conflict management case study questions

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Reading Lists
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

Case Study: When Two Leaders on the Senior Team Hate Each Other

• Boris Groysberg
• Katherine Connolly Baden

How should a CEO address friction between his CFO and the sales chief?

In this fictional case, the CEO of a sports apparel manufacturer is faced with an ongoing conflict between two of his top executives. Specifically, the head of sales and the CFO are at each other’s throats and the tension is having a ripple effect on their teams and the rest of the organization. The CEO, who tends to avoid conflict himself, is struggling with how to respond. His options include changing the company compensation scheme to encourage better collaboration, firing the two leaders, getting them each a coach, and doing more team building activities.

The feedback in the 360-degree reviews was supposed to be anonymous. But it was crystal clear who’d made the negative comments in the assessment of one executive.

• BG Boris Groysberg is a professor of business administration in the Organizational Behavior unit at Harvard Business School and a faculty affiliate at the school’s Race, Gender & Equity Initiative. He is the coauthor, with Colleen Ammerman, of Glass Half-Broken: Shattering the Barriers That Still Hold Women Back at Work (Harvard Business Review Press, 2021). bgroysberg
• KB Katherine Connolly Baden is a research associate at Harvard Business School.

Partner Center

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Appendix A: Case Studies

List of case studies, case study 1: handling roommate conflicts, case study 2: salary negotiation at college corp, case study 3: oecollaboration, case study 4: the ohio connection, case study 5: uber pays the price, case study 6: diverse teams hold court.

Chapter Reference: Section 2.2 Approaches to Conflict

Whether you have a roommate by choice, by necessity, or through the random selection process of your school’s housing office, it’s important to be able to get along with the person who shares your living space. While having a roommate offers many benefits such as making a new friend, having someone to experience a new situation like college life with, and having someone to split the cost on your own with, there are also challenges. Some common roommate conflicts involve neatness, noise, having guests, sharing possessions, value conflicts, money conflicts, and personality conflicts (Ball State University, 2001). Read the following scenarios and answer the following questions for each one:

• Which conflict management style, from the five discussed, would you use in this situation?
• What are the potential strengths of using this style?
• What are the potential weaknesses of using this style?

Scenario 1: Neatness. Your college dorm has bunk beds, and your roommate takes a lot of time making their bed (the bottom bunk) each morning. They have told you that they don’t want anyone sitting on or sleeping in the bed when they are not in the room. While your roommate is away for the weekend, your friend comes to visit and sits on the bottom bunk bed. You tell your friend what your roommate said, and you try to fix the bed back before your roommate returns to the dorm. When they return, your roommate notices that the bed has been disturbed and confronts you about it.

Scenario 2: Noise and having guests. Your roommate has a job waiting tables and gets home around midnight on Thursday nights. They often brings a couple friends from work home with them. They watch television, listen to music, or play video games and talk and laugh. You have an 8 a.m. class on Friday mornings and are usually asleep when they returns. Last Friday, you talked to your roommate and asked them to keep it down in the future. Tonight, their noise has woken you up and you can’t get back to sleep.

Scenario 3: Sharing possessions. When you go out to eat, you often bring back leftovers to have for lunch the next day during your short break between classes. You didn’t have time to eat breakfast, and you’re really excited about having your leftover pizza for lunch until you get home and see your roommate sitting on the couch eating the last slice.

Scenario 4: Money conflicts. Your roommate got mono and missed two weeks of work last month. Since they have a steady job and you have some savings, you cover their portion of the rent and agree that they will pay your portion next month. The next month comes around and your roommate informs you that they only have enough to pay their half of the rent.

Scenario 5: Value and personality conflicts. You like to go out to clubs and parties and have friends over, but your roommate is much more of an introvert. You’ve tried to get them to come out with you or join the party at your place, but they’d rather study. One day your roommate tells you that they want to break the lease so they can move out early to live with one of their friends. You both signed the lease, so you have to agree or they can’t do it. If you break the lease, you automatically lose your portion of the security deposit

Works Adapted

“ Conflict and Interpersonal Communication ” in Communication in the Real World  by University of Minnesota is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Ball State University. (2001). Roommate conflicts. accessed June 16, 2001, from  http://cms.bsu.edu/CampusLife/CounselingCenter/VirtualSelfHelpLibrary/RoommateIssues.asx.

Chapter Reference:  Section 2.4 Negotiation

Janine just graduated college, she’s ready to head out on her own and get that first job, and she’s through her first interviews. She receives an offer of a $28,000 salary, including benefits from COLLEGE CORP, from an entry-level marketing position that seems like a perfect fit. She is thrown off by the salary they are offering and knows that it is lower than what she was hoping for. Instead of panicking, she takes the advice of her mentor and does a little research to know what the market range for the salary is for her area. She feels better after doing this, knowing that she was correct and the offer is low compared to the market rate. After understanding more about the offer and the rates, she goes back to the HR representative and asks for her preferred rate of $32,500, knowing the minimum that she would accept is $30,000. Instead of going in for her lowest amount, she started higher to be open to negotiations with the company. She also sent a note regarding her expertise that warranted why she asked for that salary. To her happy surprise, the company counter offered at $31,000—and she accepted.

• What key points of Janice’s negotiation led to her success?
• What could have Janice done better to get a better outcome for her salary?

“ Conflict and Negotiations ” in Organizational Behaviour by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

“Good & Bad Salary Negotiations,”  Salary.com , April 19, 2018, https://www.salary.com/articles/good-bad-examples-of-salary-negotiations .

Herner, M. (n.d). 5 things HR wishes you knew about salary negotiation. Payscale.com, accessed October 21, 2018, https://www.payscale.com/salary-negotiation-guide/salary-negotiation-tips-from-hr .

Chapter Reference:  Section 3.2 Creating, Maintaining, and Changing Culture

At OECollaboration, a technology company that develops virtual collaboration software for new companies, Mike Jones is a new manager. One of the biggest challenges he has faced is that the team that he is managing is well established and because he is an outsider, the team members haven’t yet developed trust in him.

Two weeks into his new employment, Mike held a meeting and discussed all of the changes to the remote work agreements as well as implementing new meeting requirements for each employee to have a biweekly meeting scheduled with him to discuss their projects. The team was outraged, they were not excited, and the following days he wasn’t greeted in a friendly way; in addition, his team seemed less engaged when asked to participate in team functions.

Tracy James is also a new manager at OECollaboration who started at the same time as Mike, in a similar situation where she is a new manager of an existing team. Tracy was able to hold a meeting the first day on the job to listen to her team and get to know them. During this meeting she also told the team about herself and her past experiences. Additionally, she held one-on-one meetings to listen to each of her team members to discuss what they were working on and their career goals. After observation and discussion with upper management, she aligned her own team goals closely with the skills and experiences of her new team. She met with the whole team to make changes to a few policies, explaining why they were being changed, and set the strategy for the team moving forward.

Because she got her team involved and learned about them before implementing her new strategy, this was well received. Her team still had questions and concerns, but they felt like they could trust her and that they were included in the changes that were being made.

• What challenges can a new manager encounter when starting to manage an existing team?
• What strategies can a new manager implement to ensure that their new team is engaged with them and open to change and growth?

Adapted Works

“ Organizational Power and Politics ” in Organizational Behaviour by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

Giang, V. (2013, July 31). The 7 types of power that shape the workplace. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/the-7-types-of-power-that-shape-the-workplace-2013-7

Morin, A. (2018, June 25). How to prevent a workplace bully from taking your power. Inc. https://www.inc.com/amy-morin/how-to-prevent-a-workplace-bully-from-taking-your-power.html

Weinstein,  B. (n.d.). 10 tips for dealing with a bully boss,” CIO , accessed October 13, 2018, https://www.cio.com.au/article/198499/10_tips_dealing_bully_boss/.

Chapter Reference:  Section 4.1 Power

Janey worked as an executive assistant to a product manager at her company: Ohio Connection. Overall, she loved her job; she was happy to work with a company that provided great benefits, and she and found enjoyment in her day-to-day work. She had the same product manager boss for years, but last year, her manager left Ohio Connection and retired. Recently her new manager has been treating her unfairly and showcasing bullying behavior.

Yesterday, Janey came into work, and her boss decided to use their power as her manager and her “superior” to demand that she stay late to cover for him, correct reports that he had made mistakes on, and would not pay her overtime. She was going to be late to pick up her son from soccer practice if she stayed late; she told him this, and he was not happy.

Over subsequent days, her boss consistently would make comments about her performance, even though she had always had good remarks on reviews, and created a very negative work environment. The next time she was asked to stay late, she complied for fear of losing her job or having other negative impacts on her job. Janey’s situation was not ideal, but she didn’t feel she had a choice.

• What type of power did Janey’s boss employ to get her to do the things that he wanted her to do?
• What negative consequences are apparent in this situation and other situations where power is not balanced in the workplace?
• What steps should Janey take do to counteract the power struggle that is occurring with her new manager?

Chapter Reference:   Section 5.1 Interpersonal Relationships at Work

Uber revolutionized the taxi industry and the way people commute. With the simple mission “to bring transportation—for everyone, everywhere,” today Uber has reached a valuation of around $70 billion and claimed a market share high of almost 90% in 2015. However, in June 2017 Uber experienced a series of bad press regarding an alleged culture of sexual harassment, which is what most experts believe caused their market share to fall to 75%.

In February of 2017 a former software engineer, Susan Fowler, wrote a lengthy post on her website regarding her experience of being harassed by a manager who was not disciplined by human resources for his behavior. In her post, Fowler wrote that Uber’s HR department and members of upper management told her that because it was the man’s first offense, they would only give him a warning. During her meeting with HR about the incident, Fowler was also advised that she should transfer to another department within the organization. According to Fowler, she was ultimately left no choice but to transfer to another department, despite having specific expertise in the department in which she had originally been working.

As her time at the company went on, she began meeting other women who worked for the company who relayed their own stories of harassment. To her surprise, many of the women reported being harassed by the same person who had harassed her. As she noted in her blog, “It became obvious that both HR and management had been lying about this being his ‘first offense.’” Fowler also reported a number of other instances that she identified as sexist and inappropriate within the organization and claims that she was disciplined severely for continuing to speak out. Fowler eventually left Uber after about two years of working for the company, noting that during her time at Uber the percentage of women working there had dropped to 6% of the workforce, down from 25% when she first started.

Following the fallout from Fowler’s lengthy description of the workplace on her website, Uber’s chief executive Travis Kalanick publicly condemned the behavior described by Fowler, calling it “abhorrent and against everything Uber stands for and believes in.” But later in March, Uber board member Arianna Huffington claimed that she believed “sexual harassment was not a systemic problem at the company.” Amid pressure from bad media attention and the company’s falling market share, Uber made some changes after an independent investigation resulted in 215 complaints. As a result, 20 employees were fired for reasons ranging from sexual harassment to bullying to retaliation to discrimination, and Kalanick announced that he would hire a chief operating officer to help manage the company. In an effort to provide the leadership team with more diversity, two senior female executives were hired to fill the positions of chief brand officer and senior vice president for leadership and strategy.

Critical Thinking Questions

• Based on Cox’s business case for diversity, what are some positive outcomes that may result in changes to Uber’s leadership team?
• If the case had occurred in Canada, what forms of legislation would have protected Fowler?
• What strategies should have been put in place to help prevent sexual harassment incidents like this from happening in the first place?

“ Diversity in Organizations ” in Organizational Behaviour by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

Della Cava, M. (2017, June 13). Uber has lost market share to Lyft during crisis. USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/news/2017/06/13/uber-market-share-customer-image-hit-string-scandals/102795024/

Fowler, T. (2017, February 19). Reflecting on one very, very strange year at Uber. https://www.susanjfowler.com/blog/2017/2/19/reflecting-on-one-very-strange-year-at-uber.

Lien,  T. (2017, June 6). Uber fires 20 workers after harassment investigation. Los Angeles Times.  http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-tn-uber-sexual-harassment-20170606-story.html

Uber (2017, February). Company info. https://www.uber.com/newsroom/company-info/

Chapter Reference:  Section 5.3 Collaboration, Decision-Making and Problem Solving in Groups

Diverse teams have been proven to be better at problem-solving and decision-making for a number of reasons. First, they bring many different perspectives to the table. Second, they rely more on facts and use those facts to substantiate their positions. What is even more interesting is that, according to the Scientific American article “How Diversity Makes Us Smarter,” simply “being around people who are different from us makes more creative, diligent, and harder-working.”

One case in point is the example of jury decision-making, where fact-finding and logical decision-making are of utmost importance. A 2006 study of jury decision-making, led by social psychologist Samuel Sommers of Tufts University, showed that racially diverse groups exchanged a wider range of information during deliberation of a case than all-White groups did. The researcher also conducted mock jury trials with a group of real jurors to show the impact of diversity on jury decision-making.

Interestingly enough, it was the mere presence of diversity on the jury that made jurors consider the facts more, and they had fewer errors recalling the relevant information. The groups even became more willing to discuss the role of race case, when they hadn’t before with an all-White jury. This wasn’t the case because the diverse jury members brought new information to the group—it happened because, according to the author, the mere presence of diversity made people more open-minded and diligent. Given what we discussed on the benefits of diversity, it makes sense. People are more likely to be prepared, to be diligent, and to think logically about something if they know that they will be pushed or tested on it. And who else would push you or test you on something, if not someone who is different from you in perspective, experience, or thinking. “Diversity jolts us into cognitive action in ways that homogeneity simply does not.”

So, the next time you are called for jury duty, or to serve on a board committee, or to make an important decision as part of a team, remember that one way to generate a great discussion and come up with a strong solution is to pull together a diverse team.

• If you don’t have a diverse group of people on your team, how can you ensure that you will have robust discussions and decision-making? What techniques can you use to generate conversations from different perspectives?
• Evaluate your own team at work. Is it a diverse team? How would you rate the quality of decisions generated from that group?

Sources: Adapted from Katherine W. Phillips, “How Diversity Makes Us Smarter,” Scientific American, October 2014, p. 7–8.

“ Critical Thinking Case ” in  Organizational Behaviour by OpenStax is licenced under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

Conflict Management Copyright © 2022 by Laura Westmaas, BA, MSc is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Researched by Consultants from Top-Tier Management Companies

Powerpoint Templates

Icon Bundle

Kpi Dashboard

Professional

Business Plans

Swot Analysis

Gantt Chart

Business Proposal

Marketing Plan

Project Management

Business Case

Business Model

Cyber Security

Business PPT

Digital Marketing

Digital Transformation

Human Resources

Product Management

Artificial Intelligence

Company Profile

Acknowledgement PPT

PPT Presentation

Reports Brochures

One Page Pitch

Interview PPT

All Categories

Must-Have Conflict Management Case Study Examples with Templates and Samples

Ananya Bhaduri

“Avoiding conflict doesn’t make it go away; it just goes away and sharpens its fangs.”- Amy Alkon.

Conflicts often emerge like untamed brushstrokes on a canvas in the vast tapestry of the modern workplace, where diverse personalities and ambitions intertwine. Like skilled artists, adept leaders know conflict management is critical to transforming these chaotic clashes into harmonious masterpieces. Picture a symphony conductor orchestrating a medley of differing notes, rhythmically merging dissonance into a harmonious melody. Workplace conflict management is akin to that conductor, delicately navigating the complexities of human interaction, listening to the various voices and perspectives, and conducting a harmonious resolution. It is the art of understanding, empathy, and communication, allowing teams to transcend discord and embark on a collective journey toward collaboration and success.

Importance of Conflict Management

Conflict management or conflict resolution is essential for fostering productive and harmonious relationships in both personal and professional contexts. It is pivotal in promoting understanding, resolving differences, and facilitating growth and innovation. Effective conflict management enables individuals and groups to navigate disagreements, negotiate compromises and maintain a positive and collaborative atmosphere.

By addressing conflicts constructively, conflicts can be transformed into opportunities for learning and development. Conflict management helps to prevent escalation and destructive outcomes, such as strained relationships, loss of trust, and decreased productivity. It promotes open communication, active listening, end empathy, allowing parties to express their concerns, interests, and needs.

Moreover, conflict management is crucial for promoting diversity and inclusivity. It encourages the exploration of various perspectives and fosters a culture of respect and acceptance. By acknowledging and valuing differences, conflicts can be seen as a means to challenge assumptions, foster creativity, and drive innovation.

In summary, conflict management is of utmost importance. It enables individuals and organizations to handle disagreements and differences constructively, improving relationships, increasing productivity, and creating a more inclusive and resilient environment. 

Suppose you're willing to offer practical training for your team and colleagues regarding conflict management. In that case, you can check our training module, which focuses on workplace conflict and prevention techniques.

Template 1: A Case Study on Conflict Management at Workplace 

Explore the following template that showcases a case study on workplace conflict management. Use this pre-designed template to outline the context of the conflict within your organization. This concise yet comprehensible template enables your workforce to effectively grasp the conflict's background. Get this template now!

Download now

Template 2: A case study on Conflict Management at the Workplace

Use this slide to highlight the decision regarding conflict management in your organization. This template describes the decision taken and the outcome of the decision. This ready-to-use template is column structured. One explains the decisions taken, and the other denotes the outcomes. This format easily attracts customers; you can edit the decisions and outcomes per your requirements.

