conflict management in school essay

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Home > Books > Interpersonal Relationships

School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships

Submitted: 03 September 2020 Reviewed: 07 December 2020 Published: 23 December 2020

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.95395

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Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.

• school conflicts
• classroom conflicts
• school conflict management
• teacher-student relationship

Author Information

Sabina valente *.

• Center for Research in Education and Psychology, University of Évora, Portugal

Abílio Afonso Lourenço

• University of Minho, Portugal

Zsolt Németh

• Faculty of Sciences, Institute of Sport Science and Physical Education, Department of Theory and Practice of Sports, University of Pécs, Hungary

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

One of the most striking characteristics of human beings is the diversities. Different ways of being, thinking and existing, different needs, world views, ethical positions mark the relationships between people. In this sense, interpersonal conflicts are understood as tension that involves different interests or positions, are inherent to human relationships, and are present in various social organizations, among them, the school.

The school as microcosms of society brings together different views of the world, different ways of being, thinking, and living, thus becoming a space for representing social differences and being a place where different conflicts occur daily. Dealing with this situation type requires learning and that is why teachers need training in conflict management so that they can correctly manage the classroom conflicts and educate also your students for conflict management.

Recognizing that the school is an organization that brings together social diversity and adopting as an assumption that interpersonal conflicts are inherent to human relationships, we define the school conflicts as this chapter theme. In this sense, this chapter addresses school conflicts with a focus on classroom conflicts in the teacher-student relationship. In the first part, a brief reference is made to the conflict. This is followed by a review of the bibliography on school/classroom conflict causes.

Due to its intrinsic characteristics, school is a favorable medium for conflict situations development. So, the conflict in the education system can be seen from the dialectic between the macrostructure of the education system, the general policies oriented towards it, and the management processes that prevail in each school [ 1 ].

The conflict presents formative possibilities, since the perception of the differences existing between people/or groups and their needs, values, ideas, and different ways of living are essential to a democratic society [ 2 ]. In this sense, it is important to enhance positive conflict characteristics and reduce the negative ones. So, the difficulty in resolving conflicts is largely due to the difficulties existing between those involved in the conflict to be able to communicate effectively. Therefore, the constructive and educational potential of conflicts depends largely on the skills of those involved. Thus, knowing how to communicate, and respecting the rights of others and existing differences are essential for conflicts to revert to social and human development benefits.

The concern with improving coexistence in schools, centred on the conflict variable, is addressed in different studies, whose objectives mark both understanding the school conflict [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ], as well as preventing its occurrence [ 7 ]. Since it is impossible to eliminate school conflicts, it is essential and urgent to reduce their intensity, duration, and severity, so that the teaching and learning process is not harmed. In this sense, this chapter addresses also the strategies used to manage classroom conflict, and some examples of programs that work these skills on teachers and students.

2. Conflict

The conflict is defined and classified from different perspectives, and its definition can differ, in context, process, intervention, and study areas [ 1 , 8 ]. Conflict is a phenomenon of incompatibility between individuals or groups with irreconcilable ends and/or values ​​between them, considering it a social process [ 1 ]. For this author, four elements are present and must be addressed in all conflicts: the causes that give rise to it; the conflict protagonists; the process and the way the protagonists face the conflict; and the context in which it occurs. In turn, Chrispino [ 9 ] understands conflict as to any divergent opinion or a different way of seeing or interpreting an event, that is, the conflict originates in the difference of interests, desires, aspirations, or positions between individuals. He adds that conflicts can arise from difficulties in communication and assertiveness.

In this way, we can say that there is a conflict when two or more people interact with each other and perceive incompatible differences, or threats to their resources, needs, or values and when they respond according to what was perceived, then the ideal conditions for conflict are created. The conflict intensity, duration, or severity can then increase or decrease depending on the strategies used to resolve it. Regardless of the different conflict definitions, there is no conflict if the individuals involved are not aware of its existence. This conclusion is consensual to the majority of the definition proposals and to the attempts to conceptualize the conflict found in the specialized literature.

In addition to different conflict definitions, there are also different proposals for classifying it. Concerning the different conflict classification [ 8 , 10 , 11 ] the emphasis is placed on the theoretical proposals of [ 8 , 11 ]. Conflicts can be classified into five different types: structural, value, relationship, interest, and data [ 11 ]. In structural conflicts, causes are associated with unequal control situations, possession or resource distribution, unequal power, and authority, geographical, physical, or environmental factors that prevent cooperation and time pressures. In value conflicts, it highlights situations of opposing ideas or behaviors, different ways of life, ideology, or religion. Relationship conflicts are caused by strong emotions, misperceptions or stereotypes, inadequate or deficient communication, and negative and/or repetitive behaviors. The causes of interest conflicts are perceived or real competition over fundamental interests (content), procedural interests, and psychological interests. Finally, about data conflicts, [ 11 ] highlights the lack of information or wrong information, different points of view on what is important, different data interpretations, and different assessment procedures.

In turn, Torrego [ 8 ] presents a typology that seems to reflect the type of school conflicts: relationship-communication conflicts; interest/needs conflicts; and preferences, values, and beliefs conflicts. As for the relationship-communication conflicts, it cannot be said that there is a concrete cause that justifies their appearance, however, it appears as a result of the relationship deterioration itself. As such, aggressions, struggles, offenses, defamations, rumors, humiliations, misunderstandings are part of this type of conflict, but also perception conflicts, because, despite the conflict reality being only one, this fact does not invalidate that those involved have their view of it. Interest or needs conflicts usually occur when one party considers that it will only be able to satisfy its needs/interests if the other gives in to theirs. This conflict type can include those that stem from disagreement about how to perform jobs or tasks and those that result from the need felt by one of the parties to own or be coerced into giving in: objects, time, space, or any type of appeal. Finally, preferences, values, and beliefs conflicts result when these systems are discordant or viewed as such by those involved in the conflict. However, this conflict type can be resolved if the parties identify higher values ​​common to both.

It is important to say that the conflict constructive paradigm indicates that the conflict has positive and negative aspects, advantages, and disadvantages. This new model is opposed to the classic model and indicates that moderate levels of conflict are perceived as positive [ 12 ]. The conflict effects are positive, when they are well managed, to establish more cooperative relations and seek to reach an integrated solution, for the benefit of those involved in the conflict [ 10 ]. In any organization, the existence of low levels of conflict leaves the organization vulnerable to stagnation, to making impoverished decisions, even to the lack of effectiveness; on the other hand, having too much conflict leads the organization directly into chaos.

Given the above, we can say that conflicts are inherent to human relationships since human beings are characterized by diversity. The school, by bringing together people from different social groups with different values and worldviews, becomes a locus for conflicts.

3. School conflicts

The school is a society microsystem, in which are reflected constant changes. Thus, one of the most important school functions is to prepare students, teachers, and parents to live and overcome the difficulties of a world full of rapid changes and interpersonal conflicts, contributing to the development process of each individual. For being a society microsystem and bringing together different ways of life, thinking, feeling, relationship, constitutes a space conducive to interpersonal conflicts.

School conflict is defined as the disagreement between individuals or groups regarding ideas, interests, principles, and values within the school community, perceiving the parties their interests as excluded, although they may not be [ 13 ], being that the most frequent school conflicts occur in the relations between student–student and between student-teacher [ 14 ].

Conflicts in the school can be classified according to their causes and those involved. For Martinez [ 15 ], the conflicts between teachers are mainly caused by lack of communication, personal interests, previous conflicts, issues of power, or political and ideological differences. This author indicates that conflicts between students and teachers, as they happen due to the lack of understanding of the teacher’s explanation, due to arbitrary grades and divergence in the evaluation criteria, lack of didactic material, discrimination, disinterest in the study material, and because the students are ears. In turn, conflicts between students can arise due to misunderstandings, fights, the rivalry between groups, discrimination, bullying, use of spaces and assets, dating, sexual harassment, loss or damage of school assets, diverse elections, travel, and parties. Conflicts between parents, teachers, and administrators can arise due to aggressions that occurred between students and between teachers, due to the loss of work material, problems in the school canteen or similar, lack of teachers, lack of pedagogical assistance by teachers, evaluation, approval and disapproval criteria, failure to meet bureaucratic and administrative requirements of management [ 15 ].

From the literature review, it is possible to infer and highlight the different causes pointed to the school conflict. Participating teachers in the Göksoy and Argon [ 16 ] study indicate as causes for school conflict: the communication failures, personal, political/ideological, and organizational causes.

With a very similar rating, Jares [ 1 ] indicates four main causes: ideological-scientific, related to different pedagogical, ideological, and organizational options, and the type of school culture or cultures that coexist; power causes, related to organization control, professional promotion, access to resources and decision making; causes of structure, related to the ambiguity of objectives and functions, organizational fragility, organizational and variable contexts; and personal and interpersonal causes, related to self-esteem, security, professional dissatisfaction, and communication. Also, Burguet [ 17 ] points out as possible causes for the school conflict in the school’s organizational structure.

In this sequence, and given the increase in school conflicts, Ibarra [ 18 ] recognizes as school conflict causes: the increase in compulsory schooling, the increase in the number of students per class, teachers perceive a progressive decline in their authority about students, and students are less likely to comply with certain rules and limits, which results in conflict situations. Regarding the increase in compulsory education, this leads to a greater number of unmotivated and undisciplined students, which implies an increase in school conflict. Likewise, the increase in the number of students per class, without increasing the facilities or associated conditions, increases the conflict occurrence, because of their negative changes in the physical and psychological environment, in overcrowded classrooms, with a lack of space for practical and collaborative activities.

In addressing interpersonal relationships in schools cannot neglect family background. When dealing with interpersonal relationships in the school context, it is necessary to take into account the family reality of each student, since the family interpersonal relationships have a strong connection with the school conflict [ 19 ]. Distinguished authors indicate that school conflict situations often have their genesis at the family level [ 17 , 20 ] since they are the most deprived families, where alcoholism, domestic violence, and unemployment problems occur, being that all these violence and incivilities manifestations that arise in the students’ lives are transported to school. Burguet [ 17 ] points the dismissal of families as educational agents. This author highlights the overprotection with a sense of guilt for not dedicating more time to children, the experience of fatherhood as a “burden” of those who educate in aggressiveness, and the criticisms of parents, and society itself, to teachers, instigates conflicts. In other words, the role of the family often does not seem to offer a good foundation in the education of young people, which is reflected in their behavior in the processes of interaction at school. As Berkowitz [ 20 ] indicates, many of the interaction problems originate in the family, and the student reproduces the behaviors he learns with his parents.

It should be noted that the context experienced by the Covid-19 pandemic has a greater impact on students from poorer families. The situation of these most vulnerable students was a problem whose dimension grew with online classes, as they encountered immense barriers and lack of support for quality education during confinement. Thus, students who before the pandemic were unmotivated and presented conflicting behaviors at school should be the target of more support during this pandemic phase, to minimize the conflicting behaviors. It should also be noted that although family-school relationships are extremely important for students’ learning and development, family participation in school is not always satisfactory.

So, the family and the school must go together to contribute to the conflict becoming part of a process of growth, acceptance of the other, and accountability. Learning to deal with school conflicts positively is essential for the development of healthy relationships.

Another cause of school conflicts is pointed to society and the values it conveys, Burguet [ 17 ] points to the example of social communication, which encourages violence through violent programs, broadcasting news with prejudiced and conflicting messages. All of these situations enhance the conflicting attitudes of children and young people, which are reflected in school behaviors.

3.1 Conflict in the classroom

The school builds a social interface favorable to involvement, where conflicts proliferate in the educational process complexity, being common and daily in classes. Thus, in the classroom different types of conflict occur, being a challenge for most teachers to know how to face, manage, and resolve these conflicts [ 7 ].

Teachers often perceive conflicts as indiscipline, violence, disrespect, and like all situations threatening his authority, and inexperienced and experienced teachers emphasize the teacher-student conflict as a frequent situation in difficult classes [ 21 ]. In this context, Silva and Flores [ 19 ] refer to the negative effect that these situations have on attainment and student motivation, so it is urgent to find solutions to avoid or mitigate such effects.

The classroom coexistence problems are mainly related to social and pedagogical changes [ 22 ]. In this sequence, there are several conflict situations that teachers can face during classes. Some of those indicated by the teachers are, namely: the student’s presence that did not focus on activities; students with serious learning and communication difficulties; students groups who do classroom not work and maintain an aggressive and provocative attitude; students with destructive attitudes towards school material, theirs and/or colleagues, as well as aggressive and violent attitudes towards colleagues and teachers; apathetic students, who do not show classes enthusiasm; and in extreme situations, students who take and display instruments in the class that can be used as weapons, in an attitude of defiance to the teacher [ 23 ].

Given the increase in the classroom conflicts, multiple causes, which include a combination of external and internal factors in the school environment, are indicated, such as the increase in compulsory education, the increase in students per class, the progressive decline in the teacher’s authority about students, and students are less likely to comply with rules and limits, which results in conflict [ 18 ]. The increase in the year of schooling also leads to greater difficulties in living and learning in the classroom, and older age student’s groups consider themselves inserted in an educational system that sometimes does not respond to their needs and some of them consider not be essential to your life. So, the increase in compulsory education leads to a greater number of dissatisfied, unmotivated, and undisciplined students. Likewise, the increase in students per class, without increasing the facilities or associated conditions, negatively affects the psychological environment in overcrowded classrooms, with a lack of space for practical and collaborative activities. In turn, the progressive decline in teacher authority in relation to students and students are less likely to comply with certain rules and limits, results in conflicts in the classroom.

Conflicts in the teacher-student relationship are recurrent in the classroom, and [ 17 ] indicates as causes generating conflict, not only concerning the expectations of the teacher-student but also the student towards the teacher. In this sequence, the authors highlight the following problems that cause conflict: discipline problems, adaptation to individual differences problems, and evaluation problems.

As for discipline problems, these are the result of provocation and contempt of the student towards the teacher, or the teacher towards the student, to exercise their authority. In turn, problems of adaptation to individual differences are related to heterogeneous behaviors and diminished personal relationships. As for the problems related to the evaluation, result mainly from the personal rhythms of each student and teacher.

Students’ undisciplined classroom behavior can lead to conflicts that divert the teacher’s attention to issues that blur him from his teaching function [ 19 ]. In this context, Pérez-de-Guzmán et al. [ 7 ] indicate disinterest, mainly academic, as the main source of classroom conflict, also mentioning that one of the conflicts that persist and continues to be common is the lack of study habits and the carrying out work, leading to a negative attitude during class. Also, the mandatory stay in the classroom, away from the interests and expectations of some students, is recurrent as a conflict cause.

There are many and diverse classroom conflict situations that disturb the class dynamics. And in situations where the conflict remains latent, the result of the diversity of class interests, if the teacher does not create a good environment, acting positively about communication, the use of legitimate authority, and the conflict management, he will see conflicts increase exponentially within the classes [ 24 ]. Thus, regardless of the classroom conflicts type, if they are not managed, they accumulate, which makes them more cohesive and complicated, triggering negative feelings in those involved, and negatively affecting the educational quality [ 24 ].

The causes of the aforementioned conflicts are linked to personal issues and interpersonal relationships. And, most of these conflicts reveal an undisciplined character and increase daily in the class context. In this way, the teacher in the absence of solid guidelines can develop discontent, insecurity, and dissatisfaction that are reflected in his conflict face performance. Another aspect to be highlighted is that related to the power or lack of it that, increasingly, the teacher presents, and that reveals itself in discontent. In short, there is a gap in society, between the values ​​it promotes and demands the school and the lack of credibility that is given to the teacher, questioned before the disapproval of parents and society itself, which instigates an even greater student’s conflict, in classes.

3.2 Positive and negative impacts of school conflicts

Conflict can inspire innovations and creative strategies in addressing challenging issues, as well as improving work, results, and encouraging organizations to achieve higher levels of quality and achievement. In this context, Göksoy and Argon [ 16 ] argue that school conflicts have positive and negative impacts on psychological, social, and organizational results.

Negative psychological impacts include discomfort, insecurity, insignificance feelings, sadness, resentment, frustration, and stress. In turn, at the social level, results of hostility, intolerance, and violence are present [ 16 ]. As for the negative results within the institutions, the author highlights the existence of a tense environment, weakened cooperation, communication failures, poor performance, and an undisciplined environment. Inevitably, in this way, there is a decrease in education quality.

The conflicts traditional and negative view has implications for the training of students, as the current discourse in many schools is about how to avoid conflicts since their educational potential is sometimes not perceived by the school community. This discourse conceives the conflict by the violent consequences that result from its non-management.

Conflict is recognized as an engine of social development and its effects are positive when the conflict is managed well. Thus, about the positive impacts arising from the school conflict, these have various levels of benefits [ 16 ]. At a personal level, the conflict allows learning to be related to the perception of errors, and to develop new ideas. On the other hand, at the social level, it enables the reinforcement of communication, respect for others, and enhances commitment. Regarding the benefits at the organizational level, it makes it possible to understand problems, seek and develop new solutions, and develop a democratic and enriching environment in the school. Thus, conflicts can contribute to the construction of broader visions of certain situations and, at the same time, guarantee rights and opportunities for all, regardless of interpersonal differences.

