhancement through future applications of genome editing are growing ever closer. The parameters Eberl establishes for permissible human enhancements from a Christian perspective will leave questions. Nevertheless, his contribution here advances a framework for future elaboration and application.

The contributors to this special issue of Christian Bioethics grapple with pressing issues facing Christian scholars, practitioners, and individuals. The writers contribute to ongoing debates in public policy settings and in the bioethics literature, as well as fundamental questions about the shape and character of scholarly contributions to the field. Each essay fosters thoughtful Christian dialogue and advances our understanding of long-standing and emerging topics.

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• Relations Between Christians, Jews, and Muslims in Spain Prior to 1492
• Christianity’s Negative Effects
• Christian Message Pluralism “Jesus as Savior”
• Analysis of Worldviews How Philosophy Can Help Christians
• Religions Practices in Christianity
• Biblical and Personal Perspectives on Christian Discipleship
• Secular and Christian Group: Reaction and Participation
• Roman Catholicism – A Christian denomination
• The Influence of Christianity on Roman Art
• Personal Faith and Christian Ministry
• Early Christian Church Fathers and Heretics
• Art of the Early Christian and Byzantine Periods: Basilica
• The Christian Worldview “Naming the Elephant” by Sire
• Ecology and Christian and Hinduism Religions: Human Life and Its Interaction With the Environment
• A Christian Worldview Through the Teacher’s Eyes
• Entwistle’s Vision of Psychology and Christianity
• Comparison of Christianity and Judaism
• Christians’ Views on Jesus’ Personality
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• Biblical Principles in Christian Counseling
• South Korean Christianity
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• Jewish Representation of Christianity
• Christian Ministry Habits for Effective Ministry
• Karl Barth’s Positions on the Christian Foundations
• A Christian View of Health Care
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• The Bible’s Importance in Christian Ministry
• Adoptions of the Quran from Judaism and Christianity
• Islam, Christianity, and Judaism as a Single System
• Movements for Social Change Conference of Southern Christian Leaders
• Non-christian Allusions and “Knock-Knock” Poem
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• Black Christianity, according to Jon Sensbach
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• Christianity and Sacred Scripture
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• Christianity and the Apostle Paul
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• A Good Friday Sermon by Martin Luther on How to Consider Christ’s Holy Sufferings Within Christian Ideology
• Engagement with Christian Ideology of Jonathan Edwards’ Sermon Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God
• Eads and Sallnow’s ‘Contesting the Sacred: The Anthropology of Christian Pilgrimage’
• Lois Lebar’s Christian Education
• John Calvin’s Christian Leadership
• The Deportation of Iraqi Christians
• Review of Positions in Christian Ethics
• Reflections on Norms and Forms in Christian Ethics
• The Christian Methodist Episcopal Church’s History
• How Christians Feel About Abortion
• The Primary Purpose of the Christian Education Model: Sunday School
• Ideologies on Religious Practices and Philosophy in Hinduism and Christianity
• Christianity: Religious Development and Its Role in People’s Lives
• Christian Clergies: Integrity and Ethics
• Christianity’s Practices, Characteristics, and Social Implications
• The Influence of Religion on Morality in Christianity and Islam
• The Social and Historical Impact of Christianity on Western Culture
• Fasting in Modern Christianity
• Personal Convictions and Christian Preaching
• How Muslims and Christians Conquer Evil
• Working With Experience and Reason in Christian Ethics
• Letters on Female Oppression in Christianity
• Jay E. Adams: A Christian Counseling Theology
• Work with Service Members and Christian Faith

Fascinating Christianity Topics to Write about

• A Comparison of Christianity, Scientology, and Sikhism in Relation to Core Beliefs and the Standards of Health Care Providers
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• A Description of How Christianity Spread Over Time, Replacing the Old Warrior Religion and Altering People’s Lives
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Interesting Research Topics for Christianity

• How Do Sacred Texts Express an Understanding of Peace in Christianity and Islam?
• Does Religious Pluralism Undermine Christian Fundamental Doctrines?
• Is the film ‘Four Weddings and a Funeral accurate or false in its portrayal of Christianity?
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• What Legacy Did Rome Leave for Christianity?
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Research Questions About Christianity

• Cloning and Christianity: Can They Coexist?
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• What Impact Did Greek Mythology Have on Christianity?
• What Was Christianity Like Before and During the Anglo-Saxon Conversion?
• What Impact Did Paganism and Mystery Religions Have on Christianity?
• What Does the Divine Comedy Say About Christianity?
• How Do Psychology and Christianity Fit Into Counseling?
• What Factors Played a Role in the Rise of Christianity?
• What Is the Relationship Between Sport and Christianity?
• What Did Chaucer Think About Medieval Christianity?
• What Impact Did Zoroastrianism Have on Judaism and Christianity?