Template 3: Recommended Conflict Management Solution Template

This content-ready template helps you showcase the recommendations regarding the conflict management solution. It states that the decisions should be based on facts, and there should be proper reasoning when making the decisions. On the other hand, it also mentions using external assessment firms for making such decisions. Lastly, you can formulate workplace behavior rules and regulations to control aggressive employee behavior. Since this template is customizable, you can add more recommendations according to your needs. 

Template 4: Case Study on Employee Dispute at Workplace Template

This PPT Slide allows you to describe the background of the employee dispute in your workplace. Disputes or conflicts can be based on discrimination. In this template, you can highlight the conflict between the employees and what are the issues faced by them. Get this slide now to get started!

Template 5: Conflict with Manager Template

Use this slide to emphasize the background of the conflict involving the manager. This specific slide highlights the conflict stemming from divergent perspectives on a project. Our dedicated experts have designed these templates to be easily editable, enabling you to incorporate the conflict's background according to your specific needs. Access this template from the given link.

Template 6: Conflict Resolution Approach Template

Discover this PPT Template that showcases the conflict resolution approach adopted within your organization. Within this template, the initial resolution articulates a clear and rational rationale for the change in approach. The second resolution emphasizes the significance of mutual agreement through a constructive dialogue between the employee and the manager. You have the flexibility to customize the resolutions based on the conflict background prevalent in your company. The captivating structure and enriching content of this template will undoubtedly captivate your audience. Act now and seize this opportunity!

Template 7: Mediation at Workplace Template

Mediation holds utmost importance in resolving workplace conflicts among employees or teams. To address conflicts within your company, avail yourself of this downloadable template. It provides a platform to outline the background of the conflict comprehensively. The template emphasizes conducting a role play to effectively resolve the conflict, suggesting the involvement of three individuals as volunteers to portray the employees' roles. However, you have the liberty to customize the template to suit your specific requirements. Download this template right away.

Template 8: Outcome of the Decision Template

This template allows you to focus on the Outcome of the decision. It states that the mediation process helps when communication doesn't work. With this template, you can identify the cause of failure and find new ways of working together. Grab this template now!

Template 9: Conflict Resolution Template

Use this PPT Slide to define your actions regarding the resolution of conflict when both of them were part of your team. With the background of the incident, you can act to resolve the conflict. The colorful and rich content can easily attract your customers. Get this template from the given link!

Template 10: Approach and Outcome Template

This template helps you to find the approach and outcomes of conflict resolution in the workplace. It states to review the entire situation first, then the concerned employees and the managers should be interviewed, and lastly, there should be some psychometric tests to assess the personality. This will lead to understanding the persistent stress level of the employees.

Wrapping up

The above ten templates related to workplace conflict management will help you point out, avoid and mitigate workplace conflicts. Do you know these templates are easily customizable? Also, you can use and save these powerpoint graphics in the format of your choice. 

FAQs on Conflict Management

What is a good example of conflict management.

X manages a customer service team. She oversees 16 employees, and it's her first leadership role. She has one team member, Y, with a low customer satisfaction score. In a previous meeting, she told Y she would like her to raise the score, but it's been a month without improvement.

In such cases, X could work to develop her leadership and communication skills by conducting a training session.

What is an example of a conflict case?

X is an accountant for a software production company. He requires all the sales figures each month to create his reports. One of his colleagues on the sales team, Mr. Y, always gives him the figures late, which affects X's report.

What are the five types of conflict management?

Five types of Conflict management includes-accommodating is the situation when the issue is not essential to you as it is to the other person; avoiding involves simply ignoring the issue; compromising is the opportunity to find a middle-ground solution; collaborating is beyond finding the middle ground to finding a solution and competing that involves sticking to your argument.

What are the 5 Cs of conflict management with examples?

The five C's include- carefully listening, considering the situation, having a calm discussion, conscientiously looking at the facts, and cooperatively working together.

Related posts:

• Top 7 Conflict Management Templates With Samples And Examples!
• The Ultimate Guide to Conflict Management and Resolution in the Workplace (Best PowerPoint Templates Included)
• [Updated 2023] Top 10 Winning Case Study Competition Presentations [and 10 Vexing Business Issues They Can Help You Solve]
• [Updated 2023] Top 20 PowerPoint Templates to Devise a Systematic Research Methodology

Liked this blog? Please recommend us

Must-Have Construction Change Order Templates with Samples and Examples

Top 5 Daily Appointment Templates with Samples and Examples

This form is protected by reCAPTCHA - the Google Privacy Policy and Terms of Service apply.

Digital revolution powerpoint presentation slides

Sales funnel results presentation layouts

3d men joinning circular jigsaw puzzles ppt graphics icons

Business Strategic Planning Template For Organizations Powerpoint Presentation Slides

Future plan powerpoint template slide

Project Management Team Powerpoint Presentation Slides

Brand marketing powerpoint presentation slides

Launching a new service powerpoint presentation with slides go to market

Agenda powerpoint slide show

Four key metrics donut chart with percentage

Engineering and technology ppt inspiration example introduction continuous process improvement

Meet our team representing in circular format

• Tools and Resources
• Customer Services
• Affective Science
• Biological Foundations of Psychology
• Clinical Psychology: Disorders and Therapies
• Cognitive Psychology/Neuroscience
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational/School Psychology
• Forensic Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems of Psychology
• Individual Differences
• Methods and Approaches in Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational and Institutional Psychology
• Personality
• Psychology and Other Disciplines
• Social Psychology
• Sports Psychology
• Share This Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

Article contents

Conflict management.

• Patricia Elgoibar , Patricia Elgoibar University of Barcelona
• Martin Euwema Martin Euwema Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
•  and  Lourdes Munduate Lourdes Munduate University of Seville
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.5
• Published online: 28 June 2017

Conflicts are part of nature and certainly part of human relations, between individuals, as well as within and between groups. Conflicts occur in every domain of life: family, work, and society, local and global. Conflict management, therefore, is an essential competency for each person. People differ largely in their emotional and behavioral responses to conflict and need to learn how to behave effectively in different conflict situations. This requires a contingency approach, first assessing the conflict situation, and then choosing a strategy, matching the goals of the party. In most situations, fostering cooperative relations will be most beneficial; however, this is also most challenging. Therefore, constructive conflict management strategies, including trust building and methods of constructive controversy, are emphasized. Conflict management, however, is broader than the interaction of the conflicting parties. Third-party interventions are an essential element of constructive conflict management, particularly the assessment of which parties are intervening in what ways at what escalation stage.

• cooperation
• competition
• conflict behavior
• conglomerate conflict behavior
• constructive conflict management
• conflict resolution strategies

Definition of Conflict

Conflicts are part of nature, and certainly part of human relations. People experience conflict with other persons, in teams or in groups, as well as between larger entities, departments, organizations, communities, and countries. Conflicts appear at home, at work, and in our spare-time activities with friends, with people we love and with people we hate, as well as with our superiors and with our subordinates and coworkers. Parties need to accept conflicts as part of life dynamics and learn to deal with them effectively and efficiently. Conflict management refers to the way we manage incompatible actions with others, where others can be a person or a group.

Conflict is a component of interpersonal interactions; it is neither inevitable nor intrinsically bad, but it is commonplace (Coleman, Deutsch, & Marcus, 2014 ; Schellenberg, 1996 ). In the 20th century , Lewin ( 1935 ) concluded that an intrinsic state of tension motivates group members to move toward the accomplishment of their desired common goals. Later on, Parker Follett ( 1941 ) explored the constructive side of conflict and defined conflict as the appearance of difference, difference of opinions or difference of interests. Deutsch ( 1949 ) developed this line of thought and analyzed the relation between the way group members believe their goals are related and their interactions and relationships.

A common definition of conflict argues that there is a conflict between two (or more) parties (individuals or groups) if at least one of them is offended, or feels bothered by the other (Van de Vliert, 1997 ; Wall & Callister, 1995 ). Traditionally, conflict has been defined as opposing interests involving scarce resources and goal divergence and frustration (Pondy, 1967 ). However, Deutsch ( 1973 ) defined conflict as incompatible activities: one person's actions interfere, obstruct, or in some way get in the way of another's action. Tjosvold, Wan, and Tang ( 2016 ) proposed that defining conflict as incompatible actions is a much stronger foundation than defining conflict as opposing interests, because conflicts also can occur when people have common goals (i.e., they may disagree about the best means to achieve their common goals). The key contribution of Deutsch’s ( 1973 ) proposal is that incompatible activities occur in both compatible and incompatible goal contexts. Whether the protagonists believe their goals are cooperative or competitive very much affects their expectations, interaction, and outcomes as they approach conflict (Tjosvold et al., 2016 ).

Characteristics of Conflict

Euwema and Giebels ( 2017 ) highlighted some key elements of conflict.

Conflict implies dependence and interdependence. Parties rely to some extent on the other parties to realize their goals (Kaufman, Elgoibar, & Borbely, 2016 ). This interdependence can be positive (a cooperative context), negative (a competitive context), or mixed. Positive interdependence is strongly related to cooperative conflict behaviors, while negative interdependence triggers competitive behaviors (Johnson & Johnson, 2005 ). Interdependence also reflects the power difference between parties. A short-term contractor on a low-paid job usually is much more dependent on the employer than vice versa. Many conflicts, however, can be seen as “mixed motive” situations.

Conflicts are mostly mixed motive situations because parties have simultaneous motives to cooperate and motives to compete. Parties are, on the one hand, dependent on each other to realize their goal, and, on the other hand, they are at the same time competitors. For example, two colleagues on a team are cooperating for the same team result; however, there is competition for the role as project leader. In a soccer team, the players have a team goal of working together to win, but they can be competing to be the top scorer. The mixed motive structure is very important to understand conflict dynamics. When conflicts arise, the competitive aspects become more salient, and the cooperative structure often is perceived less by parties. Interventions to solve conflict, therefore, are often related to these perceptions and the underlying structures.

Conflict is a psychological experience. Conflict is by definition a personal and subjective experience, as each individual can perceive and manage the same conflict in a different manner. Conflict doesn’t necessarily have an objective basis (Van de Vliert, 1997 ). It depends on the perception of the specific situation, and the perception is by definition subjective and personal.

Conflict concerns cognitive and affective tension. When someone perceives blocked goals and disagreements, he or she can also, although not necessarily, feel fear or anger. Many authors consider that conflict is emotionally charged (Nair, 2007 ; Pondy, 1967 ; Sinaceur, Adam, Van Kleef, & Galinky, 2013 ), although the emotion doesn’t need to be labeled necessarily as a negative emotion. Some people actually enjoy conflict. Emotional experiences in conflict are also scripted by cultural, historical, and personal influences (Lindner, 2014 ).

Conflict can be unidirectional. One party can feel frustrated or thwarted by the other while the second party is hardly aware of, and doesn’t perceive the same reality of, the conflict.

Conflict is a process. Conflict is a dynamic process that does not appear suddenly, but takes some time to develop and passes through several stages (Spaho, 2013 ). Conflict is the process resulting from the tension in interpersonal interactions or between team members because of real or perceived differences (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ; Thomas, 1992 ; Wall & Callister, 1995 ).

Type of Conflict: Task, Process, and Relationship Conflict

Early conflict and organizational research concluded that conflict interferes with team performance and reduces satisfaction due to an increase in tension and distraction from the objective (Brown, 1983 ; Hackman & Morris, 1975 ; Pondy, 1967 ; Wall & Callister, 1995 ). Jehn ( 1995 ) differentiated between task and relational conflict, and later also included process conflict (De Wit, Greer, & Jehn, 2012 ). Task conflict refers to different opinions on content (Jehn & Mannix, 2001 ). Examples of task conflict are conflict about distribution of resources, about procedures and policies, and judgment and interpretation of facts (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ). Process conflict refers to how tasks should be accomplished (Jehn, Greer, Levine, & Szulanski, 2008 ). Examples are disagreements about logistic and delegation issues (Jehn et al., 2008 ). Finally, relationship conflict refers to “interpersonal incompatibility” (Jehn, 1995 , p. 257). Examples of relationship conflict are conflict about personal taste, political preferences, values, and interpersonal style (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ). All three types of conflict—task, process, and personal (relational) conflicts—are usually disruptive, especially personal conflict, which is highly disruptive (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ; Jehn, 1995 , 1997 ). A review and meta-analysis by De Wit et al. ( 2012 ) showed that, under specific conditions, task conflict can be productive for teams. Moreover, conflict can wreck a team’s efforts to share information and reach a consensus (Amason & Schweiger, 1994 ). Therefore, research supporting the benefit of task and relationship conflict is not conclusive and each situation varies. What seems to be clear is that managing conflict efficiently to avoid escalation is a priority for teams.

Conflict Behavior, Conflict Management, and Conflict Resolution

Conflict behavior, conflict management, and conflict resolution are different layers of a conflict process and therefore should be distinguished. Conflict behavior is any behavioral response to the experience of frustration, while conflict management is the deliberate action to deal with conflictive situations, both to prevent or to escalate them. Also, conflict management is differentiated from conflict resolution, which is specific action aimed to end a conflict.

Conflict Behavior

Conflict behavior is the behavioral response to the experience of conflict (Van de Vliert et al., 1995 ). Conflict behavior is defined as one party’s reaction to the perception that one’s own and the other party’s current aspiration cannot be achieved simultaneously (Deutsch, 1973 ; Pruitt, 1981 ; Rubin, Pruitt, & Kim, 1994 ). It is both what people experiencing conflict intend to do, as well as what they actually do (De Dreu, Evers, Beersma, Kluwer, & Nauta, 2001 ; Van de Vliert, 1997 ). In conflict situations people often respond primarily, following their emotions, more or less conscientiously.

Many factors affect how people respond to the experience of conflict. Social psychology shows the processes are largely unconscious (Wilson, 2004 ). For example, how people respond to intimidating behavior by their supervisor might be primarily influenced by the context and individual perception, as well as previous relations with persons in authority, including parents and teachers (Gelfand & Brett, 2004 ; Van Kleef & Cote, 2007 ). These natural behavioral responses are also referred to as “conflict styles.” They are rooted in our personality and can differ in context. Some people will naturally respond by being friendly and accommodating, where others will start arguing or fighting (Barbuto, Phipps, & Xu, 2010 ; Kilmann & Thomas, 1977 ; Van Kleef & Cote, 2007 ).

Conflict behavior becomes more effective once we are more aware of our natural tendencies and are also able not to act upon them, and instead to show flexibility in behavioral approaches. This is where conflict behavior becomes conflict management. Therefore, one can be a naturally highly accommodating person who will spontaneously give in to others who make demands, but one will be more effective after learning to assess the situation at hand and to carefully decide on a response, which might be quite different from the natural or spontaneous reaction.

Dual-Concern Model

The dual-concern model holds that the way in which parties handle conflicts can de described and is determined by two concerns: concern for self (own interests) and concern for others (relational interests) (Blake & Mouton, 1964 ; Pruitt & Rubin, 1986 ; Rahim, 1983 ; Thomas, 1992 ; Van de Vliert, 1999 ) (see Figure 1 ). Usually, the two concerns define five different conflict behaviors: forcing, avoiding, accommodating, compromising, and problem solving or integrating. These behaviors are studied at the level of general personal conflict styles, closely connected to personality, as well as at the level of strategies and tactics (Euwema & Giebels, 2017 ).

The different conflict styles have been studied intensively, with three approaches. A normative approach, wherein integrating (also known as problem solving) is seen as the preferred behavior for conflict resolution; a contingency approach, exploring conditions under which each of the behaviors is most appropriate; and a conglomerate approach, focusing on a combination of the behaviors (see “ Conglomerate Conflict Behavior ”).

Figure 1. Dual-concern model.

In forcing, one party aims to achieve his or her goal by imposing a solution onto the other party. Concern for one’s own interests and own vision is what matters. There is little attention and care for the interests and needs of the other party, or the relationship with the other (Euwema & Giebels, 2017 ). This style is appropriate when the outcome is important for one party but trivial to the opponent, or when fast decision making is necessary. It becomes inappropriate when issues are complex, when both parties are equally powerful, when the outcome is not worth the effort for one party, or when there is enough time to make a collective decision. Moreover, forcing decisions can seriously damage a relationship and contribute to bullying in the workplace (Baillien, Bollen, Euwema, & De Witte, 2014 ); however, normative forcing, which is referring to rules and imposing them, can be effective (De Dreu, 2005 ). Note that some alternative terms that have been used for forcing in the literature are competitive , contending , or adversarial behavior .

With avoiding, one party aims to stay out of any confrontation with the other. This behavior prevents efforts to yield, to negotiate constructively, or to compete for one’s own gains. The conflict issue receives little attention, usually because the avoiding party thinks he or she won’t gain from entering into the conflict (Euwema & Giebels, 2017 ; Van de Vliert, 1997 ). Avoiding may be used when the benefits of resolving the conflict are not worth confronting the other party, especially when the problem is trivial or minor; when no good solutions are available for now; or when time is needed (Van Erp et al., 2011 ). An important motive for avoiding also is to prevent loss of face and to maintain the relationship. This is particularly true in collectivistic cultures, particularly in Asian societies (Oetzel et al., 2001 ). Avoiding is inappropriate when the issues are important to a party, when the parties cannot wait, or when immediate action is required (Rahim, 2002 ). Rubin, Pruitt, and Kim ( 1994 ) distinguished between long-term avoidance, which is a permanent move to leave the conflict, and short-term avoidance, defined as temporary inaction.