4. Strategies for classroom conflict management

Teachers’ perceptions of conflict indicate that they focus mainly on the conflicts’ negative aspects [ 6 , 25 ]. It is noteworthy that the methods most used at school, face of students conflicting behaviors, include warning, disapproval, summoning guardians, and in some cases, student suspension. Methodologies that provoke negative feelings and, later, originate new undesirable behaviors, being applied without taking into account the needs, personal conflicts, problems, and students expectations [ 26 ]. As indicated by Torrecilla et al. [ 22 ] if the teacher is not an effective conflict manager, he will project this lack of skill, resulting in negative learning for students.

As noted earlier, classroom conflict is an unavoidable reality. Thus, being inevitable, adequate strategies are needed to resolve it so that the conflict potential advantages are taken advantage of and its harmful effects are minimized or canceled out. Conflict management strategies are understood as the behavior types that are adopted in the conflict context, that is, they are basic strategies to manage a situation in which the parties consider their interests to be incompatible.

It is important to note that the choice between different conflict management strategies depends on the conflict level and the various situations that must be managed effectively [ 27 ], that is, to manage conflict functionally, it is important to recognize that one strategy may be more appropriate than another, depending on the conflict situation, being considered appropriate if its use leads to the effective formulation or resolution of the conflict [ 27 ]. So, strategies refer to specific patterns of behavior that are adopted in conflict situations. Following this approach, Rahim and Bonoma [ 28 ] established five conflict management strategies using two dimensions “self-concern” and “others concern”. They are different strategies for conflict management and correspond to the attitudes to confront and conflict resolutions.

These five strategies for conflict management are [ 27 ]: (a) Avoiding: when conflicted parties show low levels of concern for others’ interests and a low level of concern for oneself. Strategy characterized by a low degree of assertiveness and a low degree of cooperation, where neither its interests nor those of its opponents are satisfied; (b) Dominating: reflecting the attempt to satisfy one’s interests without consideration of the interests of the other. Characterized by a high assertiveness and lack of cooperation, in which the acquisition of objectives is viewed with supremacy over the interests of the other party. Furthermore, it is often considered an aggressive strategy; (c) Obliging: tends to be adopted by those individuals who attempt to play down the differences and emphasizes commonalities to satisfy the concerns of the other party. Represents a conflict management strategy where the cooperation is high, and assertiveness is low; (d) Integrating: individuals who use this strategy manage conflicts directly and cooperatively, seeking to solve in collaboration with the other, is a strategy connected with problem-solving. The use of this involves openness, exchanging information, looking for alternatives, and examination of differences to reach an effective solution for everyone involved in the conflict. Is a strategy useful for effectively dealing with complex problems; and (e) Compromising: represents the attempt to satisfy, moderately and partially, the interests of all those involved in the conflict, and shares commonalities with all of the other four strategies. Is a strategy that requires compromise and assignment. Compromising is an intermediate strategy on assertiveness and cooperation, which implies a compromise in the search for an acceptable intermediate position for everyone involved in the conflict.

Among the variables that influence the choice of different conflict management strategies, the teachers’ emotional intelligence stands out. Valente and Lourenço [ 24 ] conclude that teachers who tend to have higher levels of emotional intelligence use more integration and commitment strategies, for conflict management in the classroom, and fewer strategies of consent, avoidance, and domination. Too, the findings of Aliasgari and Farzadnia [ 29 ] indicate that teachers prefer the integrating strategy over the other conflict management strategy. So, in the presence of classroom conflict, the teacher proposes alternatives, applies open lines of communication, makes concessions, accepts responsibility, maximizes similarities, and minimizes existing differences between self and student [ 24 ]. Therefore, the integrating strategy is connected with classroom problem-solving, the use of this strategy involves openness and exchanging information, being the ideal strategy in dealing with complex classroom problems [ 24 ]. When applying a commitment strategy, the teacher’s objective is an intermediate solution for conflict management, for this, he knows how to reduce differences with the student suggests an exchange of proposals with the student, and provides a quick solution to conflicts in the classroom [ 24 ]. This is an intermediate strategy on assertiveness and cooperation, which implies a compromise in the search for an acceptable intermediate position for everyone involved in the conflict [ 27 ]. In this way, teachers’ emotional intelligence allows for better conflict management, which supports the development of interpersonal relationships in the classroom and enables a favorable environment for teaching and learning.

So, conflicts involve, in addition to interpersonal skills such as availability for dialog, emotional intelligence skills, which require the perception and recognition of the affective dimension, and the feelings of those involved. In this sense, we can say that the evolution of interpersonal relationships has not kept pace with scientific and technological developments. We were not educated to know how to interpret the language of emotions, just as we did not learn to solve conflict situations. We do not learn to perceive and manage emotions. Thus, the emotions that emerge from conflicts must be the target of attention and discussion, so that teachers and students are aware of their emotions and know how to deal with them.

The concern with improving coexistence in schools, namely about conflict, is mentioned in several studies, whose objectives refer to the understanding of school conflicts, as well as preventing their occurrence through programs aimed at teachers and students [ 4 , 5 ]. Thus, the school community must develop effective skills for conflict management, increasing self-awareness, and understanding of conflict through formal education sessions.

The manage conflict ability is not innate, so it must be learned through educational interventions. There are different programs that work these skills in the educational context, of which they stand: Recognizing, Understanding, Labeling, Expressing, Regulating (RULER), Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), and the Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL).

RULER program was created based on the emotional intelligence Mayer-Salovey’s model [ 30 ]. This training program focuses on emotional intelligence development and involving the students, parents, teachers, and the entire educational community [ 31 ]. RULER focuses on learning skills that deal with issues of interpersonal conflict and teach strategies for emotional regulation. Empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of RULER programs indicates that they enhance students’ academic performance, improve the quality of learning environments, improve teacher-student relationships and reduce student behavior problems, being a success in reducing violence and abusive classroom behavior [ 32 ].

The SEL was developed with the aim of preventing school violence and includes five areas of interconnected skills (self-knowledge, social awareness, self-management and organization, responsible problem solving, and relationship management). Teaching these skills is vital to deal with behavioral, academic, disciplinary, and safety problems, promoting self-awareness, managing emotions, and acquiring skills such as empathy, the ability to perceive different perspectives and points of view, respect for diversity, and the ability to make the right decisions [ 33 ]. SEL programs refer to processes of developing socio-emotional competencies, which depend on the individual’s ability to recognize, understand, and manage emotions. These skills are the main building blocks for other outcomes that SEL programs include, such as the ability to persist in the face of challenges, stress management, the ability to develop healthy relationships, build trust in others, and to thrive both in the academic context, as in personal and social life. In a study carried out on more than 213 SEL programs, it was concluded that a school that successfully applies a quality curriculum of the SEL program can achieve behavioral improvements and a positive increase in the results of assessments [ 34 ].

CASEL program was created with the aim of establishing social and emotional education in a school context and making it a reality in today’s education. Its purpose is to apply high-quality, evidence-based SEL programs, from pre-school to secondary education [ 35 ]. The results of this program reveal significant changes in the socio-emotional capacities, social interactions, and academic results of the students who attended these programs. Among the results, it should be noted that students show greater communication skills, are more collaborative in teamwork, and more resistant to challenges and difficulties [ 36 ].

4.1 School conflicts management

The school is a space for socialization par excellence and, precisely, due to the variety of styles, cultures, and values, it becomes an environment rich in conflicts. Conflict, commonly seen as something negative, destructive, and generating violence, is, in fact, extremely necessary for individual evolution. It should be noted that the conflict itself does not generate violence; this comes when there is a lack of peaceful solutions to conflict resolution, when there is no conflict constructive management.

Among the conflict management methodologies used in the school, the following stand out: arbitration, conciliation, negotiation, and mediation. School arbitration is a dialog process that takes place between the involved in the conflict with the presence of a third party that determines the conflict resolution based on the benefits of the parties with their authority and knowledge [ 37 ]. The school conciliation is a dialog process carried out between the involved in the conflict, with the support of a conciliator, who helps them decide, based on their interests and needs. This may present proposals for solutions that the parties can accept or not. The decision-making power belongs to the parties, even if the solution comes from the conciliator [ 37 ]. In turn, the school negotiation is a dialog process focused on conflict resolution between the involved in the conflict, which either meet face to face to work together unassisted to conflict resolution. Negotiation is one of the most used conflict management mechanisms in the classroom. The school mediation, this is a dialog process carried out between the parties in conflict, assisted by a third party, the mediator, who should not influence the conflict resolution, acting as a communication facilitator. Inserted in a socio-constructivist paradigm, it is considered not only as of the most current and flexible instrument for peaceful conflict resolution at the educational level, and promote a new culture for conflict management. Arising not only to solve school problems, but equally as a feasible way for creative conflict modification [ 38 ].

A more detailed approach to school negotiation is presented as it is considered the most appropriate method for resolving classroom conflicts, in teacher-student relationships. Negotiation includes a set of behavioral skills that teachers must master. It is essentially a well-structured process and based on some tacit behavior, being understood as a process of communicative interaction in which two parties seek to resolve a conflict of interest, use dialog, and progress gradually through mutual concessions. The negotiation process implies several skills, which stand out, effective communication, considered the main tool of the negotiation process.

Effective communication is essential to the school conflicts negotiation, as it enhances: the fear decrease of being rejected, the anxiety reduction produced in the struggle for acceptance and recognition, a greater predisposition to listen to the other and recognize their positive aspects, a strengthening of self-esteem, an increase in the degree of security, and a decrease in defensive-offensive behavior [ 39 ].

Concerning the negotiation phases, although there is no consensus on the definition of the negotiation stages, there are at least three that are classically identified [ 40 ]: definition of the content and limits of the negotiation (exploratory stage), with the manifestation of antagonism, facing individuals the “dilemma of trust” and the “dilemma of honesty”; negotiation dynamics (dynamic and tactical stage), with manifestations of concession flexibility, systematically assisting proposals and counter-proposals, constituting the central moment of the negotiation process; and, the resolution and agreements stage, this more integrative, brief, and intense phase, almost always implies tension and uncertainty.

These phases testify to the transformation that the negotiations must undergo and must respond to the three negotiation objectives, namely: identification of differences between the parties, making joint decisions, and building a commitment to resolve the conflict.

Empathy: the pillar of good communication and the connection between teacher and student, which allows one to understand each other’s feelings and motivations;

Assertiveness: being able to expose your point of view, emotions, or opinions without provoking a defensive attitude, through a self-affirmative phrase that tells students what to think without blaming you, not putting you as an opponent. Being assertive requires understanding limitations to do another. The teacher when negotiating a conflict must establish his position and build self-confidence thus limiting abuse situations without attacking students;

Active listening: a tool is useful to obtain more information, corroborating data so that the student knows that he was heard. When we listen actively, we are asking, paraphrasing, asking for clarification, defining, and contextualizing. Some ways of they appear can be by echo, repetition of what the other said, reformulation, expressing in words what was understood, resolving points or questions, summarizing and ordering information or reflection of the feeling, an expression of what we perceive of the other; and

Feedback: the teacher must support and encourage positive behavior, correcting the inappropriate ones. To put feedback into practice, it is necessary to let the student know what the teacher feels and what he thinks.

That way, thinking of the joint construction of solutions to the conflict, through the correct use of empathy, assertiveness, active listening, and feedback can make those involved in the conflict evaluate their actions and rethink their attitudes, discovering ways to solve the problems, trying to maintain respect and balance. Knowing how to listen, evaluate, rethink with everyone involved in the conflict, creating the habit of dialog. Because when those involved in the conflict participate in the construction of possible actions for solutions, relationships can be restored, and the conflict constructively resolved. Therefore, classroom conflicts when managed constructively contribute to the preservation of interpersonal bonds and promote the socio-emotional skills of involved, since it makes possible to develop skills to know how to see reality from the perspective of the other, knowing how to cooperate, and also learn that conflict is an opportunity for growth and maturation.

As seen, although conflicts have negative impacts in general, the constructive and destructive consequences of conflict depend on the management skills of the individuals who experience it [ 25 ]. Effective conflict management strategies minimize the conflict negative impacts and enhance the positive ones, helping to improve interpersonal relationships and job satisfaction at school.

In general, teachers and the school ignore the importance of conflicts in the integral development of the student and training as autonomous citizens. In this way, most schools do not conceive of conflict resolution as an integral part of the curriculum, emphasizing only the contents of the curricular subjects. They leave aside interpersonal relationships, homogenizing the training of students without promoting the development of problem and conflict management skills. Thus, for the educational potential of the conflict to be truly used in the school context, it is necessary that the community, and especially teachers and management bodies, recognize the conflict possibilities. Constructive management of school conflicts is important and necessary for new generations to learn to live with social differences.

In this sequence, educational action is required, intentionally aimed at conflict management as an element inherent to the human condition and indispensable to democratic societies. Therefore, the formative potential of the conflict depends on the strategies used to resolve the conflict and the management that takes place. The way to conflict management, in turn, depends on how those involved experience the conflict. Therefore, the negative view of the conflict and the lack of perception of its educational potential can prevent those involved from developing essential skills such as respect for diversity, respect for the rights of others, and availability for dialog.

Pérez-de-Guzmán et al. [ 7 ] indicate that training in conflict management, generates very positive results in all members of the educational community, verifying a reduction in the interpersonal conflict between teacher-student. Also, Massabni [ 41 ] defends the urgency to prepare teachers to face professional conflicts; otherwise, we will have a generation of teachers able to succumb to the pressure that the profession is going through, to accept the reduction of their action, their status, and to share their commitments with other professionals, who take away the property of regulating their work. It is necessary to support teachers and provide them with tools to develop their ways of managing conflicts.

By making conflicts the subject of reflection and explaining the professional context in which teachers work is, in the opinion of [ 41 ], the commitment of the different higher education institutions that form them. It is important to work not only on the training of future teachers but also on training in the active teachers in conflict management, small or large, which inevitably emerge in the teacher-student relationship, throughout their professional life. Also, the Freire et al. [ 42 ] results support the importance of professional development opportunities with a focus on facilitating the relationship of teachers with students with perceived challenging behavior.

5. Conclusions

The school is an institution that reproduces a microcosm of society, bringing together diverse identities. This context with diverse personalities, rules, and values is full of conflicts, problems, and differences between the different actors that make up the school (students, teachers, staff, and parents). Thus, the school system, in addition to involving a range of people, with different characteristics, includes a significant number of continuous and complex interactions, depending on the stages of development of each one. So, school is a place where individuals with different characteristics, backgrounds, experiences, and personalities live together daily. Among so many differences, naturally, divergences of the most diverse species arise. It is essential, then, the proper management of conflicts that may arise so that harmony and respect are present in the school of the main causes presented for the school conflict, we highlight family problems. Being the family the main student emotional support, it becomes the life model of this. In this way, unstable and weakened family relationships directly affect the behavior of your children, behaviors that these after reproduced in the school social relationships. The families of the most deprived students are considered less functional. They do not contribute to the growth of positive feelings, they do not carry out good communication between family members, nor do they assist in healthily making decisions that are, based on the exchange of ideas together instead of imposition. In this sequence, students from more dysfunctional families need school increased support to learn and develop interpersonal skills. Thus, family and school must go together to contribute to the conflict becoming part of a process of growth, acceptance of the other, and accountability. Learning to deal with conflicts positively is essential for the development of healthy relationships.

The school, by bringing together people from different social groups with different values and worldviews, becomes a locus for conflicts. Thus, the conflict must be understood as a reality inherent to the educational context, and the school, as responsible for the education of values and skills for living together must be differently prepared to deal with the conflicts that occur in it.

Conflicts of various types have always been present in the classroom, and the causes that originate them are of great importance, as they allow a better conflict understanding and, consequently, a more correct intervention to its management. It should be noted that personal harmony and the development of attitudes that promote understanding, dialog, and tolerance are indispensable for negotiating conflicts in the teacher-student relationship. The way to intervene in classroom conflicts is essential in education, not only in terms of content, but also as a series of vital procedures in interpersonal relationships. As Lapponi [ 39 ] points out, for conflicts correct negotiation with the student, it is necessary to communicate effectively, cooperate, decide responsibly, and so teach to resolve conflicts.

Ending school conflict is impossible, since they are intrinsic to the human being, being an integral part of their development and the interpersonal relationships they experience daily. Learning to live with school conflict requires creating attitudes of openness, interest in differences, and respect for diversity, teaching how to recognize injustice, taking measures to overcome it, resolving differences constructively, and moving from conflict situations to reconciliations. So, it is essential that the initial and continuous training of teachers encompasses conflict management, providing them with tools so that they can resolve the conflicts they experience in the classroom.