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Christian Ethics

Other essays.

Christian ethics is guided by God’s revelation in Scripture above other systems of thought as it seeks to love God and neighbor in every moral and ethical issue.

The highest ethical duty of a Christian is the same as the greatest commandment: love God and love your neighbor. Scripture is the Christian authority for ethics, just as it is for theology. This is because God is our ultimate authority and standard, for he himself is goodness. While Christians know God’s character through reading Scripture, unbelievers are able to partially and imperfectly understand what is good through the created order and their consciences. And while Christians ultimately derive their ethics from Scripture, different parts of Scripture (like the Mosaic legal code) must be read in their redemptive historical context and not simply applied from one distant culture to another. Philosophical systems that attempt to provide ethical norms can be helpful for the Christian thinking about ethics, but Scripture must remain the authority for any Christian ethical endeavor. Finally, while there are many issues today that the Bible does not speak directly to, there are biblical principles that can be relied upon to make an informed moral judgment.

A person’s highest ethical duty is to love God with all of their heart, mind, soul, and strength. Their second highest ethical duty is to love their neighbor as themselves. For a Christian, fulfilling these moral obligations takes place in obedience to the Law of Christ and submission to the teachings of God’s Word. The ultimate goal is to glorify God in everything that is said, done, thought, and felt. Other broad ethical goals include being a blessing to others and growing as a virtuous person.

Given this positive vision, it is quite sad that many people—both Christian and non-Christian—tend to see believers as legalistic and condemning. In a world that is in rebellion against God, those who uphold God’s moral standards will have to shine light into darkness and will have to speak against sinful practices that may be widely accepted in society. But the Bible does not merely present an ethical code which consists of restrictions and “thou shalt nots.” Yes, there are things to avoid, but there are also many positive moral duties that the Scriptures require. If we properly form our ethical views from the Bible, we will find that we ought to both shun evil and perform good works. There is a categorical difference between good and evil, and right and wrong, and the Christian life can be a joyous experience of doing good; Christian ethics should be a delight.

Christian Ethics and Scripture

Evangelical Christians should not find it controversial to say that the Scriptures—God’s Word—is our authority and standard for ethics, just as it is for theology. This is because God is our ultimate authority and standard. There cannot be a higher standard for ethics than God, not because he is all-powerful, but because he is the source of goodness itself. Moral goodness is defined by the nature of God, and everything he commands is in accordance with his perfect and righteous goodness. We must obey every word of God because every word he gives us flows from his character, and his character is infinite and absolute moral perfection. God does not measure himself against an abstract standard of goodness; he does not consult anything other than his own nature when he issues commands and moral rules. His moral commands are not arbitrary and they could not be other than what they are since they are based on God’s unchanging moral goodness. Since God’s commands are found in Scripture, the Bible is our authority for ethics.

Knowledge of God’s moral demands does not only come from reading Scripture, however. Although special revelation is definitive, everyone on earth has some knowledge of God’s moral standards through general revelation. We need to be careful about equating what’s “natural” with what’s good, but God has created the world in such a way that there is a general correspondence between moral truths and what is naturally best for people. People can often see what is best to do (or not do) when they apply their reason to the facts of the situation they are in. God has also created human beings to operate with a basic sense of his moral law through their consciences. Reason and conscience are not as reliable or authoritative as the teachings found in Scripture, but they are nevertheless useful sources of moral knowledge. Christian ethics interprets general revelation through special revelation but uses both sources to gain insight into ethics.

Christian Ethics and the Mosaic Law

Despite agreement amongst evangelicals about the importance and authority of Scripture for Christian ethics, there are debates about the role of the Mosaic Law in Christian morality. This is not the place to engage in discussions of covenantal continuity and discontinuity, biblical theology, or hermeneutics, but it does seem safe to say that Christians are not directly under the authority of the Mosaic Law, since the Law was part of the Mosaic covenant. Christ’s inauguration of the new covenant has brought about a change in law, as the Book of Hebrews makes clear. The church is not a theocracy, and Christ has brought about an end—by fulfillment—of the old covenant sacrificial system. Nevertheless, since all of Scripture is God-breathed and useful, many particular laws in the Mosaic Law still find application today in both the church and society. Forbidding murder and theft, for example, are laws which reflect the eternal moral character of God. The two greatest commands identified by Jesus are enshrined in the Pentateuch and apply to all of Christ’s disciples. Sometimes, however, there are cultural factors that require Christians to discern the principle of the law rather than applying it in a woodenly literal way. One common example is the command in the Mosaic Law to build a parapet or rail around the roof of your home. Since people in that culture spent time on their flat-roofs, falling off a roof was a potential danger. People do not spend time on slanted roofs, however, or the roofs of grass huts, so that law does not apply everywhere. The principle behind the law, though, is that we are take reasonable precautions to keep people safe, and that is an ethical idea that applies in every culture. The principle is the same, even if some of the forms of application in a particular culture can differ.

Christian Ethics and Philosophy

Outside of Scripture, philosophers have proposed various systems for the evaluation of ethics and morality. Some have sought the justification for ethics in the consequences that stem from certain behaviors. In these systems, something is considered good if it produces good consequences that outweigh the negative consequences. Some people assess the consequences for the individual alone, but most would look for the greatest good for the greatest number of people. In practice, this can be almost impossible to evaluate, but the sensibility behind it seems fairly widespread and beneficial. Other ethicists have ignored consequences and focused on the intrinsic moral value of actions and agents. Perhaps the most famous example is the categorical imperative of Immanuel Kant. He argued that we should only act out of a good will, and a good will does its moral duty for the sake of duty alone and not for the sake of consequences. He said that we should only act in such a way that we could make our conduct a universal law that everyone would follow. Take the case of lying: Would we wish it to be a universal practice that everyone tells the truth or that everyone lies all the time? If we cannot wish for everyone to lie all the time, Kant would argue that lying must be strictly forbidden without exception. Another school of ethics has focused more on the cultivation of a virtuous character and the motives of the agent who acts. In this model, actions should further develop virtue in the one who acts.

There is room in Christian ethics for all of the considerations mentioned in the paragraph above. None of those systems can stand on their own; they need to be built on the foundation of God’s truth. The Bible makes it clear that things are right or wrong in relationship to God’s character. Thus, morality is objective, and we must obey God’s commands. This does not mean, however, that consequences are entirely irrelevant. Although the morality of an act is not based on consequences alone, there are many warnings and encouragements in Scripture that hold out either the positive or negative consequences of obeying or disobeying God. We are to look at the consequences for disobedience, and we are to look at the rewards for following God’s path. We are also to act to bless others, and this requires assessing the consequences of our words and actions. God is producing spiritual fruit in the lives of his children—he is forming a virtuous character in them that reflects the character of his Son. Thus, acting and growing in virtue is an important component of Christian ethics.

The ethical status of an agent and action is assessed at more than one level. Sometimes all we can do is judge the action itself, but the action alone is not sufficient for moral evaluation. Perhaps we know that someone shot another person, but was it murder or justified self defense? To properly assess ethical conduct requires knowledge of the action, the circumstances in which the action occurred, the agent’s character and intentions, and possibly some of the consequences. The Pharisees may impress others by their religious good works, but God looks at the heart. Even praying and giving gifts to the poor displease God if the heart’s motives are wrong.

Christian Ethics in Today’s World

There are, of course, an enormous number of practical ethical issues that Christians face today. Some issues in certain societies are relatively recent, like legalized abortion and same-sex marriage. Other issues are more universal and perennial, like general sexual issues or the justification of self defense and war. Sometimes God has spoken clearly and directly about an ethical issue (e.g. do not steal), but there are other topics that could not have been directly addressed in the Bible (e.g. issues that require contemporary technology, like genetic engineering or in vitro fertilization ). Even when the Bible does not specifically speak to an issue, there are biblical principles that can be relied upon to make an informed moral judgment.

Further Reading

• John Frame, The Doctrine of the Christian Life . See the contents of this book. Read a critique by New Testament scholar Doug Moo.
• John and Paul Feinberg, Ethics for a Brave New World
• Norman Geisler, Christian Ethics: Options and Issues . You can see a brief summary of this book here .
• Ronald Nash, Lectures on Christian ethics
• Scott B. Rae, Moral Choices: An Introduction to Ethics
• TGC Courses, “ Public Theology ”

This essay is part of the Concise Theology series. All views expressed in this essay are those of the author. This essay is freely available under Creative Commons License with Attribution-ShareAlike, allowing users to share it in other mediums/formats and adapt/translate the content as long as an attribution link, indication of changes, and the same Creative Commons License applies to that material. If you are interested in translating our content or are interested in joining our community of translators,  please reach out to us .

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