Accommodating

Accommodating is giving in or going along with the ideas, wishes, and needs of the other party. Accommodating usually is the result of a low concern for one’s own conflictive interests combined with a high concern for the interests and needs of the other party. Giving in often is related to a strong need for harmony and a sensitivity to the needs of the other. Accommodation is useful when a party is not familiar with the issues involved in the conflict, when the opponent is right, when the issue is much more important to the other party, and in order to build or maintain a long-term relationship, in exchange for future consideration when needed. Giving in also can be an educational strategy, giving space to the other to find out what the effect will be. Accommodating is less appropriate when the issue is of great concern, when accommodation creates frustration, or when accommodation reinforces dynamics of exploitation (Spaho, 2013 ). Note that an alternative term for this concept that can be found in the literature is yielding .

Compromising

Compromising involves searching for a middle ground, with an eye on both one’s own interest and the interest of the other. The premise is that both parties must find a middle ground where everyone receives equal consideration, meaning that each party makes some concession (Van de Vliert, 1997 ). Compromising is appropriate when a balance of forces exists and the goals of parties are mutually exclusive (Buddhodev, 2011 ). Compromise leads to a democratic solution; however, it may prevent arriving at a creative solution to the problem and a limited effort to increase resources before distributing them (Spaho, 2013 ).

Problem Solving or Integrating

Problem solving is a win–win strategy aimed at “optimizing rather than satisfying the parties” (Van de Vliert, 1997 , p. 36). Great value is attached to one’s own interests and vision, but also a lot of attention is given to the needs, ideas, and interests of the other. One looks for open and creative solutions that meet both interests. Problem solving or integrating is useful in dealing with complex issues, and it allows both parties to share skills, information, and other resources to redefine the problem and formulate alternative solutions. It is, however, inappropriate when the task is simple or trivial, and when there is no time. Also, it is more difficult to develop when the other party does not have experience in problem solving or when the parties are unconcerned about the outcomes (Pruitt & Rubin, 1986 ). Note that some alternative terms that can be found in the literature for this concept are cooperation and collaboration .

The dual-concern model is used as a contingency model, describing which conflict behaviors are used best under what conditions (Van de Vliert et al., 1997 ), and also as a normative model, promoting integrating behaviors as the most effective style, particularly when it comes to joined outcomes and long-term effectiveness. Forcing, in contrast, is often described as a noncooperative behavior, with risk of escalated and unilateral outcomes (Blake & Mouton, 1964 ; Burke, 1970 ; Deutsch, 1973 ; Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Pruitt & Rubin, 1986 ; Rahim, 2010 ; Thomas, 1992 ). As a result, authors define forcing and integrating as two opposed behavioral approaches (Tjosvold, Morishima, & Belsheim, 1999 ). Following this model, many scholars during the 1970s and 1980s proposed that individuals use a single behavior in conflict, or that the behaviors should be seen as independent. Therefore, the antecedents and effects of different conflict behaviors are often analyzed separately (Tjosvold, 1997 ; Volkema & Bergmann, 2001 ). However, parties usually try to achieve personal outcomes, and try to reach mutual agreements by combining several behaviors in a conflict episode (Van de Vliert, 1997 ). This is the basic assumption of the conglomerate conflict behavior (CCB) theory (Van de Vliert, Euwema, & Huismans, 1995 ), which established that conflict behaviors are used in a compatible manner, sequentially or simultaneously.

Conglomerate Conflict Behavior (CCB)

In the dual-concern model, a contrast is made between forcing (contending with an adversary in a direct way) and integrating (reconciling the parties’ basic interests) as two opposed behavioral approaches (Tjosvold et al., 1999 ). However, the CCB framework assumes that individual reactions to conflict typically are complex and consist of multiple components of behavior (Van de Vliert, 1997 , Van de Vliert et al., 1995 ). The CCB theory covers the idea that behavioral components may occur simultaneously or sequentially and that the combination drives toward effectiveness (Euwema & Van Emmerik, 2007 ; Medina & Benitez, 2011 ). The theory has been supported in studies analyzing conflict management effectiveness in different contexts, such as in managerial behavior (Munduate, Ganaza, Peiro, & Euwema, 1999 ), in military peacekeeping (Euwema & Van Emmerik, 2007 ) and by worker representatives in organizations (Elgoibar, 2013 ).

The main reason that people combine different behaviors is because conflicts are often mixed-motive situations (Euwema, Van de Vliert, & Bakker, 2003 ; Euwema & Van Emmerik, 2007 ; Walton & McKersie, 1965 ). Mixed-motive situations are described as situations that pose a conflict between securing immediate benefits through competition, and pursuing benefits for oneself and others through cooperation with other people (Komorita & Parks, 1995 ; Sheldon & Fishbach, 2011 ). Therefore, a person's behavior in a conflict episode is viewed as a combination of some of the five forms of conflict behaviors. An example of sequential complex behavior is to first put the demands clearly (forcing), followed by integrating (searching for mutual gains, and expanding the pie), and finally compromising, where distributive issues are dealt with in a fair way. An example of serial complexity can be found in multi-issue conflict, when for some issues conflict can be avoided, while for high priorities, demands are put on the table in a forcing way. Another CCB pattern is the conglomeration of accommodating and forcing. This pattern is sometimes referred to as “logrolling” (Van de Vliert, 1997 , p. 35), and it is a classic part of integrative strategies, to maximize the outcomes for both parties. Logrolling behavior consists of accommodating the high-concern issues of the other party and forcing one’s own high-concern issues. This approach is usually helpful in multi-issue trade negotiations; however, it requires openness of both parties to acknowledging key interests.

How to Explore Your Tendency in Conflict

The most famous and popular conflict behavior questionnaires are:

MODE (Management of Differences Exercise). MODE, developed in 1974 by Thomas and Killman, presents 30 choices between two options representing different conflict styles.

ROCI (Rahim's Organizational Conflict Inventory). The ROCI is a list of 28 items that measures the five styles of conflict behavior described.

Dutch Test of Conflict Handling. This list of 20 items measures the degree of preference for the five styles (Van de Vliert & Euwema, 1994 ; De Dreu et al., 2001 , 2005 ). It has been validated internationally.

Conflict management is deliberate action to deal with conflictive situations, either to prevent or to escalate them. Unlike conflict behavior, conflict management encompasses cognitive responses to conflict situations, which can vary from highly competitive to highly cooperative. Conflict management does not necessarily involve avoidance, reduction, or termination of conflict. It involves designing effective strategies to minimize the dysfunctions of conflict and to enhance the constructive functions of conflict in order to improve team and organizational effectiveness (Rahim, 2002 ).

Conflicts are not necessarily destructive (De Dreu & Gelfand, 2008 ; Euwema, Munduate, Elgoibar, Pender, & Garcia, 2015 ), and research has shown that constructive conflict management is possible (Coleman, Deutsch, & Marcus, 2014 ). The benefits of conflict are much more likely to arise when conflicts are discussed openly, and when discussion skillfully promotes new ideas and generates creative insights and agreements (Coleman et al., 2014 ; De Dreu & Gelfand, 2008 ; Euwema et al., 2015 ; Tjosvold, Won, & Chen, 2014 ). To make a constructive experience from conflict, conflict needs to be managed effectively.

Deutsch’s classic theory of competition and cooperation describes the antecedents and consequences of parties’ cooperative or competitive orientations and allows insights into what can give rise to constructive or destructive conflict processes (Deutsch, 1973 , 2002 ). The core of the theory is the perceived interdependence of the parties, so that the extent that protagonists believe that their goals are cooperative (positively related) or competitive (negatively related) affects their interaction and thus the outcomes. Positive interdependence promotes openness, cooperative relations, and integrative problem solving. Perceived negative interdependence on the other hand, induces more distance and less openness, and promotes competitive behavior, resulting in distributive bargaining or win–lose outcomes (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ).

Whether the protagonists believe their goals are cooperative or competitive very much affects their expectations, interactions, and outcomes. If parties perceive that they can reach their goals only if the other party also reaches their goals, the goal interdependence is positively perceived and therefore parties will have higher concern for the other’s goals and manage the conflict cooperatively (De Dreu et al., 2001 ; Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). On the contrary, if one party perceives that they can reach their goals only if the other party fails to obtain their goals, the interdependence becomes negatively perceived and the approach to conflict becomes competitive (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). Goals can also be independent; in that case, conflict can be avoided (the parties don’t need to obstruct each other’s goals to be successful). Therefore, how parties perceive their goals’ interdependence affects how they negotiate conflict and whether the conflict is constructively or destructively managed (Alper et al., 2000 ; Deutsch, 1973 ; Johnson & Johnson, 1989 ; Tjosvold, 2008 ).

Successfully managing conflict cooperatively requires intellectual, emotional, and relational capabilities in order to share information, to contribute to value creation, and to discuss differences constructively (Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). In contrast, a competitive-destructive process leads to material losses and dissatisfaction, worsening relations between parties, and negative psychological effects on at least one party—the loser of a win–lose context (Deutsch, 2014 ).

Deutsch’s theory proposes that emphasizing cooperative goals in conflict by demonstrating a commitment to pursue mutually beneficial solutions creates high-quality resolutions and relationships, while focusing on competitive interests by pursuing one’s own goals at the expense of the other’s escalates conflict, resulting in imposed solutions and suspicious relationships (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ).

In summary, Deutsch’s theory states that the context in which the conflict process is expressed drives parties toward either a cooperative or a competitive orientation in conflicts (Alper et al., 2000 ; Deutsch, 2006 ; Johnson & Johnson, 1989 ). In other words, a cooperative context is related to a cooperative conflict pattern, and a competitive context is related to a competitive conflict pattern. When parties have a cooperative orientation toward conflict, parties discuss their differences with the objective of clarifying them and attempting to find a solution that is satisfactory to both parties—both parties win (Carnevale & Pruitt, 1992 ). On the contrary, in competition, there is usually a winner and a loser (Carnevale & Pruitt, 1992 ) (see Table 1 ). In the CCB model, the patterns can include cooperative (i.e., integrating) and competitive (i.e. forcing) behavior; however, the cooperative pattern will be dominated by integrating while the competitive pattern will be dominated by forcing (Elgoibar, 2013 ).

Table 1. Characteristics of Cooperative and Competitive Climates

Source : Coleman, Deutsch, and Marcus ( 2014 ).

How to Manage Conflicts Constructively

The need for trust.

Trust is commonly defined as a belief or expectation about others’ benevolent motives during a social interaction (Holmes & Rempel, 1989 ; Rousseau et al., 1998 ). Mutual trust is one important antecedent as well as a consequence of cooperation in conflicts (Deutsch, 1983 ; Ferrin, Bligh, & Kohles, 2008 ). As Nahapiet and Ghoshal pointed out, “Trust lubricates cooperation, and cooperation itself breeds trust” ( 1998 , p.255). There is ample evidence that constructive conflict and trust are tightly and positively related (Hempel, Zhang, & Tjosvold, 2009 ; Bijlsma & Koopman, 2003 ; Lewicki, Tonlinson, & Gillespie, 2006 ).

Successful constructive conflict management requires maximal gathering and exchange of information in order to identify problems and areas of mutual concern, to search for alternatives, to assess their implications, and to achieve openness about preferences in selecting optimal solutions (Bacon & Blyton, 2007 ; Johnson & Johnson, 1989 ; Tjosvold, 1999 ). Trust gives parties the confidence to be open with each other, knowing that the shared information won’t be used against them (Zaheer & Zaheer, 2006 ). Various studies revealed that trust leads to constructive conglomerate behaviors and to more integrative outcomes in interpersonal and intergroup conflicts (Lewicki, Elgoibar, & Euwema, 2016 ; Lewicki, McAllister, & Bies, 1998 ; Ross & LaCroix, 1996 ).

How can trust be promoted? Developing trust is challenging (Gunia, Brett, & Nandkeolyar, 2014 ; Hempel et al., 2009 ). Numerous scholars have noted that trust is easier to destroy than to create (Hempel et al., 2009 ; Meyerson et al., 1996 ). There are two main reasons for this assertion. First, trust-breaking events are often more visible and noticeable than positive trust-building actions (Kramer, 1999 ). Second, trust-breaking events are judged to have a higher impact on trust judgments than positive events (Slovic, 1993 ). Furthermore, Slovic ( 1993 ) concluded that trust-breaking events are more credible than sources of good news. Thus, the general belief is that trust is easier to destroy than it is to build, and trust rebuilding may take even longer than it took to create the original level of trust (Lewicki et al., 2016 ).

However, there is room for optimism, and different strategies have been shown to promote trust. As held in social exchange theory (Blau, 1964 ), risk taking by one party in supporting the other party has been found to signal trust to the other party (Serva et al., 2005 ). Yet, fears of exploitation make trust in conflict management and negotiation scarce. Therefore, the use of trust-promoting strategies depends on the specific situation, and parties need practical guidance on how and when to manage conflict constructively by means of promoting mutual trust.

How does the possibility of trust development between parties depend on the conflict context? Based on this practical question, some strategies for trust development have been proposed (Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Fulmer & Gelfand, 2012 ; Gunia, Brett, & Nandkeolyar, 2012 ; Lewicki et al., 2016 ). In relationships where trust is likely, the following strategies can help: assume trustworthiness, prioritize your interests and give away a little information about them, engage in reciprocity (concessions), highlight similarities and spend time together, get to know your counterpart personally and try to be likable, behave consistently and predictably, and paraphrase your counterpart’s positions. In relationships where trust seems possible: emphasize common goals; focus on the subject, not on the people; look to the future and find a shared vision; mix questions and answers about interests and priorities—the fundamental elements of information sharing—with making and justifying offers; take a break; suggest another approach; call in a mediator; and forgive the other party’s mistakes. In relationships where trust is not possible, more cautious strategies can help: make multi-issue offers; think holistically about your counterpart’s interests; engage in reciprocity (concessions); express sympathy, apologize, or compliment your counterpart; and look for preference patterns in your counterpart’s offers and responses.

Constructive Controversy

C onstructive controversy is defined as the open-minded discussion of conflicting perspectives for mutual benefit, which occurs when protagonists express their opposing ideas that obstruct resolving the issues, at least temporarily (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). Indicators of constructive controversy include listening carefully to each other’s opinion, trying to understand each other’s concerns, and using opposing views to understand the problem better. These skills are considered vitally important for developing and implementing cooperative problem-solving processes successfully and effectively.

Deutsch ( 2014 ) stated that there haven’t been many systematic discussions of the skills involved in constructive solutions to conflict, and he proposed three main types of skills for constructive conflict management:

Rapport-building skills are involved in establishing effective relationships between parties (such as breaking the ice; reducing fears, tensions, and suspicion; overcoming resistance to negotiation; and fostering realistic hope and optimism).

Cooperative conflict-resolution skills are concerned with developing and maintaining a cooperative conflict resolution process among the parties involved (such as identifying the type of conflict in which the parties are involved; reframing the issues so that conflict is perceived as a mutual problem to be resolved cooperatively; active listening and responsive communication; distinguishing between effective relationships between parties and positions; encouraging, supporting, and enhancing the parties; being alert to cultural differences and the possibilities of misunderstanding arising from them; and controlling anger).

Group process and decision-making skills are involved in developing a creative and productive process (such as monitoring progress toward group goals; eliciting, clarifying, coordinating, summarizing, and integrating the contributions of the various participants; and maintaining group cohesion).

Tjosvold et al. ( 2014 ) and Johnson et al. ( 2014 ) also elaborate on the skills needed for facilitating open-minded discussions and constructive controversy. They developed four mutually reinforcing strategies for managing conflict constructively:

Developing and expressing one’s own view. Parties need to know what each of the others wants and believes, and expressing one’s own needs, feelings, and ideas is essential to gaining that knowledge. By strengthening expression of their own positions, both parties can learn to investigate their position, present the best case they can for it, defend it vigorously, and try at the same time to refute opposing views. However, expressing one’s own position needs to be supplemented with an open-minded approach to the other’s position.

Questioning and understanding others’ views. Listening and understanding opposing views, as well as defending one’s own views, makes discussing conflicts more challenging but also more rewarding; therefore, the parties can point out weaknesses in each other’s arguments to encourage better development and expression of positions by finding more evidence and strengthening their reasoning.

Integrating and creating solutions. The creation of new alternatives lays the foundation for genuine agreements about a solution that both parties can accept and implement. However, protagonists may have to engage in repeated discussion to reach an agreement, or indeed they may be unable to create a solution that is mutually acceptable, and then they can both learn to become less adamant, to exchange views directly, and to show that they are trying to understand and integrate each other’s ideas so that all may benefit.

Agreeing to and implementing solutions. Parties can learn to seek the best reasoned judgment, instead of focusing on “winning”; to criticize ideas, not people; to listen and understand everyone’s position, even if they do not agree with it; to differentiate positions before trying to integrate them; and to change their minds when logically persuaded to do so.

Conflict Resolution

Conflict resolution processes are aimed at ending a conflict. So, while conflict management can also include escalation, conflict resolution searches for a way of ending the conflict. The difference between resolution and management of conflict is more than semantic (Robbins, 1978 ). Conflict resolution means reduction, elimination, or termination of conflict.