In summary, it is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process.

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Managing Conflict in School Leadership Teams

There’s healthy and unhealthy conflict. Most of us are familiar with the unhealthy kind, but what does healthy conflict look and sound like? Check out these suggestions for school teams in addressing conflict.

If you are a team leader -- a department head, grade-level lead, coach, or an administrator -- chances are high that conflict makes you nervous. It makes most of us nervous, and when we're in a position of leadership, there's an implicit understanding that we're supposed to do something about conflict. We may even worry that we contributed or caused the conflict.

I want to make something clear: It is your role to address unhealthy conflict in a team you lead or facilitate. Your primary role as a leader is to attend to your team member's dynamics with each other and to build a constructive team culture.

Without a healthy team culture, you probably won't get into the kinds of conversations that make a big difference for students because those conversations are challenging ones in which conflict will most likely surface. That said, let me offer you some ways to manage unhealthy conflict in teams that you lead.

Name the Conflict

Because many of us are afraid of conflict, we can hide in denial of its existence. The first step is to acknowledge that there's conflict in a team you lead, and to name it. It helps if you name the conflict as a communication dynamic rather than blame conflict on individuals. There's a difference between thinking, James is so resistant to new ideas, and James makes declarative statements that put an end to discussions. Identify the behaviors that generate unhealthy conflict and separate them from people as human beings.

Once you've identified the conflict in the team, then you'll need to name it with the group. Sometimes you may need to name it for them, and sometimes you'll see more investment from your team if you facilitate a discussion in which they identify the conflict. A team may experience conflict because the personalities of individuals are very different from each other or because they disagree on goals or action steps. Identifying the sources of conflict can help to depersonalize it. Sources can also include a shortage of resources or time, organizational politics, and organizational dysfunction.

Consider Addressing the Conflict Now or Later

When you notice unhealthy conflict in your team, you'll need to make an assessment about whether it needs to be addressed in the moment, with the team, or whether it's a conflict between two team members that needs to be addressed later. Most likely, you'll know if the situation is the latter; you'll have seen these team members engage in unhealthy conflict with each other before, or you'll be able to see the clearly interpersonal conflict between two people. There's a whole set of tools you'll need in order to address the interpersonal conflict later (that's the content for a future blog post).

Anchor Team Members in Their Norms

Hopefully, your team has some norms or community agreements for how members will behave with each other. Ideally, these help to prevent unhealthy conflict. When a norm is broken, you can remind the team of their norms and share the impact on the team when a norm isn't adhered to. You might say something like, "I want to remind everyone that one of our agreements is to assume positive intent," and that might be enough to subtly shift how a group is behaving.

Sometimes it's useful to name how the unproductive behavior is affecting the group by saying, for example, "When we interrupt, we don't get to hear someone's full idea. We need everyone to contribute and share their thoughts so that we can be sure we're making the best decision. If we don't make good decisions, we're less likely to get full commitment from each other. Let's be mindful of giving everyone the full time they need to express their thoughts."

If unhealthy conflict continuously surfaces, then you may need to go back to norms, and team members will need to recommit to how they want to work together.

Conflict Can Be Healthy

There's healthy and unhealthy conflict. Most of us are familiar with the unhealthy kind, but what does healthy conflict look and sound like? One leadership team I worked with identified the following as indicators that their team was engaging in healthy conflict:

• We wrestle with ideas.
• We ask questions to probe for deeper understanding.
• We change our minds.
• We demonstrate curiosity.
• We hold student needs at the center of our work.

This kind of conflict can lead to deep discussions that positively impact students. Having a discussion with a team about the role that healthy conflict can play, and what healthy conflict looks and sounds like, can help mediate unhealthy conflict and set the team on a powerful path.

As team leaders, rather than just stopping certain behaviors, our role is to shift unhealthy team dynamics into becoming healthy ones. Such an intention has transformational potential.

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Article contents

Conflict management.

• Patricia Elgoibar , Patricia Elgoibar University of Barcelona
• Martin Euwema Martin Euwema Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
•  and  Lourdes Munduate Lourdes Munduate University of Seville
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.5
• Published online: 28 June 2017

Conflicts are part of nature and certainly part of human relations, between individuals, as well as within and between groups. Conflicts occur in every domain of life: family, work, and society, local and global. Conflict management, therefore, is an essential competency for each person. People differ largely in their emotional and behavioral responses to conflict and need to learn how to behave effectively in different conflict situations. This requires a contingency approach, first assessing the conflict situation, and then choosing a strategy, matching the goals of the party. In most situations, fostering cooperative relations will be most beneficial; however, this is also most challenging. Therefore, constructive conflict management strategies, including trust building and methods of constructive controversy, are emphasized. Conflict management, however, is broader than the interaction of the conflicting parties. Third-party interventions are an essential element of constructive conflict management, particularly the assessment of which parties are intervening in what ways at what escalation stage.

• cooperation
• competition
• conflict behavior
• conglomerate conflict behavior
• constructive conflict management
• conflict resolution strategies

Definition of Conflict

Conflicts are part of nature, and certainly part of human relations. People experience conflict with other persons, in teams or in groups, as well as between larger entities, departments, organizations, communities, and countries. Conflicts appear at home, at work, and in our spare-time activities with friends, with people we love and with people we hate, as well as with our superiors and with our subordinates and coworkers. Parties need to accept conflicts as part of life dynamics and learn to deal with them effectively and efficiently. Conflict management refers to the way we manage incompatible actions with others, where others can be a person or a group.

Conflict is a component of interpersonal interactions; it is neither inevitable nor intrinsically bad, but it is commonplace (Coleman, Deutsch, & Marcus, 2014 ; Schellenberg, 1996 ). In the 20th century , Lewin ( 1935 ) concluded that an intrinsic state of tension motivates group members to move toward the accomplishment of their desired common goals. Later on, Parker Follett ( 1941 ) explored the constructive side of conflict and defined conflict as the appearance of difference, difference of opinions or difference of interests. Deutsch ( 1949 ) developed this line of thought and analyzed the relation between the way group members believe their goals are related and their interactions and relationships.

A common definition of conflict argues that there is a conflict between two (or more) parties (individuals or groups) if at least one of them is offended, or feels bothered by the other (Van de Vliert, 1997 ; Wall & Callister, 1995 ). Traditionally, conflict has been defined as opposing interests involving scarce resources and goal divergence and frustration (Pondy, 1967 ). However, Deutsch ( 1973 ) defined conflict as incompatible activities: one person's actions interfere, obstruct, or in some way get in the way of another's action. Tjosvold, Wan, and Tang ( 2016 ) proposed that defining conflict as incompatible actions is a much stronger foundation than defining conflict as opposing interests, because conflicts also can occur when people have common goals (i.e., they may disagree about the best means to achieve their common goals). The key contribution of Deutsch’s ( 1973 ) proposal is that incompatible activities occur in both compatible and incompatible goal contexts. Whether the protagonists believe their goals are cooperative or competitive very much affects their expectations, interaction, and outcomes as they approach conflict (Tjosvold et al., 2016 ).

Characteristics of Conflict

Euwema and Giebels ( 2017 ) highlighted some key elements of conflict.

Conflict implies dependence and interdependence. Parties rely to some extent on the other parties to realize their goals (Kaufman, Elgoibar, & Borbely, 2016 ). This interdependence can be positive (a cooperative context), negative (a competitive context), or mixed. Positive interdependence is strongly related to cooperative conflict behaviors, while negative interdependence triggers competitive behaviors (Johnson & Johnson, 2005 ). Interdependence also reflects the power difference between parties. A short-term contractor on a low-paid job usually is much more dependent on the employer than vice versa. Many conflicts, however, can be seen as “mixed motive” situations.

Conflicts are mostly mixed motive situations because parties have simultaneous motives to cooperate and motives to compete. Parties are, on the one hand, dependent on each other to realize their goal, and, on the other hand, they are at the same time competitors. For example, two colleagues on a team are cooperating for the same team result; however, there is competition for the role as project leader. In a soccer team, the players have a team goal of working together to win, but they can be competing to be the top scorer. The mixed motive structure is very important to understand conflict dynamics. When conflicts arise, the competitive aspects become more salient, and the cooperative structure often is perceived less by parties. Interventions to solve conflict, therefore, are often related to these perceptions and the underlying structures.

Conflict is a psychological experience. Conflict is by definition a personal and subjective experience, as each individual can perceive and manage the same conflict in a different manner. Conflict doesn’t necessarily have an objective basis (Van de Vliert, 1997 ). It depends on the perception of the specific situation, and the perception is by definition subjective and personal.

Conflict concerns cognitive and affective tension. When someone perceives blocked goals and disagreements, he or she can also, although not necessarily, feel fear or anger. Many authors consider that conflict is emotionally charged (Nair, 2007 ; Pondy, 1967 ; Sinaceur, Adam, Van Kleef, & Galinky, 2013 ), although the emotion doesn’t need to be labeled necessarily as a negative emotion. Some people actually enjoy conflict. Emotional experiences in conflict are also scripted by cultural, historical, and personal influences (Lindner, 2014 ).

Conflict can be unidirectional. One party can feel frustrated or thwarted by the other while the second party is hardly aware of, and doesn’t perceive the same reality of, the conflict.

Conflict is a process. Conflict is a dynamic process that does not appear suddenly, but takes some time to develop and passes through several stages (Spaho, 2013 ). Conflict is the process resulting from the tension in interpersonal interactions or between team members because of real or perceived differences (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ; Thomas, 1992 ; Wall & Callister, 1995 ).

Type of Conflict: Task, Process, and Relationship Conflict

Early conflict and organizational research concluded that conflict interferes with team performance and reduces satisfaction due to an increase in tension and distraction from the objective (Brown, 1983 ; Hackman & Morris, 1975 ; Pondy, 1967 ; Wall & Callister, 1995 ). Jehn ( 1995 ) differentiated between task and relational conflict, and later also included process conflict (De Wit, Greer, & Jehn, 2012 ). Task conflict refers to different opinions on content (Jehn & Mannix, 2001 ). Examples of task conflict are conflict about distribution of resources, about procedures and policies, and judgment and interpretation of facts (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ). Process conflict refers to how tasks should be accomplished (Jehn, Greer, Levine, & Szulanski, 2008 ). Examples are disagreements about logistic and delegation issues (Jehn et al., 2008 ). Finally, relationship conflict refers to “interpersonal incompatibility” (Jehn, 1995 , p. 257). Examples of relationship conflict are conflict about personal taste, political preferences, values, and interpersonal style (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ). All three types of conflict—task, process, and personal (relational) conflicts—are usually disruptive, especially personal conflict, which is highly disruptive (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ; Jehn, 1995 , 1997 ). A review and meta-analysis by De Wit et al. ( 2012 ) showed that, under specific conditions, task conflict can be productive for teams. Moreover, conflict can wreck a team’s efforts to share information and reach a consensus (Amason & Schweiger, 1994 ). Therefore, research supporting the benefit of task and relationship conflict is not conclusive and each situation varies. What seems to be clear is that managing conflict efficiently to avoid escalation is a priority for teams.

Conflict Behavior, Conflict Management, and Conflict Resolution

Conflict behavior, conflict management, and conflict resolution are different layers of a conflict process and therefore should be distinguished. Conflict behavior is any behavioral response to the experience of frustration, while conflict management is the deliberate action to deal with conflictive situations, both to prevent or to escalate them. Also, conflict management is differentiated from conflict resolution, which is specific action aimed to end a conflict.

Conflict Behavior

Conflict behavior is the behavioral response to the experience of conflict (Van de Vliert et al., 1995 ). Conflict behavior is defined as one party’s reaction to the perception that one’s own and the other party’s current aspiration cannot be achieved simultaneously (Deutsch, 1973 ; Pruitt, 1981 ; Rubin, Pruitt, & Kim, 1994 ). It is both what people experiencing conflict intend to do, as well as what they actually do (De Dreu, Evers, Beersma, Kluwer, & Nauta, 2001 ; Van de Vliert, 1997 ). In conflict situations people often respond primarily, following their emotions, more or less conscientiously.

Many factors affect how people respond to the experience of conflict. Social psychology shows the processes are largely unconscious (Wilson, 2004 ). For example, how people respond to intimidating behavior by their supervisor might be primarily influenced by the context and individual perception, as well as previous relations with persons in authority, including parents and teachers (Gelfand & Brett, 2004 ; Van Kleef & Cote, 2007 ). These natural behavioral responses are also referred to as “conflict styles.” They are rooted in our personality and can differ in context. Some people will naturally respond by being friendly and accommodating, where others will start arguing or fighting (Barbuto, Phipps, & Xu, 2010 ; Kilmann & Thomas, 1977 ; Van Kleef & Cote, 2007 ).

Conflict behavior becomes more effective once we are more aware of our natural tendencies and are also able not to act upon them, and instead to show flexibility in behavioral approaches. This is where conflict behavior becomes conflict management. Therefore, one can be a naturally highly accommodating person who will spontaneously give in to others who make demands, but one will be more effective after learning to assess the situation at hand and to carefully decide on a response, which might be quite different from the natural or spontaneous reaction.

Dual-Concern Model

The dual-concern model holds that the way in which parties handle conflicts can de described and is determined by two concerns: concern for self (own interests) and concern for others (relational interests) (Blake & Mouton, 1964 ; Pruitt & Rubin, 1986 ; Rahim, 1983 ; Thomas, 1992 ; Van de Vliert, 1999 ) (see Figure 1 ). Usually, the two concerns define five different conflict behaviors: forcing, avoiding, accommodating, compromising, and problem solving or integrating. These behaviors are studied at the level of general personal conflict styles, closely connected to personality, as well as at the level of strategies and tactics (Euwema & Giebels, 2017 ).

The different conflict styles have been studied intensively, with three approaches. A normative approach, wherein integrating (also known as problem solving) is seen as the preferred behavior for conflict resolution; a contingency approach, exploring conditions under which each of the behaviors is most appropriate; and a conglomerate approach, focusing on a combination of the behaviors (see “ Conglomerate Conflict Behavior ”).

Figure 1. Dual-concern model.

In forcing, one party aims to achieve his or her goal by imposing a solution onto the other party. Concern for one’s own interests and own vision is what matters. There is little attention and care for the interests and needs of the other party, or the relationship with the other (Euwema & Giebels, 2017 ). This style is appropriate when the outcome is important for one party but trivial to the opponent, or when fast decision making is necessary. It becomes inappropriate when issues are complex, when both parties are equally powerful, when the outcome is not worth the effort for one party, or when there is enough time to make a collective decision. Moreover, forcing decisions can seriously damage a relationship and contribute to bullying in the workplace (Baillien, Bollen, Euwema, & De Witte, 2014 ); however, normative forcing, which is referring to rules and imposing them, can be effective (De Dreu, 2005 ). Note that some alternative terms that have been used for forcing in the literature are competitive , contending , or adversarial behavior .

With avoiding, one party aims to stay out of any confrontation with the other. This behavior prevents efforts to yield, to negotiate constructively, or to compete for one’s own gains. The conflict issue receives little attention, usually because the avoiding party thinks he or she won’t gain from entering into the conflict (Euwema & Giebels, 2017 ; Van de Vliert, 1997 ). Avoiding may be used when the benefits of resolving the conflict are not worth confronting the other party, especially when the problem is trivial or minor; when no good solutions are available for now; or when time is needed (Van Erp et al., 2011 ). An important motive for avoiding also is to prevent loss of face and to maintain the relationship. This is particularly true in collectivistic cultures, particularly in Asian societies (Oetzel et al., 2001 ). Avoiding is inappropriate when the issues are important to a party, when the parties cannot wait, or when immediate action is required (Rahim, 2002 ). Rubin, Pruitt, and Kim ( 1994 ) distinguished between long-term avoidance, which is a permanent move to leave the conflict, and short-term avoidance, defined as temporary inaction.

Accommodating

Accommodating is giving in or going along with the ideas, wishes, and needs of the other party. Accommodating usually is the result of a low concern for one’s own conflictive interests combined with a high concern for the interests and needs of the other party. Giving in often is related to a strong need for harmony and a sensitivity to the needs of the other. Accommodation is useful when a party is not familiar with the issues involved in the conflict, when the opponent is right, when the issue is much more important to the other party, and in order to build or maintain a long-term relationship, in exchange for future consideration when needed. Giving in also can be an educational strategy, giving space to the other to find out what the effect will be. Accommodating is less appropriate when the issue is of great concern, when accommodation creates frustration, or when accommodation reinforces dynamics of exploitation (Spaho, 2013 ). Note that an alternative term for this concept that can be found in the literature is yielding .

Compromising

Compromising involves searching for a middle ground, with an eye on both one’s own interest and the interest of the other. The premise is that both parties must find a middle ground where everyone receives equal consideration, meaning that each party makes some concession (Van de Vliert, 1997 ). Compromising is appropriate when a balance of forces exists and the goals of parties are mutually exclusive (Buddhodev, 2011 ). Compromise leads to a democratic solution; however, it may prevent arriving at a creative solution to the problem and a limited effort to increase resources before distributing them (Spaho, 2013 ).

