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What Are the Five Text Structures? Text Structure Explained

Did you know that understanding the text structure can provide you with some valuable insights? It’s true! Let’s dive deeper and explore this fascinating concept. Well start by answering the most obvious question. 

What is text structure?

Text structure refers to the organizational pattern or framework writers use to structure and present information in a written work. It involves how the content is organized, the relationships between ideas, and the overall flow of information within a text.

Different types of text structures serve various purposes, and writers choose a specific structure based on the nature of their content and the message they want to convey. Common text structures include description, sequence or chronological order, compare and contrast, cause and effect, and problem and solution. Understanding text structure is crucial for readers as it helps them comprehend information more effectively and aids in extracting meaning from written material. Additionally, writers use text structure to communicate their ideas clearly and logically.

How do you Determine text structure?

1. Identify Signal Words:

Look for words and phrases that signal the structure being used. For example, words like “first,” “next,” “then,” and “finally” indicate a sequence structure, while “however,” “on the other hand,” and “similarly” suggest a compare and contrast structure.

2. Examine the Organization:

Consider the overall organization of the text. Is the information presented in chronological order, a cause-and-effect relationship, a problem-solution format, or another pattern? This can give you insights into the text structure.

3. Recognize Patterns of Thought:

Pay attention to how ideas are connected. Are the ideas grouped together based on similarities and differences, or are they presented in a step-by-step manner? Understanding these patterns can reveal the text structure.

4. Check for Descriptive Language:

If the text includes rich sensory details, vivid imagery, and descriptive language, it may indicate a descriptive text structure. Look for elements that appeal to the senses and create a mental image.

5. Consider the Purpose:

Think about why the author is writing. Are they explaining a process, telling a story, presenting information for analysis, or proposing solutions to a problem? The purpose can often guide you to the text structure.

6. Look for Subheadings or Formatting:

Subheadings, bullet points, or numbered lists can provide clues about the organization of information. These structural elements often reflect the main ideas and their relationships.

7. Consider Text Features:

Graphics, charts, and illustrations can offer additional information about the text structure. For instance, a timeline may indicate a sequence structure, while a comparison chart may suggest a compare and contrast structure.

By combining these strategies, readers can gain a better understanding of the text structure, which enhances comprehension and allows for more effective engagement with the written material.

The Five Text Structures Defined:

Description Text Structure:

Definition :

Description text structure involves vividly portraying the characteristics, features, or qualities of a person, place, object, or event. Writers use detailed and sensory language to create a clear and vivid image in the reader’s mind.

Common Features:

Standard features of description text structure include rich sensory details, figurative language, and a focus on creating a specific atmosphere or mood. Writers often use adjectives, adverbs, and descriptive language to convey the sensory experience associated with the subject.

In a description text, an author might paint a picture of a bustling city street, describing the sights, sounds, and smells in intricate detail. Another example could involve vividly depicting the appearance and behavior of a central character in a story, allowing readers to form a clear mental image.

How to Identify:

To identify description text structure, look for passages that focus on providing sensory details, painting a picture, or creating a specific mood. Signal words such as “vibrant,” “serene,” “aromatic,” and descriptive adjectives like “crimson,” “fragrant,” and “towering” are often indicators. Additionally, a lack of chronological order or clear cause-and-effect relationships in the writing may suggest a description structure.

Understanding these elements helps readers appreciate the vivid imagery and emotions conveyed through descriptive text, making it easier to identify and engage with this specific text structure.

Sequence and Order Text Structure:

A sequence and order text structure organizes information in a step-by-step manner, presenting events or ideas in a chronological order. The goal is to guide the reader through a process, a series of events, or the progression of time in a clear and logical sequence.

Common features of sequence text structure include the use of time-related words and phrases such as:

Additionally, there is a clear progression of events or steps, allowing the reader to follow the order of occurrences easily.

In a sequence text, an author might provide a step-by-step guide on how to bake a cake, outlining each stage of the process. Another example is narrating historical events in the order they occurred, providing a chronological account of a period or an individual’s life.

To identify sequence text structure, look for clear indicators of chronological order. Signal words like “before,” “after,” “during,” and the use of numerical or time-related words (e.g., “first,” “second,” “next”) are key clues. The writing should present a logical progression, with each step or event building upon the previous one. Additionally, the absence of strong cause-and-effect relationships or comparison language often points to a sequence structure.

Compare and Contrast Text Structure:

Compare and contrast text structure highlights the similarities and differences between two or more subjects. The goal is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the characteristics of each subject by examining their shared qualities and distinctions.

Common features of compare and contrast text structure include the use of comparative language such as

• on the other hand
• in contrast

The writing often presents a balanced exploration of both similarities and differences, offering a nuanced perspective on the subjects.

In a compare and contrast text, an author might analyze the similarities and differences between two historical figures, highlighting their contributions and contrasting their approaches. Another example is comparing and contrasting two literary works, exploring themes, styles, and characterizations.

To identify compare and contrast text structure, look for language that signals a comparison, such as words indicating similarity or difference. Phrases like “both,” “similar to,” “unlike,” and “but” are key indicators. The text should present a balanced exploration of the subjects, examining shared attributes and distinctions. The organizational structure often involves alternating or separate paragraphs for each subject, emphasizing a point-by-point analysis.

Cause and Effect Text Structure:

Cause and effect text structure explores the relationship between actions and their consequences. The writing aims to explain why events occur (the causes) and the outcomes or impacts that result from those events (the effects).

Common features of cause and effect text structure include the use of causal language such as 

• as a result 

The text often presents a clear cause-and-effect relationship, linking events logically to demonstrate the impact of one upon the other.

In a cause and effect text, an author might analyze the reasons behind a historical event, detailing the factors that led to its occurrence and discussing the resulting effects. Another example is exploring the consequences of environmental pollution and linking human activities to ecological impacts.

To identify cause and effect text structure, look for language that indicates causation. Words and phrases like “cause,” “effect,” “leads to,” and “results in” are key signals. The writing should present a clear connection between actions and their outcomes, demonstrating a logical progression from one event to the next. Additionally, the absence of chronological order or explicit comparison language often points to a cause and effect structure.

Problem and Solution Text Structure:

Problem and solution text structure addresses a specific issue or challenge and presents viable solutions. The writing begins by outlining a problem, discussing its implications, and then proposing or exploring potential resolutions.

Common features of problem and solution text structure include the identification of a clear problem, a discussion of its effects or consequences, and the presentation of one or more practical solutions. The writing often employs language such as 

• recommendation

In a problem and solution text, an author might analyze the challenges of urban congestion, discussing the negative impacts on traffic flow and air quality before suggesting potential solutions like public transportation improvements or urban planning changes. Another example could involve addressing the issue of deforestation by proposing sustainable logging practices and reforestation efforts.

To identify problem and solution text structure, look for language that signifies a problem and its potential resolution. Words and phrases like “issue,” “problem,” “solution,” “solve,” and “recommendation” are indicators. The text should present a clear problem statement, followed by discussions of the consequences and viable solutions. Additionally, the writing often incorporates a call to action or implementation of the proposed solutions.

Examples of the Five Text Structures: 

Description structure example:.

The ancient castle stood proudly atop the rugged cliff, its weathered stone walls whispering tales of a bygone era. The imposing structure, adorned with ivy clinging to its surface, seemed frozen in time. Turrets reached towards the sky, and a drawbridge, now permanently fixed, hinted at centuries of history. The courtyard, surrounded by moss-covered cobblestones, echoed with the footsteps of knights long gone. Each archway and crevice told a story, creating a tangible sense of the past that enveloped visitors in a timeless embrace.

Sequence and Order Structure Example:

To bake a perfect chocolate cake, one must follow a precise sequence of steps. Begin by preheating the oven to 350°F and greasing the cake pans. In a mixing bowl, combine flour, cocoa powder, baking powder, and salt. In a separate bowl, beat together butter, sugar, and eggs until creamy. Gradually add the dry ingredients to the wet mixture, alternating with milk. Once the batter is smooth, pour it into the prepared pans and bake for 30-35 minutes. Allow the cakes to cool before frosting with a decadent chocolate ganache. Following this sequence ensures a delectable chocolate cake that delights the senses.

Compare and Contrast Structure Example:

Contrasting the bustling city life with the tranquility of rural landscapes reveals stark differences in lifestyle. In urban areas, the streets hum with activity, skyscrapers pierce the sky, and the constant buzz of traffic becomes the soundtrack of everyday life. Conversely, rural settings offer a serene escape, where the symphony of nature takes center stage. Rolling hills, open fields, and the absence of city clamor provide a stark contrast to the frenetic energy of metropolitan living. Both environments have their allure, catering to different preferences and priorities.

Cause and Effect Structure Example:

The prolonged exposure to sunlight without adequate protection can lead to sunburn. When the skin is exposed to ultraviolet (UV) rays for an extended period, it triggers an inflammatory response. This, in turn, causes redness, pain, and swelling – the classic symptoms of sunburn. The immediate effects are discomfort and skin peeling, but long-term consequences may include an increased risk of skin cancer. Applying sunscreen before sun exposure acts as a preventative measure, mitigating the harmful effects of UV rays and reducing the likelihood of sunburn and its associated risks.

Problem and Solution Structure Example:

The escalating issue of plastic pollution demands urgent attention and viable solutions. With millions of tons of plastic waste entering oceans annually, marine life faces unprecedented threats. To address this problem, widespread adoption of recycling programs and the development of biodegradable alternatives are essential. Governments and industries must collaborate to enforce stringent regulations on single-use plastics. Additionally, raising public awareness about responsible consumption and waste disposal is crucial. Implementing these solutions can pave the way towards a cleaner, more sustainable future

Wrapping up: 

Understanding the what are the five text structures in a expository texts can help you comprehend texts better and communicate more effectively. Text structure refers to how information is presented in a piece of writing, including the relationships between ideas and the overall flow of the text. Recognizing and identifying these structures, such as descriptions, sequences, comparisons, cause and effect, and problem and solution, can help you understand the text more clearly. 

By using strategies such as recognizing signal words, examining the organization, and considering the purpose of the text, you can unlock its meaning and engage more effectively with the content. Additionally, exploring the five specific text structures through examples can deepen your comprehension and help you apply the concepts in different contexts.

Reading Rockets: Teaching Text Structure

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5.10: Arrangement Principles

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• Page ID 7340

• Stephen V. Poulter
• Newman University

Putting Together Your Elements for a Desired Effect

You should have before you now a series of completed elements or modes that address your object or place. If you have not already, get these edited by your instructor until they are each perfected. The next step is the key to understanding personal writing, composing, and arranging. It is a simple idea that we borrow from art, architecture, music, and other design arts. It is, however, much different from way we are used to writing.