To find a resolution, parties have to bring an extra piece of information, relate the information they have differently, or transform the issue, change the rules, change the actors or the structure, or bring in a third party (Vayrynen, 1991 ). The most popular conflict resolution processes are: negotiation, mediation, conflict coaching, and arbitration (Rahim, 2002 ). Conflict resolution can also be accomplished by ruling by authorities. Integration of the different techniques sequentially or simultaneously has been shown to support optimal conflict resolution (Jones, 2016 ).

Negotiation

Negotiation is a process in which the parties attempt to jointly create an agreement that resolves a conflict between them (Lewicki & Tomlinson, 2014 ). Walton and McKersie ( 1965 ) were the first to identify the two polar yet interdependent strategies known as distributive and integrative negotiation. Distributive negotiation means that activities are instrumental to the attainment of one party’s goals when they are in basic conflict with those of the other party. Integrative negotiation means that parties’ activities are oriented to find common or complementary interests and to solve problems confronting both parties. Other scholars also focused on the opposite tactical requirements of the two strategies, using a variety of terms, such as contending versus cooperating (Pruitt, 1981 ), claiming value versus creating value (Lax & Sebenius, 1987 ), and the difference between positions and interests (Fisher & Ury, 1981 ).

If a distributive strategy is pursued too vigorously, a negotiator may gain a greater share of gains, but of a smaller set of joint gains, or, worse, may generate an outcome in which both parties lose. However, if a negotiator pursues an integrative negotiation in a single-minded manner—being totally cooperative and giving freely accurate and credible information about his/her interests—he or she can be taken advantage of by the other party (Walton & McKersie, 1965 ). The different proposals that have been formulated to cope with these central dilemmas in negotiation are mainly based on a back-and-forth communication process between the parties, which is linked to the negotiators’ interpersonal skills (Brett, Shapiro, & Lytle, 1998 ; Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Rubin et al., 1994 ).

Mediation is process by which a third party facilitates constructive communication among disputants, including decision making, problem solving and negotiation, in order to reach a mutually acceptable agreement (Bollen, Munduate, & Euwema, 2016 ; Goldman, Cropanzano, Stein, & Benson, 2008 ; Moore, 2014 ). Using mediation in conflict resolution has been proven to prevent the negative consequences of conflict in the workplace (Bollen & Euwema, 2010 ; Bollen et al., 2016 ), in collective bargaining (Martinez-Pecino et al., 2008 ), in inter- and intragroup relations (Jones, 2016 ), and in interpersonal relations (Herrman, 2006 ). However, mediation is not a magic bullet and works better in conflicts that are moderate rather than extreme, when parties are motivated to resolve the conflict, and when parties have equal power, among other characteristics (Kressel, 2014 ).

Conflict Coaching

Conflict coaching is a new and rapidly growing process in the public as well as private sector (Brinkert, 2016 ). In this process, a conflict coach works with a party to accomplish three goals (Jones & Brinkert, 2008 ): (a) analysis and coherent understanding of the conflict, (b) identification of a future preferred direction, and (c) skills development to implement the preferred strategy. Therefore, a conflict coach is defined as a conflict expert who respects the other party’s self-determination and aims to promote the well-being of the parties involved. Giebels and Janssen ( 2005 ) found that, when outside help was called in, parties in conflict experienced fewer negative consequences in terms of individual well-being than people who did not ask for third-party help.

Sometimes, the leader of a team can act as conflict coach. A study by Romer and colleagues ( 2012 ) showed that a workplace leader’s problem-solving approach to conflicts increased employees’ perception of justice and their sense that they had a voice in their workplace, as well as reduced employees’ stress (De Reuver & Van Woerkom, 2010 ; Romer et al., 2012 ). In contrast, the direct expression of power in the form of forcing behavior can harm employees’ well-being (Peterson & Harvey, 2009 ). A forcing leader may become an additional party to the conflict (i.e., employees may turn against their leader; Romer et al, 2012 ).

Conflict coaching and mediation are different processes. First, in conflict coaching, only one party is involved in the process, while in mediation, the mediator helps all the parties in conflict to engage in constructive interaction. Second, conflict coaching focuses on direct skills instructions to the party (i.e., negotiation skills). In that, conflict coaching is also a leadership development tool (Romer et al., 2012 ). There is a growing tendency to integrate conflict coaching and workplace mediation, particularly in preparation for conflict resolution, because the coach can help the coached party to investigate options and weigh the advantages of the different options (Jones, 2016 ).

Arbitration

Arbitration is an institutionalized procedure in which a third party provides a final and binding or voluntary decision (Lewicki, Saunders, & Barry, 2014 ; Mohr & Spekman, 1994 ). Arbitration allows the parties to have control over the process, but not over the outcomes. Therefore, arbitration differs from negotiation, mediation, and conflict coaching, in which the parties decide the agreement themselves (Posthuma & Dworkin, 2000 ; Lewicki et al., 2014 ). In arbitration, the third party listens to the parties and decides the outcome. This procedure is used mainly in conflicts between organizations, in commercial disputes, and in collective labor conflicts (Beechey, 2000 ; Elkouri & Elkouri, 1995 ).

Decision Making by Authorities

The strategies of negotiation, mediation, conflict coaching, and arbitration have in common that the parties together decide about the conflict process, even when they agree to accept an arbitration. This is different from how authorities resolve conflict. Decision making by authorities varies from parents’ intervening in children’s fights to rulings by teachers, police officers, managers, complaint officers, ombudsmen, and judges. Here, often one party complains and the authority acts to intervene and end the conflict. This strategy is good for ending physical violence and misuse of power. However, the authorities’ decisive power is limited, and therefore in most situations authorities are strongly urged to first explore the potential for conflict resolution and reconciliation among the parties involved. The authority can act as an escalator for the process, or as a facilitator, and only in cases of immediate threat can intervene or rule as a last resort. Authorities who employ this strategy can improve the learning skills of the parties and can impose upon the parties an acceptance of responsibility, both for the conflict and for the ways to end it.

It is important to emphasize the natural and positive aspects of conflict management. Conflict occurs in all areas of organizations and private lives and its management is vital for their effectiveness. Through conflict, conventional thinking is challenged, threats and opportunities are identified, and new solutions are forged (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). Therefore, when conflict occurs, it shouldn’t be avoided but should be managed constructively.

Further Reading

• Coleman, P. , Deutsch, M. , & Marcus, E. (2014). The handbook of conflict resolution . Theory and practice . San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
• De Dreu, C.K.W. , Evers, A. , Beersma, B. , Kluwer, E. , & Nauta, A. (2001). A theory—based measure of conflict management strategies in the workplace. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 22 (6), 645–668.
• Elgoibar, P. , Euwema, M. , & Munduate, L. (2016). Trust building and constructive conflict management in industrial relations . Springer International.
• Lewicki, R. J. , McAllister, D. J. , & Bies, R. J. (1998). Trust and distrust: New relationship and realities. Academy of Management Review , 23 , 438–458.
• Pruitt, D. G. & Rubin, J. Z. (1986). Social conflict: Escalation, stalemate, and settlement . New York: McGraw Hill.
• Van de Vliert, E. , Euwema, M.C. , & Huismans, S.E. (1995). Managing conflict with a subordinate or a superior: Effectiveness of conglomerated behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology , 80 (2), 271–281.
• Wall, J. A. , & Callister, R. R. (1995). Conflict and its management. Journal of Management , 21 , 515–558.
• Alper, S. , Tjosvold, D. , & Law, K. S. (2000). Conflict management, efficacy, and performance in organizational teams. Personnel Psychology , 53 , 625–642.
• Amason, A. C. , & Schweiger, D. M. (1994). Resolving the paradox of conflict: Strategic decision making and organizational performance. International Journal of Conflict Management , 5 , 239–253.
• Bacon, N. , & Blyton, P. (2007). Conflict for mutual gains. Journal of Management Studies , 44 (5), 814–834.
• Baillien, E. , Bollen, K. , Euwema, M. , & De Witte, H. (2014). Conflicts and conflict management styles as precursors of workplace bullying: A two-wave longitudinal study. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology , 23 (4), 511–524.
• Barbuto, J. E. , Phipps, K. A. , & Xu, Y. (2010). Testing relationships between personality, conflict styles and effectiveness. International Journal of Conflict Management , 21 (4), 434–447.
• Beechey, J. (2000) International commercial arbitration: A process under review and change. Dispute Resolution Journal , 55 (3), 32–36.
• Bijlsma, K. , & Koopman, P. (2003) Introduction: Trust within organizations. Personnel Review , 32 (5), 543–555.
• Blake, R. R. , & Mouton, J. S. (1964). The managerial GRID . Houston: Gulf.
• Blau, E. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life . New York: Wiley.
• Bollen, K. , Euwema, M. , & Müller, P. (2010). Why Are Subordinates Less Satisfied with Mediation? The Role of Uncertainty. Negotiation Journal , 26 (4), 417–433.
• Bollen, K. , & Euwema, M. (2013). Workplace mediation: An underdeveloped research area. Negotiation Journal , 29 , 329–353.
• Bollen, K. , Munduate, L. , & Euwema, M. (2016). Advancing workplace mediation: Integrating theory and practice . Springer International.
• Brett, J. M. , Shapiro, D. L. , & Lytle, A. L. (1998). Breaking the bonds of reciprocity in negotiations. Academy of Management Journal , 41 (4), 410–424.
• Brinkert, R. (2016). An appreciative approach to conflict: Mediation and conflict coaching. In K. Bollen , M. Euwema , & L. Munduate (Eds.), Advancing workplace mediation: Integrating theory and practice . Springer International.
• Brown, L. D. (1983). Managing Conflict at Organizational Interfaces. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
• Buddhodev, S. A. (2011). Conflict management: making life easier. The IUP Journal of Soft Skills , 5 (4), 31–43.
• Burke, R. J. (1970). Methods of resolving superior-subordinate conflict: The constructive use of subordinate differences and disagreements. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance , 5 , 393–411.
• Carnevale, P. J. , & Pruitt, D. G. (1992). Negotiation and mediation. Annual Review of Psychology , 43 , 531–582.
• Coleman, P. , Deutsch, M. , & Marcus, E. (2014). The handbook of conflict resolution. Theory and practice . San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
• De Dreu, C. K. (2005). Conflict and conflict management. Wiley Encyclopedia of Management , 11 , 1–4.
• De Dreu, C. K. , & Gelfand, M. J. (2008). Conflict in the workplace: Sources, functions, and dynamics across multiple levels of analysis . New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
• De Dreu, C. K. W. , Evers, A. , Beersma, B. , Kluwer, E. , & Nauta, A. (2001). A theory-based measure of conflict management strategies in the workplace. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 22 (6), 645–668.
• De Dreu, C. K. W. , & Weingart, L. R. (2003). Task versus relationship conflict, team performance, and team member satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology , 88 (4), 741–749.
• De Reuver, R. , & Van Woerkom, M. (2010). Can conflict management be an antidote to subordinate absenteeism? Journal of Managerial Psychology , 25 (5), 479–494.
• De Wit, F. R. , Greer, L. L. , & Jehn, K. A. (2012). The paradox of intragroup conflict: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology , 97 (2), 360–390.
• Deutsch, M. (1949). A theory of cooperation and competition. Human Relations , 2 , 129–151.
• Deutsch, M. (1973). The resolution of conflict . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
• Deutsch, M. (1983). Conflict resolution: Theory and practice. Political Psychology , 4 , 43–453.
• Deutsch, M. (2002). Social psychology’s contributions to the study of conflict resolution. Negotiation Journal , 18 (4), 307–320.
• Deutsch, M. (2006). Cooperation and competition. In M. Deutsch , P. Coleman , & E. Marcus (Eds.), The handbook of conflict resolution . San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
• Deutsch, M. (2014), Cooperation, competition and conflict. In P. Coleman , M. Deutsch , & E. Marcus (Eds.), The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and Practice . San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
• Deutsch, M. , & Marcus, E. (Eds.). (2014). The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice (3d ed., pp. 817–848). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Elgoibar, P. (2013). Worker representatives' conflict behavior in Europe with a focus on Spain (PhD diss., University of Leuven, Belgium, and University of Seville, Spain).
• Elkouri, F. , & Elkouri, E. A. (1995). How arbitration works . ABA: Section of labour and employment law.
• Euwema, M. , & Giebels, E. (2017). Conflictmanagement en mediation . Noordhoff Uitgevers.
• Euwema, M. , Munduate, L. , Elgoibar, P. , Garcia, A. , & Pender, E. (2015). Promoting social dialogue in European organizations: Human resources management and constructive conflict behavior . Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Verlag.
• Euwema, M. C. , & Van Emmerik, I. J. H. (2007). Intercultural competencies and conglomerated conflict behavior in intercultural conflicts. International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 31 , 427–441.
• Euwema, M. C. , Van de Vliert, E. , & Bakker, A. B. (2003). Substantive and relational effectiveness of organizational conflict behavior. International Journal of Conflict Management , 14 (2), 119–139.
• Ferrin, D. L. , Bligh, M. C. , & Kohles, J. C. (2008). It takes two to tango: An interdependence analysis of the spiraling of perceived trustworthiness and cooperation in interpersonal and intergroup relationships. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 107 , 161–178.
• Fisher, R. , & Ury, W. L. (1981). Getting to yes: Negotiating agreements without giving in . New York: Penguin Books.
• Follett, M. P. (1941). Constructive conflict. In H. C. Metcalf & L. Urwick (Eds.), Dynamic administration: The collected papers of Mary Parker Follett (pp. 30–49). New York: Harper & Row (Originally published in 1926.)
• Fulmer, C. A. , & Gelfand, M. J. (2012). At what level (and in whom) we trust? Trust across multiple organizational levels. Journal of Management , 38 (4), 1167–1230.
• Gelfand, M. J. , & Brett (2004). The handbook of negotiation and culture . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
• Giebels, E. , & Janssen, O. (2005). Conflict stress and reduced well-being at work: The buffering effect of third-party help. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology , 14 (2), 137–155.
• Goldman, B. M. , Cropanzano, R. , Stein, J. H. , Shapiro, D. L. , Thatcher, S. , & Ko, J. (2008). The role of ideology in mediated disputes at work: a justice perspective. International Journal of Conflict Management , 19 (3), 210–233.
• Gunia, B. , Brett, J. , & Nandkeolyar, A. K. (2012). In global negotiations, it’s all about trust. Harvard Business Review , December.
• Gunia, B. , Brett, J. , & Nandkeolyar, A. K. (2014). Trust me, I’m a negotiator. Diagnosing trust to negotiate effectively, globally. Organizational Dynamics , 43 (1), 27–36.
• Hackman, J. R. , & Morris, C. G. (1975). Group tasks, group interaction process, and group performance effectiveness: A review and proposed integration . In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 8). New York: Academic Press.
• Hempel, P. , Zhang, Z. , & Tjosvold, D. (2009). Conflict management between and within teams for trusting relationships and performance in China. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 30 , 41–65.
• Herrmann, M. S. (2006). Blackwell handbook of mediation: Bridging theory, research, and practice . Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
• Holmes, J. G. , & Rempel, J. K. (1989). Trust in close relationships. In C. Hendrick (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 187–220). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Jehn, K. (1995). A multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflict. Administrative Science Quarterly , 40 (2), 256–282.
• Jehn, K. (1997). A qualitative analysis of conflict types and dimensions in organizational groups. Administrative Science Quarterly , 42 , 530–557.
• Jehn, K. , & Chatman, J. A. (2000). The influence of proportional and perceptual conflict composition on team performance. International Journal of Conflict Management , 11 (1), 56–73.
• Jehn, K. A. , Greer, L. , Levine, S. , & Szulanski, G. (2008). The effects of conflict types, dimensions, and emergent states on group outcomes. Group Decision and Negotiation , 17 , 465–495.
• Jehn, K. A. , & Mannix, E. A. (2001). The Dynamic Nature of Conflict: A Longitudinal Study of Intragroup Conflict and Group Performance. Academy of Management Journal , 44 (2), 238–251.
• Johnson, D. V. , Johnson, R. T. , & Tjosvold, D. (2014). Constructive controversy: The value of intellectual opposition. In P. Coleman , M. Deutsch , & E. Marcus , The handbook of conflict resolution . San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
• Johnson, D. W. , & Johnson, R. (2005). New developments in social interdependence theory. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs , 131 (4), 285–358.
• Johnson, D. W. , & Johnson, R. T. (1989). Cooperation and competition: Theory and research . Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.
• Jones, T. S. (2016). Mediation and conflict coaching in organizational dispute systems. In K. Bollen , M. Euwema , & L. Munduate (Eds.), Advancing workplace mediation: Integrating theory and practice . Springer International.
• Jones, T. S. , & Brinkert, R. (2008). Conflict coaching: Conflict management strategies and skills for the individual . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Kaufman, S. , Elgoibar, P. , & Borbely, A. (2016). Context matters: Negotiators’ interdependence in public, labor and business disputes . International Association of Conflict Management Conference, New York, June 26–29, 2016.
• Kilmann, R. H. , & Thomas, K. W. (1977). Developing a forced-choice measure of conflict-handling behavior: The “mode” instrument. Educational and Psychological Measurement , 37 (2), 309–325.
• Komorita, S. S. , & Parks, C. D. (1995). Interpersonal relations: Mixed-motive interaction. Annual Review of Psychology , 46 (1), 183–207.
• Kramer, R. M. , & Tyler, T. R. (1996). Trust in organizations: Frontiers of theory and research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Kramer, R. M. (1999). Trust and distrust in organizations: Emerging Perspectives, Enduring Questions. Annual Review of Psychology , 50 , 569–598.
• Kressel, K. (2006). Mediation revised. In M. Deutsch , P. T. Coleman , & E. C. Marcus (Eds.), The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Kressel, K. (2014). The mediation of conflict: Context, cognition and practice. In P. Coleman , M. Deutsch , & E. C. Marcus (Eds.), The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice . San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
• Lax, D. , & Sebenius, J. (1987). The manager as negotiator: Bargaining for cooperative and competitive gain . New York: Free Press.
• Lewicki, R. , Elgoibar, P. , & Euwema, M. (2016). The tree of trust: Building and repairing trust in organizations. In P. Elgoibar , M. Euwema , & L. Munduate (Eds.), Trust building and constructive conflict management in industrial relations . The Netherlands: Springer Verlag.
• Lewicki, R. J. , Saunders, D. M. , & Barry, B. (2014). Essentials of negotiation . New York: McGraw Hill.
• Lewicki, R. J. , & Tomlinson, E. (2014). Trust, trust development and trust repair. In M. Deutsch , P. Coleman , & E. Marcus (Eds.), The handbook of conflict resolution (3d ed.) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Lewicki, R. J. , Tomlinson, E. C. , & Gillespie, N. (2006). Models of interpersonal trust development: Theoretical approaches, empirical evidence, and future directions. Journal of Management , 32 (6), 991–1022.
• Lewin, K. (1935). A dynamic theory of personality . New York: McGraw Hill.
• Lindner, E.G. (2014). Emotion and conflict: Why it is important to understand how emotions affect conflict and how conflict affects emotions. In P. Coleman , M. Deutsch , & E. Marcus (Eds.), The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice (3d ed., pp. 817–848). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Lytle, A. L. , Brett, J. M. , & Shapiro, D. L. (1999). The strategic use of interests, rights, and power to resolve disputes. Negotiation Journal , 15 , 31–51.
• Martinez-Pecino, R. , Munduate, L. , Medina, F. , & Euwema, M. (2008). Effectiveness of mediation strategies in collective bargaining: Evidence from Spain. Industrial Relations , 47(3) , 480–495.
• Medina, F. J. , & Benitez, M. (2011). Effective behaviors to de-escalate organizational conflicts. Spanish Journal of Psychology , 14 (2), 789–797.
• Meyerson, D. , Weick, K. E. , & Kramer, R. M. (1996). Swift trust and temporary groups. In R. Kramer & T. Tyler (Eds.), Trust in organizations . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Mohr, J. , & Spekman, R. (1994). Characteristics of partnership success: Partnership attributes, communication behavior, and conflict resolution techniques. Strategic Management Journal , 15 (2), 135–152.
• Moore, C. W. (2014). The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict . San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
• Munduate, L. , Ganaza, J. , Peiro, J. M. , & Euwema, M. (1999). Patterns of styles in conflict management and effectiveness. International Journal of Conflict Management , 10 (1), 5–24.
• Nahapiet, J. , & Goshal, S. (1998). Social capital, intellectual capital, and the organizational advantage. The Academy of Management Review , 23 (2), 242–266.
• Nair, N. (2007). Towards understanding the role of emotions in conflict: A review and future directions. International Journal of Conflict Management , 19 (4), 359–381.
• Oetzel, J. , Ting-Toomey, S. , Masumoto, T. , Yokochi, Y. , Pan, X. , Takai, J. , & Wilcox, R. (2001). Face and facework in conflict: A cross-cultural comparison of China, Germany, Japan, and the United States. Communication Monographs , 68 (3), 235–258.
• Peterson, R. S. , & Harvey, S. (2009). Leadership and conflict: Using power to manage in groups for better rather than worse. In D. Tjosvold & B. Wisse (Eds.), Power and interdependence in organizations (pp. 281–298). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
• Pondy, L. R. (1967). Organizational conflict: Concepts and models. Administrative Science Quarterly , 12 , 296–320.
• Posthuma, R. A. , & Dworkin, J. B. (2000). A behavioral theory of arbitrator acceptability. International Journal of Conflict Management , 11 (3), 249–266.
• Pruitt, D. G. (1981). Negotiation behavior . New York: Academic Press.
• Pruitt, D. G. , & Rubin, J. Z. (1986). Social conflict: Escalation, stalemate, and settlement . New York: McGraw Hill.
• Rahim, M. A. (1983). Rahim organizational conflict inventories . Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
• Rahim, M. A. (2002). Towards a theory of managing organizational conflict. The International Journal of Conflict Management , 13 (3), 206–235.
• Rahim, M.A. (2010). Managing conflict in organizations . 4th ed. New Jersey: Transaction publishers.
• Robbins, S. P. (1978). “Conflict management” and “conflict resolution” are not synonymous terms. California Management Review , 21 (2), 67–75.
• Römer, M. , Rispens, S. , Giebels, E. , & Euwema, M. (2012). A helping hand? The moderating role of leaders' conflict management behavior on the conflict-stress relationship of employees. Negotiation Journal , 28 (3), 253–277.
• Ross, W. , & LaCroix, J. (1996). Multiple meanings of trust in negotiation theory and research: A literature review and integrative model. International Journal of Conflict Management , 7 (4), 314–360.
• Rousseau, D. M. , Sitkin, S. B. , Burt, R. S. , & Camerer, C. (1998). Not so different after all: A cross discipline view of trust. Academy of Management Review , 23 (3), 393–404.
• Rubin, J. Z. , Pruitt , & Kim (1994). Models of conflict management. Journal of Social Issues , 50 , 33–45.
• Schellenberg, J. A. (1996). Conflict Resolution: Theory, Research, and Practice . State University of New York Press.
• Serva, M. A. , Fuller, M. A. , & Mayer, R. C. (2005). The reciprocal nature of trust: A longitudinal study of interacting teams. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 26 , 625–648.
• Sheldon, O. J. , & Fishbach, A. (2011). Resisting the temptation to compete: Self-control promotes cooperation in mixed-motive interactions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 47 , 403–410.
• Sinaceur, M. , Adam, H. , Van Kleef, G. A. , & Galinsky, A. D. (2013). The advantages of being unpredictable: How emotional inconsistency extracts concessions in negotiation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 49 , 498–508.
• Slovic, P. (1993). Perceived risk, trust, and democracy. Risk Analysis , 13 , 675–682.
• Spaho, K. (2013). Organizational communication and conflict management. Journal of Contemporary Management Issues , 18 (1), 103–118.
• Thomas, K. W. (1992). Conflict and conflict management: Reflections and update. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 13 (3), 265–274.
• Thomas, K. W. , & Kilmann, R. H. (1974). Thomas-Kilmann conflict mode instrument . Mountain View, CA: Xicom
• Tjosvold, D. (1997). Conflict within interdependence: Its value for productivity and individuality. In C. K.W. De Dreu & E. Van de Vliert (Eds.), Using conflict in organizations (pp. 23–37). London: SAGE.
• Tjosvold, D. (1998). Cooperative and competitive goal approach to conflict: Accomplishments and challenges. Applied Psychology: An International Review , 47 (3), 285–342.
• Tjosvold, D. , Morishima, M. , & Belsheim, J. A. (1999). Complaint handling in the shop floor: Cooperative relationship and open-minded strategies. International Journal of Conflict Management , 10 , 45–68.
• Tjosvold, D. (2008). The conflict-positive organization: it depends upon us. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 29 (1), 19–28.
• Tjosvold, D. , Wong, A. S. H. , & Chen, N. Y. F. (2014). Constructively managing conflicts in organizations. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behaviour , 1 , 545–568.
• Tjosvold, D. , Wan, P. , & Tang, M. L. (2016). Trust and managing conflict: Partners in developing organizations. In P. Elgoibar , M. Euwema , & L. Munduate (Eds.), Building trust and conflict management in organizations . The Netherlands: Springer Verlag.
• Van de Vliert, E. (1997). Complex interpersonal conflict behavior: Theoretical frontiers . Hove, U.K.: Psychology Press.
• Van de Vliert, E. , & Euwema, M. C. (1994). Agreeableness and activeness as components of conflict behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 66 (4), 674–687.
• Van de Vliert, E. , Euwema, M. C. , & Huismans, S. E. (1995). Managing conflict with a subordinate or a superior: Effectiveness of conglomerated behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology , 80 (2), 271–281.
• Van de Vliert, E. , Nauta, A. , Euwema, M. C. , & Janssen, O. (1997). The effectiveness of mixing problem solving and forcing. In C. De Dreu & E. Van de Vliert (Eds.), Using conflict in organizations (pp. 38–52). London: SAGE.
• Van de Vliert, E. , Nauta, A. , Giebels, E. , & Janssen, O. (1999). Constructive conflict at work. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 20 , 475–491.
• Van Erp, K. J. , Giebels, E. , van der Zee, K. I. , & van Duijn, M. A. (2011). Let it be: Expatriate couples’ adjustment and the upside of avoiding conflicts. Anxiety, Stress & Coping , 24 (5), 539–560.
• Van Kleef, G. A. , & Cote, S. (2007). Expressing anger in conflict: When it helps and when it hurts. Journal of Applied Psychology , 92 (6), 1557–1569.
• Vayrynen, R. (1991). New Directions in Conflict Theory . London: SAGE.
• Volkema, R. J. , & Bergmann, T. J. (2001). Conflict styles as indicators of behavioral patterns in interpersonal conflicts. The Journal of Social Psychology , 135 (1), 5–15.
• Walton, R. E. , & McKersie, R. B. (1965). A behavioral theory of labor negotiations: An analysis of a social interaction system . Cornell University Press.
• Wilson, T. D. (2004). Strangers to ourselves. Discovering the adaptive unconscious . Cambridge, MA: Belknap.
• Zaheer, S. , & Zaheer, A. (2006). Trust across borders. Journal of International Business Studies , 37 (1), 21–29.