Problem Solving or Integrating

Problem solving is a win–win strategy aimed at “optimizing rather than satisfying the parties” (Van de Vliert, 1997 , p. 36). Great value is attached to one’s own interests and vision, but also a lot of attention is given to the needs, ideas, and interests of the other. One looks for open and creative solutions that meet both interests. Problem solving or integrating is useful in dealing with complex issues, and it allows both parties to share skills, information, and other resources to redefine the problem and formulate alternative solutions. It is, however, inappropriate when the task is simple or trivial, and when there is no time. Also, it is more difficult to develop when the other party does not have experience in problem solving or when the parties are unconcerned about the outcomes (Pruitt & Rubin, 1986 ). Note that some alternative terms that can be found in the literature for this concept are cooperation and collaboration .

The dual-concern model is used as a contingency model, describing which conflict behaviors are used best under what conditions (Van de Vliert et al., 1997 ), and also as a normative model, promoting integrating behaviors as the most effective style, particularly when it comes to joined outcomes and long-term effectiveness. Forcing, in contrast, is often described as a noncooperative behavior, with risk of escalated and unilateral outcomes (Blake & Mouton, 1964 ; Burke, 1970 ; Deutsch, 1973 ; Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Pruitt & Rubin, 1986 ; Rahim, 2010 ; Thomas, 1992 ). As a result, authors define forcing and integrating as two opposed behavioral approaches (Tjosvold, Morishima, & Belsheim, 1999 ). Following this model, many scholars during the 1970s and 1980s proposed that individuals use a single behavior in conflict, or that the behaviors should be seen as independent. Therefore, the antecedents and effects of different conflict behaviors are often analyzed separately (Tjosvold, 1997 ; Volkema & Bergmann, 2001 ). However, parties usually try to achieve personal outcomes, and try to reach mutual agreements by combining several behaviors in a conflict episode (Van de Vliert, 1997 ). This is the basic assumption of the conglomerate conflict behavior (CCB) theory (Van de Vliert, Euwema, & Huismans, 1995 ), which established that conflict behaviors are used in a compatible manner, sequentially or simultaneously.

Conglomerate Conflict Behavior (CCB)

In the dual-concern model, a contrast is made between forcing (contending with an adversary in a direct way) and integrating (reconciling the parties’ basic interests) as two opposed behavioral approaches (Tjosvold et al., 1999 ). However, the CCB framework assumes that individual reactions to conflict typically are complex and consist of multiple components of behavior (Van de Vliert, 1997 , Van de Vliert et al., 1995 ). The CCB theory covers the idea that behavioral components may occur simultaneously or sequentially and that the combination drives toward effectiveness (Euwema & Van Emmerik, 2007 ; Medina & Benitez, 2011 ). The theory has been supported in studies analyzing conflict management effectiveness in different contexts, such as in managerial behavior (Munduate, Ganaza, Peiro, & Euwema, 1999 ), in military peacekeeping (Euwema & Van Emmerik, 2007 ) and by worker representatives in organizations (Elgoibar, 2013 ).

The main reason that people combine different behaviors is because conflicts are often mixed-motive situations (Euwema, Van de Vliert, & Bakker, 2003 ; Euwema & Van Emmerik, 2007 ; Walton & McKersie, 1965 ). Mixed-motive situations are described as situations that pose a conflict between securing immediate benefits through competition, and pursuing benefits for oneself and others through cooperation with other people (Komorita & Parks, 1995 ; Sheldon & Fishbach, 2011 ). Therefore, a person's behavior in a conflict episode is viewed as a combination of some of the five forms of conflict behaviors. An example of sequential complex behavior is to first put the demands clearly (forcing), followed by integrating (searching for mutual gains, and expanding the pie), and finally compromising, where distributive issues are dealt with in a fair way. An example of serial complexity can be found in multi-issue conflict, when for some issues conflict can be avoided, while for high priorities, demands are put on the table in a forcing way. Another CCB pattern is the conglomeration of accommodating and forcing. This pattern is sometimes referred to as “logrolling” (Van de Vliert, 1997 , p. 35), and it is a classic part of integrative strategies, to maximize the outcomes for both parties. Logrolling behavior consists of accommodating the high-concern issues of the other party and forcing one’s own high-concern issues. This approach is usually helpful in multi-issue trade negotiations; however, it requires openness of both parties to acknowledging key interests.

How to Explore Your Tendency in Conflict

The most famous and popular conflict behavior questionnaires are:

MODE (Management of Differences Exercise). MODE, developed in 1974 by Thomas and Killman, presents 30 choices between two options representing different conflict styles.

ROCI (Rahim's Organizational Conflict Inventory). The ROCI is a list of 28 items that measures the five styles of conflict behavior described.

Dutch Test of Conflict Handling. This list of 20 items measures the degree of preference for the five styles (Van de Vliert & Euwema, 1994 ; De Dreu et al., 2001 , 2005 ). It has been validated internationally.

Conflict management is deliberate action to deal with conflictive situations, either to prevent or to escalate them. Unlike conflict behavior, conflict management encompasses cognitive responses to conflict situations, which can vary from highly competitive to highly cooperative. Conflict management does not necessarily involve avoidance, reduction, or termination of conflict. It involves designing effective strategies to minimize the dysfunctions of conflict and to enhance the constructive functions of conflict in order to improve team and organizational effectiveness (Rahim, 2002 ).

Conflicts are not necessarily destructive (De Dreu & Gelfand, 2008 ; Euwema, Munduate, Elgoibar, Pender, & Garcia, 2015 ), and research has shown that constructive conflict management is possible (Coleman, Deutsch, & Marcus, 2014 ). The benefits of conflict are much more likely to arise when conflicts are discussed openly, and when discussion skillfully promotes new ideas and generates creative insights and agreements (Coleman et al., 2014 ; De Dreu & Gelfand, 2008 ; Euwema et al., 2015 ; Tjosvold, Won, & Chen, 2014 ). To make a constructive experience from conflict, conflict needs to be managed effectively.

Deutsch’s classic theory of competition and cooperation describes the antecedents and consequences of parties’ cooperative or competitive orientations and allows insights into what can give rise to constructive or destructive conflict processes (Deutsch, 1973 , 2002 ). The core of the theory is the perceived interdependence of the parties, so that the extent that protagonists believe that their goals are cooperative (positively related) or competitive (negatively related) affects their interaction and thus the outcomes. Positive interdependence promotes openness, cooperative relations, and integrative problem solving. Perceived negative interdependence on the other hand, induces more distance and less openness, and promotes competitive behavior, resulting in distributive bargaining or win–lose outcomes (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ).

Whether the protagonists believe their goals are cooperative or competitive very much affects their expectations, interactions, and outcomes. If parties perceive that they can reach their goals only if the other party also reaches their goals, the goal interdependence is positively perceived and therefore parties will have higher concern for the other’s goals and manage the conflict cooperatively (De Dreu et al., 2001 ; Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). On the contrary, if one party perceives that they can reach their goals only if the other party fails to obtain their goals, the interdependence becomes negatively perceived and the approach to conflict becomes competitive (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). Goals can also be independent; in that case, conflict can be avoided (the parties don’t need to obstruct each other’s goals to be successful). Therefore, how parties perceive their goals’ interdependence affects how they negotiate conflict and whether the conflict is constructively or destructively managed (Alper et al., 2000 ; Deutsch, 1973 ; Johnson & Johnson, 1989 ; Tjosvold, 2008 ).

Successfully managing conflict cooperatively requires intellectual, emotional, and relational capabilities in order to share information, to contribute to value creation, and to discuss differences constructively (Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). In contrast, a competitive-destructive process leads to material losses and dissatisfaction, worsening relations between parties, and negative psychological effects on at least one party—the loser of a win–lose context (Deutsch, 2014 ).

Deutsch’s theory proposes that emphasizing cooperative goals in conflict by demonstrating a commitment to pursue mutually beneficial solutions creates high-quality resolutions and relationships, while focusing on competitive interests by pursuing one’s own goals at the expense of the other’s escalates conflict, resulting in imposed solutions and suspicious relationships (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ).

In summary, Deutsch’s theory states that the context in which the conflict process is expressed drives parties toward either a cooperative or a competitive orientation in conflicts (Alper et al., 2000 ; Deutsch, 2006 ; Johnson & Johnson, 1989 ). In other words, a cooperative context is related to a cooperative conflict pattern, and a competitive context is related to a competitive conflict pattern. When parties have a cooperative orientation toward conflict, parties discuss their differences with the objective of clarifying them and attempting to find a solution that is satisfactory to both parties—both parties win (Carnevale & Pruitt, 1992 ). On the contrary, in competition, there is usually a winner and a loser (Carnevale & Pruitt, 1992 ) (see Table 1 ). In the CCB model, the patterns can include cooperative (i.e., integrating) and competitive (i.e. forcing) behavior; however, the cooperative pattern will be dominated by integrating while the competitive pattern will be dominated by forcing (Elgoibar, 2013 ).

Table 1. Characteristics of Cooperative and Competitive Climates

Source : Coleman, Deutsch, and Marcus ( 2014 ).

How to Manage Conflicts Constructively

The need for trust.

Trust is commonly defined as a belief or expectation about others’ benevolent motives during a social interaction (Holmes & Rempel, 1989 ; Rousseau et al., 1998 ). Mutual trust is one important antecedent as well as a consequence of cooperation in conflicts (Deutsch, 1983 ; Ferrin, Bligh, & Kohles, 2008 ). As Nahapiet and Ghoshal pointed out, “Trust lubricates cooperation, and cooperation itself breeds trust” ( 1998 , p.255). There is ample evidence that constructive conflict and trust are tightly and positively related (Hempel, Zhang, & Tjosvold, 2009 ; Bijlsma & Koopman, 2003 ; Lewicki, Tonlinson, & Gillespie, 2006 ).

Successful constructive conflict management requires maximal gathering and exchange of information in order to identify problems and areas of mutual concern, to search for alternatives, to assess their implications, and to achieve openness about preferences in selecting optimal solutions (Bacon & Blyton, 2007 ; Johnson & Johnson, 1989 ; Tjosvold, 1999 ). Trust gives parties the confidence to be open with each other, knowing that the shared information won’t be used against them (Zaheer & Zaheer, 2006 ). Various studies revealed that trust leads to constructive conglomerate behaviors and to more integrative outcomes in interpersonal and intergroup conflicts (Lewicki, Elgoibar, & Euwema, 2016 ; Lewicki, McAllister, & Bies, 1998 ; Ross & LaCroix, 1996 ).

How can trust be promoted? Developing trust is challenging (Gunia, Brett, & Nandkeolyar, 2014 ; Hempel et al., 2009 ). Numerous scholars have noted that trust is easier to destroy than to create (Hempel et al., 2009 ; Meyerson et al., 1996 ). There are two main reasons for this assertion. First, trust-breaking events are often more visible and noticeable than positive trust-building actions (Kramer, 1999 ). Second, trust-breaking events are judged to have a higher impact on trust judgments than positive events (Slovic, 1993 ). Furthermore, Slovic ( 1993 ) concluded that trust-breaking events are more credible than sources of good news. Thus, the general belief is that trust is easier to destroy than it is to build, and trust rebuilding may take even longer than it took to create the original level of trust (Lewicki et al., 2016 ).

However, there is room for optimism, and different strategies have been shown to promote trust. As held in social exchange theory (Blau, 1964 ), risk taking by one party in supporting the other party has been found to signal trust to the other party (Serva et al., 2005 ). Yet, fears of exploitation make trust in conflict management and negotiation scarce. Therefore, the use of trust-promoting strategies depends on the specific situation, and parties need practical guidance on how and when to manage conflict constructively by means of promoting mutual trust.

How does the possibility of trust development between parties depend on the conflict context? Based on this practical question, some strategies for trust development have been proposed (Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Fulmer & Gelfand, 2012 ; Gunia, Brett, & Nandkeolyar, 2012 ; Lewicki et al., 2016 ). In relationships where trust is likely, the following strategies can help: assume trustworthiness, prioritize your interests and give away a little information about them, engage in reciprocity (concessions), highlight similarities and spend time together, get to know your counterpart personally and try to be likable, behave consistently and predictably, and paraphrase your counterpart’s positions. In relationships where trust seems possible: emphasize common goals; focus on the subject, not on the people; look to the future and find a shared vision; mix questions and answers about interests and priorities—the fundamental elements of information sharing—with making and justifying offers; take a break; suggest another approach; call in a mediator; and forgive the other party’s mistakes. In relationships where trust is not possible, more cautious strategies can help: make multi-issue offers; think holistically about your counterpart’s interests; engage in reciprocity (concessions); express sympathy, apologize, or compliment your counterpart; and look for preference patterns in your counterpart’s offers and responses.

Constructive Controversy

C onstructive controversy is defined as the open-minded discussion of conflicting perspectives for mutual benefit, which occurs when protagonists express their opposing ideas that obstruct resolving the issues, at least temporarily (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). Indicators of constructive controversy include listening carefully to each other’s opinion, trying to understand each other’s concerns, and using opposing views to understand the problem better. These skills are considered vitally important for developing and implementing cooperative problem-solving processes successfully and effectively.

Deutsch ( 2014 ) stated that there haven’t been many systematic discussions of the skills involved in constructive solutions to conflict, and he proposed three main types of skills for constructive conflict management:

Rapport-building skills are involved in establishing effective relationships between parties (such as breaking the ice; reducing fears, tensions, and suspicion; overcoming resistance to negotiation; and fostering realistic hope and optimism).

Cooperative conflict-resolution skills are concerned with developing and maintaining a cooperative conflict resolution process among the parties involved (such as identifying the type of conflict in which the parties are involved; reframing the issues so that conflict is perceived as a mutual problem to be resolved cooperatively; active listening and responsive communication; distinguishing between effective relationships between parties and positions; encouraging, supporting, and enhancing the parties; being alert to cultural differences and the possibilities of misunderstanding arising from them; and controlling anger).

Group process and decision-making skills are involved in developing a creative and productive process (such as monitoring progress toward group goals; eliciting, clarifying, coordinating, summarizing, and integrating the contributions of the various participants; and maintaining group cohesion).

Tjosvold et al. ( 2014 ) and Johnson et al. ( 2014 ) also elaborate on the skills needed for facilitating open-minded discussions and constructive controversy. They developed four mutually reinforcing strategies for managing conflict constructively:

Developing and expressing one’s own view. Parties need to know what each of the others wants and believes, and expressing one’s own needs, feelings, and ideas is essential to gaining that knowledge. By strengthening expression of their own positions, both parties can learn to investigate their position, present the best case they can for it, defend it vigorously, and try at the same time to refute opposing views. However, expressing one’s own position needs to be supplemented with an open-minded approach to the other’s position.

Questioning and understanding others’ views. Listening and understanding opposing views, as well as defending one’s own views, makes discussing conflicts more challenging but also more rewarding; therefore, the parties can point out weaknesses in each other’s arguments to encourage better development and expression of positions by finding more evidence and strengthening their reasoning.

Integrating and creating solutions. The creation of new alternatives lays the foundation for genuine agreements about a solution that both parties can accept and implement. However, protagonists may have to engage in repeated discussion to reach an agreement, or indeed they may be unable to create a solution that is mutually acceptable, and then they can both learn to become less adamant, to exchange views directly, and to show that they are trying to understand and integrate each other’s ideas so that all may benefit.

Agreeing to and implementing solutions. Parties can learn to seek the best reasoned judgment, instead of focusing on “winning”; to criticize ideas, not people; to listen and understand everyone’s position, even if they do not agree with it; to differentiate positions before trying to integrate them; and to change their minds when logically persuaded to do so.

Conflict Resolution

Conflict resolution processes are aimed at ending a conflict. So, while conflict management can also include escalation, conflict resolution searches for a way of ending the conflict. The difference between resolution and management of conflict is more than semantic (Robbins, 1978 ). Conflict resolution means reduction, elimination, or termination of conflict.

To find a resolution, parties have to bring an extra piece of information, relate the information they have differently, or transform the issue, change the rules, change the actors or the structure, or bring in a third party (Vayrynen, 1991 ). The most popular conflict resolution processes are: negotiation, mediation, conflict coaching, and arbitration (Rahim, 2002 ). Conflict resolution can also be accomplished by ruling by authorities. Integration of the different techniques sequentially or simultaneously has been shown to support optimal conflict resolution (Jones, 2016 ).

Negotiation

Negotiation is a process in which the parties attempt to jointly create an agreement that resolves a conflict between them (Lewicki & Tomlinson, 2014 ). Walton and McKersie ( 1965 ) were the first to identify the two polar yet interdependent strategies known as distributive and integrative negotiation. Distributive negotiation means that activities are instrumental to the attainment of one party’s goals when they are in basic conflict with those of the other party. Integrative negotiation means that parties’ activities are oriented to find common or complementary interests and to solve problems confronting both parties. Other scholars also focused on the opposite tactical requirements of the two strategies, using a variety of terms, such as contending versus cooperating (Pruitt, 1981 ), claiming value versus creating value (Lax & Sebenius, 1987 ), and the difference between positions and interests (Fisher & Ury, 1981 ).