Most Common Question: “How do I organize my elements?”

The best way to “compose” or “arrange” your elements is according to some kind of design principle or principles.

A design principle is what organizes the essay for you . In fact, any question that you have about which words to use, which sections to use, which elements to use, what spacing to use, what format to use, what order to use, what to omit, how to make it flow, how to keep it from flowing, how long it should be, or practically any other question, should be answered by the design principle you develop.

What effect do I want to have on my reader?

The first and probably most important point in a design process is determining the effect we want to have on the reader (you answered this in your topic writing). Once you decide what effect you wish to have on the reader, many other design decisions are easy to make. In other words, how we arrange and change the elements in an essay is based on what effect we want it to have . One object I have used in this program is the candle. I must first decide what effect I want to have on my reader.

What effect does my object have on me?

The candle represents to me a person who was very important in my life . I want the reader to feel that. How do I act out that importance?

I light the candle every year on the day she died. Doing that every year has the effect of not forgetting her.

How can this object have the same or similar effect on my reader?

How do I get you to feel what I feel about this candle? I remember my friend when I light it once a year. In other words, I repeat the act of lighting the candle once every year, and the effect of doing that helps me remember her.

Design/Organizational Principles

What organizational principle can i use to reinforce, mirror, or reproduce this effect.

Once I decide what effect I want to have, then I decide what kinds of organizational principles reinforce, highlight, suggest, or otherwise support that effect. Some basic organizational principles include the following:

Organizational Principles:

• Repetition (and Non-repetition)
• Symmetry (and Asymmetry)
• Balance (and Imbalance)
• Structure (and Non-structure)
• Order (and Disorder)

Please note that each of these has an opposite that is just as much a choice as the basic principle; for example, for “balance,” you may choose to make “imbalance” the principle around which you organize your essay. There is also asymmetry, non-repetition, unstructured, and disorder. The point is that whatever principle or principles reinforce the effect, those are the ones you should use to organize the elements of your already written essay draft .

In my example, I want to use repetition as an organizing principle, because I repeat the act of lighting the candle. I also repeat this act at regular intervals (yearly). It is also a simple act. Therefore, what I want to repeat is “lighting the candle.” A very simple way to reinforce the effect of repeating the act of lighting the candle is to repeat a single, simple sentence at regular intervals.

Here is a simple sentence:

I light a candle every year to remember my friend.

In order to employ repetition as an organizing principle, I can repeat the same simple sentence, or a variation of it, at the end of every one of my elements, or at least at regular intervals – in the same way I repeat the act of lighting the candle at regular intervals as a simple act of remembering my friend. I hope the repetition will trigger a similar reaction (effect) in you (the reader).

I might also use the principle of symmetry to make the amount of writing approximately the same between the repeated sentences. For longer elements, I may have to insert the sentence halfway through, and for shorter elements, I may have to combine 2 or more in order to keep the spacing between the repeated sentences more or less even.

Another principle I might use is order . How do I put these elements in order? Again, I check my effect. I want this to reflect the amount of time that has passed since my friend passed away. Therefore, I want the elements to go in some sort of chronological order.

Arrangement

How do i arrange (compose) my elements.

The next step is to look at your elements (your written draft) and try to arrange, delete, add to, and otherwise change them to have the effect (based on some organizational principle) that you want it to have on your readers. The point here is that all our arrangement decisions are governed by that principle or principles , which in turn are governed by the effect. Since my most obvious time-related elements are my anecdote and history, I want to make sure they are in chronological order. Then I just insert other elements to make the spacing proper for the symmetry principle above.

An Essay Schematic

Here is a possible arrangement of my elements according to the design principle I have sketched out above :

Example \(\PageIndex{1}\):

[I have looked at my Anecdote and the anecdotes in my History and put the earliest one – earliest anecdote in the chronology of my life – first. Next, I add the sentence that I constructed above to the end of the first element (Anecdote)]: I light a candle every year to remember my friend .

Description

[Here I insert my entire description of the candle, and then add the repeated sentence to the end of the element]: I light a candle every year to remember my friend.

Another Anecdote

[Here I borrow one of the anecdotes from the History element, and add the repeated sentence]: I light a candle every year to remember my friend .

[This element helps the reader understand how I look at (define) the candle – then I add the sentence]: I light a candle every year to remember my friend .

[From the History element.] Plus, I light a candle every year to remember my friend .

[I put the second half of the Comparison element – the part that describes a similar object – here.] I then add: I light a candle every year to remember my friend .

[The last one from my History element.] + I light a candle every year to remember my friend.

Most Common Question: “Don’t I need transitions between elements, or don’t I need to make them flow?”

The answer to this question is the same as the answer to almost all formatting, usage, punctuation, arrangement, and even grammatical questions about this kind of essay: it depends upon your design principle !

If “making my essay flow” somehow intensifies the effect, and so is compatible with your design principles, then you need transitions. However, if part of the effect involves moving abruptly from one thing to another, then you do not want transitions.

Other Examples of Arrangement

Please note that these are not the only principles we may use. Use whatever principle(s) your object/place suggests.

For example, I might choose a creek to focus on in this essay. I might choose to talk about this creek as a place where I played as a kid. What I want to emphasize might be how it meanders across the fields where we played. In other words, I want the effect on the reader to be “meandering.” How can I make that idea reflect in my writing (in other words, how can I organize my writing so that the reader gets the effect of “meandering?” )?

There are several things I can do. I can choose the most “meandering” writing elements that I have. “Description” comes to mind, because of its long, flowing sentences. There are other places (comparison, definition, parts of narrative, history) where I used some description, or at least long, flowing sentences. I can, for example, be sure my essay begins and ends with meandering, flowing sentences.

Another way I can organize with the effect “meandering” might be with a sort of randomness . That is, my stories and analysis, for example, may not come where the reader expects them, or they may not have much of a point, or they may be interrupted unexpectedly by parts of other elements, and so on.

All of these “principles of organizing” (or in this case, “disorganizing”) support the effect I want to have on the reader (in this case, random, meandering, flowing, and slightly disorganized writing).

Once again, the point is to let the effect you want for your object or place dictate the principles around which you will organize the elements that you have already written.

Articulate a Design Principle

You are now ready to write a design principle statement. This is what helps you decide how to arrange your essay.

Please note the following: What you write down for this section does not go in your essay. It will go in your portfolio ahead of your completed final essay on a separate page. On a separate sheet of paper, write down the effect you want your essay to have, what principles of arrangement or organization you plan to use to achieve this effect, and how you carry this out in arranging your essay. In other words:

What organizational principle (s) do I wish to use to reinforce the effect?

How can I arrange the elements in this essay to reflect the organizational principle(s)?

Here are some example design principle statements (I have highlighted the words that answer the 3 questions above):

Example \(\PageIndex{2}\):

I want the reader to feel the ritual I perform every year when I light this candle. I will reinforce this regular yearly ritual by repeating the idea of lighting the candle. I will do this by repeating the same sentence four times at regular intervals at the end of anecdotes. I will arrange the essay in chronological order by beginning and ending with an anecdote, splitting the history anecdotes and ending with the latest, and inserting other elements to make the spacing between that repeated sentence about the same.

I want the reader to feel the unstructured freedom of play when we were kids, especially the way I felt playing along the creek, which meandered all along the valley. I will reinforce this sense of aimless, unstructured meandering by making my essay loosely structured and somewhat unorganized. To make it reflect this I will arrange the essay by starting and ending with the long flowing sentences of my description element, and by starting and ending every element with the part of that element that describes, or at least has the longest, most flowing sentences. Some will be short, but most will be very long. I will combine the short ones into longer ones so that most sections seem longer than they have to be.

I want the reader to feel the jarring, unnerving irritation of the air horn that kept bowing behind me at the basketball game. I will reinforce this idea of irritation by irritating and frustrating the reader at every turn. I will do this by using disorder and chaos. Maybe I will randomly throw in the words AIR HORN 2 or 3 times each paragraph. I will arrange the essay by splitting and interrupting and just ending each element at places that make no sense to the reader. I will randomly use punctuation. I will stop in mid sentence. I will break every rule I know about printing I can think of to irritate the reader. It will be difficult to read, but the reader will still be able to understand that all this is about an irritating air horn.

Composing (arrangement)

Now arrange (compose) the elements in your essay according to your design principle statement. Have fun with this and be creative. Remember that it is the effect on the reader that is the most important idea here . And the fact that you tell me in a design statement what you are doing (and why) allows you to do whatever you want to accomplish the effect you are after.

Add phrase/statement level patterns

Here are some sentence patterns that further emphasize both the effect and the meaning of what you have written. They are used to emphasize a point or for a desired effect. Remember, they are used for emphasis. Use these patterns sparingly in an essay or speech.

Repetition Patterns

Asyndeton ( Omitting conjunctions)

He has learned to change, to live, to love. [No “and” before final element in a list]

Polysyndeton ( Adding conjunctions)

She learns, and what she learns she cherishes, and what she cherishes she changes, and what she changes she learns to live with.

Anaphora (Same initial words/phrases in series)

Life is learning to change our minds, learning to change those things we find changeable, and learning to change from what we are to what we must become.

Epistrophe (Same ending words/phrases in series)

We are taught to change; society accepts it , survival demands it , learning depends upon it , and life progresses through it .

Alliteration (Repeated sounds in series)

A l ittle l ove makes l earning a l ifelong ambition.

Question Patterns

Rhetorical question (Tag)

Is life not made up of changing, learning, and changing some more?

Change is the only thing that is always constant, is it not ?

Rhetorical question (Commonly understood)

When will it all change? [Answer implied or unstated]

Simple Question + Answer

What do we learn from change? We learn flexibility.

Interruption Patterns

Interrupted syntax

All of us – learner or teacher, giver or taker, meddler or preacher – bend to the forces of change.

Aside (Parenthetical)

Life (at least one that is full of love and full of learning) is constantly changing.

Balance Patterns

Symmetry (Similar number/size elements before and after linking verb)

Life means change.

A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

Balanced elements

He who enters the arena of change also loves the game of life .

Antithesis (Opposite balanced elements)

Some look around at the way things are and ask, “ Why ?” –

I dream about the way things might be and ask, “ Why not ?”

Chiasmus (Reversed balanced elements)

In order to live with change we must change the way we live .

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Digital SAT Reading and Writing

Course: digital sat reading and writing   >   unit 2, text structure and purpose | lesson.

• Part-to-whole relationships | Lesson
• Text Structure and Purpose — Worked example
• Text Structure and Purpose — Quick example
• Text structure and purpose: foundations

What are "text structure and purpose" questions?