Related Articles

• Work and Family
• Psychodynamic Psychotherapies
• Trust and Social Dilemmas

Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Psychology. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice).

date: 18 April 2024

• Cookie Policy
• Privacy Policy
• Legal Notice
• Accessibility
• [66.249.64.20|185.80.149.115]
• 185.80.149.115

Character limit 500 /500

• Browse All Articles
• Newsletter Sign-Up

ConflictandResolution →

No results found in working knowledge.

• Were any results found in one of the other content buckets on the left?
• Try removing some search filters.
• Use different search filters.

Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation

Conflict Case Studies

• Conference Proceedings
• Newsletters
• Old Archived Documents
• Policy Briefs
• Policy Papers
• Research Papers
• Other Recent Work
• SITC Research Briefs

Case Study #7: Empowered Process---Skilled Leadership: Diffusion, Party Capacity & Speaking Truth to Power

• Erbe, Nancy

This is the seventh case study in the series Holding These Truths: Empowerment and Recognition in Action. This series presents case studies for a future conflict resolution textbook. It has been successfully piloted with several international classes. Those, who benefit most, stress the importance of carefully studying the introduction. (See Introduction to Conflict Case Studies, Nancy D. Erbe). Because the case study format is intentionally unique, written in an interactive and non-linear workbook style, unlike many introductions, the information provided there is required for understanding the case studies. Readers are encouraged to send comments and critiques directly to the author. Because of the deliberate one-of-a-kind format of the text, detailed page-by-page comments and questions are welcome. A list of the entire series is included below.

Introduction to Conflict Case Studies

Case Study #1: Neutral Fact-Finding and Empowerment Within Conflicted Systems

Case Study #2: Intrapersonal Approaches to Conflict: Cognitive and Perceptual Biases

Case Study #3: Negative Intergroup Influence

Case Study #4: Empathy: Effective Response with Escalating Aggression

Case Study #5: Assessing Covert Bad Faith and Power Abuse

Case Study #6: Cultural Competence: Ethical and Empowered Response With Discrimination

Case Study #7: Empowered Process---Skilled Leadership: Diffusion, Party Capacity and Speaking Truth to Power

Case Series #8: Empowered Process: Multicultural Collaboration

Case Study #2: Intrapersonal Approaches to Conflict: Cognitive & Perceptual Biases

This is the second case study in the series Holding These Truths: Empowerment and Recognition in Action. This series presents case studies for a future conflict resolution textbook. It has been successfully piloted with several international classes. Those, who benefit most, stress the importance of carefully studying the introduction. (See Introduction to Conflict Case Studies, Nancy D. Erbe). Because the case study format is intentionally unique, written in an interactive and non-linear workbook style, unlike many introductions, the information provided there is required for understanding the case studies. Readers are encouraged to send comments and critiques directly to the author. Because of the deliberate one-of-a-kind format of the text, detailed page-by-page comments and questions are welcome. A list of the entire series is included below.

This is the first case study in the series Holding These Truths: Empowerment and Recognition in Action. This series presents case studies for a future conflict resolution textbook. It has been successfully piloted with several international classes. Those, who benefit most, stress the importance of carefully studying the introduction. (See Introduction to Conflict Case Studies, Nancy D. Erbe). Because the case study format is intentionally unique, written in an interactive and non-linear workbook style, unlike many introductions, the information provided there is required for understanding the case studies. Readers are encouraged to send comments and critiques directly to the author. Because of the deliberate one-of-a-kind format of the text, detailed page-by-page comments and questions are welcome. A list of the entire series is included below.

This series, Holding These Truths: Empowerment and Recognition in Action, presents case studies for a future conflict resolution textbook. It has been successfully piloted with several international classes. Those, who benefit most, stress the importance of carefully studying this introduction. Because the case study format is intentionally unique, written in an interactive and non-linear workbook style, unlike many introductions, the information provided here is required for understanding the case studies. Readers are encouraged to send comments and critiques directly to the author. Because of the deliberate one-of-a-kind format of the text, detailed page-by-page comments and questions are welcome. A list of the entire series is included below.

This is the sixth case study in the series Holding These Truths: Empowerment and Recognition in Action. This series presents case studies for a future conflict resolution textbook. It has been successfully piloted with several international classes. Those, who benefit most, stress the importance of carefully studying the introduction. (See Introduction to Conflict Case Studies, Nancy D. Erbe). Because the case study format is intentionally unique, written in an interactive and non-linear workbook style, unlike many introductions, the information provided there is required for understanding the case studies. Readers are encouraged to send comments and critiques directly to the author. Because of the deliberate one-of-a-kind format of the text, detailed page-by-page comments and questions are welcome. A list of the entire series is included below.

This is the third case study in the series Holding These Truths: Empowerment and Recognition in Action. This series presents case studies for a future conflict resolution textbook. It has been successfully piloted with several international classes. Those, who benefit most, stress the importance of carefully studying the introduction. (See Introduction to Conflict Case Studies, Nancy D. Erbe). Because the case study format is intentionally unique, written in an interactive and non-linear workbook style, unlike many introductions, the information provided there is required for understanding the case studies. Readers are encouraged to send comments and critiques directly to the author. Because of the deliberate one-of-a-kind format of the text, detailed page-by-page comments and questions are welcome. A list of the entire series is included below.

This is the fourth case study in the series Holding These Truths: Empowerment and Recognition in Action. This series presents case studies for a future conflict resolution textbook. It has been successfully piloted with several international classes. Those, who benefit most, stress the importance of carefully studying the introduction. (See Introduction to Conflict Case Studies, Nancy D. Erbe). Because the case study format is intentionally unique, written in an interactive and non-linear workbook style, unlike many introductions, the information provided there is required for understanding the case studies. Readers are encouraged to send comments and critiques directly to the author. Because of the deliberate one-of-a-kind format of the text, detailed page-by-page comments and questions are welcome. A list of the entire series is included below.

Case Study #5: Assessing Covert Bad Faith & Power Abuse

This is the fifth case study in the series Holding These Truths: Empowerment and Recognition in Action. This series presents case studies for a future conflict resolution textbook. It has been successfully piloted with several international classes. Those, who benefit most, stress the importance of carefully studying the introduction. (See Introduction to Conflict Case Studies, Nancy D. Erbe). Because the case study format is intentionally unique, written in an interactive and non-linear workbook style, unlike many introductions, the information provided there is required for understanding the case studies. Readers are encouraged to send comments and critiques directly to the author. Because of the deliberate one-of-a-kind format of the text, detailed page-by-page comments and questions are welcome. A list of the entire series is included below.

Case Study #8: Empowered Process: Multicultural Collaboration

This is the eighth case study in the series Holding These Truths: Empowerment and Recognition in Action. This series presents case studies for a future conflict resolution textbook. It has been successfully piloted with several international classes. Those, who benefit most, stress the importance of carefully studying the introduction. (See Introduction to Conflict Case Studies, Nancy D. Erbe). Because the case study format is intentionally unique, written in an interactive and non-linear workbook style, unlike many introductions, the information provided there is required for understanding the case studies. Readers are encouraged to send comments and critiques directly to the author. Because of the deliberate one-of-a-kind format of the text, detailed page-by-page comments and questions are welcome. A list of the entire series is included below.