If a distributive strategy is pursued too vigorously, a negotiator may gain a greater share of gains, but of a smaller set of joint gains, or, worse, may generate an outcome in which both parties lose. However, if a negotiator pursues an integrative negotiation in a single-minded manner—being totally cooperative and giving freely accurate and credible information about his/her interests—he or she can be taken advantage of by the other party (Walton & McKersie, 1965 ). The different proposals that have been formulated to cope with these central dilemmas in negotiation are mainly based on a back-and-forth communication process between the parties, which is linked to the negotiators’ interpersonal skills (Brett, Shapiro, & Lytle, 1998 ; Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Rubin et al., 1994 ).

Mediation is process by which a third party facilitates constructive communication among disputants, including decision making, problem solving and negotiation, in order to reach a mutually acceptable agreement (Bollen, Munduate, & Euwema, 2016 ; Goldman, Cropanzano, Stein, & Benson, 2008 ; Moore, 2014 ). Using mediation in conflict resolution has been proven to prevent the negative consequences of conflict in the workplace (Bollen & Euwema, 2010 ; Bollen et al., 2016 ), in collective bargaining (Martinez-Pecino et al., 2008 ), in inter- and intragroup relations (Jones, 2016 ), and in interpersonal relations (Herrman, 2006 ). However, mediation is not a magic bullet and works better in conflicts that are moderate rather than extreme, when parties are motivated to resolve the conflict, and when parties have equal power, among other characteristics (Kressel, 2014 ).

Conflict Coaching

Conflict coaching is a new and rapidly growing process in the public as well as private sector (Brinkert, 2016 ). In this process, a conflict coach works with a party to accomplish three goals (Jones & Brinkert, 2008 ): (a) analysis and coherent understanding of the conflict, (b) identification of a future preferred direction, and (c) skills development to implement the preferred strategy. Therefore, a conflict coach is defined as a conflict expert who respects the other party’s self-determination and aims to promote the well-being of the parties involved. Giebels and Janssen ( 2005 ) found that, when outside help was called in, parties in conflict experienced fewer negative consequences in terms of individual well-being than people who did not ask for third-party help.

Sometimes, the leader of a team can act as conflict coach. A study by Romer and colleagues ( 2012 ) showed that a workplace leader’s problem-solving approach to conflicts increased employees’ perception of justice and their sense that they had a voice in their workplace, as well as reduced employees’ stress (De Reuver & Van Woerkom, 2010 ; Romer et al., 2012 ). In contrast, the direct expression of power in the form of forcing behavior can harm employees’ well-being (Peterson & Harvey, 2009 ). A forcing leader may become an additional party to the conflict (i.e., employees may turn against their leader; Romer et al, 2012 ).

Conflict coaching and mediation are different processes. First, in conflict coaching, only one party is involved in the process, while in mediation, the mediator helps all the parties in conflict to engage in constructive interaction. Second, conflict coaching focuses on direct skills instructions to the party (i.e., negotiation skills). In that, conflict coaching is also a leadership development tool (Romer et al., 2012 ). There is a growing tendency to integrate conflict coaching and workplace mediation, particularly in preparation for conflict resolution, because the coach can help the coached party to investigate options and weigh the advantages of the different options (Jones, 2016 ).

Arbitration

Arbitration is an institutionalized procedure in which a third party provides a final and binding or voluntary decision (Lewicki, Saunders, & Barry, 2014 ; Mohr & Spekman, 1994 ). Arbitration allows the parties to have control over the process, but not over the outcomes. Therefore, arbitration differs from negotiation, mediation, and conflict coaching, in which the parties decide the agreement themselves (Posthuma & Dworkin, 2000 ; Lewicki et al., 2014 ). In arbitration, the third party listens to the parties and decides the outcome. This procedure is used mainly in conflicts between organizations, in commercial disputes, and in collective labor conflicts (Beechey, 2000 ; Elkouri & Elkouri, 1995 ).

Decision Making by Authorities

The strategies of negotiation, mediation, conflict coaching, and arbitration have in common that the parties together decide about the conflict process, even when they agree to accept an arbitration. This is different from how authorities resolve conflict. Decision making by authorities varies from parents’ intervening in children’s fights to rulings by teachers, police officers, managers, complaint officers, ombudsmen, and judges. Here, often one party complains and the authority acts to intervene and end the conflict. This strategy is good for ending physical violence and misuse of power. However, the authorities’ decisive power is limited, and therefore in most situations authorities are strongly urged to first explore the potential for conflict resolution and reconciliation among the parties involved. The authority can act as an escalator for the process, or as a facilitator, and only in cases of immediate threat can intervene or rule as a last resort. Authorities who employ this strategy can improve the learning skills of the parties and can impose upon the parties an acceptance of responsibility, both for the conflict and for the ways to end it.

It is important to emphasize the natural and positive aspects of conflict management. Conflict occurs in all areas of organizations and private lives and its management is vital for their effectiveness. Through conflict, conventional thinking is challenged, threats and opportunities are identified, and new solutions are forged (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). Therefore, when conflict occurs, it shouldn’t be avoided but should be managed constructively.

Further Reading

• Coleman, P. , Deutsch, M. , & Marcus, E. (2014). The handbook of conflict resolution . Theory and practice . San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
• De Dreu, C.K.W. , Evers, A. , Beersma, B. , Kluwer, E. , & Nauta, A. (2001). A theory—based measure of conflict management strategies in the workplace. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 22 (6), 645–668.
• Elgoibar, P. , Euwema, M. , & Munduate, L. (2016). Trust building and constructive conflict management in industrial relations . Springer International.
• Lewicki, R. J. , McAllister, D. J. , & Bies, R. J. (1998). Trust and distrust: New relationship and realities. Academy of Management Review , 23 , 438–458.
• Pruitt, D. G. & Rubin, J. Z. (1986). Social conflict: Escalation, stalemate, and settlement . New York: McGraw Hill.
• Van de Vliert, E. , Euwema, M.C. , & Huismans, S.E. (1995). Managing conflict with a subordinate or a superior: Effectiveness of conglomerated behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology , 80 (2), 271–281.
• Wall, J. A. , & Callister, R. R. (1995). Conflict and its management. Journal of Management , 21 , 515–558.
• Alper, S. , Tjosvold, D. , & Law, K. S. (2000). Conflict management, efficacy, and performance in organizational teams. Personnel Psychology , 53 , 625–642.
• Amason, A. C. , & Schweiger, D. M. (1994). Resolving the paradox of conflict: Strategic decision making and organizational performance. International Journal of Conflict Management , 5 , 239–253.
• Bacon, N. , & Blyton, P. (2007). Conflict for mutual gains. Journal of Management Studies , 44 (5), 814–834.
• Baillien, E. , Bollen, K. , Euwema, M. , & De Witte, H. (2014). Conflicts and conflict management styles as precursors of workplace bullying: A two-wave longitudinal study. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology , 23 (4), 511–524.
• Barbuto, J. E. , Phipps, K. A. , & Xu, Y. (2010). Testing relationships between personality, conflict styles and effectiveness. International Journal of Conflict Management , 21 (4), 434–447.
• Beechey, J. (2000) International commercial arbitration: A process under review and change. Dispute Resolution Journal , 55 (3), 32–36.
• Bijlsma, K. , & Koopman, P. (2003) Introduction: Trust within organizations. Personnel Review , 32 (5), 543–555.
• Blake, R. R. , & Mouton, J. S. (1964). The managerial GRID . Houston: Gulf.
• Blau, E. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life . New York: Wiley.
• Bollen, K. , Euwema, M. , & Müller, P. (2010). Why Are Subordinates Less Satisfied with Mediation? The Role of Uncertainty. Negotiation Journal , 26 (4), 417–433.
• Bollen, K. , & Euwema, M. (2013). Workplace mediation: An underdeveloped research area. Negotiation Journal , 29 , 329–353.
• Bollen, K. , Munduate, L. , & Euwema, M. (2016). Advancing workplace mediation: Integrating theory and practice . Springer International.
• Brett, J. M. , Shapiro, D. L. , & Lytle, A. L. (1998). Breaking the bonds of reciprocity in negotiations. Academy of Management Journal , 41 (4), 410–424.
• Brinkert, R. (2016). An appreciative approach to conflict: Mediation and conflict coaching. In K. Bollen , M. Euwema , & L. Munduate (Eds.), Advancing workplace mediation: Integrating theory and practice . Springer International.
• Brown, L. D. (1983). Managing Conflict at Organizational Interfaces. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
• Buddhodev, S. A. (2011). Conflict management: making life easier. The IUP Journal of Soft Skills , 5 (4), 31–43.
• Burke, R. J. (1970). Methods of resolving superior-subordinate conflict: The constructive use of subordinate differences and disagreements. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance , 5 , 393–411.
• Carnevale, P. J. , & Pruitt, D. G. (1992). Negotiation and mediation. Annual Review of Psychology , 43 , 531–582.
• Coleman, P. , Deutsch, M. , & Marcus, E. (2014). The handbook of conflict resolution. Theory and practice . San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
• De Dreu, C. K. (2005). Conflict and conflict management. Wiley Encyclopedia of Management , 11 , 1–4.
• De Dreu, C. K. , & Gelfand, M. J. (2008). Conflict in the workplace: Sources, functions, and dynamics across multiple levels of analysis . New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
• De Dreu, C. K. W. , Evers, A. , Beersma, B. , Kluwer, E. , & Nauta, A. (2001). A theory-based measure of conflict management strategies in the workplace. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 22 (6), 645–668.
• De Dreu, C. K. W. , & Weingart, L. R. (2003). Task versus relationship conflict, team performance, and team member satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology , 88 (4), 741–749.
• De Reuver, R. , & Van Woerkom, M. (2010). Can conflict management be an antidote to subordinate absenteeism? Journal of Managerial Psychology , 25 (5), 479–494.
• De Wit, F. R. , Greer, L. L. , & Jehn, K. A. (2012). The paradox of intragroup conflict: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology , 97 (2), 360–390.
• Deutsch, M. (1949). A theory of cooperation and competition. Human Relations , 2 , 129–151.
• Deutsch, M. (1973). The resolution of conflict . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
• Deutsch, M. (1983). Conflict resolution: Theory and practice. Political Psychology , 4 , 43–453.
• Deutsch, M. (2002). Social psychology’s contributions to the study of conflict resolution. Negotiation Journal , 18 (4), 307–320.
• Deutsch, M. (2006). Cooperation and competition. In M. Deutsch , P. Coleman , & E. Marcus (Eds.), The handbook of conflict resolution . San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
• Deutsch, M. (2014), Cooperation, competition and conflict. In P. Coleman , M. Deutsch , & E. Marcus (Eds.), The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and Practice . San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
• Deutsch, M. , & Marcus, E. (Eds.). (2014). The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice (3d ed., pp. 817–848). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Elgoibar, P. (2013). Worker representatives' conflict behavior in Europe with a focus on Spain (PhD diss., University of Leuven, Belgium, and University of Seville, Spain).
• Elkouri, F. , & Elkouri, E. A. (1995). How arbitration works . ABA: Section of labour and employment law.
• Euwema, M. , & Giebels, E. (2017). Conflictmanagement en mediation . Noordhoff Uitgevers.
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Five Strategies for Overcoming Conflict and Bullying in the Classroom

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Editor’s Note: Teachers are at the forefront of dealing with conflict and bullying that arises from difference—whether political, racial, religious, or physical. Today, Frosina Kiprijanovska, a primary school teacher in the Republic of Macedonia, shares strategies that can be used to deal with any type of conflict in the classroom.

Most of us aren’t strangers to the idea of conflict—whether it is constructed around race, ethnicity, religion, or something else, almost everybody has been impacted by it. And while its effects are no doubt troubling in any context, their presence is possibly most acutely unwelcome and thoroughly damaging when they surface in the classroom.

I never had the intention of becoming a teacher. Growing up in the Republic of Macedonia, in the capital of Skopje near the often contentious borders of Albania and Kosovo, I was introduced to conflict at a very young age: I was witness, on a near-daily basis, to students breaking out into bouts of violence along ethnic lines .

It was through volunteering with youth through a peace-building organisation called Generations For Peace that I first recognised my passion for teaching—if I wanted to do something to address conflict around my home, the place where youth spend a majority of their time seemed like the right place to start. Ethnic-driven conflict transcended families and communities and made its way into not just the education system, but also each classroom. Any teacher you ask will likely have a story from their own classroom about students struggling to overcome conflict at some scale.

For those who, like me, are constantly looking for ways to bring unity to their students, I’ve found five strategies that can help unify the classroom, regardless of the nature of the conflict you’re seeking to overcome.

1. Emphasize similarities in the classroom, not differences.

I admit that this might seem generic at first; however, it is truly the most important place to start—and while it might seem like an obvious point, translating an apparent necessity into a tangible activity is easier said than done.

I have learned that if my motivation with every task, every lesson, every project stems from this general concept, I am able to engage students in more creative ways that blur the lines they may think exist between them. This, of course, will look different depending on the context of the conflict you’re facing.

It starts from asking, “What do these students have in common?” Or, perhaps even more simply, “What do almost all youth or even all people have in common?” One answer I found was the idea of celebration . What cultures don’t have celebrations, and what children don’t love celebrating? I asked the students to describe what they knew about other people’s celebrations—birthdays, holidays, traditions, anything they could think of. As we went around, slowly it became clear that, even if all of our celebrations are not the same, they bring about similar emotions: joy, happiness, excitement. They promote similar concepts: doing good for someone else, thinking about others first. They share similar results: reminding people of what is most important, bringing people together. Recognizing this in the celebrations of others solidifies the idea of commonality and, subsequently, inclusion between students.

2. Engage students in active learning—not just auditory learning

It turns out, this is more than just a good way for students to retain information . We all know lessons that utilize more aspects of a child’s mind tend to sink in more deeply, but what I had failed to consider was that these types of lessons also have the ability to tear down barriers between groups of people.

Activities built around just auditory learning or even visual learning, while certainly important, have more power to further divide students—especially in the Republic of Macedonia, where students are often taught in different languages and have reached varying cognitive levels in each. Active or kinaesthetic learning brings them together more easily—both mentally and physically.

I once had my students make some art for me. I gave them very little instruction, except that they should think about and draw what they thought their ideal world or society looked like. They were all surprised when their pieces of art shared more similarities than they did differences. Smiling stick figures, big trees, sunny skies—it doesn’t matter where you’re from, what your skin color is, which day of the week you celebrate your faith. We all tend to have similar ideas about what the world would best look like, and giving my students a way to communicate this using art helped them see the similarities they all share.

3. Exchange Experiences with Different Role Models

Students, whether they would have you believe it or not, look to adults for examples of how to act, what to think, and why to think it. We are role models for them in the classroom and, as I learned recently, outside of it, as well.

A colleague and I come from what many would see as opposing backgrounds, and the differences between us do not impact our friendship in the ways some would expect, including our students. Many were surprised when we first led activities together, but it seemed to inspire them to realize that they can play and work together too, even if they have been told by their communities that someone of the “other” background (whatever that might look like in your situation) might be dangerous or bad.

Even outside of more official activities, we have begun to intentionally make our interactions available for the students to witness. Simply watching us engage in conversation with one another has taught them that they can experience friendship and unity instead of conflict with people who might not look, think, or act exactly as they do.

4. Empower students with special tasks that promote self confidence

Assigning various leadership roles in the classroom not only increases student performance , it also increases confidence and the motivation to be an example. It is of course not difficult to draw a line between being an example and overcoming classroom conflict: if more students perceive that they have unique responsibility, it creates a network between students for three reasons. (1) Students who feel confident in themselves are less likely to bully or create conflict . (2) With multiple leadership positions that change frequently to include everybody, all students can witness first-hand how others from different backgrounds can play important roles in leadership. (3) Varying positions in leadership allow for heightened personal and face-to-face interaction between all students, giving more opportunity to form friendships.

We’ve all heard of the “line leader,” the student that stands at the front of his or her classmates when walking from one place to another, but there are more ways to give students leadership in the classroom: have a student help out when distributing assignments, have another collect them, have a student be a “line follower,” ensuring nobody gets left behind. There are dozens of simple tasks that will make students feel empowered and important, all while increasing their awareness, understanding and, interactions with students from all backgrounds within your classroom.

5. Explore extracurricular activities that emphasise unity.

I have saved this for last because it is one of the most unique methods I have found (and one of my personal favorites to carry out). The idea was first introduced to me as a volunteer with Generations For Peace, helping to lead sport - and arts -based activities for students outside the classroom. Since I’ve discussed arts briefly above, I will focus on sports here.