• (Choice A)   The speaker provides examples of an admirable way of approaching nature and then challenges that approach. A The speaker provides examples of an admirable way of approaching nature and then challenges that approach.
• (Choice B)   The speaker describes attempts to control nature and then offers a reminder that not all nature is controllable. B The speaker describes attempts to control nature and then offers a reminder that not all nature is controllable.
• (Choice C)   The speaker argues against interfering with nature and then gives evidence supporting this interference. C The speaker argues against interfering with nature and then gives evidence supporting this interference.
• (Choice D)   The speaker presents an account of efforts to dominate nature and then cautions that such efforts are only temporary. D The speaker presents an account of efforts to dominate nature and then cautions that such efforts are only temporary.

Despite the fact that we can control and shape the land...

We can't control the sea.

Despite the fact that we can control and shape the land, we can't control the sea.

Choice A says the speaker is focused on whether an approach to nature is "admirable", but the poem doesn't focus on good or bad. Instead, it focuses on possible or impossible. We can eliminate this choice.

Choice C says the speaker argues against interfering with nature, but the poem doesn't say that it's bad to interfere with nature. Also, notice that the second half of the poem doesn't "[give] evidence supporting" interference with nature; the second half of the poem argues that interfering with the sea is impossible. We can eliminate this choice.

Choice D is tempting. The first half of the poem does indeed "[present] an account of efforts to dominate nature". However, the second half of the poem doesn't say those efforts are "temporary". Instead, it argues that in some cases it's simply impossible to dominate nature. We can eliminate this choice.

While some nature can be controlled, some nature can't.

How should we think about text structure and purpose questions?

• to explain ______
• to illustrate ______
• to criticize ______
• to argue ______
• to introduce ______

How to approach text structure and purpose questions

Step 1: Identify the task

Step 2: Summarize the text

Step 3: Test the choices

Stay specific

• Choice A introduces the word "admirable", which makes a judgment about whether these attempts to control nature are good or bad. But the poem doesn't discuss whether things are good or bad. We can eliminate this choice.
• Choice D describes the first part of the text pretty well. The first four lines of the poem do discuss "efforts to dominate nature". However, the second half of choice D disqualifies the whole choice; the poem never claims that anything is "temporary". We can eliminate this choice.

Lean on transitions

The text uses the subordinating conjunction "no matter" to link the first half of the poem to the second half. "No matter" is very similar to "despite" or "regardless", and it very clearly signals that there will be a contrast between the first half of the poem and the second half. This contrast is reflected in the correct answer.

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Arrangement in Composition and Rhetoric

Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms

AndrewLilley / Getty Images

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

In rhetoric and composition, arrangement refers to the parts of a speech or, more broadly, the structure of a text . Arrangement (also called disposition ) is one of the five traditional canons or subdivisions of classical rhetorical training. Also known as  dispositio, taxis , and organization .

In classical rhetoric , students were taught the "parts" of an oration . Though rhetoricians did not always agree on the number of parts, Cicero and Quintilian identified these six: the exordium, the narrative (or narration), the partition (or division), the confirmation, the refutation, and the peroration.

Arrangement was known as taxis in Greek and dispositio in Latin.

Examples and Observations

• "Aristotle states that...the very nature of rhetoric requires at least four components: an exordium , or introduction ( prooimion ), an advanced thesis ( prothesis ), proofs ( pisteis ), and a conclusion ( epilogos )." (Richard Leo Enos, "Traditional Arrangement." Encyclopedia of Rhetoric , 2001)
• In A Rhetoric of Motives (1950), Kenneth Burke summarized the classical position on arrangement as "rhetorical form in the large" involving the following: "a progression of steps that begins with an exordium designed to secure the goodwill of one's audience, next states one's position, then points up the nature of the dispute, then builds up one's own case at length, then refutes the claims of the adversary, and in a final peroration expands and reinforces all points in one's favor while seeking to discredit whatever had favored the adversary."

Declining Interest in Arrangement

"In the place of the old rhetoric's formulaic arrangement , the new rhetoric [of the 18th century] advised an arrangement that reflected the flow of thought itself. By the nineteenth century, the classical rhetorical tradition was pretty much adrift—although Richard Whately made an heroic effort to salvage it. As writing pedagogy abandoned prescribed techniques for invention , arrangement, and style (memory and delivery were already sinking as writing displaced oral literacy), teachers increasingly focused on grammar and surface features. How the student was supposed to create an essay was a mystery—as all writing came to be seen as the result of inspiration. Teaching the structure of the classical oration certainly made little sense because the form of a piece of writing should be determined by the reality the writer aimed to convey, not some static pre-ordained formula." (Steven Lynn, Rhetoric and Composition: An Introduction . Cambridge University Press, 2010)

Arrangement in Modern Media

"Modern mass media...present special complications to the study of arrangement because the sequencing of information and arguments , the order in which certain appeals reach an audience , is very difficult to predict...Saturation and sheer quantity of exposure to a 'message' given in single bursts may count for more than the interrelationships of parts of a single message achieved by its carefully crafted arrangement." (Jeanne Fahnestock, "Modern Arrangement." Encyclopedia of Rhetoric , 2001)

• The Parts of a Speech in Classical Rhetoric
• The 5 Canons of Classical Rhetoric
• Exordium - Definition and Examples
• Proof in Rhetoric
• Narratio in Rhetoric
• The Four Master Tropes in Rhetoric
• Oration (Classical Rhetoric)
• What Is a Compelling Introduction?
• Invention (Composition and Rhetoric)
• The Art of Public Speaking
• Understanding Organization in Composition and Speech
• Definition and Examples of the New Rhetorics
• An Overview of Classical Rhetoric
• Definition and Examples of Progymnasmata in Rhetoric
• Definition and Examples of Dialectic in Rhetoric

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Chapter 8. Formatting Documents

In this chapter.

• Overview of the general standards for document formatting and the importance of using consistent, clear formatting.
• Tips and resources for how to use Microsoft Word styles and templates to simplify formatting.

Document formatting refers to the way a document is laid out on the page—the way it looks and is visually organized—and it addresses things like font selection, font size and presentation (like bold or italics), spacing, margins, alignment, columns, indentation, and lists. Basically, the mechanics of how the words appear on the page. A well formatting document is consistent, correct (in terms of meeting any stated requirements), and easy to read.

The visual appeal of a document has an effect on the reader and how they perceive the information, so it’s important in any piece of writing or documentation to be concerned with its formatting. Formatting also makes information more accessible to the reader by creating and labeling sections (headings), highlighting key words or ideas (bold, italics, or lists), and making a good impression (professional look and feel, appropriate font choice for the document type).

There are many ways to format a technical or professional document. Assignments may specify formatting requirements, but if a style is not dictated, maintain a clear and consistent format throughout the document.

Especially when combining work from multiple team members, details like slight differences in font size or line spacing are easy to miss, but these subtle inconsistencies detract from the overall professionalism of your document. Sloppy formatting will reflect poorly on your abilities, and your audience may lose confidence in your message.

Basic Formatting Standards for Lab Documents

A few standards that should be used in most lab documents, unless specified otherwise:

• 11-12 pt. font in a consistent style throughout, including headers, footers, and visual labels
• 14 pt font for section headings (and “Memo” or other document label within a header)
• A standard, professional font (e.g., Times New Roman, Cambria, Calibri)
• Single or 0.15 line spacing, with no indentation on the first line of the paragraph
• Additional line break between paragraphs
• Left-justified body text
• Page numbers at bottom right corner (starting the first page of the main text, i.e. not the cover page or Table of Contents)
• 1in. margins

Writing Common Technical Documents details the content for documents you are likely to write in first-year engineering. You should review these for what information should be included in headers, title pages, etc. Each content guide demonstrates the general formatting you might see in a document of that type, but these are not complete templates for formatting.

Using Features in Word

Using the built-in features in Microsoft Word can help maintain proper formatting even when you need to make changes to your document.

• Word’s Equation Editor should be used for all equations and calculations (see Using Graphics and Visuals Effectively for more information on formatting equations, figures, and tables).
• All page breaks should use the Page Break option within Word. This ensures that proper spacing will be maintained regardless of changes to the surrounding text or file type.
• Many citation styles use hanging indents in the reference list. Word has an option to indent all lines in a paragraph except the first line. This is accessible under Paragraph Options and should be used for all reference lists that require hanging indents. This option will maintain your hanging indent if the text or font size is changed.
• Use the list formatting feature to ensure that the spacing and alignment are consistent throughout the doc. Note that when lists extend to more than one line, the text remains vertically aligned.

Using Templates & Styles

If a Word template is provided by your instructor, use it to create your document. Templates can be applied later, but it may be more difficult. Save the template as a document using your desired file name, then begin editing and adding content. Templates will often use features to simplify adding tables, figures, and a table of contents.

If a template is not provided, you can use a style to format your document. Word has many built-in styles that can be modified and saved. A style is a set of formatting that is applied automatically to the document as you create and modify it. It is likely that there will not be a style with exactly the characteristics you are looking for, but spending a few minutes to update the style will likely save time later by allowing you to easily add a Table of Contents, adjust Figure and Table labels, and move easily from section to section using the Outline feature. It is not mandatory to use these features, but you may find them helpful, particularly for lab reports.

How-To Geek created “ Microsoft Word: Document Formatting Essentials ,” a series of lessons on creating documents in Word.

More information on using paragraphs, sections, and characters within styles is detailed in “ Six Tips for Better Formatting in Microsoft Word .”

See the Additional Resources box below for links to more information on using Word effectively for formatting. If you are unsure of how to use a feature or find yourself spending an excessive amount of time manually making formatting changes, don’t be afraid to Google how to do something. Word is one of the most widely used programs in the world; there are many resources and tutorials online on how to use it. Know that many similar formatting features are also available in Google Docs.

Key Takeaways

• If formatting is not specified by your instructor, use the generally accepted standards for technical documents.
• Keep formatting consistent to minimize distractions and create a professional impression.
• Always use built-in tools like page breaks and indents to create documents.
• Consider using templates or styles to make consistent formatting easier.

Additional Resources

A Design Procedure for Routine Business Documents (OWL) Customize or create new styles in Word (Microsoft) How to Simplify Word Document Formatting With Styles (TutsPlus) How to Use, Modify, and Create Templates in Word (PCWorld)

Fundamentals of Engineering Technical Communications Copyright © by Leah Wahlin is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Organizing Documents

In our conversations with others, we present our ideas in a logical order. This way, we make sense to our listeners. Typically, we relate events in the order they occurred, so our listeners don't become confused as they follow our ideas. In writing, the pattern we present our ideas in is called organization. Writers need to know about organizational patterns because readers expect what they read to make sense logically. Choosing an organizational pattern for your writing means knowing what patterns are acceptable for your topic and within your discipline. Some types of organization work better than others, depending on the information you need to convey.