Putting conflict management into practice: a nursing case study

Affiliation.

• 1 Department of Community Nursing and Midwifery, School of Nursing, University of Navarre, Navarre, Spain. [email protected]
• PMID: 16600008
• DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2934.2006.00554.x

Aim: This paper is intended to put knowledge in conflict management into practice through reflecting on a nursing case study.

Background: Nursing organizations are particularly vulnerable to conflict as the context of nurses' work may be difficult and stressful. Power conflict is argued to be an important source of tension within nursing units. Learning to manage conflict at an early stage is therefore crucial to the effective functioning of nursing organizations.

Evaluation: A nursing case study that illustrates power conflict in an oncology nursing unit is displayed and reflection on conflict management from the case is provided.

Key issues: There is no appropriate or inappropriate strategy to deal with conflict. However, detecting initial symptoms of conflict and adopting the most effective behaviour to conflict resolution is essential in nursing units.

Conclusion: Further nursing education in conflict management for staff nurses and nurse managers is greatly needed.

Publication types

• Adaptation, Psychological
• Attitude of Health Personnel*
• Avoidance Learning
• Communication
• Competitive Behavior
• Conflict, Psychological*
• Cooperative Behavior
• Health Services Needs and Demand
• Hospital Units / organization & administration
• Interprofessional Relations*
• Negotiating
• Nurse Administrators / education
• Nurse Administrators / organization & administration
• Nurse Administrators / psychology*
• Nursing Methodology Research
• Nursing Staff, Hospital / education
• Nursing Staff, Hospital / organization & administration
• Nursing Staff, Hospital / psychology*
• Oncology Nursing / organization & administration
• Organizational Culture
• Power, Psychological
• Problem Solving
• Social Dominance
• Time Factors
• Workplace / organization & administration
• Workplace / psychology

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• v.42(1); 2019

Use of scenarios to explore conflict management practices of nurse unit managers in public hospitals

Mabitja e. moeta.

1 Department of Nursing, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Suzette M. du Rand

2 Department of Nursing, Nelson Mandela University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

Workplace conflict is common among nurses globally. Learning how to manage it may reduce related adverse consequences. Inappropriate management of conflict is attributed to decreased productivity, poor morale and financial loss for organisations. Nurse unit managers can play a key role by effectively managing workplace conflict in the units.

To explore how nurse unit managers manage conflict in public hospitals and subsequently to make recommendations on how to optimise conflict management skills of nurse unit managers.

A qualitative, explorative, descriptive and contextual study was conducted to explore how nurse unit managers managed conflict based on a scenario provided to them. Purposive sampling was used to select nurse unit managers working in three public hospitals. Eleven nurse unit managers participated in the study. Data were collected in two phases. In phase 1, a conflict scenario was developed in consultation with experienced nurse managers. The conflict scenario was used during phase 2, which involved individual face-to-face semi-structured interviews with nurse unit managers until data saturation. Tesch’s method of thematic synthesis was used to analyse the data. Literature review was undertaken to ascertain what is considered as an appropriate intervention in conflict management.

Three themes emanated from data analysis: nurse unit managers managed conflict appropriately, nurse unit managers avoided the conflict and nurse unit managers managed conflict inappropriately.

While some of the nurse unit managers managed conflict appropriately, additional and continuous education and training is required to optimise the capacity and develop their conflict management competency. The findings could be integrated into orientation, training and preparation of nurse managers by health care organisations and educational institutions.

Introduction and background

Workplace conflict is a global phenomenon occurring frequently in all settings where people work together. Literature reports the existence and prevalence of conflict among nurses in the workplace (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development 2008 :07; Higazee 2015 :03). Although workplace conflict is not a contemporary issue, it continues to be a serious challenge for many organisations. The Center for Psychological Press (CPP) Global Human Capital Report commissioned in 2008 revealed that in the United States of America managers spend approximately $359 billion on resolving conflict, which is the same as 2.8 h per employee per week. Salem, Zakari and Al-Khamis ( 2009 :218) also noted that the average nurse managers spend 20% to 50% of their work time resolving conflicts. It is not strange that health professionals frequently reporting conflict encounters (57%) in the workplace are nurses (Jerng et al. 2017 :05). As such leading and managing nurses remains a challenging task for nurse managers.

Similarly, workplaces in South Africa are not immune to conflict situations. Armstrong, Rispel and Penn-Kekana ( 2015 :04) revealed that nurse unit managers in South Africa spent about 11.5% of their work time in managing staff, including conflict resolution. Cunniff and Mostert ( 2012 :09) discovered that 31.1% of South African employees experienced bullying in their workplaces, a typical symptom in conflict-ridden workplaces. In the workplace, bullying often emanates from the desire to control and insecurities from the manager when being challenged by subordinates. Managers who exhibit bullying behaviours tend to overlook interpersonal relations, resulting in strained relations (Cunniff & Mostert 2012 :10). Other frequently reported sources of conflict include personality clashes, differences in methods of working and competition for resources within an institution (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development 2008 :02). Such relational behaviours if unmanaged can have undesired consequences for the individual and the organisation.

Individual effects related to conflict reported by nurses include psychosomatic symptoms, poor family life and increased incidents of grievances (Graham 2017 :01; Nayeri & Negarandeh 2009 :05). Some reports highlight the association between workplace conflict and sickness or absenteeism from work, escalating to physical attacks and, in extreme cases, depression and hospitalisation (Meier, Semmer & Gross 2014 :39). Lower job satisfaction and staff turnover are common in conflict-ridden organisations and may render an organisation unattractive to potential employees. Based on serious effects conflict may have in an organisation, competent nurse managers are required to minimise the associated financial and reputational cost.

Reports indicate that, because of management failures, personnel working in public hospitals in South Africa experience extreme difficulties when attempting to deliver efficient health care services because of management failures. Such failures included the inability of line managers in successfully managing conflicts in the workplace (Fusheini, Eyes & Goudge 2017 :75). Support from employers in workplaces where employees experience persistent conflict is essential. Mathumbu and Dodd ( 2013 :87) have reported a positive correlation between job satisfaction and organisational support by managers. The organisational support from nurse managers implies that employers are fair and willing to create conducive working conditions, thereby minimising conflicts.

Nurse unit managers are identified as vital role players in conflict management because they represent the first level of management in a hospital and provide a link between the strategic vision of the organisation and frontline nurses (Cipriano 2011 :01). Nurse unit managers also have a direct impact on human resource management and their ability to deal with conflict should be well developed. Globally, nursing management is considered a nursing speciality area wherein certain competencies are required of nurse unit managers to manage human and capital resources in the units. According to the American Organization of Nurse Executives ( 2015 :06), conflict management is a competency requiring that those in supervisory roles undergo some form of preparation to be capacitated in facilitating interpersonal relations in their units.

In South Africa, the training and preparation of nurses on conflict management is presented at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Undergraduate nursing students undergoing training to become professional nurses are introduced to the concept of unit management, wherein a theoretical component on conflict management is included (Muller 2009 :187). Often in nursing, student nurses progress through their studies to qualify as professional nurses, who are typically team leaders. These nurses have to manage relations between team members under their supervision, without having been practically evaluated on their ability to manage interpersonal relations. At postgraduate level, nurses are exposed to nursing management by enrolling for speciality programmes in either clinical or non-clinical postgraduate diploma or degree (Duma et al. 2012 :07). A clinical programme is a specialist area in nursing science covering specific knowledge and skills required for nurses to perform in a particular field, such as intensive care, trauma nursing, childcare nursing and many others. Conversely, nurses may register with an accredited nursing education institution (NEI) for a non-clinical programme that focuses on specialised areas such as nursing education and management.

Postgraduate clinical programmes include subjects such as communication, team building, conflict management, etc. In the non-clinical programmes, Nursing Administration is a field of study where nurses specialising in management learn subjects such as strategic planning, financial management and human resource management in which conflict management is presented (Muller 2000 :6). The assessment of competencies in conflict management is however mostly theoretical and based on the cognitive ability of students in written tests. The South African Nursing Council, in terms of the Regulations for the Course for the Diploma in Nursing Administration (Regulation 1501 of 1983 as amended by Regulation 2554 of 1885), prescribes that students registered for the Diploma in Nursing Administration spend at least 90 h in practical placement. Nurses who underwent such specialised training are somehow expected to manage conflict situations without difficulties (Armstrong et al. 2015 :8). However, this is not always the case.

A challenge that South African public hospitals experience is that nurses often are promoted to managerial positions without relevant management qualifications. This poses serious challenges because certain competencies, such as conflict management, have to be acquired through formal training to facilitate understanding and application of principles in the workplace. According to Momberg ( 2011 :96), organisational preparation to manage conflict has been associated with positive outcomes than managers who have not been formally trained. Therefore, it can be expected that managers who did not receive any formal training on conflict management, or those who do not continuously update their skills, may have difficulties in managing conflict situations.

Although some nurse managers in South African public hospitals do not have any formal qualifications, they receive some in-service education and training related to their human resource duties (Mokoka, Oosthuizen & Ehlers 2010 :03). However, occasional training they receive requires regular update to maintain competency. Lack of training and upskilling are often found in managers who are uncertain and often unprepared to intervene when conflict arises in their units (Spagnol et al. 2010 :796).

Managers approach conflict situations differently depending on a variety of factors, such as their personality, work experience, age and gender (Lahana et al. 2017 :04). However, there is a paucity of literature in South Africa regarding conflict management by nurse managers. Strategies such as avoidance, competing, compromising, accommodating and collaboration have been identified in the literature. In conflict management, avoidance strategy is evident where parties in dispute ignore conflict or do not confront conflict directly (Booyens & Bezuidenhoudt 2014 :374). Avoidance strategy is considered the least effective approach for conflict management (Moisoglou et al. 2014 :80). Avoiding conflict may be appropriate when tensions have escalated and further discussion related to conflict is unproductive (Booyens & Bezuidenhoudt 2014 :374). Competing strategy is an aggressive competitive strategy to attain personal goals at the cost of the other party. Alternatively, an accommodating strategy is a co-operative encounter where one party gives up their needs in order to preserve relationships. Muller ( 2009 :187) describes compromising as a strategy whereby both parties attempt to find a common ground and sacrifice to keep peace. Lastly, collaborating is evident where conflict is dealt with in a confrontational manner through problem solving to satisfy the needs of both parties (Huber 2014 :176). No single approach is more effective in all conflict situations and each may be useful under certain circumstances or context.

Ultimately, the lack of management capacity and approaches to manage conflict become an obstacle in an organisation and may impede the implementation of unit policies (Mokoka et al. 2010 :02). To ensure operational efficiency and effective management of health care facilities, competent nurse managers are necessary to deal with workplace challenges. While not all conflict can be managed or requires the need to be managed, learning how to manage it can reduce associated undesirable outcomes.

Problem statement

This study was based on observations of the researcher on incidences of workplace conflict in public hospitals. The researcher worked in public hospitals for a number of years and witnessed nurse unit managers avoiding confrontation of disgruntled nurses as a means of keeping peace in the workplace. On several occasions, nurse unit managers had difficulties resolving conflict in nursing units. As a result, high levels of conflict prevailed because of issues related to training, leave allocation and display of favouritism towards some nurses by nurse unit managers. This observed conduct resulted in hospital management introducing mechanisms including rotation system where nurses were allocated to different units on a monthly basis to avoid and minimise hostilities that existed among specific nurses. In some cases, nurse unit managers attempted to intervene in conflict situations, but they did so by threatening staff members with warnings of possible disciplinary actions or ‘shifting them to more labour-intensive units’. It became evident that nurse unit managers were either uncertain of or lacked the necessary skills to intervene when required. Uncertainty in such situations proved detrimental to peaceful operation and harmony in the units. Furthermore, a lack of concern and desire to intervene when conflict arose left staff aggrieved, demotivated and frustrated, resulting in high absenteeism and staff turnover. The reluctance by nurse unit managers alerted the researcher that there could be a lack of managerial competency regarding conflict management among nurse unit managers in public hospitals.

The researcher’s observations were supported in South African literature, where existence of poor management skills and abilities in public health facilities is widely reported (Cullinan 2016 :01; Doherty 2014 :23). A contributing factor to the deteriorating standard and quality of work life for employees has been linked to inadequate managerial skills among nurse managers, thus interfering with efficient operation of these health facilities. Nayeri and Negarandeh ( 2009 :05) reported that managers who are autocratic, abuse power and do not support subordinates, contributed to conflict and subsequently to their inability to manage conflict. Spagnol et al. ( 2010 :796) reveals that nurses are often unsure about how they need to intervene when faced with conflict situations. The above findings concur with the researcher’s observations in South African hospitals. Most of the international studies on conflict management are quantitative self-reported surveys and have not observed behaviours of nurses during conflict management (Kaimenyi 2014 :58; Pandey, Sajjanapu & Sangwan 2015 :77). Further, findings from self-reported studies using questionnaires are subjective and may lack authenticity, as it may not be a true reflection of competence (Demetriou, Ozer & Essau 2015 :01). The researcher therefore identified the need to explore how nurse unit managers managed conflict in the public hospitals using a conflict scenario. This would allow the researcher to understand question responses from nurse unit managers based on the scenario provided.

Aims and objectives

The aim and objectives of the study were the following:

• to explore the conflict management practices of nurse unit managers in the public hospitals
• to provide recommendations, based on the findings of the study, regarding how to optimise conflict management by nurse unit managers.

Research question

The following research question guided the study: What are the conflict management practices of nurse unit managers in the public hospitals?

Explanation of concepts

The following concepts are central to the discussion and will help readers understand the researcher’s interpretation of these concepts in the given context.

Conflict management

Conflict management involves designing effective strategies to moderate causes of conflict and, in so doing, improve methods to reduce conflict. It involves all measures implemented to reduce negative aspects and increase positive aspects of conflict (Huber 2014 :174). In this study, the concept refers to the practice of preventing, identifying and resolving workplace differences in a rational and effective manner utilising managerial skills or established institutional platforms.

Nurse unit manager

The South African Nursing Council (SANC) defines a professional nurse as a person who is registered in a category under section 31(a) of the Nursing Act (Act 33 of 2005) in order to practise nursing or midwifery. Such a professional must have received education and training at a NEI accredited to provide a professional nurse education and training programme. In this study, the nurse unit manager is a professional nurse registered with SANC who holds a managerial position in a public hospital nursing unit. The person is responsible for day-to-day management and supervision of nursing personnel.

Staff nurse

Staff nurse is any person registered in terms of section 31(c) of the Nursing Act (Act 33 of 2005), who received education and training at a NEI accredited to provide staff nurse education and training programme. In this study, the staff nurse is a nurse employed in a public hospital, providing nursing care to patients of all ages. The staff nurse works under the supervision of a professional nurse within a nursing unit.

Auxiliary nurse

Auxiliary nurse is a person registered in terms of section 31 (1) (d) of the Nursing Act (Act 33 of 2005), who received education and training at a NEI that has been accredited to offer auxiliary nurse programme. In this study, auxiliary nurse is a nurse employed in a public hospital, providing basic nursing care to patients. This nurse works under the direct supervision of a professional nurse.

Public hospital

The term ‘public’ refers to a service provided to every citizen by the government and is financed by taxes. (Oxford Online Dictionary 2018 ). Public hospital in this study refers to general public sector, government-owned hospital providing comprehensive health care services to patients with different health needs.

Contribution of the study to conflict management

The findings of the study have reaffirmed the findings of other studies concerning the impact of training on conflict management competency. The findings provide recommendations on how conflict management by nurse unit managers can be optimised within the context and constraints of a public sector hospital. The study also recommends the purposeful designing of conflict management training programmes by education institutions to equip managers with skills necessary for leadership challenges.

Research methodology

Research design.

A qualitative, exploratory, descriptive and contextual study was used to enable the researcher to explore conflict management practices of nurse unit managers in public hospitals. According to Polit and Beck ( 2012 :448), qualitative research is used when the nature and extent of the problem or phenomenon being investigated is not clear. Using qualitative research enabled a better understanding of how nurse unit managers managed conflict as related to the conflict scenario presented to them.

Context of the study

The study was conducted in three public sector hospitals. Bed occupancy in the participating hospitals ranged from 450 to 570. Nursing units in which the nurse unit managers are based provide health care services for acute and chronic patients, with an average of 35 beds. Staffing in the units consists of three categories of nursing registered by the SANC: Professional Nurse, Staff Nurse and Auxiliary Nurse. Nurse unit managers included in the study were in charge of different units ranging from general medical surgical units, emergency care, maternity ward and operating theatre. The average number of nurses in each unit for both day and night shifts varied per unit and depended on the type of unit, but ranged from 16 to 40. The inclusion of the above units was influenced by the nurse unit manager’s willingness to participate in the study and they were not purposefully selected. Nursing units in participating hospitals operate on a 24-h basis. Nurse unit managers are the persons in charge of and supervising nurses in these units.

Population and sampling

This study comprised nurse unit managers in three public hospitals. Each of the three participating hospitals has approximately eight nursing units, with one nurse unit manager in each unit. This equated to a total population of 24 unit managers available for this study. Purposive sampling was used to select nurse unit managers who met the criteria for participation. To be eligible for inclusion in the study, participants had to be employed as unit managers in a public hospital for at least 1 year at the time of the interview. Data saturation occurred after 11 interviews when no more new data were forthcoming. Table 1 indicates the number of nurse unit managers interviewed in each hospital.