While I originally thought sports might bring about heightened tensions for students dealing with conflict along divisive lines, it turns out that, when enacted in the right way, it actually brings solidarity and unity. I have been able to promote this in multiple ways. The first is simply through team sports, creating teams that have a mix of students from various backgrounds—by bringing them together on a single team, their differences in ethnicity (or religion, or race, or any other characteristic) slowly fade and their power as a team increases.

Additionally, you can create variations on traditional sports games that address issues of division or conflict. For example: try playing a game of volleyball, where one person has to stay seated on a chair to give them a sense of what it might be like to have a physical disability. This opens students’ eyes to the fact that there is nothing wrong with being different, and that it is up to them to do all that they can to include everyone—regardless of background or ability.

Bringing unity to a classroom in a community of conflict is never easy: it requires patience, passion, and persistence. But using tools that seem obvious or that you might already use for a different purpose with the explicit intention of tearing down barriers and building up bridges between students will help you to do just that. Classroom unity is not impossible to achieve, and it is so worth pursuing.

Connect with Generations For Peace and the Center for Global Education on Twitter.

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Photos taken by and used with permission of the author.

The opinions expressed in Global Learning are strictly those of the author(s) and do not reflect the opinions or endorsement of Editorial Projects in Education, or any of its publications.

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Classroom Conflict Resolution Techniques

• November 11, 2020

Conflict: It’s great for drama, and an inescapable part of human progress, but it can make for fraught situations in the classroom.

Conflict can happen even in the most supportive, positive, and open classrooms, disrupting your students’ ability to learn. If left unchecked, it could even lead to violence.

Many districts may offer some type of conflict resolution training. Even if yours doesn’t, the good news for educators who are caught in the middle of classroom conflict is that there are many options for conflict resolution.

Conflict Resolution Steps to Help Students Grow

Ask 100 people what conflict resolution is, and you’ll probably get 100 different answers. But there are concrete steps you can take to settle problems in the classroom. Not every conflict will be the same, and so not every conflict can be resolved in the same manner. But understanding basic strategies can help most situations.

Depending on the situation, there are several different options for conflict resolution. Here are some examples.

Conflicts Among Students

When something comes up, educators should take time to SOAR: Stop, Observe, Assess, and React.[6] Then you can acknowledge the emotions in the room and use the situation as a learning opportunity.

In cases where there’s been a larger conflict between two students, here are six steps teachers can use to help students resolve a dispute:[4]

1. Cool off First, before problem-solving can begin, the students need time to calm down. For younger students, have them take some deep breaths.

2. Share, listen, check Students need to listen to each other share their issues, and then check that they understand them. This can take practice and coaching from a teacher. When sharing, students should use respectful but assertive “I statements,” like “”I feel sad when you don’t let me play because I am alone.” Students can work on reflective listening and paraphrasing when they check for understanding. For example, they can start sentences with “I think I heard you say you feel …” or “So you want me to try to …”.

3. Take responsibility Once students have shared their perspectives, they need to take responsibility for their own actions. You can prompt students by asking them an open-ended question like, “What could you have done differently to change what happened?”

4. Brainstorm solutions Now the students can work together to find a solution that’s acceptable to both. This is a good time for students to learn to compromise. It can be helpful for a teacher to start the discussion with some suggestions, but it’s best that the ideas come from the students.

5. Choose a solution Students now go over their brainstormed list of solutions to eliminate the ones that aren’t good for both of them and ones that won’t address future problems.

6. Affirm, forgive, or thank Students can close out the session by acknowledging what happened and forgiving the other student (if an apology or forgiveness is warranted). They can then thank each other for working on the solution together.

Helping An Angry Student

Sometimes an educator needs to deal with a student who’s angry and causing a disruption in the classroom. York University in Canada has the following suggestions for such a case:[2]

Stay calm and polite and keep your own emotions under control. Keep eye contact and speak clearly—without raising your voice. (Note that some cultures may view eye contact as confrontational. Other non-verbal cues that show you are paying attention may be helpful.)

Offer to talk privately during a break in class, or to go to a quieter place if it’s safe. Acknowledge the student’s anger and let them vent to you about what is upsetting them. Listen and try to understand the real issues that are concerning the student. During your conversation, summarize and clarify your understanding of what the student has said. Don’t disagree with the student, but build on what they have said.

You can help the student by giving them a way out—letting them gracefully back down from a heightened situation. This can be done again with open-ended questions that help the child calm down and understand what actually frustrated them in the first place.

Finally, encourage your student to generate solutions to the problem being addressed. Restate and reassure the child when they present a reasonable solution to the conflict.

Conflict Resolution Activities and Games for Children

Learning how to handle disagreements and conflict is a critical part of social-emotional learning (SEL). Social skills like cooperation, empathy, and self-control are integral to emotional development and conflict resolution.[1] Helping students develop strong social-emotional learning skills and build the competencies laid out by the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) can strengthen children’s intellectual development, leading to lifelong success.

One place to start is simply by reading. Read-alouds can prompt class discussions about empathy, different perspectives, and the virtues of patience. Regular reading and discussion about these themes, and how they relate to real-world conflict resolution, can help children build their ability to handle conflicts.[5] Children may also benefit from coming up with other ways for characters to handle situations in the books.

Group activities like role playing help children understand differing perspectives, while also being fun for the class. When they’re put in a situation and portraying something different from what they’re used to, children learn empathy and practice considering other peoples’ points of view. For younger students, it can be helpful to have a discussion after the role play to remind them they were playing a different “character,” and to ensure students learned from the fun activity.[3]

When conflict arises, having the students involved write or draw a picture about what happened can be helpful for several reasons.[6] First, it sets a cooling-off period. It also encourages them to reflect on what happens and how it made them feel. Teachers can help students consider their actions by prompting them with questions like, “What would you choose to do differently?” or “How did this make you feel?”[3]

No two situations are the same, but generally these strategies can help create a peaceful and constructive classroom. When you’re dealing with any level of conflict, remember that the goal is not just to end the argument, but to use the situation to help empower students to grow and learn how to solve their own problems.

• Responsive Classroom. “A Conflict Resolution Protocol for Elementary Classrooms.” March 2001. https://www.responsiveclassroom.org/a-conflict-resolution-protocol-for-elementary-classrooms/
• Teaching Commons at York. “Managing Conflict in the Classroom.” York University. https://teachingcommons.yorku.ca/resources/teaching-strategies/managing-conflict-in-the-classroom/
• The Resilient Educator. “4 Effective Conflict Resolution Strategies in the Classroom.” April, 2018. https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/4-effective-conflict-resolution-strategies-in-the-classroom/
• Driscoll, Laura. “Teaching Conflict Resolution Skills in 6 Easy Steps.” Social Emotional Workshop. October, 2017. https://www.socialemotionalworkshop.com/2017/10/teaching-conflict-resolution-skills/
• Curletto, Amy. “Quick & Effective Conflict Resolution Strategies for the Classroom.” Stanfield.com. https://stanfield.com/quick-effective-conflict-resolution-strategies-for-the-classroom/
• Center for Teaching Innovation. “Getting Started with Managing Classroom Conflict.” Cornell University. https://teaching.cornell.edu/resource/getting-started-managing-classroom-conflict

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Conflict Management: Definition, Strategies, and Styles

Learn how to manage disputes at home or work using various conflict management styles and strategies.

Conflict management is an umbrella term for the way we identify and handle conflicts fairly and efficiently. The goal is to minimize the potential negative impacts that can arise from disagreements and increase the odds of a positive outcome. 

At home or work, disagreements can be unpleasant, and not every dispute calls for the same response. Learn to choose the right conflict management style, and you'll be better able to respond constructively whenever disputes arise.  

Learn key approaches to conflict management

If you want to learn conflict management skills and approaches, consider enrolling in UC Irvine's Conflict Management Specialization . Start learning with Coursera Plus today with a free 7-day trial.

What is conflict management?

Conflict management refers to the way that you handle disagreements. On any given day, you may have to deal with a dispute between you and another individual, your family members, or fellow employees. 

Although there are many reasons people disagree, many conflicts revolve around: 

Personal values (real or perceived)

Perceptions 

Conflicting goals  

Power dynamics

Communication style

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5 conflict management styles

It's human to deal with conflict by defaulting to what's comfortable. According to University of Pittsburgh professors of management Ken Thomas and Ralph Kilmann, most people take one of two approaches to conflict management, assertiveness or cooperativeness [ 1 ]. From these approaches come five modes or styles of conflict management: 

1. Accommodating

An accommodating mode of conflict management tends to be high in cooperation but low in assertiveness. When you use this style, you resolve the disagreement by sacrificing your own needs and desires for those of the other party. 

This management style might benefit your work when conflicts are trivial and you need to move on quickly. At home, this style works when your relationship with your roommate, partner, or child is more important than being right. Although accommodation might be optimal for some conflicts, others require a more assertive style. 

2. Avoiding

When avoiding, you try to dodge or bypass a conflict. This style of managing conflicts is low in assertiveness and cooperativeness. Avoidance is unproductive for handling most disputes because it may leave the other party feeling like you don't care. Also, if left unresolved, some conflicts become much more troublesome. 

However, an avoiding management style works in situations where:

You need time to think through a disagreement.

You have more pressing problems to deal with first.

The risks of confronting a problem outweigh the benefits.

3. Collaborating

A collaborating conflict management style demands a high level of cooperation from all parties involved. Individuals in a dispute come together to find a respectful resolution that benefits everyone. Collaborating works best if you have plenty of time and are on the same power level as the other parties involved. If not, you may be better off choosing another style. 

4. Competing

When you use a competitive conflict management style (sometimes called 'forcing'), you put your own needs and desires over those of others. This style is high in assertiveness and low in cooperation. In other words, it's the opposite of accommodating. While you might think this style would never be acceptable, it's sometimes needed when you are in a higher position of power than other parties and need to resolve a dispute quickly. 

5. Compromising

Compromising demands moderate assertiveness and cooperation from all parties involved. With this type of resolution, everyone gets something they want or need. This style of managing conflict works well when time is limited. Because of time constraints, compromising isn't always as creative as collaborating, and some parties may come away less satisfied than others. 

Learn more about these conflict management approaches in this video from Rice University:

Tips for choosing a conflict management style

The key to successfully managing conflict is choosing the right style for each situation. For instance, it might make sense to use avoidance or accommodation to deal with minor issues, while critical disputes may call for a more assertive approach, like a competitive conflict management style. When you're wondering which method of conflict management to choose, ask yourself the following questions:

How important are your needs and wants?

What will happen if your needs and wants aren't met?

How much do you value the other person/people involved?

How much value do you place on the issue involved?

Have you thought through the consequences of using differing styles?

Do you have the time and energy to address the situation right now?

The answers to these questions can help you decide which style to pick in a particular situation based on what you've learned about the various conflict management styles. 

Tips and strategies for conflict management

Conflicts inevitably pop up when you spend time with other people, whether at work or home. However, when conflicts aren’t resolved, they can lead to various negative consequences. These include: 

Hurt feelings

Resentment and frustration

Loneliness and depression

Passive aggression and communication issues

Increased stress and stress-related health problems

Reduced productivity

Staff turnover

Conflict is a part of life. Knowing a few strategies for managing conflict can help keep your home or workplace healthy. Here are a few tips to keep in mind when conflict arises:

Acknowledge the problem.

If someone comes to you with a dispute that seems trivial to you, remember it may not be trivial to them. Actively listen to help the other person feel heard, then decide what to do about the situation. 

Gather the necessary information.

You can't resolve a conflict unless you've investigated all sides of the problem. Take the time you need to understand all the necessary information. This way, you'll choose the best conflict management style and find an optimal resolution. 

Set guidelines.

Whether discussing a conflict with a spouse or intervening for two employees, setting guidelines before you begin is essential. Participants should agree to speak calmly, listen, and try to understand the other person's point of view. Agree up front that if the guidelines aren't followed, the discussion will end and resume later. 

Keep emotion out of the discussion.

An angry outburst may end a conflict, but it's only temporary. Talk things out calmly to avoid having the dispute pop up again. 

Be decisive. 

Once you've discussed a dispute and evaluated the best approach, take action on the solution you've identified. Letting others in on your decision lets them know you care and are moving forward.  

Build conflict management skills today

Learn key conflict types and strategies to resolve them. Enroll in the Conflict Management Specialization from UC Irvine today to build your skills.

Article sources

Management Weekly. " Thomas Kilmann Conflict Model , https://managementweekly.org/thomas-kilmann-conflict-resolution-model/." Accessed March 13, 2024.

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School conflicts: Causes and management strategies in classroom relationships

2020, Part of the book: Interpersonal Relationships

Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscores the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.

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Most studies have shown that learners' misbehaviors and classroom management are one of the biggest challenges and concerns of teachers (Farmahini Farahani, M., & Ziaeiyan Alipour, F.2012). It involves allowing both parties to express their points of view, interests, and provide ways to find acceptable solutions. Present research focus on conflict management among students in school, for the present purpose some research papers were studied. on the basis of research review it can be concluded that conflict management is very important part in the schools if there is no proper management of conflict among students teachers will not be able to teach, and learners will not be able to learn. Nowadays, the educational psychologists believe that effective classroom management can promote the learners' learning opportunities. Background In recent years, conflict situations are a frequent reality in Portuguese schools, and their identification, understanding, and management characterize a continuous concern area for the psychologists and education science professionals, fundamentally because of their impact on the teachers' performance. These conflicts affect the quality of the learning environment and the teachers' performance. In this sense, emotions affect the teacherstudent relationship and help to understand the classroom climate profile (Meyer and Turner, 2007). Integrating is a conflict management strategy also called for collaboration, cooperation, or problem solving, where there is a concern to satisfy one's own interests and those of the others. According to Rahim (2002), individuals who use this strategy manage conflicts directly and cooperatively, seeking to solve in collaboration with the other. It is important to state that it is a strategy that expresses a conduct orientation characterized by high cooperation and high assertiveness (Medina and Munduate, 2005). This strategy requires openness, information exchange, and analysis of differences between the parties, to reach a solution that satisfies those involved in the conflict (Rahim, 2002). Dominating strategy is characterized by a high concern for own interests and low concern for the others, reflecting the attempt to satisfy one's own interests without consideration of the interests of the other (Rahim, 2002). By using this strategy, the teacher seeks to achieve his goals by sacrificing the students', feeling that conflict can be controlled by mastering and suppressing the student's needs and expectations. This is characterized by a high assertiveness and lack of cooperation, in which the acquisition of objectives is viewed with supremacy over the interests of the other party (Medina and Munduate, 2005). The obliging strategy represents the willingness to satisfy the benefits of the others while neglecting one's own interests (Rahim, 2002), that is, when the teacher, in the presence of classroom conflict, values the interests of the students over his/her interests. When this strategy is adopted, the teacher faces the conflict passively and complacently, following the students' decisions. It is a conflict management strategy in which cooperation is high and assertiveness is low (Medina and Munduate, 2005). In avoiding strategy, the individual ignores or neglects the interests of both parties, avoids getting involved in the conflict, and allows occurrences to follow their course without attempting to conflate to the satisfaction of the interests of either party (Rahim, 2002). In the classroom, by using this strategy, the teacher demonstrates low concern for the students' own goals and objectives, staying out of the situation that causes the conflict, or remains neutral in the classroom.

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Çalışmanın amacı, ilkokul öğretmenlerinin çatışma yaşadığı konuları, çatışma yaşadıkları tarafları, çatışmanın nedenlerini, olası sonuçlarını ve çatışmayı hangi stratejiler kullanarak yönettiklerini tespit etmektir. Araştırma karma yöntem olarak tasarlanmıştır. Karma yöntemlerden yakınsayan paralel desen tercih edilmiştir. 2018-2019 eğitim öğretim yılında Kilis il merkezinde görev yapan ilkokul öğretmenleri ile çalışma gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırmanın nitel kısmına 25, nicel kısmına ise 264 ilkokul öğretmeni dâhil edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin hangi çatışma çözme stratejilerini tercih ettikleri nicel yöntemle; çatışmayı kimlerle, hangi durumlarda yaşadıkları da nitel yöntemle belirlenmiştir. Nitel veriler içerik ve betimsel analiz kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Nicel verilerin analizinde ise aritmetik ortalama hesaplanmıştır. Çalışmada yapılan analizler sonucunda öğretmenlerin en çok okul yöneticileri, veliler ve öğretmenlerle çatışma yaşadıkları, genelde kurumun işleyişi, yönetim, öğrenciler ve kişisel ilişkiler konusunda çatışmalar yaşadıkları belirlenmiştir. Okullarda yaşanan çatışmaların nedenleri adaletsizlik, iletişimsizlik, baskı, fikirlerin önemsenmemesi, kişilik özellikleri, fiziki ihtiyaçların giderilmemesi vb. faktörlere bağlandığı, çatışmanın işten soğuma, motivasyonun azalması, işlerin aksaması, dedikodu, iletişim engelleri, gruplaşma, huzursuzluk, güvensizlik gibi hem öğretmenlere hem de okullara negatif etkilerinin olacağı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Öğretmenlerin çatışma yönetimi stratejilerinden ise en çok Bütünleştirme, Uzlaşma ve Uyma stratejilerini kullandıkları tespit edilmiştir. The purpose of this study is to identify the conflict situations the primary school teachers experience with regard to issues, parties, reasons, their possible results and their use of management strategies to overcome these situations. A mixed methods research was used to conduct this study. A convergent parallel design, which is one of the mixed research designs, was chosen. The study was applied to the primary school teachers, who work in the center of Kilis Province in 2018-2019 academic year. 25 primary school teachers participated in the qualitative research, whereas 264 teachers joined the quantitative research. Which conflict resolution strategies are preferred by the teachers are determined using a qualitative method. With whom and in what situations they have experienced the conflict are determined using a quantitative method. Content and descriptive analyses were used to analyse the qualitative data. Arithmetic mean was calculated to analyse the quantitative data. As a result of these analyses, it was found that the teachers mostly experience conflicts with school administrators, students' parents and teachers on the issues including operations of educational institutions, administration, students and personal affairs. It was revealed that the reasons for the conflicts occurring at schools are correlated with the factors such as injustice, lack of communication, pressure, ideas' being ignored, personal characteristics, physical needs' not being met, which negatively influence teachers and schools with regard to alienation from work, decreasing motivation, work going wrong, gossip, communication obstacles, grouping, uneasiness and distrust. It was identified that the teachers mostly use integrating, compromising and obliging conflict management strategies.