Definition of Organization

Steve Reid, English Department To me, organization is the arrangement of the larger units of meaning in a paper. That's one of the things that's going to be very different from one course to the next. What are the expected patterns of organization? A lab report is very different from a scientific report, is very different from a poem, is very different from a report in the newspaper. All of these have their own patterns of organization, all of which are acceptable in specific disciplines.

Kate Kiefer, English Department Organization typically refers to the large elements of text structure. Sometimes these elements are formalized in practice, as in the typical lab report, through consistent use of headings. Sometimes elements of organization are only informally acknowledged -like the thesis of an academic paper. Most writers across the university would agree, however, that organization refers to the ordering of ideas.

Organization in writing is how ideas are presented. Typically, organization refers to the larger parts of a piece of writing, although it also refers to how paragraphs and sentences are written. The flow of a piece of writing affects how readers interpret ideas. If the organization does not provide readers with the information they are looking for in an orderly manner, they will quickly lose interest. Unorganized writing makes readers search for the information they need.

Types of Organization

Michel Muraski, Journalism and Technical Communication Department Identifying different organizational patterns is important. For example, if I'm going to do an imperial research report, based on my original research, I would organize the paper based on inductive information where I take a specific observation and end up with a generalization about it. If I'm going to be comparing a choice among options, then I might want to organize my paper by way of comparing and contrasting. Organizational patterns depend on what information needs to be conveyed.

In writing, ideas are conveyed through various methods. Sometimes we discuss the causes of something without ever mentioning its effects. Other times, we present a general idea about a topic before we ever get to the specifics. And still other times, we relate details according to their importance.

Every time you sit down to write, you should rethink what type of organization you'll use. To choose a pattern, consider why you are writing and who will read your writing.What is the most effective way to present this information? The list below represents some common organizational patterns, although many more patterns exist. You should use only one pattern for the overall structure of your writing.

General Organization Patterns

Don Zimmerman, Journalism and Technical Communication Department Each class in school or company you work for will have certain ways of organizing information. The trick is figuring out what are the accepted ways of organizing. These general patterns depend on what kind of report you're writing, a lab report, a progress report, a memo. Students often have trouble seeing the general pattern. A good way to figure out what the general patterns are is to back up and take a look at trade magazines, and other publications in the field you're writing for. Typically, in much writing, a problem is set up and a couple of examples are provided. Once you've figured out the general pattern, take a look at your content, think about your audience and pull it all together. Merely filling in the blanks on an outline won't give you a good idea of an organizational pattern.

Cause/Effect

Cause and effect are two different concepts. Using one or the other depends on what part of a situation you want to stress. Stating the causes and/or effects of a topic is helpful in persuading readers to make a decision about a topic.

Causes tell readers why something happened. For example, numerous stolen bikes on campus cause students to register their bikes. Smoking causes lung cancer. Typing for many hours causes carpal tunnel.

Effects are the results of something. For example, fifty new bike racks were put on campus with funding from registered bikes. Twelve hundred smokers die every year from lung cancer. Carpal tunnel is now discussed in many employee training programs.

Chronological Order

Chronological order presents ideas according to the time in which they occurred. This type of organization is especially effective if you are describing a process, relaying a series of actions, or telling a story. For instance, to convey the plot of a novel or the procedures of an experiment, you would tell readers what happened first, second, etc.

Steve Reid, English Department The strategies we use for writing have common organizational patterns. If I'm going to define something, what I do is I take a specific case, and I look at the class of objects or things to which it belongs, and then I say, "Here's how it belongs to this class, but here's how it differs from something else." For example, a computer is a writing instrument, so how is it different from a pencil, which is also a writing instrument? Then, within the act of definition, there are organizational patterns.

Comparisons allow you to analyze and evaluate two or more concepts. You can compare two concepts by showing either the differences or the similarities between them. This type of organization is especially effective in showing how one concept is better than another. This way, you can persuade readers to choose one over another. For example, car commercials constantly use comparisons to show us how a specific car gets more mileage than other cars.

When you use comparisons between two or more objects, be sure to compare them on the SAME issues. For instance, to show the differences between a Ford Escort, a GEO Prism, and a Honda Civic, you might examine only passenger space, engine size, and trunk size, depending on what issues will interest your readers the most.

Alternating Organization

An alternating organization stresses the points you wish to make about the concepts you are comparing. An outline of an alternating organization looks like this:

I. Passenger Size    a. Ford Escort    b. GEO Prism    c. Honda Civic II. Engine Size    a. Ford Escort    b. GEO Prism    c. Honda Civic III. Trunk Size    a. Ford Escort    b. GEO Prism    c. Honda Civic

Divided Organization

A divided organization stresses the actual concepts you are comparing. An outline of divided organization looks like this:

I. Ford Escort    a. Passenger Size    b. Engine Size    c. Trunk Size II. GEO Prism    a. Passenger Size    b. Engine Size    c. Trunk Size III. Honda Civic    a. Passenger Size    b. Engine Size    c. Trunk Size

Emphatic Order

Emphatic order requires you to arrange your ideas according to their importance. Do you want your strongest, most important point to hit the reader immediately or do you want these points to appear near the end? Depending on your topic and your purpose, you should consider what effect these points may have upon your readers. For instance, you might save the strongest point until last, so you can build all your arguments and leave readers with a lasting impression.

General to Specific Order

Kate Kiefer, English Department Composition folks talk about organization as typical patterns of presenting ideas: general to specific, specific to general, spatial, hierarchical (most to least important) and so on. Obviously, these patterns can apply both to paragraphs and to larger units of discourse, including several paragraphs in a chunk, a labeled section of a text, or the text as a whole.

With this type of organization, you can either: 1. make a general statement and support that statement with specific examples or 2. provide the reader with specific information and then make a general conclusion. Deciding on which of these two to use depends on why you are writing and what information your audience requires.

How to Organize Your Writing

While the overall organization of your writing helps readers follow your ideas, you should also use organizational strategies. Just as street signs provide directions when you're driving, organizational strategies guide readers through your writing. Writing strategies prepare readers for the organization of your writing. These strategies include using visual clues to guide readers, as well as transitional markers from paragraph to paragraph.

Building Reader Expectations

Building reader expectations helps your readers anticipate the content of your writing. This way, readers are not caught off guard by upcoming details. You can build your readers' expectations by:

• Informing readers of what you are writing about within the first two paragraphs. A specific problem statement or thesis prepares readers for what will follow.
• Telling readers the order in which you will discuss your topic. For example, "In this proposal, I first provide a literature review, followed by my original research."
• Stating three ideas when you say three ideas exist. For example, "Faculty members voiced three opposing arguments."
• Providing a table of contents for longer reports.

Headings and Subheadings

Headings and subheadings visually show readers how your ideas are organized within your text. Each heading should accurately tell readers what each section covers. In addition, bolding and using different font sizes help readers locate the information they need. For some writing, especially scientific reports, it's helpful to number your sections.

Effective Transitions

Transitions alert readers of changes within your writing. By using transitions, your readers are prepared for the flow of your ideas. Effective transitions logically connect paragraphs with one another.

Transitions are used to:

• Introduce an idea: First , readers will know this is the first idea.
• Introduce examples: For example , this is a transition.
• Indicate a contrast: However , be sure your transitions accurately show how ideas relate to one another.
• Prepare readers for more information about the same idea: In addition , transitions connect sentences to one another. Words such as "and," "or," "nor," "but," "so," "for," "yet" link sentences together.
• Indicate a conclusion: Finally , readers will know this is the last idea.

Reid, Stephen, & Dawn Kowalski. (1996). Organizing Documents. Writing@CSU . Colorado State University. https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=29

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Composition in graphic design  

The term composition is used for describing the arrangement or placement of the visual elements within a design. Whether you are working with vector graphics, text, or images, and regardless of how good all of these elements look individually, it is of great importance that they form a cohesive, clear, and legible design. A design does not only have to be aesthetically pleasing to the viewer, but it should also have the ability to communicate and convey a message in a functional and effective manner. In order to achieve this, the design in question has to be successfully structured and the best way to accomplish that is to follow certain rules and guidelines regarding composition and layout. These principles refer to the individual elements, as well as the design as a whole. Focus First and foremost, it is very important for a design to be able to capture the viewer’s attention. This is why a strong focal point is considered a key element for any good design. A focal point is used to emphasize an area of interest and to naturally guide the viewer’s eye through the design by giving accent to its most important part. Focal points can be recognized by leading lines, contrast, placement or isolation of objects and other design principles. Leading lines Leading lines, as the name implies, are certain lines, shapes and other visual elements positioned in such a way that they can easily direct the eye towards the focal point. After landing on the focal point, these elements can be further used as a guide towards other important points of information throughout the design. For example, in the first poster, all of the red lines and surfaces lead to the man’s silhouette, which is the focal point of this design. On the other hand, the leading lines on the second poster both emphasize the focal point (the horse’s head) and guide the viewer through all the additional information. 

Poster design by Fernanda  Strunz (source: behance.com)

Poster design by Natalia Konowatek (source: behance.com)

Hierarchy and scale  

Hierarchy is a fundamental visual technique used to help the viewer to navigate through the design easily, as well as to determine the level of importance of each element. It is achieved by scale and arrangement of different elements so that the more important ones are made bigger and bolder, while those less important are smaller and more subtle. 

Hierarchy is crucial when it comes to typography. The title considered the most important bit of written information, should always be the largest and boldest text in the design. Next, come headings and subheadings, each more toned down than the one before, while last comes the body text which should be much smaller and lighter. Regarding posters, brochures, and other such designs, the designer should determine which information is most important for the viewer in order to make it stand out the most.

When it comes to lines, shapes, and forms, designers often use scale to establish hierarchy. The goal is to draw attention toward more important elements by making them larger and using more intense colors, while making less significant elements smaller and more subtle. Scale is also used to achieve proportion, depth, and a sense of size, which is achieved by comparison. For example, the viewer can better grasp the size of a very tall building when compared to a human standing next to it.

Poster design by Shanti Sparrow (source: behance.com)

Balance When it comes to design, balance can be defined as equal distribution of visual weight within the composition. It can be determined by color, size, quantity, or amount of negative space. There are two types of balance, symmetrical and asymmetrical. Symmetrical balance is achieved by reflecting the same or using very similar design elements on both sides of a horizontal or vertical axis. 

Asymmetrical balance is a result of arranging the elements in a way that their “weight” is equally distributed on both sides, even though the elements are neither visually identical nor similar. For example, one visually heavy element on one side can be balanced by a few visually lighter elements on the other. While symmetrical design evokes feelings of elegance and formality, it can often feel static and not visually interesting. On the other hand, asymmetrical balance feels more modern and energetic, since it shows more visual variety.   