Number of nurse unit managers interviewed per hospital.

Recruitment of participants

After obtaining permission from participating institutions, the researcher approached nursing service managers from these institutions and requested a list of the nurse unit managers employed in these hospitals who met the inclusion criteria. The researcher was invited to a meeting of the nurse unit managers where information about the study was shared and eligibility criteria were explained. A similar recruitment procedure for attending the nurse unit managers’ meetings was followed for all participating hospitals. Nursing service managers were given contact details of the researcher to allow those interested, even after the researcher had left, to contact the researcher should they require any clarity regarding the study or wish to participate. The researcher compiled a list of nurse unit managers who were willing to participate in the study with a schedule that had information regarding when nurse unit managers would be available for interview. After compiling the list, appointments for interviews were made with the participants. The same was done a day before the interview date.

Trustworthiness

Trustworthiness is the degree of confidence researchers have in their research design, method, participants’ responses and context (Botma et al. 2010 :182). Strategies of credibility, dependability, conformability and transferability were employed. A pilot study was conducted to validate conflict scenarios as well as to test the interview skills of the researcher. Rich data from participants were collected and verified by again listening to voice notes for ensuring confirmability. Member checking was done to ascertain if captured data were what participants meant. An independent coder was used and consensus was reached regarding themes that emanated from transcripts.

Data collection method

Data collection took place in two phases. In phase 1, a conflict-related scenario that was to be used for data collection in phase 2 was developed. The researcher embarked on a literature search and engaged in informal conversations with nurses in clinical practice to ascertain which issues commonly breed conflict situations in a nursing unit setting. Input of experts from human resources, academics with qualifications in management and lastly nurse managers with experience in excess of five years was sought to verify the scenario. Experts were requested to indicate if the scenario was comprehensive, logical and practical given the circumstances within public hospital setting. It was important that the scenario was generic enough and relevant in any type of nursing unit, for example, surgical, medical and obstetric. Conflict scenario was about two professional nurses in disagreement about routine work issues such as study leave and on or off duties.

Phase 2 involved actual data collection that was done through face-to-face, semi-structured interviews. The researcher, who at the time of the study was a lecturer in nursing management at a university, conducted the interviews. The researcher facilitated conflict management workshops for nurses and was familiar with the processes involved and that made interviews less challenging. Because the researcher was not employed in the public hospitals, no conflict of interest existed. The interview had one central question and probing follow-up questions. A private room away from distractions in the hospital premises was used for interviews, which took approximately 45 min to complete. During the interviews, the printed conflict-related scenario was presented to participants. Then the participants were given time to read the scenario and clarify any misunderstandings, which took between 5 to 10 minutes. Once they indicated that they understood the scenario, they were asked to explain how they would manage the conflict in the scenario. The researcher probed participants until no new information emerged and stopped interviews when the participants indicated that there were no further inputs. Interviews were digitally recorded and field notes were taken by the researcher.

Pilot study

Participants in the pilot study were sampled from the list obtained from the nursing service managers working at participating hospitals. Participants in the pilot study were from two of the three participating hospitals. Nurse unit managers who appeared on the list in alphabetical order were selected. Appointments were arranged to meet pilot nurse unit managers and obtain their consent for participation in the study. Data collection during the pilot study was audio recorded of which the participants were informed. A research supervisor was present and was subsequently provided with recordings. Then a discussion was held between the supervisor and the researcher to identify which interviewing skills were appropriate for the methodology adopted and also on how to improve the researcher’s interviewing skills. Privacy and confidentiality were maintained during data collection by ensuring that interviews took place in a private, noise-free area and that interruptions were minimised.

The conflict scenario was tested by giving it to the participants who were asked at the end of interviews about difficulties they experienced in understanding what was required of them. This was done to ensure that any possible errors were detected in the instructions, time limit and to identify unclear sections in the scenario. The research supervisor was given a copy of two pilot interviews as well as field notes for evaluation. A consensus between the researcher and the supervisor on themes of the pilot study was verified and the strength of instruments was confirmed. No major revisions were required for scenario or interview technique.

Data analysis

Tesch’s (1990) method of thematic synthesis was used to analyse and code the data (Creswell, 2009:186). Data were transcribed verbatim and then coded by the researcher with assistance from an independent coder. The independent coder was provided with printed transcripts and voice recordings. Consensus was reached between the researcher and the independent coder regarding emerging themes. Table 2 highlights themes in terms of their classification.

Classification of themes.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance was obtained from Nelson Mandela University, Eastern Cape Provincial Health Research Committee (EC/2015RP34/229) and chief executive officers of respective hospitals. Permission was sought from all the participants. Ethical principles that were considered in this study include autonomy, beneficence and justice.

Eleven nurse unit managers participated in the study. The majority of participants were women ( n = 10, 91%), with the average age of participants being 52 years. Work experience of the participants varied from 6 to 15 years of working as nurse unit managers in public hospitals. There were seven participants with a postgraduate qualification in nursing management (64%). Table 3 highlights the demographic profiles of the participants.

Demographic profiles of the participants.

Data from interviews revealed three main themes: nurse unit managers managed conflict in an appropriate manner, nurse unit managers avoided the conflict and nurse unit managers did not apply the accepted process to manage conflict. A literature review was conducted to verify what is regarded as appropriate or inappropriate intervention in a workplace conflict.

Theme 1: Nurse unit managers managed the conflict appropriately

The findings indicated that some participants managed conflict appropriately as it related to the scenario given, between individuals and generally in the unit. Appropriate management of conflict as used in this theme refers to all responses from participants that are likely to contribute to the effective resolution and management of conflict.

Subtheme 1.1: Nurse unit managers resolved the conflict between individuals

Most of the participants’ immediate response to the conflict was to diffuse the conflict situation. Nurse unit managers said that conflict should be resolved as soon as it becomes apparent. Participants also indicated that they would inform nurses on the code of conduct and explain expectations of the organisation. Some participants indicated that as soon as they become aware of a commotion in their unit as stated in the conflict scenario, they would approach the nurses and summon them to their office. Some participants’ intervention strategies to resolve conflict between individuals, which were regarded as appropriate, included not allowing the conflict to continue in public by providing privacy for nurses to resolve the conflict, being impartial and ensuring mutual respect during confrontation.

‘I must be just neutral and I must not let them speak at the same time; I must give them chances and make sure there is no dialogue between them, they must talk via me.’ (Participant 2)

A number of participants acknowledged that a safe environment was important in conflict management. A conducive environment to conflict resolution was described by participants as one in which nurses feel free to express their views without fearing that issues being discussed will be held against them. The response of one nurse unit manager after being aware of the conflict situation is as follows:

‘I believe that in any, in any conflict, there are two sides of the story. So I will call both in and get their sides of the story, from both of them at the same time.’ (Participant 5)

Some participants preferred an approach to conflict resolution where both nurses participate in the discussion. Most of the participants indicated that they would give both nurses a fair and equal chance to state their case. One participant stated that she would ensure that nurses give each other a chance to speak and raise their concerns. Most of the questions participants asked nurses in conflict were based on gaining a better understanding of what the problem is and why they engaged in the conflict in front of patients or in public.

‘I will ask them why they are arguing in front of patients. And then I will check what they are arguing about so that we can get to the bottom of the problem because I believe people cannot just argue without a reason.’ (Participant 7)

Nurse unit managers stated that patient care must take priority. Some participants indicated that they would encourage nurses to discuss issues among themselves and agree that what happened was wrong before nurse unit manager can intervene. Nurse unit managers also emphasised that nurses have to compromise and accommodate each other for the sake of patient care.

‘I will encourage this two to work along together, accommodating each other looking at the needs, at the same time we need to prioritise our core business. I mean we need to prioritise their needs, the core business which is nursing care.’ (Participant 11)

Nurse unit managers under this theme demonstrated skills as their interventions between individuals were deemed appropriate for the provided conflict scenario. Responses of nurse unit managers indicated that they are aware of behaviors necessary for effective conflict resolution between individuals.

Subtheme 1.2: Nurse unit managers managed the conflict appropriately in the units

The appropriate management of conflict in this context refers to all the management processes, structures and strategies employed by nurse unit managers in nursing units. Most of the participants were aware of the institutional platforms and stated that they will use management processes, such as disciplinary action, to reduce the impact of conflict and to ensure fairness in their management of conflict situations in the unit.

‘If I heard a noise it means that they were both fighting, so they must sign a warning for fighting in the unit number one, and then I must put that in their files but also I must notify the HR.’ (Participant 3)

Other participants focused on managing conflict in the unit by setting up systems and structures to moderate the impact of conflict. Some used policies and procedures of the institution as the basis for managing conflict. Other participants said they assume that all the nurses have gone through some form of orientation and have some knowledge about how issues are dealt with in the institution. One of the participants indicated that reliance on policies helps her manage conflict situations.

‘I am going to be straight to them. No crooked ways, this is how things are done and we work strictly according to the policies and procedures.’ (Participant 8)

It became clear that some nurse unit managers preferred to create a work environment in which conflict could be resolved promptly and constructively.

Theme 2: Nurse unit managers avoided the conflict

Avoidance of conflict in this theme refers to deliberate mechanisms used to escape confronting conflict by nurse unit managers. Although avoiding conflict can be suitable at times, in this scenario it would not have been productive and helpful to avoid the conflict. Some participants avoided the conflict by accepting incorrect and unwarranted demands of nurses.

‘I don’t think there’s anyone who is wrong because that young nurse also has rights to go to school. We must just accept that conflict is part of growing up.’ (Participant 6)

Some nurse unit managers said that the resolution of conflict was not just the responsibility of line managers. It appeared as if the participants were avoiding the conflict by disowning it. When asked how they would deal with conflict, one participant said that she would refer nurses to various institutional platforms such as senior management or employee assistance programmes (EAPs) before exploring underlying causes and circumstances that lead to conflict.

‘I’ll get my Area Manager to come and join us. So that I can have a witness when I talk to both of them.’ (Participant 9) ‘I will take it further by taking the young one, let’s say I can refer her to the EAP you know. Employee’s practitioner [ general practitioner ], maybe there is a problem somewhere somehow.’ (Participant 9)

Some participants preferred harmony in the nursing unit as opposed to confronting the concerns raised. This behaviour symbolises a person avoiding the responsibility of managing a conflict, maybe in order to avoid tensions or maintain relationships in the unit rather than confront the problem. One participant said:

‘What I would do, what I am trying to achieve, I am trying to achieve team work; I am trying to achieve harmony. So I will accommodate them so that patient care cannot be compromised.’ (Participant 1)

In this theme, it became apparent that some nurse unit managers did not conceive the conflict presented to them in the scenario, as their immediate responsibility. In a conflict situation this can prove detrimental because employees may no longer trust the capabilities of their superior in future should there be grievances.

Theme 3: Nurse unit managers did not apply the accepted process to manage conflict

Some nurse unit managers appeared to have difficulties dealing with conflict either between individuals or generally in the unit and intervened inappropriately. An inappropriate intervention refers to responses from nurse unit managers that are considered as ineffective in workplace conflict management. The timing when an intervention was effected in the conflict management process was taken into consideration to classify some responses as inappropriate.

Subtheme 3.1: Nurse unit managers did not resolve the conflict between individuals in an appropriate manner

Some participants intervened by suggesting solutions without exploring the root cause of conflict. This means that a thorough interrogation of the argument between the two nurses in conflict was not done.

‘I’ll just tell the younger one, you are wrong. First of all, who told you that you are going to the in-service training? So I’ll tell this one, don’t go. This one arranged and is going that’s all.’ (Participant 3)

Some participants stated that they would have the final say in the decision-making and on how to address or finalise the issue. The dictatorial approach to conflict was evident in the responses where participants said that there is no need to debate because it was evident who is wrong in this particular conflict situation.

‘I have to tell them same time; I don’t have to separate them according to this scenario. I’ll just tell the younger one, you are wrong.’ (Participant 4)

Most of the participants did not assess the state of affairs between nurses after conflict resolution. When participants were probed on what they would do after resolution, only a few said they will keep record of the incidents as well as monitor the efficacy of plan of action agreed upon.

‘Well… the process will have to be monitored closely and see if there will be no ill feelings towards each other, especially from the young nurse to see if she would not be bitter afterwards.’ (Participant 10)

The lack of confidence and interest in resolving conflict between employees, as seen under this theme, created an impression that nurse unit managers lacked appreciation of the delicate nature of a workplace conflict situation. Nurse unit managers must display confidence, demonstrate calmness, and be unbiased. However, for some, this was not the case in responding to the conflict scenario.

Subtheme 3.2: Nurse unit managers did not manage conflict in the unit in an appropriate manner

This subtheme highlights interventions and processes that participants said they would follow, which were unlikely to result in the resolution of conflict. Some participants did not regard conflict between two nurses as an issue that should be kept private. Participants did not ensure confidentiality because some indicated that they would also discuss the issue with the rest of staff during meetings in the unit.

‘I have to alert the other ones also because every morning we’ve got reviews in the morning every day. I have to also raise to other people to make them alert and correct that thing that happened yesterday.’ (Participant 2)

Participants referred the conflict to various institutional platforms such EAPs, labour unions and senior management. In this context, participants who chose to refer the conflict situation to such platforms did so prematurely, without having tried to intervene thereby deferring the responsibilities to a third party. This finding may suggest that participants did not want to be involved in conflict management until the end of the process. The point during the conflict resolution process that some participants stated that they would refer the matter is questionable. One participant said:

‘There are different labour unions in my institution. [ I will call them in ] so that we can sit down and try to solve the problem. They are also requested to bring own representatives as we discuss this problem.’ (Participant 9)

Nurse unit managers with postgraduate qualifications in management intervened appropriately in the conflict situation as compared to those with accumulated experience as nurse unit managers. Some nurse unit managers without management qualifications indicated that they lacked relevant skills and knowledge to manage conflict on the scenario given to them. Lack of competency was supported by the fact that most of the nurse unit managers highlighted the importance of training in order to improve their competencies pertaining to conflict management. Most of the participants were nevertheless eager to share how they managed other conflicts in their units as compared to how they would manage a conflict in the scenario provided.

Discussion of findings

Throughout the study, it emerged that some participants could identify their responsibilities in conflict situation. Nurse unit managers were aware of conducive social and psychological environment required for conflict resolution. According to Johansen ( 2012 :53), a non-punitive environment based on trust and openness contributes to effective conflict resolution among staff. Creating time and space for employees to express their feelings and concerns during a conflict can often help to clear the air and limits the possibilities of embarrassment, disruption of nursing care and potential physical violence (Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service 2009 :11). Consequently, giving people time to express feelings encourages learning and removes frustrations, resulting in trust and cooperation between team members.

Effective resolution of workplace conflict requires prompt intervention from the line manager (Cherry & Jacobs 2014 :343). Nurse unit managers believed that conflict should be resolved as soon as it becomes apparent. Addressing conflict requires immediate intervention before the conflict escalates to intolerable levels. The CPP Global Human Capital Report ( 2008 :11) revealed that 54% of participants in the study believed that for managers to resolve conflict effectively, they should identify and address underlying tensions timely before the situation deteriorates.

Removing involved parties from an audience is necessary to reduce the risk of conflict escalating or spreading to the entire unit. According to Heathfield ( 2016 :01), when intervening in a conflict situation, managers should not meet parties separately, as this may interfere with objectivity and create a win–lose approach to conflict resolution. Meeting separately may breed mistrust and suspicions of bias or favouritism among staff members. Calling both parties in at the same time may heighten or moderate the tensions. Accurate assessment of circumstances by nurse unit manager is thus necessary before action.

Nurse unit managers perceived their role as a mediator who should be impartial and neutral. Impartiality requires fair and equal participation of both nurses to state their case in the discussion. Spagnol et al. ( 2010 :796) discovered similar findings and reported that nurses regarded their role as that of a mediator when faced with workplace conflict. According to Doucet, Poitras and Chenevert ( 2009 :344), neutrality in a conflict situation is more likely to have satisfactory outcomes and findings in de-escalation of conflicts. On the contrary, Van Gramberg et al. ( 2017 :08) stated that taking a neutral position in conflict resolution has short-term benefits, whereas fairness and a just resolution process have long-term benefits.

Parties involved in conflict must be willing to compromise to some extent so that both parties are content with the outcome. Some nurse unit managers emphasised that nurses have to accommodate each other for the sake of patient care. The compromising approach suggested by participants is in line with the findings of Liu, Fu and Liu ( 2009 :246), who in their study discovered that this approach is effective in reducing the negative effect of relationship conflict. Iglesias and De Bengoa Vallejo ( 2012 :76) reported that compromising (27.7%) was the most frequently used approach to conflict resolution by nurses in their study.

Workplace policies regarding processes such as lines of communications and in-service training should be communicated with employees. Nurse unit managers in the current study also suggested that orientation of new employees should encompass relevant workplace policies. According to Thomas and Kilmann ( 2008 :20), communicating available workplace procedures and policies to employees may contribute to effective conflict management. Availability of policies plays a pivotal role in the management of conflict as this occasionally provides managers with the basis for a fair decision-making process.