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Team-Building Strategies: Building a Winning Team for Your Organization

Discover how to build a winning team and boost your business negotiation results in this free special report, Team Building Strategies for Your Organization, from Harvard Law School.

Conflict-Management Styles: Pitfalls and Best Practices

Conflict-management styles can affect how disputes play out in organizations and beyond. research on conflict-management styles offers advice on managing such difficult situations..

By Katie Shonk — on March 21st, 2024 / Conflict Resolution

People approach conflict differently, depending on their innate tendencies, their life experiences, and the demands of the moment. Negotiation and conflict-management research reveals how our differing conflict-management styles mesh with best practices in conflict resolution.

A Model of Conflict-Management Styles

In 1974, Kenneth W. Thomas and Ralph H. Kilmann introduced a questionnaire, the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument , designed to measure people’s conflict styles. Based on people’s responses to pairs of statements, the instrument categorizes respondents into five different conflict styles:

• Competing. When adopting a competing style, people view interpersonal conflict resolution as win-lose games. Rather than recognizing the value of ensuring that each party walks away satisfied, disputants focus narrowly on claiming as much as they can for themselves. While value claiming is an important component of negotiation, a single-minded competitive orientation sacrifices value in the long run and perpetuates conflict.
• Avoiding. Because dealing with conflict directly can be highly uncomfortable, many of us prefer to avoid it. An avoidant conflict style might at first appear to be the opposite of a competitive style, but in fact, it can be similarly obstructive. When we avoid conflict, we often allow problems to grow worse.
• Accommodating. Because they defer so often to others, negotiators who adopt an accommodating style can seem agreeable and easygoing. But when people consistently put others’ needs first, they are liable to experience resentment that builds up over time. Accommodating negotiators typically will benefit from learning to express their needs and concerns.
• Compromising. Sometimes we try to resolve conflict by proposing seemingly equal compromises, such as meeting in the middle between two extreme positions, or by making a significant compromise just to move forward. Although a compromising conflict style can move a conversation forward, the solution is often unsatisfying and temporary because it doesn’t address the root issues at stake.
• Collaborating. Those who adopt a collaborative conflict-resolution style work to understand the deeper needs behind other parties’ demands and to express their own needs. They see value in working through strong emotions that come up, and they propose tradeoffs across issues that will give each side more of what they want.

Claim your FREE copy: The New Conflict Management

In our FREE special report from the Program on Negotiation at Harvard Law School - The New Conflict Management: Effective Conflict Resolution Strategies to Avoid Litigation – renowned negotiation experts uncover unconventional approaches to conflict management that can turn adversaries into partners.

A collaborative negotiation style is usually the most effective style for managing conflict and fostering productive long-term relationships; however, different conflict-management styles can be effectively applied to different phases and types of conflict in management. Moreover, though we may have a predisposition toward a particular conflict style, we adopt different styles depending on the situation.

Competing is often useful when you’ve jointly created value through collaboration and now need to divide up resources. Accommodating may be the best immediate choice when your boss is unhappy about a project that went awry. Avoiding can be wise when someone seems volatile or when we don’t expect to deal with them again. And compromising can be a fine way of resolving a minor issue quickly.

Conflict-Management Styles : Lessons from Marriage Research

Can people with different conflict-management styles get along? In his book Why Marriages Succeed or Fail . . . and How You Can Make Yours Last (Simon & Schuster, 1995), psychologist John Gottman writes that healthy marriages tend to settle into three different styles of problem solving: validating (compromising often and working out problems to mutual satisfaction), conflict-avoidant (agreeing to disagree and rarely confronting differences directly), and volatile (frequently engaging in passionate disputes).

Perhaps surprisingly, Gottman’s research suggests that “all three styles are equally stable and bode equally well for the marriage’s future,” as he writes. Which style a couple leans toward isn’t important; what’s more important for lasting satisfaction is that both spouses adopt the same style.

Though Gottman’s research was conducted on married couples, the results suggest that disputants in the business world who have similar conflict-management styles may find they feel comfortable managing (or avoiding) conflict with each other.

When Conflict-Management Styles Are Complementary

By contrast, in the realm of negotiation, the results of a 2015 study published in the journal Negotiation and Conflict Management Research by Scott Wiltermuth, Larissa Z. Tiedens, and Margaret Neale found benefits when pairs of participants used one of two different negotiating styles.

They assigned study participants to engage in a negotiation simulation using either a dominant or submissive negotiating style. Those assigned to be dominant were told to express their preferences with confidence, use expansive body postures, and otherwise try to influence their counterpart. Those assigned to the submissive style were told to be cooperative, agreeable, and conflict avoidant.

Interestingly, pairs in which one party behaved dominantly and the other submissively achieved better results in the negotiation than pairs who were in the same condition (whether dominance, submission, or a control group). It seems the pairs of dominant/submissive negotiators benefited from their complementary communication style. A pattern in which one person stated her preferences directly and the other asked questions enabled the negotiators to claim the most value. By asking questions, the submissive negotiators assessed how to meet their own goals—and helped their dominant counterparts feel respected and competent in the process.

The research we’ve covered on negotiation and conflict-management styles suggests that opportunities to work through differences abound, regardless of our natural tendencies. Rather than spending a lot of time diagnosing each other’s conflict-management styles, strive for open collaboration that confronts difficult emotions and encourages joint problem solving.

What lessons about conflict-management styles have you learned in your own negotiation and conflict-resolution efforts?

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Understanding how to arrange the meeting space is a key aspect of preparing for negotiation. In this video, Professor Guhan Subramanian discusses a real world example of how seating arrangements can influence a negotiator’s success. This discussion was held at the 3 day executive education workshop for senior executives at the Program on Negotiation at Harvard Law School.

Guhan Subramanian is the Professor of Law and Business at the Harvard Law School and Professor of Business Law at the Harvard Business School.

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Essay on Conflict Management

Students are often asked to write an essay on Conflict Management in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Conflict Management

Introduction.

Conflict management is a crucial skill in life. It involves understanding and addressing disagreements effectively.

Understanding Conflict

Conflicts can arise due to different opinions or interests. They can be constructive if managed well.

Types of Conflict

Conflicts can be interpersonal, intrapersonal, or group-based. Each type requires different management tactics.

Conflict Management Skills

Key skills include active listening, empathy, negotiation, and problem-solving. These help in finding a solution.

Conflict management is essential for maintaining harmonious relationships. It promotes understanding and growth.

250 Words Essay on Conflict Management

Conflict management is a critical skill in any environment, particularly in interpersonal and organizational settings. It entails understanding and addressing disagreements to prevent escalation and maintain productive relationships.

The Nature of Conflict

Conflict is an inevitable part of human interaction, arising from differences in opinions, values, or interests. It can stimulate innovation and growth if managed correctly; conversely, it can lead to negative outcomes, such as stress or hostility, when mismanaged.

Conflict Management Styles

There are five primary conflict management styles: avoidance, accommodation, competition, compromise, and collaboration. Each style has its strengths and weaknesses, and the appropriateness of each depends on the specific context and the relationship between the parties involved.

Effective Conflict Management

Effective conflict management requires emotional intelligence, active listening, and clear communication. It involves recognizing the conflict, understanding the perspectives of all parties, and finding a mutually beneficial resolution.

In conclusion, conflict management is a vital skill in maintaining harmonious relationships and fostering a positive environment. By understanding the nature of conflict and applying appropriate conflict management styles, individuals and organizations can turn potential discord into opportunities for growth and development.

500 Words Essay on Conflict Management

Conflict management is an inevitable part of human interaction, as different people with diverse viewpoints will inevitably clash. It is a multidimensional concept that involves understanding the origins of conflict, the strategies to handle it, and the skills to create beneficial resolutions. This essay explores the significance of conflict management, its techniques, and its role in fostering a productive environment.

Conflict arises from differences. It occurs when individuals or groups perceive that their needs, interests, or values are threatened by the actions or intentions of others. Conflicts can be constructive, fostering creativity and innovation, or destructive, leading to stress, hostility, and reduced productivity. Therefore, it is crucial to manage conflict effectively.

Conflict Management Techniques

There are several strategies for managing conflict. The choice of strategy depends on the nature of the conflict, the relationship between the parties involved, and the desired outcome.

1. Avoidance: This is a passive approach where the conflicting parties ignore the issue hoping it will resolve itself or disappear. Although it might provide temporary relief, it often exacerbates the problem in the long run.

2. Accommodation: One party willingly gives in to the other. This is useful when the issue is less important to one party, but it can lead to resentment if used excessively.

3. Competition: This is a win-lose approach where one party seeks to achieve their goals at the expense of others. It can lead to hostility and damage relationships.

4. Compromise: Both parties give up something to reach a mutually acceptable solution. This approach is practical when the conflict needs to be resolved quickly.

5. Collaboration: This is a win-win approach where parties work together to find a solution that satisfies all. It promotes mutual respect and understanding.

The Role of Communication in Conflict Management

Effective communication is crucial in conflict management. It involves active listening, empathy, and assertiveness. Active listening ensures understanding, empathy builds rapport and trust, and assertiveness allows individuals to express their needs and concerns without offending others.

Conflict Management and Organizational Productivity

Effective conflict management can significantly enhance organizational productivity. It reduces stress, improves teamwork, and fosters a culture of respect and understanding. It also promotes creativity and innovation by encouraging diverse viewpoints and open discussions.

Conflict is an inevitable part of human interaction, but it doesn’t have to be destructive. Effective conflict management strategies can transform conflicts into opportunities for growth and innovation. Therefore, individuals, teams, and organizations should invest in developing their conflict management skills to foster a harmonious and productive environment.

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Essay on Conflict Management

Conflict Management

Conflict is a fact of life - for individuals, organizations, and societies. The costs of conflict are well-documented - high turnover, grievances and lawsuits, absenteeism, divorce, dysfunctional families, prejudice, fear. What many people don't realize is that well-managed conflict can actually be a force for positive change. Conflict is “an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, and interference from others in achieving

Conflict Between Conflict And Conflict Management

“People are afraid of conflict because they do not have essential skills to manage it well.” This is true because according to O’Grady and Malloch (2016), conflict is reflection of an insufficient knowledge of the dynamics of conflict and a lack of capability in its management. In the case of Nancy, perhaps she needs to undergo specialty training or classes about conflict management in order to improve their unit’s dynamic or interaction. 2. “If you engage with conflict too early, there is a chance

The Conflict And Conflict Management Strategies

Robbins and Judge define conflict as a process that begins when one party perceives another party has or is about to negatively affect something that is cared about. There is a variety of conflicts that individuals will encounter within their lives. Knowing and understating the conflict cycle and understanding conflict management strategies will help individuals solve conflict in a reasonable manner (Robbins & Judge, 2014). Discussing Contentious Issues/ Bringing Conflict into the Open When managers

Conflict Management Conflict Management Yamil Little Strayer University BUS520 Dr. Anthony Hughes 02/27/11 Conflict Management Introduction In today’s ever-changing business environment organizations encounter varying levels of intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup conflicts. Intrapersonal conflict is a battle within oneself, which usually involves a life goal and/or change. Interpersonal conflict is when two or more people have opposing perspectives

Conflict Of Conflict Management Styles

Many people do their best to avoid conflict at all costs, but it is an occurrence that everyone must deal with from time to time. Understandable, the avoidance of conflict is glamorous, however learning how to handle the conflicts can make them seem less bothersome. Learning how to manage conflict is a key factor in becoming a manager and the execution of that learning can be very different from manager to manager. Shanker (2013) describes conflict management styles as an equation involving the

opinion there will also be a chance for some form of conflict to arise. To resolve and manage conflict, any organization or persons’ must try to understand the causes, theories, approaches and strategies of conflict management. Resolving conflict requires a great deal of attention and thorough understanding in seeking resolution. In this review, conflict management will be explored in general from different perspectives in light of how conflict effects teams or groups, workplace relationships and

Conflict and conflict management both play pivotal roles in all relationships, whether they are between friends, family, lovers, or coworkers. However, while most relationships have an abundance of conflict, the amount of properly implemented conflict management in all relationships is relatively low. This is especially surprising when you consider the sheer amount of research and counseling directed at managing conflict in constructive ways. Though the aforementioned services and research are of

ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT MANAGEMENT 1. ABSTRACT Organizational conflict is a state of discord caused by the actual or perceived opposition of needs, values and interests between people working together. Conflict takes many forms in organizations; there is the inevitable clash between formal authority and power and those individuals and groups affected. There are disputes over how revenues should be divided, how the work should be done and how long and hard people should work. There are jurisdictional

Interpersonal Conflict Management

INTRODUCTION It is believed that all conflict is bad, it creates tension, destruction of working relationships and reduces productivity. Therefore, it should be eliminated by all means. This understanding is not correct. Some conflicts are unavoidable in all organizations, because it is associated with the struggle for existence and development of the organization. All individuals and organizations perform the environment which requires competition for limited resources, include of financial

Conflict Management Paper

agencies can have conflicts that need to be addressed by the leaders of the organization. A number of conflicts begin as something very miniscule and grow over time to destroy the motivation and confidence of a law enforcement agency before it is even able to be addressed. Some conflicts are not even made aware to the leadership positions until it has grown out of control and has the employees worked up, and demanding to what is happening. Several leaders have fears regarding conflict, rather than seeing

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128 Conflict Management Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best conflict management topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on conflict management, ⭐ simple & easy conflict management essay titles, ❓ essay questions on conflict management.

• Conflict Management Essay The process of conflict management in organizations requires determination and participation of two parties, employees and the management. Furthermore, the employer should be empathetic to the employees and should be concerned of any problem with […]
• Schneider National Inc.’s Conflict Management Lofgren believes that task conflict will help the company in mediating the points of conflict in the company by making sound decisions that help in the growth of the business.
• Conflict in the Public Sector: Management and Resolution This occurs due to the varying attitudes of people and understanding among the different clients; considering all these facts, the public sector needs to design strategies that would prove to be helpful in dealing with […]
• Educational Administration: Conflict Management and Resolution Therefore, it will take the energy of a strong character to sort out the conflict between people. This also makes the other person in conflict to perceive the conflict as imaginary and of no consequence.
• Customer Service Conflict Management Strategies The key difficulty is, therefore, to find out what type of customer the support is dealing with and, thus, to choose the appropriate strategy to calm him/her down.
• Communication and Conflict Management in Nursing It is essential to emphasize that to reduce the burden on the nurse and the number of inquiries to patients, and it is necessary to use reflexive listening.
• Conflict Management as a Study Subject Reflection In the following journal entries, I will summarize my thoughts and ideas after exploring the module’s activities and lectures and discuss some theories and practices in relation to my past and future experiences.
• Conflict Management in “The Avengers” Movie This character trait is often sought after by managers in their employees since this often indicates that this individual is more willing to work with others and will do as they are told for the […]
• Conflict Management Strategies Thus, one needs to have a clear understanding of the characteristics of the team members and the responses that they have in the process of a conflict in determining the strategy that he/she will use […]
• Managing Conflict Situations in Nursing In this case, it is necessary to use a collaborative conflict management style that is said to be one of the most useful variants.
• Conflict Management in Japanese Culture Japan and its culture truly represent the cultural compromise that determines the development of the entire Japanese spiritual tradition.
• Etisalat Company’s Conflict Management Practices Conflict management serves as a vital component of modern management to achieve the prosperity and success of a company. This dimension is most applicable for the selection and application of a relevant organizational conflict management […]
• The Police Agency’ Conflict Management In the police agency, parties may use the collaboration strategy involving information sharing, openness, and elucidation of the various conflicting issues not only to reach a common ground that is satisfactory to the conflicting parties […]
• Change Management and Conflict Resolution in Communities The different levels of perceptions on emerging issues among the members of the community are the source of conflicts. The management of such conflicts augments the quality of the choices in the project’s operation processes.
• Conflict Management: Simple Rules for Avoiding and Resolving Conflicts In order for the workplace to be a welcoming environment in which conflicts are rare occurrences, it is essential to establish an organizational culture based on respect and equality.
• Importance of Conflict Management Given that a conflict or at least the predisposition for it is thought to be a natural feature of the human experience, it is guaranteed to occur, especially in the turbulent world of healthcare, with […]
• Creating Ideal Teams: Conflict Management in Teams During my employment, I noticed that the essential step that led to high satisfaction and increased performance of a team lies in its creation.
• Aspects of the Conflict Management An example of a time I used a conflict resolution strategy was when I attempted to bring the parties involved in a conflict together so they could talk.
• Event Management and Evaluation With Conflict Theory As such, the event and the performance of the staff and the managerial team worked in accordance to appropriately provide for them.
• Managing a Sexual Harassment Conflict at Sony In Sony, as in any other company, conflicts also occur, and managers strive to establish a common language between all sides involved, though the result of the conflict may be disappointing for one of the […]
• Conflict Management in Healthcare Conflict management: a crucial part of the clinical environment; Potential sources of conflict: hierarchy issues and interdisciplinary concerns; Case under analysis: misunderstanding between an anesthesiologist and a surgeon; Cause: a misconception caused by underlying […]
• Conflict Management: Conversations With Difficult People The consequence of conflicts in a workplace is a decrease in customer satisfaction, a significant turnover, and a decrease in labor productivity.
• Managing Authorship Conflicts in Educational Institutions However, scientists are people like everyone else, trying to make a career and forced to comply with the requirements for the publication of scientific papers; they often lie, cheat and take advantage of students.
• Leadership: Conflict and Conflict Management Overall, the concept of leadership and additional terms that are embedded into it are quite flexible because they can be aligned with specific individual characteristics and objectives that a person is pursuing.
• Pediatric Operating Room: Conflict Management Strategies For example, in the pediatric care unit, when the patient needs long-term care, conflict occurs mainly between the parents and the care team due to differences in the religious and cultural beliefs of the parents.
• Discussion: Managing Conflict of Interest A review of the literature revealed that promoting transparency and accountability, and implementing policies and regulations that stimulate adherence, are critical in managing conflicts of interest.
• Five Conflict Management Styles The performance formula is directly linked to the coaching model in that the performance formula helps determine one’s reasons for low performance and the improvement action required.
• Conflict Management in the Healthcare Workplace Conflict management at the workplace is one of the crucial elements related to the organization of work in healthcare facilities. Consequently, if ignored or not handled adequately, the disputes between the colleges at the workplace […]
• Transformative Mediation: Conflict Management Consequently, the role of a transformative mediator is to support parties in shifting toward the recognition of the causes of their conflict and empower them to take action toward change.
• Interpersonal Conflict: Management, Economics and Industrial Organization A healthy and effective interaction strengthens the relationship of the people involved, and information is easily conveyed. Communication is the foundation of every interpersonal interaction, and it is crucial to a long-lasting and healthy relationship.
• Conflict Management in Human Services This implies that I am relatively flexible in my attempts to solve the problem and I always want to make the opinion of the opposing party count.
• Conflict Management: Styles, Strategies, and Their Effect A closer look at the phenomenon in question will reveal that a conflict map works as a method of arranging the facts related to a particular problem in a specific order so that the links […]
• Conflict Management Efficiency in Team Leaders The team leader is also responsible for ensuring that all the team players in the organization are motivated in the areas of work, in which they are involved; in the running of the organization’s activities.
• Communication and Conflict Management But since women have a compromising nature and are normally found to be in listening instead of in lecturing roles, we find Linda listening coolly to frank and telling him to try and talk directly […]
• Humor Application in Conflict Management: Facilitating and Regulating Communication To an extent, the value of humor can be explained by the fact that it helps to establish a more relaxed atmosphere, the quality sometimes needed at a workplace.
• Applying Constructive Conflict Management to a Conflict The prelude phase describes the situation that made the conflict possible, taking into account its participants, their relationship, and the environment where the conflict takes place.
• Effective Business Meetings and Conflict Management A good meeting should stick to the agenda and deal with matters that are relevant to the items of agenda. Organizers can seize the benefits of communication technology to ensure success of a meeting.
• International Journal of Conflict Management Critique The chapters in the journal article tackle a variety of large and small disputes and conflicts that take place in organizations and groups.
• Inter-Jurisdictional Conflict Management The term could also mean the extent of power or items that such power controls or protects.”Inter” means between or among, therefore, inter-jurisdictional conflict signifies a conflict among two or more powers over something that […]
• Conflict Management Concepts Implementation and Outcomes The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the implementation of the conflict management concepts and to analyze this process along with the outcomes.
• Intergroup Conflict and Its Management Therefore, it must also be considered as a valuable asset that would allow this group to resolve the conflict by exchanging thoughts and opinions.
• Internal Managerial Conflicts: Jones and Shephard Accountants, Inc. The success of projects will to a large extent rely on the interests, support, and commitment of the senior management. A deep analysis of the organizational structure of Jones and Shephard Accountants, Inc.is prone to […]
• Understanding Conflict Management The lack of team dynamics in the workplace results in the cropping up of conflicts. In this case the key issues and the grievances must be taken care of before it affects the overall performance […]
• Conflict Management in Empyrean Company First of all, Kensworthy may have considered himself a great investor in the company and therefore felt that he had a right to promotion and management in the company.
• Conflict Management and Negotiations In the event that compromising is used as the approach in this conflict situation, the manager will be talked to by a colleague into accepting the fact that has to have the one-hour extension in […]
• Conflict Management: Teambuilding and Dynamics Each team has to perform the assigned task and in addition it must coordinate with other teams to ensure smooth progress in operations.
• Human Communication and Conflict Management in Family I must admit that the communication styles I learned brought me back to the days in my family where there were a lot of communication styles that I had to contend with.
• Conflict Management Challenges in Trade Unions This step will help the owner to reduce negative feelings and misunderstanding between the trade union and the company. This step will help the owner to create a positive atmosphere and explain the situation to […]
• Food Merchandising Corporation’s Conflict Management Everyone is aware of the high rate of failure of start-up and first time entrepreneurs are always fired up to start a business only to declare bankruptcy later on due to many unforeseen problems or […]
• Conflict Management Styles Applied in Healthcare In the mentioned above conflict, the patient was a young woman, whose parents wanted to visit her often throughout the day.
• Theater Stage Manager’s Conflict Resolution Assuming the role of the mediator in managing the conflict between the friends, I had to use my knowledge gained when studying to become a stage manager because of the need to initiate the productive […]
• Managing Organizational Conflict: Rahim’s Meta Model In addition, they are trained to minimize the degree of differences between the two sides of a conflict and highlighting common points of view that are likely to satisfy the involved parties.
• Conflict Management Styles: Zimmerman vs. Trayvon Martin There are various conflict management styles that help in solving conflicts and which could be useful in solving the conflict in the case of Zimmerman vs.
• Positive Conflict Management Strategies At the confrontation stage, other individuals, not party to the conflict, begin to take sides and gather information on the conflict.
• Concourse Equity Inc.’s Conflict Management The triggering events in the conflict between Luther and Rihanna happened when Luther made a Chauvinist comment about Rihanna by saying that she ought to be in the kitchen cooking tea for men in the […]
• Managerial Conflict Resolution for Marketing Team The report that I have indicates that the main issue in regards to this standoff is that your team wants the project to progress as a TV campaign, while your colleagues are adamant that it […]
• Abu Dhabi Department of Culture and Tourism’s Conflict Management The concept of Sulha, although not directly outlined in the organization’s code of conduct, is the main driving instrument of internal conflict resolution in the Abu Dhabi Department of Culture and Tourism.
• Masdar City Project and Conflict Management Despite the noble vision that the founders and financiers of this project have, it is important to appreciate that conflicts may emerge.
• Abu Dhabi Sports Council’s Conflict Management In the case of the Abu Dhabi Sports Council, the absence of a coherent conflict management technique may cause the organization to fail in its endeavor at making the sport popular among the UAE citizens.
• Conflict Management in Nursing Decision-Making The key objective of this work is to assess conflict management styles as the basic mechanisms for resolving controversial situations in the decision-making process in nursing communities.
• Marbles Construction Company’s Conflict Management The 2009 agreement was meant to safeguard the interests of both the company and the employees. Most of the supervisors and mid-level managers were in support of the workers’ requests and this made it difficult […]
• Conflict Management: Importance and Implications First of all, the author perceives the concept of conflict and conflict management from the perspective of positive conflict resolution, addressing the root causes of conflicts.
• Singapore Airlines Conflict Management and Negotiation The study will entail analysis of the policies used by Singapore Airlines to manage conflicts among employees, the ethical dilemma facing the HR staff, and the alternative solutions.
• Conflict Resolution in Management Teams The behavioral and social cognition features of the relationships suggest that managerial tasks and relationships are the key attributes of incompatibilities that in organizations.
• Employee Motivation, Conflict and Personnel Management The other managerial issue in the case is that of conflict management and resolution. The two were not only long serving members of the organization but had also advanced in age, thus making their conflict […]
• Riordan Manufacturing: Diversity and Conflict Management Whenever a change is introduced in an organization, it is quite common for employees to respond with mixed reactions in spite of the benefits associated with the same change. It is imperative to note that […]
• Role of Coaching in Conflict Management The case is different in Japan since the achievements of the group play an important role in the success of the organization as compared to individual efforts.
• Management Issues: Conflict Mediation It is very important that the leaders of such companies apply the skills of conflict mediation in order not to let the interpersonal relationships influence the effectiveness of the business process and the organization’s success.
• Managing Conflicts: U.S. Harvest Scandal Therefore, it can be considered that once the USA Harvest organization had established the principles of transparency as the basis for its organizational strategy, the failure would have been avoided.
• Conflict Management in the Healthcare Sector In a bid to ensure that medical practitioners are able to treat and adapt to new changes in healthcare, change must take place.
• Workplace Group Problems: Conflict Management and Dynamics If a group engages in destructive conflict, then the outcomes can result in loss of the main objectives in the quest for sub-group interests, encourage the committee members to be defensive, and may results in […]
• Selina Lo’s Conflict Management in Ruckus Wireless Company Selina Lo must learn these styles in order to accommodate her new employees and establish a culture of managing conflict and negotiation in Ruckus Wireless.
• Conflict Prevention in Project Management To this end, it is essential to iron out these differences prior to commencement of the project because if the expectations vary then the outcomes are also likely to vary as well.
• Effectiveness of Various Conflict Management Practices In the same way, the unfolding of the conflict will determine if the conflict at the workplace has positive and negative effects to the organization.
• Conflict Management in Organizational Teams A calendar that indicates deadlines for various tasks should be displayed on a clearly visible point to remind the employee of the urgency of the task.
• Managing Conflict: Decision-Making Process in Organizations Conflicts in this institution also arise from among the physicians, the management team and physicians and between other professionals and the physicians.
• Managing Conflict in People in Organizations The sources of conflicts include cultural differences, organizational structure and the personality orientations of the employees. In conclusion, personal conflicts can be attributed to personality orientation, goal incongruence and the expected level of performance.
• Tesco PLC Constructive Conflict Management This will lead to fruitful corporation within the organization and the external environment. This will result to the success of both the organization and employees.
• Managing Internal and External Conflicts Given the adverse effects of stress, the ability to manage stress is a critical aspect in conflict resolution. As the discussion above has elucidated, there are a variety of conflict management strategies that can be […]
• Organizational Behavior, Motivation and Conflict Management For instance, in an organization motivation is low in the absence of the three functions while it is high when valence is positive and expectancy and instrumentality are high.
• Effective Conflict Management in Planning Firstly, the planner must have the knowledge of the possible kinds of conflict that may arise in the course of planning.
• Crisis Communication and Conflict Management in Health Care Environment Crisis communication and response have a large significance in restoring the organization’s status and their effectiveness depends on skills of the crisis communicators and their understanding of crisis management.
• Conflict Management and Organizational Roles To put an end to such misunderstanding in the office, the individual roles should be clearly established beforehand by the senior member of staff who overlooks the whole working body of staff members.
• Conflict Essence in the Management Setting In studying conflict management and theories that explain the rationale behind it, this essay is going to focus on one type of conflict. As a remedy to interpersonal conflict, this theory demands understanding of the […]
• “Organizational Communication and Conflict Management” by Kenan Spaho The author goes further to explore the relevance of conflicts in an organization. It is the duty of managers and supervisors to deal with all types of conflicts in their organizations.
• Human Resource Management and Conflict Resolution Within the scope of the study, the author has chosen an important and debatable topic because human resource management is one of the most important issues affecting all institutions in the modern world.
• The Mediating Role of Trust: Conflict Management Styles in Managers The article by Chan et al.is relevant to the issue of conflict management in the workplace as it explores the concept of leadership and open communication in conflict resolution.
• Negotiation in Conflict Management Process The presented solutions should be enlightened by the prevailing problems and be considerate of all parties in conflict. All members of a team in negotiation should recognize the relationship and be willing to make the […]
• Constructive Conflict Management in Tesco Tesco’s internal conflict with its employees has so far been dealt inappropriately resulting in the escalation of tension and the company’s perception by both employees and consumers has suffered.
• Overview of Conflict Management In order to understand the significance and role of conflict in organizational management, as well as the causes of disagreements in the employed environment, conflict definitions should be identified.
• Effective Management of Conflicts in Organizations The human resource management should constantly track the signals of conflict in the organization in order to solve it in time to avoid hostile encounters and emotional outburst which negatively impact on the image of […]
• Manager’s Role in Averting Negativity and Conflicts This often leads to poor performance of the employees and the entire company. Instead of simply declaring the need to work more, the manager can develop a strategy to avoid probable negative attitude.
• Conflict Management Skills: Andy & J This is a skill that seemed to be well mastered by Andy; he employed this together with the rest of the skills made his discussion with J a successful.
• Conflict Management: Enhancing a Peaceful Coexistence By the right attitude, it means that employees work harder to benefit the organization so that they benefit from the productivity, and not working harder in order to compete with their colleagues.
• Organizational Conflict Management Third, each of the departments will be encouraged to be emphatic towards the other. They will promote acknowledgement and listening to the views of each of the departments.
• Conflict Management System Design and Introduction In order to design an effective conflict management system, data has to be collected on the type of conflict affecting an organization so as to establish the type of conflict to address given that conflict […]
• Managing Conflict and Workplace Relationships In the case above, it is important for the manager to maintain calmness and approach the situation without any predetermined conclusions.
• Conflict Management as the Essential Quality of a Leader Conflict management is one of the essential qualities of a good manager especially in a world that has a wide range of challenges to be confronted.
• Toolkit for Conflict Management Change is the process of improving the organizations processes and employees performance with the intention of increasing productivity. Also, with the use of suggestion boxes, the employees are able to write down their views and […]
• Managing Conflict in Organizations For management teams to find workable and viable solutions to conflicts, it is important for such teams to consider the underlying causes of conflicts, the behavior of the involved groups or individuals, and the nature […]
• Conflict Resolution and Management: How Does It Work? In addressing conflict resolution and management, it is equally important to appreciate the role of emotions in influencing decisions, stances and direction of interests.
• How Many Resolution Methods Are There for Conflict Management?
• What Is the Best Conflict Management Style?
• How Does Mediation Work in Conflict Management?
• What Are the Benefits of Effective Conflict Management?
• Why Is Conflict Management an Important Skill?
• Is a Collaborative Negotiation Style the Most Effective Form of Conflict Management?
• What Is the Most Important Tool in Conflict Management?
• Are There Negative Outcomes of Conflict Management?
• What Is the Importance of Conflict Management at the Workplace?
• How Do You Handle Difficult Conflict Management?
• What Is the Best Conflict Management Strategy?
• What Makes a Good Conflict Management?
• How Are Leadership and Conflict Management Related?
• What Is the Main Goal of Conflict Management?
• Is There a Universal Key to Conflict Management?
• What Is the Role of Conflict Management in the Success of a Team?
• Is the Competing Conflict Management Style the Most Assertive?
• Why Is Emotional Intelligence Important for Conflict Management?
• What Are the Main Issues of Conflict Management in Business?
• Is There a Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence and Conflict Management Style?
• What Is Accommodating Conflict Management Style?
• Is Conflict Management a Soft Skill?
• What Is the Source of Conflict Management?
• How Can a Company Improve Conflict Management?
• What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Conflict Management?
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