Poster design by Chetan Rokade (source: behance.com)

Complementary elements The use of complementary elements guarantees a unified look and an overall aesthetically pleasing design. This can be applied to images, graphics or typefaces. If a design contains multiple images it is best that they are cohesive, which could mean, for example, that they are all from the same photoshoot, or that all have similar minimalistic backgrounds. This applies to text as well. In the case where a design has multiple paragraphs, it is best to use the same typeface for all of them. Using complementary elements is very important for the overall composition. Notable style differences of the visual elements can often be considered overwhelming for the viewer, leaving the impression that the design is of poor quality. 

Template design by Pixasquare and Graphicgum (source: behance.com)

Contrast In graphic design, contrast can be defined as a tool used to present two visual elements in opposite ways. It can be used to grab the viewer’s attention, emphasize certain elements of the design, or to highlight an important piece of information, whether written or graphic. It can be achieved through using colors, sizes, line weights, or typefaces with opposite properties. Contrast is a very important principle when it comes to composition since it can create a focal point and naturally lead the eye through the design. It can also give greater visual weight to certain elements or create  an overall balance within the design.

Design by Ion Lucin/Ionic Type (source: behance.com)

Repetition The principle of repetition implies that certain visual elements are used multiple times in the design. These elements could be anything from graphic motifs to shapes or type and reusing them gives a sense of consistency and cohesiveness.  

This principle is especially important for multi-page layouts, since using the same color palette or placing the headings and texts in the same place on each page reinforces and strengthens the design. This way the viewer can navigate more easily through the project and focus more on the rather than the structure. As a result, the overall design feels coherent and unified. 

Presentation template design by Amber Graphic and Infostyle Agency (source: behance.com)

White space White or negative space is considered a necessary tool in order for a design to feel clear and legible. It refers to the spaces between all the different elements of a design, such as the space between the graphics, images, and text, as well as the space between lines and the outer margins. White space helps in defining different sections through the layout while making the whole design feel more neat and balanced.

Not every part of the layout has to be filled with content. If a design feels cluttered or overwhelming, the designer can add more whitespace by scaling down certain elements or subtracting unnecessary parts from the content. With an immaculate layout and just the necessary amount of information, the whole composition can be more comprehensible and visually pleasing.

Design by Jan-Alfred Barclay (source: behance.com)

Alignment and proximity Alignment is a crucial aspect of design since it helps organize all the visual elements in order to make the composition seem neat. This design principle implies lining up the images, text blocks, and graphics within the composition in a way that makes the most sense for the design in question. The alignment of content can be centered or on either side of an (invisible) axis. For example, when it comes to long paragraphs, it is best to adhere to left alignment, since it helps the viewer navigate through the text easier.  

If a design has a lot of content, whether graphics, images or text blocks it is best to form different sections of closely related elements. This is called proximity and it implies grouping related elements while separating those that are unrelated. When grouping and aligning elements it is important to pay attention to the margins and white space as well, which means that the size of the different margins should be consistent throughout the design. 

Editorial design by Paz Roberts (source: behance.com)

Grids and the rule of thirds The best way to achieve order within the composition is to place all elements on an invisible grid, which will give more structure to the design. This way, it is easier to organize the elements more logically and get a sense of where the focal point should be.  

The placement of the focal point is best determined by applying the rule of thirds, a technique with which a design is divided into three equal-sized rows and columns. The focal points should be placed on the intersections of the grid lines. Using the rule of thirds, rather than placing the elements centrally, makes the design more dynamic, interesting, and visually pleasing. 

(source: Wikipedia)

Conclusion Putting together a well-structured composition might seem difficult and complicated at first and it definitely takes practice and effort in order to master it. Luckily, these methods and techniques can be of great help for beginners, along with paying attention to detail. There are many successful designs that can be used as inspiration or to learn from. As one gets more and more familiar with these principles, it gets easier to recognize them within different designs and compositions, as well as to implement them in present and future works.

Links to image sources: Focus https://www.behance.net/gallery/79020805/Poster-Friday-the-13th Leading lines https://www.behance.net/gallery/19609267/Chicote-Nunca-Mais Hierarchy and scale https://www.behance.net/gallery/66218289/Taste-of-the-Upper-West-Side-Food-Festival?tracking_source=search_projects_recommended%7Cevent%20poster Symmetrical balance https://www.vecteezy.com/vector-art/216507-classic-vintage-sunburst-wedding-invitation-design-with-couple-c  

Asymmetrical balance https://www.behance.net/gallery/72968539/Poster-Designs-Client-%28New-York-Beer-Company%29?tracking_source=search_projects_recommended%7Cposter%20minimal Complementary elements https://www.behance.net/gallery/82746189/FORM-Stylish-Minimal-Template?tracking_source=search_projects_recommended%7Cpresentation%20design Contrast https://www.behance.net/gallery/19484739/Big-John-Slim-Joe-Typeface?tracking_source=search_projects_recommended%7Ccontrast Repetetition https://www.behance.net/gallery/87535103/Barbershop-PowerPoint-Presentation-Templatehttps://www.behance.net/gallery/87535103/Barbershop-PowerPoint-Presentation-Template White space https://www.behance.net/gallery/38116577/EditorialMag-PSD-%28FREE%29 Alignment and proximity https://www.behance.net/gallery/40725921/TOC-Suplemento-de-Cultura?tracking_source=search_projects_recommended Grids and the rule of thirds https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Rule_of_thirds#/media/File:Rule_of_thirds_applied_on_M%C3%A4dchen_am_Strand.jpg  

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Chapter Nine – Organizing the Body of your Speech

Creating the Body of a Speech

In a series of important and ground-breaking studies conducted during the 1950s and 1960s, researchers started investigating how a speech’s organization was related to audience perceptions of those speeches. The first study, conducted by Raymond Smith in 1951, randomly organized the parts of a speech to see how audiences would react. Not surprisingly, when speeches were randomly organized, the audience perceived the speech more negatively than when audiences were presented with a speech with clear, intentional organization. Smith also found that audiences who listened to unorganized speeches were less interested in those speeches than audiences who listened to organized speeches (Smith, 1951). Thompson furthered this investigation and found that unorganized speeches were also harder for audiences to recall after the speech. Basically, people remember information from speeches that are clearly organized—and forget information from speeches that are poorly organized (Thompson, 1960). A third study by Baker found that when audiences were presented with a disorganized speaker, they were less likely to be persuaded, and saw the disorganized speaker as lacking credibility (Baker, 1965).

These three very important studies make the importance of organization very clear. When speakers are not organized they are not perceived as credible and their audiences view the speeches negatively, are less likely to be persuaded, and don’t remember specific information from the speeches after the fact.

We start this chapter discussing these studies because we want you to understand the importance of speech organization on real audiences. If you are not organized, your speech will never have its intended effect. In this chapter, we are going to discuss the basics of organizing the body of your speech.

Determining Your Main Ideas

Matt Wynn –  Lightbulb!  – CC BY 2.0.

When creating a speech, it’s important to remember that speeches have three clear parts: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The introduction establishes the topic and whets your audience’s appetite, and the conclusion wraps everything up at the end of your speech. The real “meat” of your speech happens in the body. In this section, we’re going to discuss how to think strategically about the body of your speech.

We like the word  strategic  because it refers to determining what is important or essential to the overall plan or purpose of your speech. Too often, new speakers just throw information together and stand up and start speaking. When that happens, audience members are left confused and the reason for the speech may get lost. To avoid being seen as disorganized, we want you to start thinking critically about the organization of your speech. In this section, we will discuss how to take your speech from a specific purpose to creating the main points of your speech.

What Is Your Specific Purpose?

Before we discuss how to determine the main points of your speech, we want to revisit your speech’s specific purpose. Recall that a speech can have one of three general purposes: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain. The general purpose refers to the broad goal for creating and delivering the speech. The specific purpose, on the other hand, starts with one of those broad goals (inform, persuade, or entertain) and then further informs the listener about the  who ,  what ,  when ,  where ,  why , and  how  of the speech.

The specific purpose is stated as a sentence incorporating the general purpose, the specific audience for the speech, and a prepositional phrase that summarizes the topic. Suppose you are going to give a speech about using open-source software. Here are three examples (each with a different general purpose and a different audience):

In each of these three examples, you’ll notice that the general topic is the same—open-source software—but the specific purpose is different because the speech has a different general purpose and a different audience. Before you can think strategically about organizing the body of your speech, you need to know what your specific purpose is. If you have not yet written a specific purpose for your current speech, please go ahead and write one now.

From Specific Purpose to Main Points

Once you’ve written down your specific purpose, you can now start thinking about the best way to turn that specific purpose into a series of main points. Main points are the key ideas you present to enable your speech to accomplish its specific purpose. In this section, we’re going to discuss how to determine your main points and how to organize those main points into a coherent, strategic speech.

Narrowing Down Your Main Points

When you write your specific purpose and review the research you have done on your topic, you will probably find yourself thinking of quite a few points that you’d like to make in your speech. Whether that’s the case or not, we recommend taking a few minutes to brainstorm and develop a list of points. What information does your audience need to know to understand your topic? What information does your speech need to convey to accomplish its specific purpose? Consider the following example:

Now that you have brainstormed and developed a list of possible points, how do you go about narrowing them down to just two or three main ones? Remember, your main points are the key ideas that help build your speech. When you look over the preceding list, you can then start to see that many of the points are related to one another. Your goal in narrowing down your main points is to identify which individual, potentially minor points can be combined to make main points. This process is called chunking because it involves taking smaller chunks of information and putting them together with like chunks to create more fully developed chunks of information. Before reading our chunking of the preceding list, see if you can determine three large chunks out of the list (note that not all chunks are equal).

While there is no magic number for how many main points a speech should have, speech experts generally agree that the fewer the number of main points the better. First and foremost, experts on the subject of memory have consistently shown that people don’t tend to remember very much after they listen to a message or leave a conversation (Bostrom & Waldhart, 1988). While many different factors can affect a listener’s ability to retain information after a speech, how the speech is organized is an important part of that process (Dunham, 1964; Smith, 1951; Thompson, 1960). For the speeches you will be delivering in a typical public speaking class, you will usually have just two or three main points. If your speech is less than three minutes long, then two main points will probably work best. If your speech is between three and ten minutes in length, then it makes more sense to use three main points.

You may be wondering why we are recommending only two or three main points. The reason comes straight out of the research on listening. According to LeFrancois, people are more likely to remember information that is meaningful, useful, and of interest to them; different or unique; organized; visual; and simple (LeFrancois, 1999). Two or three main points are much easier for listeners to remember than ten or even five. In addition, if you have two or three main points, you’ll be able to develop each one with examples, statistics, or other forms of support. Including support for each point will make your speech more interesting and more memorable for your audience.

You may notice that in the preceding list, the number of subpoints under each of the three main points is a little disjointed or the topics don’t go together clearly. That’s all right. Remember that these are just general ideas at this point. It’s also important to remember that there is often more than one way to organize a speech. Some of these points could be left out and others developed more fully, depending on the purpose and audience. We’ll develop the preceding main points more fully in a moment.

Helpful Hints for Preparing Your Main Points

Now that we’ve discussed how to take a specific purpose and turn it into a series of main points, here are some helpful hints for creating your main points.

Uniting Your Main Points

Once you’ve generated a possible list of main points, you want to ask yourself this question: “When you look at your main points, do they fit together?” For example, if you look at the three preceding main points (school districts use software in their operations; what is open-source software; name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider), ask yourself, “Do these main points help my audience understand my specific purpose?”

Suppose you added a fourth main point about open-source software for musicians—would this fourth main point go with the other three? Probably not. While you may have a strong passion for open-source music software, that main point is extraneous information for the speech you are giving. It does not help accomplish your specific purpose, so you’d need to toss it out.

Keeping Your Main Points Separate

The next question to ask yourself about your main points is whether they overlap too much. While some overlap may happen naturally because of the singular nature of a specific topic, the information covered within each main point should be clearly distinct from the other main points. Imagine you’re giving a speech with the specific purpose “to inform my audience about the health reasons for eating apples and oranges.” You could then have three main points: that eating fruits is healthy, that eating apples is healthy, and that eating oranges is healthy. While the two points related to apples and oranges are clearly distinct, both of those main points would probably overlap too much with the first point “that eating fruits is healthy,” so you would probably decide to eliminate the first point and focus on the second and third. On the other hand, you could keep the first point and then develop two new points giving additional support to why people should eat fruit.

Balancing Main Points

One of the biggest mistakes some speakers make is to spend most of their time talking about one of their main points, completely neglecting their other main points. To avoid this mistake, organize your speech so as to spend roughly the same amount of time on each main point. If you find that one of your main points is simply too large, you may need to divide that main point into two main points and consolidate your other main points into a single main point.

Let’s see if our preceding example is balanced (school districts use software in their operations; what is open-source software; name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider). What do you think? Obviously, the answer depends on how much time a speaker will have to talk about each of these main points. If you have an hour to talk, then you may find that these three main points are balanced. However, you may also find them wildly unbalanced if you only have five minutes to speak because five minutes is not enough time to even explain what open-source software is. If that’s the case, then you probably need to rethink your specific purpose to ensure that you can cover the material in the allotted time.

Creating Parallel Structure for Main Points

Another major question to ask yourself about your main points is whether or not they have a parallel structure. By parallel structure, we mean that you should structure your main points so that they all sound similar. When all your main points sound similar, it’s simply easier for your audiences to remember your main points and retain them for later. Let’s look at our sample (school districts use software in their operations; what is open-source software; name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider). Notice that the first and third main points are statements, but the second one is a question. Basically, we have an example here of main points that are not parallel in structure. You could fix this in one of two ways. You could make them all questions: what are some common school district software programs; what is open-source software; and what are some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider. Or you could turn them all into statements: school districts use software in their operations; define and describe open-source software; name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider. Either of these changes will make the grammatical structure of the main points parallel.

Maintaining Logical Flow of Main Points

The last question you want to ask yourself about your main points is whether the main points make sense in the order you’ve placed them. The next section goes into more detail of common organizational patterns for speeches, but for now we want you to just think logically about the flow of your main points. When you look at your main points, can you see them as progressive, or does it make sense to talk about one first, another one second, and the final one last? If you look at your order, and it doesn’t make sense to you, you probably need to think about the flow of your main points. Often, this process is an art and not a science. But let’s look at a couple of examples.

When you look at these two examples, what are your immediate impressions of the two examples? In the first example, does it make sense to talk about history, and then the problems, and finally how to eliminate school dress codes? Would it make sense to put history as your last main point? Probably not. In this case, the main points are in a logical sequential order. What about the second example? Does it make sense to talk about your solution, then your problem, and then define the solution? Not really! What order do you think these main points should be placed in for a logical flow? Maybe you should explain the problem (lack of rider laws), then define your solution (what is rider law legislation), and then argue for your solution (why states should have rider laws). Notice that in this example you don’t even need to know what “rider laws” are to see that the flow didn’t make sense.

Using Common Organizing Patterns

Twentyfour Students –  Organization makes you flow  – CC BY-SA 2.0.

Previously in this chapter we discussed how to make your main points flow logically. This section is going to provide you with a number of organizational patterns to help you create a logically organized speech. The first organizational pattern we’ll discuss is topical.

By far the most common pattern for organizing a speech is by categories or topics . The topical organizational pattern is a way to help the speaker arrange the message in a consistent fashion. The goal of a topical organization is to create categories (or chunks) of information that go together to help support your original specific purpose. Let’s look at an example.

In this case, we have a speaker trying to persuade a group of high school juniors to apply to attend Generic University. To persuade this group, the speaker has divided the information into three basic categories: what it’s like to live in the dorms, what classes are like, and what life is like on campus. Almost anyone could take this basic speech and specifically tailor the speech to fit their university or college. The main points in this example could be rearranged and the organizational pattern would still be effective because there is no inherent logic to the sequence of points. Let’s look at a second example.

In this speech, the speaker is talking about how to find others online and date them. Specifically, the speaker starts by explaining what Internet dating is; then the speaker talks about how to make Internet dating better for audience members; and finally, the speaker ends by discussing some negative aspects of Internet dating. Again, notice that the information is chunked into three topics and that the second and third could be reversed and still provide a logical structure for your speech

Comparison/Contrast

Another method for organizing main points is the comparison/contrast pattern. While this pattern clearly lends itself easily to two main points, you can also create a third point by giving basic information about what is being compared and what is being contrasted. Let’s look at two examples; the first one will be a two-point example and the second a three-point example.

If you were using the comparison/contrast pattern for persuasive purposes, in the preceding examples, you’d want to make sure that when you show how Drug X and Drug Y differ, you clearly state why Drug X is clearly the better choice for physicians to adopt. In essence, you’d want to make sure that when you compare the two drugs, you show that Drug X has all the benefits of Drug Y, but when you contrast the two drugs, you show how Drug X is superior to Drug Y in some way.

The spatial organizational pattern arranges information according to how things fit together in physical space. This pattern is best used when your main points are oriented to different locations that can exist independently. The basic reason to choose this format is to show that the main points have clear locations. We’ll look at two examples here, one involving physical geography and one involving a different spatial order.

If you look at a basic map of the United States, you’ll notice that these groupings of states were created because of their geographic location to one another. In essence, the states create three spatial territories to explain.

Now let’s look at a spatial speech unrelated to geography.

In this example, we still have three basic spatial areas. If you look at a model of the urinary system, the first step is the kidney, which then takes waste through the ureters to the bladder, which then relies on the sphincter muscle to excrete waste through the urethra. All we’ve done in this example is create a spatial speech order for discussing how waste is removed from the human body through the urinary system. It is spatial because the organization pattern is determined by the physical location of each body part in relation to the others discussed.

Chronological

The chronological pattern places the main idea in the time order in which items appear—whether backward or forward. Here’s a simple example.

In this example, we’re looking at the writings of Winston Churchill in relation to World War II (before, during, and after). By placing his writings into these three categories, we develop a system for understanding this material based on Churchill’s own life. Note that you could also use reverse chronological order and start with Churchill’s writings after World War II, progressing backward to his earliest writings.

Biographical

As you might guess, the biographical organizational pattern is generally used when a speaker wants to describe a person’s life—either a speaker’s own life, the life of someone they know personally, or the life of a famous person. By the nature of this speech organizational pattern, these speeches tend to be informative or entertaining; they are usually not persuasive. Let’s look at an example.

In this example, we see how Brian Warner, through three major periods of his life, ultimately became the musician known as Marilyn Manson.

In this example, these three stages are presented in chronological order, but the biographical pattern does not have to be chronological. For example, it could compare and contrast different periods of the subject’s life, or it could focus topically on the subject’s different accomplishments.

The causal pattern is used to explain cause-and-effect relationships. When you use a causal speech pattern, your speech will have two basic main points: cause and effect. In the first main point, typically you will talk about the causes of a phenomenon, and in the second main point you will then show how the causes lead to either a specific effect or a small set of effects. Let’s look at an example.

In this case, the first main point is about the history and prevalence of drinking alcohol among Native Americans (the cause). The second point then examines the effects of Native American alcohol consumption and how it differs from other population groups.

However, a causal organizational pattern can also begin with an effect and then explore one or more causes. In the following example, the effect is the number of arrests for domestic violence.

In this example, the possible causes for the difference might include stricter law enforcement, greater likelihood of neighbors reporting an incident, and police training that emphasizes arrests as opposed to other outcomes. Examining these possible causes may suggest that despite the arrest statistic, the actual number of domestic violence incidents in your city may not be greater than in other cities of similar size.

Problem-Cause-Solution

Another format for organizing distinct main points in a clear manner is the p roblem-cause-solution pattern. In this format you describe a problem, identify what you believe is causing the problem, and then recommend a solution to correct the problem.

In this speech, the speaker wants to persuade people to pass a new curfew for people under eighteen. To help persuade the civic group members, the speaker first shows that vandalism and violence are problems in the community. Once the speaker has shown the problem, the speaker then explains to the audience that the cause of this problem is youth outside after 10:00 p.m. Lastly, the speaker provides the mandatory 10:00 p.m. curfew as a solution to the vandalism and violence problem within the community. The problem-cause-solution format for speeches generally lends itself to persuasive topics because the speaker is asking an audience to believe in and adopt a specific solution.

Selecting an Organizational Pattern

Each of the preceding organizational patterns is potentially useful for organizing the main points of your speech. However, not all organizational patterns work for all speeches. For example, as we mentioned earlier, the biographical pattern is useful when you are telling the story of someone’s life. Some other patterns, particularly comparison/contrast and problem-cause-solution, are well suited for persuasive speaking. Your challenge is to choose the best pattern for the particular speech you are giving.

You should be aware that it is also possible to combine two or more organizational patterns to meet the goals of a specific speech. For example, you might wish to discuss a problem and then compare/contrast several different possible solutions for the audience. Such a speech would thus be combining elements of the comparison/contrast and problem-cause-solution patterns. When considering which organizational pattern to use, you need to keep in mind your specific purpose as well as your audience and the actual speech material itself to decide which pattern you think will work best.

Keeping Your Speech Moving

Chris Marquardt –  REWIND  – CC BY-SA 2.0.

Have you ever been listening to a speech or a lecture and found yourself thinking, “I am so lost!” or “Where the heck is this speaker going?” Chances are one of the reasons you weren’t sure what the speaker was talking about was that the speaker didn’t effectively keep the speech moving. When we are reading and encounter something we don’t understand, we have the ability to reread the paragraph and try to make sense of what we’re trying to read. Unfortunately, we are not that lucky when it comes to listening to a speaker. We cannot pick up our universal remote and rewind the person. For this reason, speakers need to really think about how they keep a speech moving so that audience members are easily able to keep up with the speech. In this section, we’re going to look at four specific techniques speakers can use that make following a speech much easier for an audience: transitions, internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts.

Transitions between Main Points

A transition is a phrase or sentence that indicates that a speaker is moving from one main point to another main point in a speech. Basically, a transition is a sentence where the speaker summarizes what was said in one point and previews what is going to be discussed in the next point. Let’s look at some examples:

• Now that we’ve seen the problems caused by lack of adolescent curfew laws, let’s examine how curfew laws could benefit our community.
• Thus far we’ve examined the history and prevalence of alcohol abuse among Native Americans, but it is the impact that this abuse has on the health of Native Americans that is of the greatest concern.
• Now that we’ve thoroughly examined how these two medications are similar to one another, we can consider the many clear differences between the two medications.
• Although he was one of the most prolific writers in Great Britain prior to World War II, Winston Churchill continued to publish during the war years as well.

You’ll notice that in each of these transition examples, the beginning phrase of the sentence indicates the conclusion of a period of time (now that, thus far). The table below contains a variety of transition words that will be useful when keeping your speech moving.

Table 9.1  Transition Words

Beyond transitions, there are several other techniques that you can use to clarify your speech organization for your audience. The next sections address several of these techniques, including internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts.

Internal Previews

An internal preview is a phrase or sentence that gives an audience an idea of what is to come within a section of a speech. An internal preview works similarly to the preview that a speaker gives at the end of a speech introduction, quickly outlining what they will talk about (i.e., the speech’s three main body points). In an internal preview, speakers highlight what they are going to discuss within a specific main point during a speech.

Ausubel was the first person to examine the effect that internal previews had on retention of oral information (Ausubel, 1968). Essentially, when speakers clearly inform an audience what they will talk about in a clear and organized manner, the audience listens for those main points, which leads to higher retention of the speaker’s message. Let’s look at a sample internal preview:

To help us further understand why recycling is important, we will first explain the positive benefits of recycling and then explore how recycling can help our communi ty.

When an audience hears that you will be exploring two different ideas within this main point, they are ready to listen for those main points as you talk about them. In essence, you’re helping your audience keep up with your speech.

Rather than being given alone, internal previews often come after a speaker has transitioned to that main topic area. Using the previous internal preview, let’s see it along with the transition to that main point.

Now that we’ve explored the effect that a lack of consistent recycling has on our community, let’s explore the importance of recycling for our community ( transition ). To help us further understand why recycling is important, we will first explain the positive benefits of recycling and then explore how recycling can help our community ( internal preview ).

While internal previews are definitely helpful, you do not need to include one for every main point of your speech. In fact, we recommend that you use internal previews sparingly to highlight only main points containing relatively complex information.

Internal Summaries

Whereas an internal preview helps an audience know what you are going to talk about within a main point at the beginning, an internal summary is delivered to remind an audience of what they just heard within the speech. In general, internal summaries are best used when the information within a specific main point of a speech was complicated. To write your own internal summaries, look at the summarizing transition words in Table 9.1. Let’s look at an example.

To sum up, school bullying is a definite problem. Bullying in schools has been shown to be detrimental to the victim’s grades, the victim’s scores on standardized tests, and the victim’s future educational outlook.

In this example, the speaker was probably talking about the impact that bullying has on an individual victim educationally. Of course, an internal summary can also be a great way to lead into a transition to the next point of a speech.

In this section, we have explored how bullying in schools has been shown to be detrimental to the victim’s grades, the victim’s scores on standardized tests, and the victim’s future educational outlook ( internal summary ). Therefore, schools need to implement campus-wide, comprehensive antibullying programs ( transition ).

While not sounding like the more traditional transition, this internal summary helps readers summarize the content of that main point. The sentence that follows then leads to the next major part of the speech, which is going to discuss the importance of antibullying programs.

Have you ever been on a road trip and watched the green rectangular mile signs pass you by? Fifty miles to go. Twenty-five miles to go. One mile to go. Signposts within a speech function the same way. Speakers use signposts to guide their audience through the content of a speech. If you look at Table 9.1 and look at the “common sequence patterns,” you’ll see a series of possible signpost options. In essence, we use these short phrases at the beginning of a piece of information to help our audience members keep up with what we’re discussing. For example, if you were giving a speech whose main point was about the three functions of credibility, you could use internal signposts like this:

• The first function of credibility is competence.
• The second function of credibility is trustworthiness.
• The final function of credibility is caring/goodwill.

Signposts are simply meant to help your audience keep up with your speech, so the more simplistic your signposts are, the easier it is for your audience to follow.

In addition to helping audience members keep up with a speech, signposts can also be used to highlight specific information the speaker thinks is important. Where the other signposts were designed to show the way (like highway markers), signposts that call attention to specific pieces of information are more like billboards. Words and phrases that are useful for highlighting information can be found in Table 9.1 under the category “emphasis.” All these words are designed to help you call attention to what you are saying so that the audience will also recognize the importance of the information.

Note from the author, Gruber: As we have previously stated, organization is integral to your audience understanding your message, and thus, being influenced by it. A clear organizational pattern with connectives, such as transitions and summaries, creates a clear and memorable message.

Finally, we sometimes get funny looks when we suggest you write the body of your speech  before  your Introduction & Conclusion. The natural thought may be “The introduction comes first, so I should write  it first.” However, consider the objectives of the Introduction, as described in the next chapter, and you’ll understand why you should always write the body first and then  the introduction and conclusion.

• Baker, E. E. (1965). The immediate effects of perceived speaker disorganization on speaker credibility and audience attitude change in persuasive speaking. Western Speech, 29 , 148–161.
• Smith, R. G. (1951). An experimental study of the effects of speech organization upon attitudes of college students. Speech Monographs, 18 , 292–301.
• Thompson, E. C. (1960). An experimental investigation of the relative effectiveness of organizational structure in oral communication.  Southern Speech Journal, 26 , 59–69.
• Bostrom, R. N., & Waldhart, E. S. (1988). Memory models and the measurement of listening.  Communication Education, 37 , 1–13.
• Dunham, J. R. (1964).  Voice contrast and repetition in speech retention  (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from:  http://etd.lib.ttu.edu/theses .
• LeFrancois, G. R. (1999).  Psychology for teaching (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
• Smith, R. G. (1951). An experimental study of the effects of speech organization upon attitudes of college students.  Speech Monographs, 18 , 292–301.
• Ausubel, D. P. (1968).  Educational psychology . New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
• https://www.pexels.com/photo/photo-of-woman-lying-on-bed-while-using-laptop-4066041/
• https://www.pexels.com/photo/photo-of-led-signage-on-the-wall-942317/

Sections of this chapter were adapted from Stand up, Speak Out: The practice and ethics of public speaking. Stand up, Speak out  by University of Minnesota is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Principles of Public Speaking Copyright © 2022 by Katie Gruber is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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30 Presentation Terms & What They Mean

Delivering a captivating presentation is an art that requires more than just confidence and oratory skills. From the design of your slides to the way you carry yourself on stage, every little detail contributes to the overall effectiveness of your presentation. For those who wish to master this art, getting familiar with the associated terminology is a great place to start.

In this article, we’ll explore “30 Presentation Terms & What They Mean,” shedding light on the key terms and concepts in the world of presentations. Whether you’re a professional looking to refine your skills, a student aiming to ace your next presentation, or just someone curious about the subject, this guide is sure to provide you with valuable insights.

Dive in as we explore everything from slide decks and speaker notes to body language and Q&A sessions.

Each term is elaborated in depth, giving you a comprehensive understanding of their meanings and applications. This knowledge will not only make you more comfortable with presentations but will also empower you to deliver them more effectively.

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Table of Contents

• Speaker Notes
• White Space
• Aspect Ratio
• Grid System
• Master Slide
• Infographic
• Data Visualization
• Call-to-Action (CTA)
• Color Palette
• Negative Space
• Storyboarding
• Bullet Points
• Eye Contact
• Body Language
• Q&A Session

1. Slide Deck

A slide deck, in its most basic sense, is a collection of slides that are presented in sequence to support a speech or presentation. The slides typically contain key points, graphics, and other visual aids that make the presentation more engaging and easier to understand.

Beyond merely displaying information, a well-crafted slide deck can tell a story, create an emotional connection, or illustrate complex concepts in a digestible way. Its design elements, including the choice of colors, fonts, and images, play a significant role in how the presentation is received by the audience.

2. Speaker Notes

Speaker notes are a feature in presentation software that allows presenters to add notes or cues to their slides. These notes are only visible to the presenter during the presentation. They can include additional information, reminders, prompts, or even the full script of the speech.

While the audience sees the slide deck, the speaker can use these notes as a guide to ensure they cover all necessary points without memorizing the entire speech. It’s essential to use speaker notes strategically – they should aid the presentation, not become a script that hinders natural delivery.

A template is a pre-designed layout for a slide deck. It typically includes a set design, color scheme, typefaces, and placeholders for content like text, images, and graphs. Templates can significantly reduce the time and effort required to create a professional-looking presentation.

While templates can be incredibly helpful, it’s important to choose one that aligns with the theme, purpose, and audience of the presentation. Customizing the template to match your brand or topic can further enhance its effectiveness.

4. Transition

In the realm of presentations, a transition refers to the visual effect that occurs when you move from one slide to the next. Simple transitions include fade-ins and fade-outs, while more complex ones might involve 3D effects, wipes, or spins.

Transitions can add a touch of professionalism and dynamism to a presentation when used correctly. However, overuse or choosing flashy transitions can be distracting and detract from the content. The key is to use transitions that complement the presentation’s tone and pace without overshadowing the message.

5. Animation

Animation is the process of making objects or text in your slide deck appear to move. This can involve anything from making bullet points appear one by one, to having graphics fly in or out, to creating a simulation of a complex process. Animation can add interest, emphasize points, and guide the audience’s attention throughout the presentation.

While animations can make a presentation more engaging, they must be used judiciously. Excessive or overly complex animations can distract the audience, complicate the message, and look unprofessional. As with transitions, animations should support the content, not detract from it.

6. Multimedia

Multimedia refers to the combination of different types of media — such as text, images, audio, video, and animation — within a single presentation. Incorporating multimedia elements can make a presentation more engaging, cater to different learning styles, and aid in explaining complex ideas.

However, it’s important to ensure that multimedia elements are relevant, high-quality, and appropriately scaled for the presentation. Additionally, depending on the presentation venue, technical considerations such as file sizes, internet speed, and audio quality need to be taken into account when using multimedia.

7. White Space

In the context of presentation design, white space (or negative space) refers to the unmarked portions of a slide, which are free of text, images, or other visual elements. Despite its name, white space doesn’t necessarily have to be white — it’s any area of a slide not filled with content.

White space can give a slide a clean, balanced look and can help draw attention to the most important elements. It can also reduce cognitive load, making it easier for the audience to process information. Good use of white space is often a key difference between professional and amateur designs.

8. Aspect Ratio

Aspect ratio is the proportional relationship between a slide’s width and height. It’s typically expressed as two numbers separated by a colon, such as 4:3 or 16:9. The first number represents the width, and the second represents the height.

The choice of aspect ratio can affect how content fits on the screen and how the presentation appears on different displays. For instance, a 16:9 aspect ratio is often used for widescreen displays, while a 4:3 ratio may be more suitable for traditional computer monitors and projectors.

9. Grid System

The grid system is a framework used to align and layout design elements in a slide. It’s comprised of horizontal and vertical lines that divide the slide into equal sections or grids.

The grid system aids in creating visual harmony, balance, and consistency across slides. It can guide the placement of text, images, and other elements, ensuring that they’re evenly spaced and aligned. It’s an important tool for maintaining a professional and organized appearance in a presentation.

10. Readability

Readability refers to how easy it is for an audience to read and understand the text on your slides. It involves factors such as font size, typeface, line length, spacing, and contrast with the background.

Ensuring good readability is crucial in presentations. If your audience can’t easily read and understand your text, they’ll be more likely to disengage. Large fonts, simple language, high-contrast color schemes, and ample white space can enhance readability.

11. Infographic

An infographic is a visual representation of information, data, or knowledge. They’re used in presentations to communicate complex data in a clear, concise, and engaging way. Infographics can include charts, graphs, icons, pictures, and text.

While infographics can effectively communicate complex ideas, they must be designed carefully. Too much information, confusing visuals, or a lack of a clear hierarchy can make an infographic difficult to understand. It’s important to keep the design simple and focus on the key message.

To embed in a presentation context means to incorporate external content, such as a video, a document, or a website, directly into a slide. When an object is embedded, it becomes part of the presentation file and can be viewed or played without leaving the presentation.

Embedding can be a useful tool to incorporate interactive or supplementary content into a presentation. However, it’s important to remember that it can increase the file size of the presentation and may require an internet connection or specific software to function correctly.

13. Palette

A palette, in terms of presentations, refers to the set of colors chosen to be used throughout the slide deck. This can include primary colors for backgrounds and text, as well as secondary colors for accents and highlights.

The right color palette can help convey the mood of a presentation, reinforce branding, and increase visual interest. It’s important to choose colors that work well together and provide enough contrast for readability. Tools like color wheel or color scheme generators can be helpful in choosing a harmonious palette.

14. Vector Graphics

Vector graphics are digital images created using mathematical formulas rather than pixels. This means they can be scaled up or down without losing quality, making them ideal for presentations that may be viewed on different screen sizes.

Vector graphics often have smaller file sizes than their pixel-based counterparts (raster graphics), which can help keep your presentation file manageable. Common types of vector graphics include logos, icons, and illustrations.

15. Mood Board

A mood board is a collection of images, text, colors, and other design elements that serve as visual inspiration for a presentation. It helps establish the aesthetic, mood, or theme of the presentation before the design process begins.

Creating a mood board can be a valuable step in the presentation design process. It can help you visualize how different elements will work together, communicate your design ideas to others, and maintain consistency across your slides.

16. Hierarchy

In design, hierarchy refers to the arrangement of elements in a way that implies importance. In presentations, visual hierarchy helps guide the viewer’s eye to the most important elements first.

Hierarchy can be created through the use of size, color, contrast, alignment, and whitespace. Effective use of hierarchy can make your slides easier to understand and keep your audience focused on the key points.

17. Stock Photos

Stock photos are professionally taken photographs that are bought and sold on a royalty-free basis. They can be used in presentations to add visual interest, convey emotions, or illustrate specific concepts.

While stock photos can enhance a presentation, it’s important to use them judiciously and choose images that align with your presentation’s tone and content. Overuse of generic or irrelevant stock photos can make a presentation feel impersonal or unprofessional.

18. Sans Serif

Sans serif refers to a category of typefaces that do not have small lines or strokes attached to the ends of larger strokes. Sans serif fonts are often used in presentations because they’re typically easier to read on screens than serif fonts, which have these small lines.

Some popular sans serif fonts for presentations include Helvetica, Arial, and Calibri. When choosing a font for your slides, readability should be a primary consideration.

19. Hyperlink

A hyperlink, or link, is a clickable element in a slide that directs the viewer to another slide in the deck, a different document, or a web page. Hyperlinks can be used in presentations to provide additional information or to navigate to specific slides.

While hyperlinks can be useful, they should be used sparingly and appropriately. Links that direct the viewer away from the presentation can be distracting and disrupt the flow of your talk.

PDF stands for Portable Document Format. It’s a file format that preserves the fonts, images, graphics, and layout of any source document, regardless of the computer or software used to create it. Presentations are often saved and shared as PDFs to ensure they look the same on any device.

While a PDF version of your presentation will maintain its appearance, it won’t include interactive elements like animations, transitions, and hyperlinks. Therefore, it’s best used for distributing slide handouts or when the presentation software used to create the deck isn’t available.

21. Raster Graphics

Raster graphics are digital images composed of individual pixels. These pixels, each a single point with its own color, come together to form the full image. Photographs are the most common type of raster graphics.

While raster graphics can provide detailed and vibrant images, they don’t scale well. Enlarging a raster image can lead to pixelation, where the individual pixels become visible and the image appears blurry. For this reason, raster images in presentations should be used at their original size or smaller.

22. Typeface

A typeface, often referred to as a font, is a set of characters with the same design. This includes letters, numbers, punctuation marks, and sometimes symbols. Typefaces can have different styles and weights, such as bold or italic.

The choice of typeface can significantly impact the readability and mood of a presentation. For example, serif typefaces can convey tradition and authority, while sans serif typefaces can appear modern and clean. The key is to choose a typeface that aligns with the purpose and audience of your presentation.

23. Visual Content

Visual content refers to the graphics, images, charts, infographics, animations, and other non-text elements in a presentation. These elements can help capture the audience’s attention, enhance understanding, and make the presentation more memorable.

While visual content can enhance a presentation, it’s important not to overload slides with too many visual elements, as this can confuse or overwhelm the audience. All visual content should be relevant, clear, and support the overall message of the presentation.

24. Call to Action

A call to action (CTA) in a presentation is a prompt that encourages the audience to take a specific action. This could be anything from visiting a website, signing up for a newsletter, participating in a discussion, or implementing a suggested strategy.

A strong CTA aligns with the goals of the presentation and is clear and compelling. It often comes at the end of the presentation, providing the audience with a next step or a way to apply what they’ve learned.

25. Thumbnails

In presentations, thumbnails are small versions of the slides that are used to navigate through the deck during the design process. They provide an overview of the presentation’s flow and can help identify inconsistencies in design.

Thumbnails are typically displayed in the sidebar of presentation software. They allow you to easily move, delete, or duplicate slides, and can provide a visual check for overall consistency and flow.

26. Aspect Ratio

27. interactive elements.

Interactive elements are components in a presentation that the audience can interact with. These could include hyperlinks, embedded quizzes, interactive infographics, or multimedia elements like audio and video.

Interactive elements can make a presentation more engaging and memorable. However, they require careful planning and should always be tested before the presentation to ensure they work as intended.

28. Placeholders

In the context of presentations, placeholders are boxes that are included in a slide layout to hold specific types of content, such as text, images, or charts. They guide the placement of content and can help ensure consistency across slides.

Placeholders can be especially useful when working with templates, as they provide a predefined layout to follow. However, they should be used flexibly – not every placeholder needs to be used, and additional elements can be added if necessary.

29. Master Slide

The master slide is the top slide in a hierarchy of slides that stores information about the theme and slide layouts of a presentation. Changes made to the master slide, such as modifying the background, fonts, or color scheme, are applied to all other slides in the presentation.

Master slides can help ensure consistency across a presentation and save time when making global changes. However, it’s important to note that individual slides can still be modified independently if necessary.

In presentations, a layout refers to the arrangement of elements on a slide. This includes the placement of text, images, shapes, and other elements, as well as the use of space and alignment.

Choosing the right layout can make your slides look organized and professional, guide the viewer’s eye, and enhance your message. Most presentation software offers a variety of pre-defined layouts, but these can usually be modified to better suit your content and design preferences.

Microsoft PowerPoint MCQs

The arrangement of elements (such as title and subtitle text, pictures, and tables) is called:.

Correct Answer: layout

Explanation:

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The arrangement of elements such as Title and subtitle text pictures...

The arrangement of elements such as Title and subtitle text, pictures, tables etis called :

B. Presentation

Answer: Option A

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Which tab is not available on left panel when you open a presentation?

D. All of above are available

Which of the following statements is not true?

A. You can type text directly into a PowerPoint slide but typing in text box is more convenient.

B. From Insert menu choose Picture and then File to insert your images into slides.

C. You can view a PowerPoint presentation in Normal, Slide Sorter or Slide Show view.

D. You can show or hide task pane from View >> Toolbars.

To start Microsoft PowerPoint application

A. Click on Start > Programs > All Programs > Microsoft PowerPoint

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C. Click Start > Run then type powerpnt then press Enter

D. All of above

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D. Animations

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Graphic Design

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The process of creating a publication, presentation, or website in an attractive, logical manner is called:

Database Management

Problem Solving

The arrangement of type and graphics on a printed publication, presentation, or website is known as:

A continuous mark connecting two points is known as a:

A flat, enclosed, two-dimensional object is known as a:

The look and feel of a surface in graphic design is known as:

The distance or area between or around things

We call the absence of text and graphics in a design ________ .

white space

empty space

The difference between two or more elments is known as?

The placement of elements on the page so they are evenly distributed

The closeness of elements, often for the purpose of grouping them visually

What is a pixel ?

A single point on a computer screen.

A saved Photoshop file.

An object in the Tools Panel.

A graphic design element.

When the focus is on one element more than others.

Regular arrangement of repeated or alternated elements. (Design)

The relationship between objects in relation to size or number. (Design)

The movement created by a repeated pattern of forms. (Design)

What is Repetition?

the action of repeating something that has already been said or written

What is Alignment?

arrangement in a straight line, or in correct or appropriate relative positions.

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