Overreliance on policies and processes by nurse unit managers as the basis for managing conflict may be ineffective and constitutes a competing style. Typically, competing style in conflict is evident when policies and rules are used to adjudicate on a matter and usually results in the satisfaction of one party’s needs at the expense of the other’s. A competing style has been reported to be ineffective as it causes intimidation and interferes with communication, discussion of alternative ideas and attempts at problem solving. In fact, competing style was found to be the least used strategy by nurses in a study by Baddar, Salem and Villagracia ( 2016 :96).

Nurse unit managers avoided confronting the issues involved in resolving the conflict and seemed more concerned about maintaining relationships than resolving the problems. Possibly, they did not want to create the impression that they are too strict or they did not have the confidence to deal with conflict properly. Avoidance strategy is considered the least effective approach for conflict management as it creates a lose–lose approach for both parties. Remarkably, using avoidance strategy is common among nurse professionals. Moisoglou et al. ( 2014 :80) reported that about 62% of nurses in their study used avoidance strategy for conflict resolution. Obied and Sayed Ahmed ( 2016 :44) also reported that one-third of nurses in their study used avoidance style. Use of avoidance strategy was further attributed to a lack of experience, low self-confidence and mistrust in their professional abilities. However, Milton ( 2014 :77) reported no relationship between the use of avoidance and inexperience. According to El Dahshan and Keshk ( 2014 :138), managers who use avoidance strategy to resolve conflict do so to maintain relationships and curb turnover.

Alternatively, some participants appeared to have difficulty intervening in the conflict. Most nurse unit managers were challenged by logic in terms of which issues needed to be dealt with first and became haphazard in their interventions. When logic and process of conflict management are disregarded, findings are that authority is overlooked and opinions rather than factual policy statements may become standard practice of management. Ultimately, leading managers have to use intimidation and threats to avoid facing nurses. Use of intimidation by managers to manage difficult conflict situations at work was reported by Spagnol et al. ( 2010 :797). Intimidation and threats may directly distort facts, resulting in prolonged conflicts. The use of intimidation and threats also encourages nurse unit managers to hide behind policy or shy away from confronting real issues.

Nurse unit managers referred nurses to various platforms prematurely for further interventions. The referral was done without proper exploration of the issues involved. Diagnosing and resolving conflicts require a clear understanding of differences and concerns of parties involved (Booyens 2010 :542). When confronting or dealing with issues in workplace conflict, the scope and extent of the problem should be determined (Muller 2009 :187). Furthermore, managing conflict requires the manager to explore if there are other parties involved or if the current conflict is the first encounter. If this is not done, disruptive team members may not be identified and remedial actions may not address the source of problems.

Nurse unit managers should take the final decision on the outcome of the conflict resolution process. This may lead to nurses disowning the agreement. Coming up with a conducive and favourable solution requires engagement through dialogue and negotiation to enhance trust among parties (Omisore & Rashidat Abiodun 2014 :134). Kinnander ( 2011 :42) reported that a fair process requires mutual agreement, wherein everyone is allowed to have his or her say in the process of conflict resolution and is involved in decision-making.

Nurse unit managers acknowledged that continuous training is required to improve conflict management competency. The most successful denominator for conflict resolution is formal training (Thomas & Kilmann 2008 :02). Daud et al. ( 2013 :132) reported a significant improvement in behaviour, confidence and skills for handling conflict in the workplace following training on conflict management.

Limitations of the study

This study did not consider age, gender, qualifications and work experience of participants, which may have influenced participants’ approach to conflict management. Future studies should deliberate on such variables. The responses of participants were based on their understanding of the scenario and may not necessarily reflect their competence in conflict management in other contexts.

Recommendations

This study aimed at exploring how nurse unit managers manage conflict in nursing units. It is evident that specialised training on conflict management should form part of all postgraduate courses for nurses, especially those involved in supervising subordinates in nursing units. For instance, clinical team leaders and nurse managers are expected to be role models for other staff members, and therefore need to actively resolve conflict in the workplace. Multi-disciplinary and inter-professional education should be part of all nurse managers’ training programmes in which human resource personnel participate. Such education will guarantee that nurse managers have the necessary knowledge and skills to deal with conflict. Further research is recommended on exploring how different variables such as age, gender and work experience of the nurse manager influence conflict management approaches.

Conclusions

Conflict is an inherent and inevitable occurrence in all workplace settings. With the high costs and consequences unresolved conflict has on provision of nursing care, it is imperative that policymakers acknowledge the existence of workplace conflict and invest in resources to mitigate the impact. This study confirmed that while some nurse unit managers managed conflict appropriately, others still lacked capacity to do so and required additional training to optimise their conflict management competency.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank and acknowledge Nelson Mandela University and all relevant authorities for granting permission to conduct this study. All respondents who participated are thanked. Without them, there would have been no data and no report.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they do not have financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Authors’ contributions

M.E.T. was the principal researcher and wrote the manuscript. S.M.d.R. was the research supervisor and co-authored the article.

The views expressed in the submitted article are the author’s own and not an official position of the institution or funder.

How to cite this article: Moeta, M.E. & Du Rand, S.M., 2019, ‘Use of scenarios to explore conflict management practices of nurse unit managers in public hospitals’, Curationis 42(1), a1943. https://doi.org/10.4102/curationis.v42i1.1943

• Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service , 2009, Managing conflict at work booklet , ACAS, London. [ Google Scholar ]
• American Organization of Nurse Executives , 2015, Nurse executive competencies , Population Health, viewed 25 January 2018, from file:///C:/Users/u04970480/Downloads/AONE_Population-Health-Competencies.pdf [ Google Scholar ]
• Armstrong S.J., Rispel L.C & Penn-Kekana L, 2015, ‘ The activities of hospital nursing unit managers and quality of patient care in South African hospitals: A paradox? ’, Global Health Action 8 ( 1 ), 1–9. 10.3402/gha.v8.26243 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Baddar F., Salem O.A. & Villagracia H.N, 2016, ‘ Conflict resolution strategies of nurses in a selected government tertiary hospital in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ’, Journal of Nursing Education and Practice 6 ( 5 ), 91–99, viewed 25 January 2018, from http://www.sciedu.ca/journal/index.php [ Google Scholar ]
• Booyens S, 2010, Dimensions of healthcare management , 3rd edn, Juta & Company Ltd, Cape Town. [ Google Scholar ]
• Booyens S. & Bezuidenhoudt M, 2014, Dimensions of healthcare management , 3rd edn, Juta & Company Ltd, Cape Town. [ Google Scholar ]
• Botma Y., Greeff M., Mulaudzi F.M. & Wright S.C.D, 2010, Research in health sciences , Heinemann, Cape Town. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development , 2008, Managing conflict at work , Survey report, CIPD, London, viewed 09 February 2018, from http://www2.cipd.co.uk/NR/rdonlyres/E426E492-7AED-46A6-B8F5-92B9CF9725C5/0/4545Leadershipconflict.pdf [ Google Scholar ]
• Cherry B. & Jacob R.S, 2014, Contemporary nursing issues, trends and management , Elsevier, St. Louis, MO. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cipriano P.F, 2011, ‘ Move up to the role of nurse manager ’, American Nurse Today 6 ( 3 ), 61–62, viewed 12 September 2017, from http://www.americannursetoday.com/move-up-to-the-role-of-nurse-manager/ [ Google Scholar ]
• Cullinan K, 2016, ‘ Staff shortages, poor leadership cripple healthcare ’, Health-E News , viewed 12 September 2017, from https://www.health-e.org.za/2016/05/05/staff-shortages-poor-leadership-cripple-healthcare/
• Cunniff L. & Mostert K, 2012, ‘ Prevalence of workplace bullying of South African employees ’, SA Journal of Human Resource Management 10 ( 1 ), 1–15, viewed 13 January 2018, from http://www.sajhrm.co.za/index.php/s [ Google Scholar ]
• Daud Z., Mohd Isa M.F., Mohd Noor W.S.W. & Zainol Z, 2013, ‘ Do we need to train our managers in handling grievances? ’, International Journal of Business and Social Science 4 ( 3 ), 123–135, viewed 09 February 2018, from http://www.lib.uum.edu.my [ Google Scholar ]
• Demetriou C., Ozer B.U. & Essau C.A, 2015, ‘Self-report questionnaires’, in Cautin R.L. & Lilienfeld S.O. (eds.), The encyclopedia of clinical psychology , 1st edn, pp. 1–6, John Wiley & Sons, NJ. [ Google Scholar ]
• Doherty J, 2014, Improving public hospitals through effective clinical leadership: Lessons from South Africa, for the municipal services project , University of the Witwatersrand, viewed 13 January 2018, from http://www.municipalservicesproject.org/sites [ Google Scholar ]
• Doucet O., Poitras J. & Chenevert D, 2009, ‘ The impacts of leadership on workplace conflicts ’, International Journal of Conflict Management 20 ( 4 ), 340–354, viewed 12 September 2017, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235316962 [ Google Scholar ]
• Duma S., Dippenaar J., Bhengu B., Oosthuizen A., Middleton L., Phillips M. et al., 2012, ‘ Specialist and advanced specialist nursing and midwifery practice ’, Trends in Nursing 1 ( 1 ), 1–18, viewed 13 January 2018, from http://fundisa.journals.ac.za [ Google Scholar ]
• El Dahshan M.E.A. & Keshk L.I, 2014, ‘ Managers’ conflict management styles and its effect on staff nurses’ turnover intention at Shebin El Kom Hospitals, Menoufiya Governorate World ’, Journal of Medical Sciences 11 ( 1 ), 132–143. [ Google Scholar ]
• Fusheini A., Eyles J. & Goudge J, 2017, ‘ The state of public hospital governance and management in a South African hospital: A case study ’, International Journal of Healthcare 3 ( 2 ), 68–77, viewed 09 February 2018, from http://ijh.sciedupress.com [ Google Scholar ]
• Graham L, 2017, What is the real cost of workplace conflict? Personal Strengths Publishing Inc., viewed 13 January 2018, from https://totalsdi.uk/blog/real-cost-workplace-conflict/ [ Google Scholar ]
• Heathfield S, 2016, Workplace conflict resolution: Avoid these actions to create effective conflict resolution , [Blog] The Balance Careers, viewed 12 September 2017, from https://www.thebalance.com/workplace-conflict-resolution-1918675 [ Google Scholar ]
• Higazee M.Z.A, 2015, ‘ Types and levels of conflicts experienced by nurses in the hospital setting ’, Health Science Journal 6 ( 7 ), 1–6, viewed 12 September 2017, from http://www.hsj.gr/medicine [ Google Scholar ]
• Huber D.L, 2014, Leadership & nursing care management , 5th edn, Elsevier, St Louis, MO. [ Google Scholar ]
• Iglesias M. & De Bengoa Vallejo R.B, 2012, ‘ Conflict resolution styles in the nursing profession ’, Contemporary Nurse 43 ( 1 ), 73–80, viewed 12 September 2017, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235365960 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jerng J.-S., Huang S.-F., Liang H.-W., Chen L.-C., Lin C.-K., Huang H.-F. et al., 2017, ‘ Workplace interpersonal conflicts among the healthcare workers: Retrospective exploration from the institutional incident reporting system of a university-affiliated Medical Center ’, PLoS One 12 ( 2 ), 1–13, viewed 25 January 2018, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5293271/pdf/pone.0171696.pdf [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Johansen M.L, 2012, ‘ Keeping the peace: Conflict management strategies for nurse managers ’, Nursing Management 43 ( 2 ), 50–54, viewed 12 September 2017, from http://docshare01.docshare.tips/files/27307/273079823.pdf [ Google Scholar ]
• Kaimenyi K.C, 2014, ‘ The influence of conflict management styles on leadership approaches within small-scale businesses in Kenya ’, IOSR Journal of Business and Management 16 ( 9 ), 55–59, viewed 12 September 2017, from http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jbm/papers [ Google Scholar ]
• Kinnander M, 2011, ‘ Conflict management: How to manage functional conflicts within project teams ’, Master’s thesis, Northumbria University, Newcastle, United Kingdom. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lahana E., Tsaras K., Kalaitzidou A., Galanis P., Kaitelidou D. & Sarafis P, 2017, ‘ Conflicts management in public sector nursing ’, International Journal of Healthcare Management 1–7, viewed 25 January 2018, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318794392_Conflicts_management_in_public_sector_nursing
• Liu J., Fu P. & Liu S, 2009, ‘ Conflicts in top management teams and team/firm outcomes ’, International Journal of Conflict Management 20 ( 3 ), 228–250, viewed 12 September 2017, from http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus [ Google Scholar ]
• Mathumbu D. & Dodd N, 2013, ‘ Perceived organisational support, work engagement and organisational citizenship behaviour of nurses at Victoria Hospital ’, Journal of Psychology 4 ( 2 ), 87–93. 10.1080/09764224.2013.11885497 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Meier L.L., Semmer N.K. & Gross S, 2014, ‘ The effect of conflict at work on well-being: Depressive symptoms as a vulnerability factor ’, Work & Stress 28 ( 1 ), 31–48, viewed 12 September 2017, from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/02678373.2013.876691 [ Google Scholar ]
• Milton D.R, 2014, ‘ Assessing the dynamics of conflict among nurses in public hospitals ’, Unpublished Master’s thesis, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa. [ Google Scholar ]
• Moisoglou I., Panagiotis P., Galanis P., Siskou O., Maniadakis N. & Kaitelidou D, 2014, ‘ Conflict management in a Greek public hospital: Collaboration or avoidance? ’, International Journal of Caring Sciences 7 ( 1 ), 75–82, viewed 12 September 2017, from http://www.academia.edu/6993249/O [ Google Scholar ]
• Mokoka E., Oosthuizen M.J. & Ehlers V.J, 2010, ‘ Retaining professional nurses in South Africa: Nurse managers’ perspectives ’, Health SA Gesondheid 15 ( 1 ), 1–9, viewed 12 September 2017, from http://www.hsag.co.za/index.php/hsag/article/view/484/531 [ Google Scholar ]
• Momberg M.A, 2011, ‘ The prevalence and consequences of workplace bullying in South Africa ’, Unpublished Master’s thesis, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa. [ Google Scholar ]
• Muller M, 2000, ‘ Nursing service management standards ’, Health SA Gesondheid 5 ( 4 ), 3–18, viewed 12 September 2017, from https://hsag.co.za/index.php/hsag/article/viewFile/40/38 [ Google Scholar ]
• Muller M, 2009, Nursing dynamics , 4th edn, Heinemann, Sandton. [ Google Scholar ]
• Nayeri N.D. & Negarandeh R, 2009, ‘ Conflict among Iranian hospital nurses: A qualitative study ’, Human Resources for Health 7 , 25 10.1186/1478-4491-7-25 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Obied H.K. & Sayed Ahmed S.E, 2016, ‘ Effect of utilizing conflict management strategies for ICU nurses on patient care ’, Journal of Nursing and Health Science 5 ( 2 ), 39–46, viewed 25 January 2018, from http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jnhs/papers/vol5-issue2/Version-5/E0502053946.pdf [ Google Scholar ]
• Omisore B. & Rashidat Abiodun A, 2014, ‘ Organizational conflicts: Causes, effects and remedies ’, International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences 3 ( 6 ), 118–137. 10.6007/IJAREMS/v3-i6/1351 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Oxford Online Dictionaries , 2018, Online dictionary , viewed n.d., from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com
• Pandey S., Sajjanapu S. & Sangwan G, 2015, ‘ Study on effect of emotional intelligence on conflict resolution style ’, Indian Journal of Science and Technology 8 ( 6 ), 71–81, viewed 25 January 2018, from www.indjst.org/index.php/indjst/article/view/71215 [ Google Scholar ]
• Polit D.F. & Beck C.T, 2012, Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice , 8th edn, Lippincott & Company, Philadelphia, PA. [ Google Scholar ]
• Salem O.A.M., Zakari N.M. & Al-Khamis N.I, 2009, ‘ Effect of conflict on nurses’ perceptions of their professionalism in various healthcare sectors in Saudi Arabia ’, Medical Journal of Cairo University 77 ( 1 ), 217–224, viewed 25 January 2018, from http://medicaljournalofcairouniversity.net [ Google Scholar ]
• South Africa , 1985, Regulation 1501 of 1983 as amended by Regulation 2554 of 1985 , Government Printers, Pretoria. [ Google Scholar ]
• South Africa , 2005, Nursing Act 33 of 2005 , Government Printers, Pretoria. [ Google Scholar ]
• Spagnol C.A., Santiago G.R., De Oliveira Campos B.M., Badaró M.T.M., Vieira J.S. & De Oliveira Silveira A.P, 2010, ‘ Conflict situations experienced at hospital: The view of nursing technicians and auxiliaries ’, Revista da Escola de Enfermagem da USP 44 ( 3 ), 792–799, viewed 12 September 2017, from http://www.scielo.br/pdf/reeusp/v44n3/en_36.pdf [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Thomas K. & Kilmann R.H, 2008, Workplace conflict and how businesses can harness it to thrive , CPP Global Human Capital Report, viewed 12 September 2017, from http://img.en25.com/Web/CPP/Conflictreport.pdf [ Google Scholar ]
• Van Gramberg B., Bamber G.J., Teicher J. & Cooper B, 2017, A changing world of workplace conflict resolution and employee voice: An Australian perspective , viewed 25 January 2018, from https://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu