homework and reading

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How to motivate students to actually do homework and reading, by bonni stachowiak (columnist) jan 7, 2022.

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This article is part of the guide: Toward Better Teaching: Office Hours With Bonni Stachowiak.

The following is the latest installment of the Toward Better Teaching advice column . You can pose a question for a future column here .

Reader Question:

Dear Bonni, What ideas do you have for student accountability? How do we get students to do pre-class work without giving a grade to everything? —Looking for change

Dave, my husband, was in the driveway a few days ago, about to head somewhere with our two kids. I had just finished my elliptical workout and he asked, “Are you glad you did it?” I was glad, but it didn’t start that way. The moves came prior to the motivation.

For 429 days straight, I have exercised for at least thirty minutes, a routine that gets reinforced by the sense of accomplishment and my overall better health. I was indeed happy to have taken that next step toward continuing my commitment. But I don’t rely on a feeling to get me moving most days. Instead, I lean on the power of habits to draw me into action, even when the way I’m feeling doesn’t necessarily prompt me. Often, students experience the same mindset around out of class preparation and we wind up needing to help them establish good habits beyond what they may naturally exhibit on their own.

James Clear describes the four components of our established patterns in “ Atomic Habits: An Easy, Proven Way to Build Good Habits and Break Bad Ones .” Cues are the triggers that we humans associate with some type of a reward. Cravings are the drives that motivate us to act. Responses are the behaviors or thoughts we in turn produce, assuming that there isn’t too much friction preventing them—and ample reasons to produce them. Rewards are what we get when we take the intended action or think the desired thought.

Building up a habit like the one I have done for exercise involves both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators for most people. It actually requires some unlearning, and some changes in approach, to create an environment that better encourages students to complete assigned activities. Instructors first need to consider how we use grades in our teaching—and then explore what kinds of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations exist and persist for our students.

Much of our students’ educational experiences have taught them to search out the rewards for a transactional gauge of their actions in the form of points or grades. In Susan Blum’s “ Ungrading: Why Rating Students Undermines Learning (And What to Do, Instead) ,” we discover that when it comes to concerns about grade inflation:

“The trouble isn’t that too many students are getting As but that too many students have been led to believe the primary purpose of schooling is to get As,” she writes.

Part of the reason why students don’t complete the pre-work for classes is because they have been conditioned to focus on extrinsic rewards in their education. All too often, collecting as many points as possible becomes the game, perfectly designed to squeeze out any intrinsic motivations that might have otherwise surfaced along the way.

So how do you get students to complete the tasks that will help them better engage in a class session? Here are some approaches that have worked well for me specific to the context you inquired about.

Two common concerns that I’ve come across are that:

Grading takes up too much time for instructors, and that
Instructors wish students did the work before class without needing to be awarded points for their effort.

First of all, there are approaches that can help reduce grading time while still giving useful feedback to students. For instance, instructors can strategically assign tasks that can be auto-graded, or spot-checked. When vocabulary is an important aspect of a class I’m teaching, I will sometimes assign an auto-graded quiz that presents ten questions from a large bank of terms and allow for the quiz to be repeated by students until they earn their desired score. In other assignments, students are instructed to record a screencast of themselves playing a matching game that reinforces the vocabulary.

Michelle Miller encourages us in “ Minds Online: Teaching Effectively With Technology ” to not feel like instructors have to evaluate each and every thing that a student submits to one of our classes. In my case, I tend to watch every screencast video that is submitted, or otherwise how would I ever learn the names of each student’s pet? But I do watch the videos at double speed, and I’m able to get through them relatively quickly. And I sometimes delegate some portion of the work to a teaching assistant.

The most common homework given to students in most classes is reading. To incentivize that, I typically assign reading exercises and quizzes. First, I ask students to submit analog or digital notes related to what they read. A common format I use is a 5-3-1 structure: where they identify five main points that stood out to them, three ways they might apply what they read and one question they have as a discussion prompt for others who read the same passages. Second, I frequently have fewer than ten auto-graded questions to test for understanding of the assigned reading. Finally, I have around five reflection and application questions as part of the reading quiz.

As for the complaint that students should want to do reading or other pre-work purely from intrinsic motivation, I have this advice. In the book “ Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us ,” Daniel Pink notes that: “Goals that people set for themselves and that are devoted to attaining mastery are usually healthy. But goals imposed by others—sales targets, quarterly returns, standardized test scores, and so on—can sometimes have dangerous side effects.” It’s worth reflecting on ways we can let students be more self-directed to foster intrinsic motivation in their studies.

When I spoke with James Lang for the Teaching in Higher Ed podcast, he shared the way his thinking has evolved regarding motivation. He stressed that the research shows that:

“We need to have those intrinsic motivators, and a lot of school-based motivation is extrinsic in the form of grades and degrees and all that other stuff. We do need to pull up those intrinsic motivators in any way that you can. I have to say though, over the past few years, as I’ve continued to look at that research and think more and more about this question, I’ve come to believe that actually we need both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators in order to be successful.”

Lang continued to describe how in endeavors such as exercise, ideally we would be intrinsically motivated, but people often aren’t. Instead, they use social connections and external reminders of their achievements to bridge the gap between the actions (actually going for the run) and the rewards (recognizing how great it feels after we exercise). In this way, the extrinsic and intrinsic motivations can spur each other on.

Another overall recommendation on how to get students to not require as much external motivation is to consider the alternatives to traditional grades. In addition to Susan Blum’s ‘Ungrading,’ I recommend:

Grading for Growth : This collection of posts via the Substack newsletter engine by Robert Talbert and David Clark explores the challenges with the ways we tend to approach grades in higher education and how to use alternative grading practices that focus on growth.

Ungrading Twitter Thread : Curated by Jesse Stommel, this thread has the links to much of Jesse’s writing and speaking on the topic. Instead of adopting “best practices,” he implores us to adopt what he called “necessary practices.”

How have I been able to keep up a 429-day streak of exercise? Partially, it is because I want to live longer and be able to be more present for those I love. The intrinsic factors motivating me are strong over the long haul and they build upon one another. However, when it comes to the daily discipline to keep going, it does help when I get these buzzes on my wrist via an Apple Watch, telling me that I can still achieve my fitness goals for the day. When I look at the app that reports out my streaks, yet taunts me with what is left to accomplish today to keep the momentum going, I wind up doing the thing I don’t feel like doing in the moment for the bigger picture rewards.

Bonni Stachowiak is the host of the long-running podcast, Teaching in Higher Ed . She is also dean of teaching and learning at Vanguard University of Southern California.

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Homework Helps: A Reading Specialist’s Tips

By Bruce Johnson

It often goes back to reading. Children and teens who read the most tend to become more successful in school than those who do not. They have better developed processing skills, stronger comprehension skills, and a higher level of vocabulary. This knowledge is used in all areas of learning. How to relate this to homework? Make read-alouds and silent reading a consistent part of homework routines every night. Imagine the educational achievement improvement if your child or teen were to read for 20 to 30 minutes every night. The gains would be dramatic.

The big question is how much homework is appropriate? Some researchers find that taking a child’s age and multiplying by two is appropriate. For example, a first grader who is 6 years old should be expected to complete 12 minutes of homework every night, and a fifth grader who is 10 years old should be expected to complete 20 minutes every night. Other researchers find that 10 minutes per grade increased by 10 minutes is appropriate. For example, a first grader should be expected to complete 10 minutes of homework every night, a second grader should be expected to complete 20 minutes of homework every night, capped at high school with 2 to 3 hours every night. If your child’s school or teacher gives no homework, or if the homework volume doesn’t meet your expectations, what should you do? Find a combination of assigned homework and additional reading, writing, and math fun.

The major goal of homework is to improve or to enhance learning. Homework should be relevant and purposeful, and involve practice, preparation, and extension. It should be meaningful practice work, but it should not be trivial busy work. Above all, it should not be teaching or learning something new.

The expectation is that parents become more involved at the elementary level, and less involved at the middle and high school levels. The parental role in homework is not to become the teacher. Instead, think of yourself as the coach. You are to help your child formulate a plan to complete the homework, and to help your child follow through. This first involves finding the time to do the work. Completing homework at the same time every night helps to ensure follow through. This also involves finding an appropriate quiet place, a desk or a table, with available materials such as dictionaries, thesaurus, paper, pencils, pens, and computer. Make sure it is well-lit. Remove distractions. Put the cell phone out of sight and out of mind. Turn the ringer off. The hardest thing for a lot of busy homes is that this also involves setting up a quiet work environment. Turn off the television. Save cleaning the kitchen for another time.

If you wish to go further, then help your child interpret directions. Ask: “Do you understand what you are supposed to do?” or “Do you need help in understanding this assignment?” or “Do you have everything you need to do this assignment?” or “Do your answers make sense to you?”

If you are trying to help your child get started, and you do not know much about what your child is supposed to do, there is no need to fret. Simply go to the Internet. A few searches might lead you to additional information that will help your child to learn more. Need a refresher on what prime numbers are? Then do an internet search for a definition and some examples. Many teachers now maintain websites with links to additional and helpful information.

Proofread your child’s work. Read aloud required reading with your child. Give practice quizzes to your child to prepare for tests. Practice spelling tests are an appropriate place to start. Younger children seem to have fun with these. Help your child to brainstorm ideas for papers or projects. Some children may need just a little bit of help getting started. Praise your child for working on and completing all homework. If the homework is particularly difficult or frustrating, then show some reassurance. Tell your child that he will get it eventually and to keep trying.

The biggest step you can take to help your child with homework is to show your child that homework is important. Younger children may need more guidance, but the goal for older children is to become independent learners, capable of completing all of the homework on their own. Ask to see the homework, and ask a few pertinent questions. There’s no need to make this an additional test or more work, just show an interest, share some positive praise, and offer a special celebration for work completed. After a good week of completed homework, have a pizza party, or something similar. You have to eat anyways, so you might as well make it a special and celebratory event.

Homework goes beyond what teachers assign their students. Here’s some homework for parents too. Send your child to school well rested, well fed, and with a positive outlook. Take an active interest in your child’s education. Ask specific questions about what happened during the day, and ask your child how she feels about what’s going on at school. Remember you are not a police officer making an investigation, just a parent showing interest, so make it short and sweet.

Let your child know how much you value education. Consider continuing your own education. This could mean something big like college classes or professional workshops, or this could simply mean reading something new, doing some desk work yourself, letter writing, or paying bills. If your child is doing math homework, for example, then be a role model and do some math work too. Balance your checkbook.

Encourage your child to do well, but do not do the homework yourself. Be available. Help your child through difficult moments. If there are spelling words that need to be corrected, then ask your child where he can go to find the correct spelling. If there are math difficulties, then ask your child what the teacher did in class during the day. Taking over the work means that your child is not learning and can also become more confusing. Recognize that education has changed over the years. How your teachers may have taught you long division may have been different than how teachers may be teaching your child today. Please tread carefully here.

There are some cautions. First, do not attempt to teach your child concepts or skills that your child is unfamiliar with. Second, do not complete the work for your child. Third, do not allow your child to sacrifice sleep to complete homework. If there are problems with homework, then contact your child’s teacher. Most teachers are not looking for perfection, but are looking to see that their students tried.

Send a note to the teacher as soon as there is a problem. If your child can not do the homework without your help, then stop your child and write a note to your child’s teacher. Write down your observations, and take those observations to the teacher. If your child is spending too much time on the homework, then send a note to the teacher. Likewise, if your child is not spending enough time on homework, then send a note to the teacher. Become less involved with the homework task, and more involved in communicating with the teacher.

For some parents, working with their children becomes a struggle. There becomes a parent and child battle. This need not happen. One option for intervention is a tutor. Just someone else doing what you would be doing may make a difference. Consider a paid tutor if that’s feasible for your family. Your child’s teacher or another parent could help you to find one. Also consider a peer, sibling, or another adult. Ask around.

Recognize the need for breaks. If your child has too much homework on one particular night, then encourage a break. This means a chance to get up, move around, make a snack, and talk it through.

Finally, note that your child may have different learning styles than you have. Some children may work best sitting up in a chair at a desk or a table. Other children, particularly older children, or even younger children who are easily distracted, may work best lying on the floor with background music. Try to find what works best for your child. Experiment a little here.

Once again, monitor the amount of time your child spends watching television or playing electronics. Recognize that there could be some television shows that are related to what your child is learning in school. Look for those programs on science or history topics or on dramatizations of children’s literature. Watch those shows with your child and discuss them. Encourage follow-up reading or family field trips.

Homework Helps

Read, Read, Read!

Take the role of the coach not the teacher.

Help your child to follow through.

Find the time to do the work.

Set up a quiet place to do the work.

Do some “homework” yourself.

Use the Internet as needed.

Show an interest.

Proofread final work.

Offer practice tests.

Praise the effort.

Contact the teacher if needed.

Homework independence leads to independent learners.

Bruce Johnson is an educator, reading specialist in Merrimack Valley School District in New Hampshire, member of CLiF’s Advisory Board, and author of Helping Your Child Become Successful in School: A Guide for Parents. Learn more at www.guidesforparents.wordpress.com .

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Reading Homework Help and Exercises

Teachers assign reading homework to help students improve fluency and comprehension, while practicing grammar, pronunciation and language reasoning skills. If your child struggles with reading homework, try the exercises below to help him or her progress more quickly and increase confidence.

How Can I Help My Child with Reading Homework?

Reading homework can take several forms, varying in length and difficulty. Some teachers will ask students to read a short chapter or article for homework, while others may ask students to answer comprehension questions. Reading homework can also include long-term projects, like book reports.

Many kids struggle with reading homework, but your child may find it less challenging if he practices reading frequently outside of the classroom. Encourage at least 30 minutes of reading for pleasure each day. You may also want to provide additional comprehension exercises for your child to complete so that he may become more comfortable with his current abilities while still developing more advanced skills.

Three Reading Practice Exercises

Reading comprehension q&a.

While your child has probably completed reading passages and comprehension questions in class, it is less likely that she has engaged in one-on-one discussions about a particular book or story. You can help your child improve her critical thinking and reading comprehension skills by having an actual discussion with her.

Discussion questions tend to be more challenging and engaging than multiple choice or fill in the blank questions. In addition, when kids discuss a text aloud, they may develop a deeper understanding for it. Ask questions that address your child's thoughts on character behavior, the sequence of events or the conclusion.

Role Playing

At home, switch roles and have your child act as the teacher. To get started, both you and your child will need to read a text. Reinforce the role-playing theme by allowing your child to select the reading material. After reading, engage in a discussion with your child, but have him prompt you with questions. For example, your child may ask you to summarize what happened in the story or to provide your thoughts on a character. Giving your child control may help him feel more confident while also providing additional practice with comprehension.

Story Creation for Picture Books

If your child enjoys creative activities, encourage her to write an entire story from scratch based on a picture book. Depending on your child's grade level, she may already have a firm grasp on narration and dialogue; if not, help her to create full sentences and a sequence of events that makes sense.

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An Examination of the Associations between ADHD, Homework Behavior and Reading Comprehension

Callie w. little.

1 Department of Psychology 1107 W. Call Street, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA

Sara A. Hart

2 Florida Center for Reading Research 2010 Levy Avenue, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32310, USA

Christopher Schatschneider

Jeanette taylor.

Previous literature has indicated an important association between reading comprehension and both ADHD and homework habits. This investigation sought to extend previous knowledge by providing information about how ADHD and homework behavior (i.e., completing homework regularly) may jointly influence reading comprehension. Using a genetically sensitive design, this study examined the genetic and environmental influences on and between ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension. Participants for this study included 691 twin pairs (351 monozygotic, 340 same-sex dizygotic) from the Florida Twin Project on Behavior and Environment (FTP-BE) and 2647 twin pairs (865 monozygotic, 1782 dizygotic) from the larger Florida Twin Project on Reading (FTP-R) in grades 3 through 7. Three separate models, each representing a different definition of ADHD (full ADHD, Inattention only, and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity only), showed similar patterns of results, therefore, results of the full ADHD model are discussed. Overlapping genetic influences were found between ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension, but no shared environmental influences among all three. However, shared environmental influences overlapped between homework behavior and reading comprehension. Although the sources of this environmental overlap are unknown, these results have implications for improving homework practices and their subsequent influence on literacy skills through homework environments.

Reading comprehension is an essential ability and an important facet of achievement which consists of several component skills of language and reading such as decoding, reading fluency, language comprehension and vocabulary ( Cain, Oakhill, Wagner, Schatschneider, & Phythian-Sence, 2009 ; Gough & Tunmer, 1986 ; Kim, Wagner, & Foster, 2011 ; Olson et al., 2011 ). Reading comprehension has critical importance for students’ current and future success through facilitating the acquisition of new knowledge and information that is crucial to success in higher education as well as through successful navigation of daily processes such as reading prescriptions and road signs or finding people and businesses in a phone book ( Berkman, Sheridan, Donahue, Halpern, & Crotty, 2011 ; Kirsch, 1993 ; Shanahan et al., 2010 ). Difficulties in reading comprehension by third grade can lead to later achievement difficulties and a higher chance of dropping out of high school or failing to attend college ( Hernandez, 2011 ). Reading comprehension is impacted by biological, behavioral and environmental influences, and understanding the role of these factors can lead towards understanding why some children struggle with reading for understanding ( Keenan, Betjemann, Wadsworth, DeFries, & Olson, 2006 ).

One important correlate of reading comprehension is Attention-deficit/hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity Disorder affects approximately 7% of U.S. children aged three to seventeen ( Boyle et al., 2011 ). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity Disorder is characterized by higher than average hyperactivity and inattention, but has also been associated with deficits in executive functioning ( Pennington, Groisser, & Welsh, 1993 ; Rapport et al., 2008 ). Difficulties in reading comprehension have been identified in conjunction with ADHD with ADHD and reading comprehension deficits occurring together more often than expected by chance ( Brock & Knapp, 1996 ). Explorations of the bivariate relations between the Inattention and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity factors of ADHD and a composite of reading skills (including reading comprehension) have indicated that genetic influences shared between ADHD and reading skills are significantly influenced by inattention symptoms, but not always symptoms of hyperactivity ( Willcutt, Pennington, & DeFries, 2000 ; Willcutt, Pennington, Olson, & DeFries, 2007 ). Attentional mechanisms have been hypothesized to play an important role in reading comprehension abilities ( Shaywitz & Shaywitz, 2008 ). Further investigation has found evidence of significant relations between measures of attention and reading comprehension, suggesting that attention deficits in ADHD may have a direct impact on reading comprehension ( Stern & Shalev, 2013 ). Additionally, deficits in working memory or executive functioning among individuals with ADHD may contribute to difficulties in reading comprehension, however, the relation between ADHD and reading comprehension is still not fully understood ( Ghelani, Sidhu, Jain, & Tannock, 2004 ; Miller et al., 2013 ; Willcutt et al., 2000 ).

In addition to its direct association with deficits in reading comprehension, ADHD may influence behavioral practices associated with the development of reading comprehension. Homework has been long associated with school achievement in domains of math, science and reading, with research suggesting higher reading comprehension skills are associated with higher levels of homework assignment and completion ( Artelt, Baumert, Julius-McElvany, & Peschar, 2001 ). There is evidence that ADHD may negatively influence homework practices and hinder student abilities gained through good homework practices ( Power, Werba, Watkins, Angelucci, & Eiraldi, 2006 ).

Homework is typically defined as school work that is assigned to be completed outside of school hours, usually at home, and is considered by many education practitioners as an essential part of the learning process ( Cooper, Lindsay, Nye, & Greathouse, 1998 ). Although homework practices differ considerably between classrooms, grade levels, school subjects and students, research on the effect of homework on academic achievement has produced results supporting a consistently positive trend between good homework behavior and academic achievement with amount of homework completed showing a stronger relation to academic achievement than the amount of time spent on homework ( Cooper, Robinson, & Patall, 2006 ; Dettmers, Trautwein, & Lüdtke, 2009 ). Also, results from existing studies have indicated a trend where relations between homework and achievement are positive but mostly low and non-significant in early elementary school, but become moderate and significant towards middle and high school. However, homework in early elementary school may serve to facilitate metacognitive skills, such as self-monitoring, which can provide a foundation for later reading skills and improved study habits ( Ramdass & Zimmerman, 2011 ).

Children with inattention problems connected with ADHD are more likely to experience problems completing homework such as failing to properly record the assignment, rushing through the assignment, difficulty remaining on task, and higher prevalence of careless mistakes. A 2006 study compared homework behavior with parent and teacher ratings on a measure of behavioral symptoms related to ADHD. Results indicated that more attentional difficulties and greater hyperactivity were correlated with more homework problems ( Power et al., 2006 ). These findings were subsequently replicated ( Langberg et al., 2010 ) but, in general, research in this area is under-represented to date. Given the well supported finding linking ADHD with reading comprehension difficulties, and the association between homework and reading comprehension that is supported not only by research but practice, it is likely that there is an important relation among ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension.

Beyond simply examining the relations among ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension, quantitative genetic methodology can be used to elicit the nature of the genetic and environmental influences on and among the three. In particular, twin studies can be used to compare the known genetic and environmental similarity between monozygotic and dizygotic twins to examine the proportion of variance attributable to genetic influences (or heritability; h 2 ), shared environmental influences (i.e., non-genetic influences that make siblings more similar; c 2 ), and non-shared environmental influences (i.e., non-genetic effects that make siblings different, plus error; e 2 ). Previous studies have estimated genetic and environmental influences for reading comprehension and ADHD, however, to date there are no genetically sensitive studies on the nature of homework behavior.

The quantitative genetic research on reading comprehension has found evidence of moderate to high heritability (h 2 =.32–.82) ( Hart, Petrill, & Kamp Dush, 2010 ; Keenan, Betjemann, Wadsworth, DeFries, & Olson, 2006 ; Logan et al., 2013 ), low to moderate shared environmental influences (c 2 =.01–.47) ( Betjemann et al., 2008 ; Logan et al., 2013 ; Petrill et al., 2007 ), and low non-shared environmental influences (e 2 =.13–.31; Keenan et al., 2006 , Betjemann et al., 2008 ; Byrne et al., 2009 ). For ADHD, heritability influences tend to be high (h 2 =.53–.90) with shared environmental influences moderate and significant (c 2 =.26–.30) and, similar to reading comprehension, non-shared environmental influences low and nonsignificant (e 2 =.00–.05; Hart et al., 2010 ; Willcutt et al., 2000 ). Heritability estimates for the ADHD Inattention factor range from moderate to high (h 2 =.35–.86) and for the Hyperactivity/Impulsivity factor range from low to high (h 2 =.05–.82) ( Hart et al., 2010 ; Willcutt & Pennington, 2000 ; Willcutt et al., 2001 ; Willcutt, Pennington, Olson, & DeFries, 2007 ). Shared environmental estimates are moderate for both Inattention (h 2 =.31) and Impulsivity/Hyperactivity (h 2 =.26) and non-shared environmental estimates are low for Inattention (h 2 =.03) and Impulsivity/Hyperactivity (h 2 =.00) ( Hart et al., 2010 ). Investigation of the relation between reading comprehension and ADHD has indicated a general genetic effect is shared between the two, as well as specific genetic influences that act on reading comprehension and ADHD independently ( Hart, Petrill, et al., 2010 ; Willcutt et al., 2000 ; Willcutt et al., 2007 ). When ADHD factors of Inattention and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity were examined with reading comprehension separately, differential genetic influences were present. Genetic influences shared between Inattention and reading comprehension were moderate and significant (h 2 =.39), but those shared between Hyperactivity/Impulsivity and reading comprehension were low and nonsignificant (h 2 =.05; Willcutt et al., 2000 ). Previous results have also found significant shared environmental overlap between reading comprehension and ADHD, indicating that these two phenotypes share both genetic and common environmental influences ( Hart, Petrill, et al., 2010 ).

Existing literature has indicated an important association between both ADHD and reading comprehension, and homework with reading comprehension. The current investigation sought to build on previous knowledge by providing information about how both ADHD and homework behavior may jointly influence reading comprehension. Previous research has suggested that ADHD consists both of an Inattention factor and a factor of Hyperactivity/Impulsivity, and potentially these factors are differentially related to reading comprehension ( Willcutt et al., 2007 ). Interestingly, the homework behavior literature has suggested that there is no differential relation between Inattention and homework behavior and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity and homework behavior ( Langberg et al., 2010 ; Power et al., 2006 ). Given the uncertainty in the ADHD literature, all modeling was conducted with ADHD operationalized as a single factor and then again with ADHD operationalized as separate Inattention and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity factors. Using a genetically sensitive design, this study explored the genetic and environmental influences on and between ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension. It is hypothesized that homework behavior may be influenced by environmental factors and will show significant shared environmental influences (e.g., Hanscombe, Haworth, Davis, Jaffee, & Plomin, 2011 ). Additionally, based on literature suggesting that all three factors may be similarly impacted by an underlying mechanism such as working memory or executive functioning ( Miller et al., 2013 ), it was hypothesized that there would be significant shared genetic influences between all three variables.

Participants

Participants for this study included 691 twin pairs (351 monozygotic, 340 same-sex dizygotic) from the Florida Twin Project on Behavior and Environment (FTP-BE) and 2647 twin pairs (865 monozygotic, 1782 dizygotic) from the larger Florida Twin Project on Reading (FTP-R) ( Taylor, James, Reeves, & Bobadilla, 2006 ; Taylor et al., 2013 ). The homework and ADHD scores were obtained from the FTP-BE sample and the reading comprehension scores were obtained from the FTP-R. Table 1 lists the number of participants for each variable. Participants were approximately 11 years old ( M = 11.72, SD = 1.08) at the time their reading measures were collected (Spring 2011) and approximately half the sample was female (52.41%). Reading scores were obtained from twins in 3 rd (when FCAT is first administered) to 7th grade. The racial and ethnic breakdown of the participants represent the demographic characteristics of the greater state of Florida, specifically 53.94% White, 22.09% Hispanic, 15.86% Black, 4.58% Multi-racial, 1.65% Asian and the rest falling under American Indian or American Islander. The majority of participants (58.51%) was eligible for free or reduced price lunch.

Means, standard deviations (SD), minimums, maximums and skew for 3 rd through 7 th grade SWAN, DBD, ECS, FAIR and FCAT scores.

Procedures and Measures

During the summer of 2010, both parents and children (age nine and older) completed questionnaires that were mailed to their homes. Zygosity of the twin pairs was determined via a parental five-item questionnaire on physical similarity (Lykken et al., 1990). Parents completed measures on the twins’ behavior and the home environment, including ADHD measures and homework behavior. The twins also reported on their homework behavior. Reading comprehension data was collected by trained administrators as part of statewide achievement testing required by normal school attendance, and test scores were uploaded into the Progress Monitoring and Reporting Network (PMRN) via a web-based data collection system. For the present study, all reading comprehension data for 3 rd to 7 th grade participants was collected in Spring 2011, the time point most immediately following questionnaire data collection with multiple reading comprehension measures available. All parents of twins provided informed consent and twins’ provided assent to participate as approved by the Florida State University Institutional Review Board.

ADHD measures

Strengths and weakness of adhd symptoms and normal behavior rating scale (swan).

The SWAN, included in the parent questionnaire, measures two facets of ADHD, Inattention and Impulsivity/Hyperactivity from items designed to match diagnostic criteria from the DSM-IV. Items use a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = Far Below Average to 7 = Far Above Average to indicate typical performance within a month of administration on behaviors such as “Follow through on instructions and finish schoolwork/chores” and “Modulate verbal activity (control excess talking)” ( Swanson et al., 2005 ). Cronbach’s alpha in this sample was.79 for the Inattention subscale and .80 for the Hyperactivity/Impulsivity subscale.

Disruptive Behavior Disorder Rating Scale (DBD)

The Disruptive Behavior Disorder Rating Scale (DBD) was also used as a measure of ADHD Inattention and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity facets. Questions from the DBD contain the 36 diagnostic criteria for ADHD, ODD and CD randomly ordered across diagnostic categories using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from Not at all (0) to Very Much (3) ( Pelham Jr, Gnagy, Greenslade, & Milich, 1992 ). Items were reverse scaled so that higher scores indicate fewer reported symptoms of ADHD. Cronbach’s alpha in this sample was.79 for Inattention and .81 for Hyperactivity/Impulsivity.

Homework Behavior

Effortful control scale.

Homework behavior was measured by an item from the Effortful Control Scale (ECS) included in both the parent questionnaire and twin self-questionnaire. The ECS focuses on attentional and effortful control in children and adolescents with regard to various behaviors including completing homework. Parents rated the item, “My child does not complete his/her homework” and children rated the item, “I do not complete my homework” using a scale of 1 = Not at all like my child/me to 5= Very much like my child/me ( Lonigan & Vasey, 2009 ). Scores from these items were recoded so that a higher rating indicated higher instances of homework completion or better homework behavior.

Reading Comprehension

Fcat 2.0 reading.

The Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT) consists of criterion-referenced assessments in mathematics, reading, science, and writing, which measured student progress toward meeting the Sunshine State Standards (SSS) benchmarks (FLDOE, 2001). The reading portion of the FCAT consists of several narrative and expository passages for students to read, followed by multiple choice comprehension questions. FCAT 2.0 standard scores, ranging from 100–500, were used in the analyses. Reliability for FCAT Reading Comprehension from item response theory (IRT) ranges from .90 in 3rd grade to .92 in grades 5–12 ( Foorman & Petscher, 2010 ).

FAIR Reading Comprehension

The Florida Assessment for Instruction in Reading (FAIR) reading comprehension subtest is a computer-based assessment given at three time-points during the school year (fall, winter and spring) to students in the state of Florida. Students read between one and three short passages that are either narrative or expository. Following each passage, students respond to between seven and nine multiple choice questions based on the passage. The test uses computer adaptive testing, in that passages and questions are adapted based on student performance on previous items. Scores from FAIR reading comprehension are used to determine the probability of success on the reading portion of the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT) as well as overall reading comprehension ( Foorman, Torgesen, Crawford, & Petscher, 2009 ). Reading comprehension standard scores from the spring time period were used in the current analyses because they are obtained nearest in time to FCAT reading comprehension scores during the school year. The generic estimate of reliability from item-response theory (IRT) for FAIR reading comprehension ranges from .88 to .92 for 3 rd through 7th th grade students ( http://www.fcrr.org/fair/Technical%20manual%20-%203-12-FINAL_2012.pdf ).

Following descriptive analyses, the 3 factor models were tested, phenotypically and then, structural equation modeling was used to examine the univariate estimates of genetic and environmental influence on all measured variables as well as multivariate analyses of the genetic and environmental variance and covariance among ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension. The fit of each model to the data was evaluated through several fit statistics: the χ 2 statistic, Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC), the root mean square of approximation (RMSEA) and Bentler’s Comparative Fit Index (CFI; Hu & Bentler, 1999 ). Chi-square values closest to the degrees of freedom indicate a better fitting model. Although, non-significant chi-square values are preferred, this statistic is highly sensitive to large sample sizes and should be evaluated with caution ( Kline, 2011 ). Akaike’s Information Criterion is a modified version of χ 2 (taking into account model complexity) thus with both χ 2 and AIC indices, lower values indicate a better fitting model. Values of the CFI above .95 indicate close model fit, whereas for the RMSEA, values less than .08 are indicative of good model fit ( Browne & Cudeck,1993 ). For multivariate analyses, rather than using measured variables we used a latent factor model, which provides construct validity and provision of reliable variables (e.g., measurement error free; Gayan & Olson, 2002). Therefore, as a first step, latent factors were created for each of the three constructs. A latent factor of ADHD was created from four measured variables, namely scores from the SWAN Inattention and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity subscales and the DBD Inattention and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity subscales. A latent factor for Homework Behavior was created using the parent- and child-report of the ECS item. Finally, a latent factor of Reading Comprehension was created using scores from the FAIR reading comprehension test and the FCAT (see Figure 1 ). In order to determine if the relation between ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension differed across Inattention and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity factors, three separate multivariate models were tested: a full model with ADHD consisting of both Inattention and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity (as described above) and two reduced models with ADHD represented by either the Inattention factor (see Figure 2 ) or Hyperactivity/Impulsivity factor alone (see Figure 3 ).

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Full Cholesky Decomposition model. Bolded pathways represent significance based on 95% confidence intervals.

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Cholesky Decomposition model with ADHD represented by Inattention factor. Bolded pathways represent significance based on 95% confidence intervals.

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Cholesky Decomposition model with ADHD represented by Hyperactivity factor. Bolded pathways represent significance based on 95% confidence intervals.

The variance and covariance among the factors for each of the three models was then decomposed into additive genetic influences, shared environmental influences (environmental effects that serve to make siblings more similar) and non-shared environmental influences (environmental effects that serve to make siblings less similar; Neale & Cardon, 1992). As a latent factor model was used, there was no measurement error included in the non-shared environmental solution. The trivariate Cholesky model produces three sets of biometric (genetic and environmental) factors. The first set of these biometric factors represent the genetic (A 1 ), shared environmental (C 1 ) and non-shared environmental (E 1 ) influences on the overlap between ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension. The second set of biometric factors (A 2 , C 2 and E 2 ) represent the genetic and environmental influences on the overlap between homework behavior and reading comprehension, controlling for the first set of biometric factors. Finally, the third set of biometric factors (A 3 , C 3 and E 3 ) represent the genetic and environmental influences that are unique to reading comprehension, after accounting for the first two sets of biometric factors. Phenotypic confirmatory factor analyses were conducted in Mplus 7.11 and genetically sensitive structural equation models were fit to z-scored data corrected for age, age×age, and gender ( McGue & Bouchard, 1984 ) using Mx ( Neale, Boker, Xie, & Maes, 2006 ).

Descriptive statistics for the observed scores of all measures are included in Table 1 . The ECS and DBD measures showed positive, but moderate skewness (<3). This could be due to some floor effects for participants who did not report any extreme behaviors on DBD or very many extreme homework behaviors on ECS.

Correlations between all measures are included in Table 2 . Correlations between the measures of ADHD were moderate to high and significant ( r =.39–.60 p <.0001) as were correlations between the measures for factors of Inattention ( r =.60 p <.0001) and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity ( r =.56 p <.0001). The correlation between parent- and self-reported homework behavior was moderate and significant ( r = .42, p<.001). Correlations between both ADHD measures and homework behavior were moderate and significantly positive ( r =.15–.31, p <.0001) as well as correlations between ADHD and reading comprehension ( r =.17–.40, p <.001). Both measures of reading comprehension were significantly and positively correlated with homework behavior ( r =.26–.29 p <.0001).

Phenotypic correlations between SWAN, DBD, ECS, FAIR and FCAT scores in grades 3 through 7.

Intraclass correlations

Zygosity-based intraclass correlations were analyzed to assess the levels of additive genetic, shared environmental and non-shared environmental influences on each measure (see Table 3 ). Correlations between monozygotic twins (MZ) were generally higher (r MZ = .39–.94) than those between dizygotic twins (r DZ = .45–.68), indicating genetic effects for ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension. In addition to genetic influences, shared environmental influences were indicated because MZ correlations are less than twice the magnitude of the DZ correlations. The exception to this was the intraclass correlations for self-reported homework behavior which were higher for DZ twins ( r =.48) than MZ twins ( r =.39), suggesting environmental influences and/or measurement error. However, Fisher’s test indicated no significant difference between these correlation coefficients (p=.09; Cohen, 1977 ).

Twin intraclass correlations and univariate h 2 , c 2 and e 2 estimates for SWAN, DBD, ECS, FAIR and FCAT scores.

Univariate Analysis

Univariate results from the structural equation model fitting of the data for each measure are displayed in Table 3 . Results indicated significant genetic influences for ADHD factors (h 2 =.49–.83). Parent-reported homework behaviors indicated significant genetic influences (h 2 =.57); however, self-reported homework behavior was not significantly genetically influenced (h 2 =.01). Shared environmental influences were significant for SWAN hyperactivity (c 2 =.43) alone among ADHD measures. Results from parent-reported (c 2 =.31) and self-reported (c 2 =.42) homework behaviors indicated significant shared environmental influences. Additionally, results suggested significant shared environmental influences for the FAIR (c 2 =.14) and FCAT (c 2 =.20) reading comprehension measures. All measures indicated significant non-shared environmental influences (including error; e 2 =.08–.57).

Multivariate Analysis

Prior to conducting the genetically sensitive analyses, phenotypic confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted on the three-factor structure (with ADHD represented as full ADHD, Inattention only and Hyperactivity only) to test the measurement models. Models were estimated using Mpus 7.11 with all available age and sex standardized raw data using only one member of each twin pair ( Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2012 ). Model fit indices indicated the full ADHD model was the best fitting model to the data and that the hypothesized three-factor structure was a good fit to the data (χ 2 =24.51 df =13; CFI=.99; AIC= 30604.89; RMSEA=.02). Although, non-significant chi-square values are preferred, this statistic is highly sensitive to large sample sizes and should be evaluated with caution ( Kline, 2011 ). Fit statistics and chi-square difference tests for the phenotypic models are presented in Table 4 . Following phenotypic model testing, the three separate Cholesky models, each representing a different definition of ADHD (full ADHD, Inattention only, and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity only), were conducted in Mx. Although the full ADHD model was the best fitting phenotypic model, all three models were analyzed in keeping with the ADHD literature suggesting differences between the Inattention and Hyperactivity factors. Results from the three models showed similar patterns of results (see Table 5 and Figures 1 – 3 ). Given this and the results of the phenotypic model testing, for brevity and clarity, only the results from the full ADHD model, where ADHD was defined as both Inattention and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity, will be described here. Differences from this model and the two other models will then be summarized.

Goodness-of-fit indicators for phenotypic confirmatory factor analysis models of ADHD, Homework Behavior and Reading Comprehension.

Multivariate modeling results of genetic and environmental influences on ADHD, Homework and Reading Comprehension [with 95% confidence intervals].

Within the full ADHD model, factor loadings were significant and moderate to high, indicating a relatively well fitting factor model (−2LL= 20888.57, df = 8946; AIC= 2996.57; BIC= −21685.77). One exception was the ECS child-reported factor loading on homework behavior, which was low but significant. Results for the first set of genetic and environmental factors (A 1 , C 1 and E 1 ) indicated significant shared genetic influences between ADHD (estimate of .72), Homework Behavior (estimate of .40) and Reading Comprehension (estimate of .42; see Table 5 ). In addition, although there was a significant shared environmental influence on ADHD (estimate of .42), there was non-significant shared environmental overlap with Homework Behavior (estimate of .00) and Reading Comprehension (estimate of .17). Significant overlap of non-shared environmental influences was present between ADHD (estimate of .14) and Homework Behavior (estimate of .37), but this overlap did not include Reading Comprehension (nonsignificant estimate of .11).

Looking at the second set of genetic and environmental factors (A 2 , C 2 and E 2 ), results indicated significant genetic influences on Homework Behavior (estimate of .61) that did not overlap with Reading Comprehension (estimate of .00) above and beyond the first set of overlapping genetic influences (i.e., A 1 ). There were significant shared environmental influences between Homework Behavior (estimate of .58) and Reading Comprehension (estimate of .19). Non-shared environmental influences were negligible and insignificant between Homework Behavior (estimate of .00) and Reading Comprehension (estimate of .07). Finally, the third set of genetic and environmental factors (A 3 , C 3 and E 3 ), representing variance unique to Reading Comprehension outside of the overlap with ADHD and Homework Behavior, showed a significant genetic effect (estimate of .66) and shared environmental influence (estimate of .46) only.

As indicated above, there were only slight differences between the models where ADHD was defined as either Inattention only or Hyperactivity/Impulsivity only versus ADHD as a whole. For the model where ADHD was defined as Inattention, results indicated overlapping non-shared environmental influence between all three factors, rather than just between ADHD and Homework Behavior (E 1 estimates of .39, .17 and .10, respectively; −2LL= 17573.73, df = 7507; AIC= 2559.73; BIC= −18174.94). When ADHD was defined as Hyperactivity/Impulsivity only, there were again differences in the non-shared environmental overlap, but this time there were overlapping non-shared environmental influences between Homework Behavior and Reading Comprehension only (E 2 estimates of .35 and .13, respectively; −2LL= 17574.07, df = 7516; AIC= 2542.07; BIC= −18207.10). For both of these models, the shared environmental influence on Reading Comprehension alone was nonsignificant, although it was similar in magnitude to the full ADHD model (C 3 estimate of .43).

The main aim of the present study was to investigate the genetic and environmental influences between ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension. Past phenotypic and genetically sensitive investigations have provided evidence for a positive association between ADHD symptoms and difficulties in reading comprehension, however, the association is not fully understood ( Ghelani et al., 2004 ; Willcutt et al., 2000 ). Homework behavior has also been linked with ADHD ( Power et al., 2006 ) and reading comprehension ( Ghelani et al., 2004 ), although the nature of the relation amoung the three was unknown prior to this study. Existing research has found a differential influence of Inattention symptoms versus Hyperactivity/Impulsivity symptoms of ADHD on reading comprehension, although not for homework behavior. Therefore, increasing understanding about the underlying influences on these associations may lead to better methods of adapting to the effects of ADHD symptoms on achievement, specifically reading comprehension ( Stern & Shalev, 2013 ; Willcutt et al., 2007 ).

Prior investigations have found high heritability for ADHD and the current univariate results supported this ( Hart, Petrill, et al., 2010 ; Willcutt et al., 2007 ). Of the ADHD measures, DBD Hyperactivity/Impulsivity was the only measure to indicate significant shared environmental influences. Turning towards the univariate results for homework behavior, shared environmental influences were found across both parent-reported and self-reported homework behavior. No previous behavioral genetic analyses on homework behavior could be found. However, previous hypotheses have suggested a relation between environmental conditions such as chaos in the home and homework behavior, suggesting that home environment may contribute to children’s ability to concentrate on and complete homework effectively ( Hanscombe, Haworth, Davis, Jaffee, & Plomin, 2011 ; Hart, Petrill, Deckard, & Thompson, 2007 ). The current results provide evidence of environmental influences on homework behavior which lends support to this hypothesis, however, the etiology of these influences is still unknown. Lastly, univariate estimates of reading comprehension indicated significant genetic and shared environmental influences. The finding of moderate genetic influences on reading comprehension is in keeping with the previous literature, but the low and significant shared environmental influences are a departure from some previous findings ( Keenan et al., 2006 ). However, this pattern is consistent with other reports from this same sample, which find significant shared environmental influences on reading achievement across measures (e.g., Hart et al., 2013 ; Soden-Hensler, Schatschneider & Taylor, 2012; Taylor et al., 2010).

Multivariate analyses of ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension provide further insight into the associations between these factors. In keeping with the literature indicating a differential association between Inattention symptoms of ADHD with reading achievement versus Hyperactivity/Impulsivity symptoms of ADHD with reading achievement (e.g., Willcutt et al., 2007 ), three models were examined. Interestingly, all three models produced very similar results, supporting prior evidence that a constellation of ADHD symptoms, not just inattention, influences academic outcomes ( Hart, Petrill, et al., 2010 ). First, there were significant genetic influences overlapping between ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension. Although this model cannot identify the source of this effect, it is plausible that the common influence of executive functions such as working memory on ADHD, homework behaviors and reading comprehension may at least partially explain this result (e.g., Martinussen, Hayden, Hogg-Johnson, & Tannock, 2005). Evidence has accumulated indicating that deficits in working memory are an integral aspect of ADHD (e.g., Rapport et al., 1999; Miller et al., 2013 ) and academic achievement (Gathercole, Pickering, Knight & Stegman, 2004). Although not directly tested in the literature, behaviors related to good homework behavior such as properly recording the assignment, concentrating on the details of the assignment, remaining on task, and lower prevalence of careless mistakes also likely rely on executive functions such as working memory ( Langberg et al., 2010 ; Power et al., 2006 ). However, it is also possible that the etiology of this shared genetic influence is due to a number of processes other than working memory.

Interestingly, the shared environmental influences on the three factors showed a different pattern from the genetic influences. ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension did not have overlapping shared environmental influences. However, there was an overlap of shared environmental influences between homework behavior and reading comprehension only. Broader aspects of the home, such as quiet and organized spaces (e.g., Hanscombe et al., 2011 ; Hart et al., 2007 ), or literacy-supportive home environments (e.g., many books in the home; Griffin & Morrison, 1997 ), may underlie the overlap of shared environmental influences measured between homework behavior and reading comprehension. It may also be the case that parental influences towards creating environments supporting homework practices and literacy are also at work. Further investigation of this association may be important to determine which characteristics of homework environments differentially influence reading comprehension skills in elementary and middle school-aged children. Interventions on homework behavior which have targeted the home environment have shown some success when children and parents are encouraged to designate a quiet study area, a consistent time to work on homework each day, and organized assignment tracking ( Toney, Kelley, & Lanclos, 2003 ). However, these interventions have focused on older middle school and high school student populations, therefore, research focusing on the homework environments of early elementary students may be a beneficial addition to the literature.

Finally, the results from the child-specific, non-shared environmental modeling indicated differential findings depending on which model was examined. Non-shared environmental influences were significant between ADHD and homework behavior for the full ADHD model and the ADHD Hyperactivity/Impulsivity model only. For the ADHD Inattention model, there were non-shared environmental influences overlapping across the three latent factors. This suggests that there may be non-shared environmental influences between ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension that are impacted by attentional mechanisms rather than mechanisms of hyperactivity. In general, these non-shared environmental influences could be features such as the room each twin choses to do homework or times of day during which the twins work on homework. Different times of day may be more chaotic in the home and a twin who works on homework during potentially more active and distractive times may be less able to effectively attend to homework tasks or read homework materials than his or her co-twin.

Although all three models suggested very similar general genetic and environmental trends, the literature suggests that the ADHD Inattention and ADHD Hyperactivity/Impulsivity factors would have influenced reading comprehension differentially at the very least (e.g., Rabiner, Coie, & The Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, 2000; Willcutt et al., 2007 ). For example, it has been indicated that the inattentive symptoms of ADHD only are attributable to lower academic achievement (Massetti, et al., 2008). The phenotypic correlations did indeed indicate that Inattention behaviors were slightly more negatively associated with reading comprehension than Hyperactivity/Impulsivity behaviors, supporting the previous behavioral literature. Despite this, the present results suggest that the extent to which various ADHD symptoms covary with homework behavior and reading comprehension, there are similar influences due to common genetic and environmental influences. Findings from other twin samples exploring similar research questions have been mixed, with one finding very similar results examining Inattention versus Hyperactivity/Impulsivity related to mathematics and reading ( Hart et al., 2010 ), but another finding differential results based on Inattention versus Hyperactivity/Impulsivity related to reading ( Willcutt et al., 2007 ).

As with all studies, the current study has limitations. First, this study included a very limited measure of homework behavior, with only a single item across two reporters concerning completion of homework used as a proxy for a wider range of homework behaviors. With only two indicators for the Homework Behavior factor and ADHD and Reading Comprehension represented with more rigorous measures, the latent factors within the models represented different levels of measurement. Future investigations may benefit from including a more in depth, standardized measure of homework behavior such as the Homework Problem Checklist ( Anesko, Schoiock, Ramirez, & Levine, 1987 ), which would allow a richer description of the homework environment as well as improving the measurement model. Additionally, model fit indices from the two phenotypic submodels which represented ADHD as either Inattention only or Hyperactivity only indicated that these models were a poorer representation of the data compared with the full ADHD model. However, these submodels were included in the genetically sensitive analyses in order to align with existing literature on the differential relation between Inattention and Hyperactivity symptoms of ADHD and reading comprehension. Also, the current sample is limited by reading comprehension measures from state measures of achievement only. A large body of reading comprehension measures has been developed, but they are not all equal in their accuracy and reliability in measuring the construct of reading comprehension ( Keenan, Betjemann, & Olson, 2008 ). The current findings are likely limited in generalizability to the similar measures of reading comprehension. A final important limitation to consider is that the direction of influence between ADHD, homework behavior and reading comprehension cannot be determined from the current results and, indeed, even bi-directional influences such as gene-environment correlations may also be present. For example, students with greater reading comprehension skills and less ADHD symptoms may be more likely to select quiet and organized spaces to work on homework assignments or, alternatively, students with poor reading comprehension skills or greater ADHD symptoms may evoke less attention from parents regarding their homework environments.

Despite a social push towards classroom-based indicators of success in high stakes testing, this work suggests that aspects of the home environment, as well as behavioral aspects, could play an important role in standardized reading outcomes. Preparation for high stakes testing is increasingly important as the frequency of standardized test administration increases due to national and state implementation of common core standards ( Carmichael, Martino, Porter-Magee, & Wilson, 2010 ). This work adds to the building literature that aspects outside of the classroom are important to consider for aspects of academic achievement such as reading comprehension. The current study revealed evidence of overlapping genetic influences between ADHD, homework and reading comprehension as well as environmental influences shared between homework, ADHD and reading comprehension. This work might suggest that focusing on aspects of homework (time, quality etc.) which are related to reading comprehension may be an important direction for future work. Further investigation of the environments in which children do homework is warranted to better understand the relations between ADHD, homework behavior, reading comprehension and other achievement measures.

Acknowledgements

The first author was supported by Predoctoral Interdisciplinary Fellowship (funded by the Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education (186000-520-025833)). The research project was supported, in part, by a grant from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P50 HD052120). Views expressed herein are those of the authors and have neither been reviewed nor approved by the granting agencies.

The authors wish to thank the twins and their families for their participation in making this research possible.

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Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, the 5 best homework help websites (free and paid).

Other High School , General Education

Listen: we know homework isn’t fun, but it is a good way to reinforce the ideas and concepts you’ve learned in class. But what if you’re really struggling with your homework assignments?

If you’ve looked online for a little extra help with your take-home assignments, you’ve probably stumbled across websites claiming to provide the homework help and answers students need to succeed . But can homework help sites really make a difference? And if so, which are the best homework help websites you can use?

Below, we answer these questions and more about homework help websites–free and paid. We’ll go over:

The basics of homework help websites
The cost of homework help websites
The five best homework websites out there
The pros and cons of using these websites for homework help
The line between “learning” and “cheating” when using online homework help
Tips for getting the most out of a homework help website

So let’s get started!

The Basics About Homework Help Websites–Free and Paid

Homework help websites are designed to help you complete your homework assignments, plain and simple.

What Makes a Homework Help Site Worth Using

Most of the best sites allow users to ask questions and then provide an answer (or multiple possible answers) and explanation in seconds. In some instances, you can even send a photo of a particular assignment or problem instead of typing the whole thing out!

Homework help sites also offer more than just help answering homework questions. Common services provided are Q&A with experts, educational videos, lectures, practice tests and quizzes, learning modules, math solving tools, and proofreading help. Homework help sites can also provide textbook solutions (i.e. answers to problems in tons of different textbooks your school might be using), one-on-one tutoring, and peer-to-peer platforms that allow you to discuss subjects you’re learning about with your fellow students.

And best of all, nearly all of them offer their services 24/7, including tutoring!

What You Should Should Look Out For

When it comes to homework help, there are lots–and we mean lots –of scam sites out there willing to prey on desperate students. Before you sign up for any service, make sure you read reviews to ensure you’re working with a legitimate company.

A word to the wise: the more a company advertises help that veers into the territory of cheating, the more likely it is to be a scam. The best homework help websites are going to help you learn the concepts you’ll need to successfully complete your homework on your own. (We’ll go over the difference between “homework help” and “cheating” a little later!)

You don't need a golden piggy bank to use homework help websites. Some provide low or no cost help for students like you!

How Expensive Are the Best Homework Help Websites?

First of all, just because a homework help site costs money doesn’t mean it’s a good service. Likewise, just because a homework help website is free doesn’t mean the help isn’t high quality. To find the best websites, you have to take a close look at the quality and types of information they provide!

When it comes to paid homework help services, the prices vary pretty widely depending on the amount of services you want to subscribe to. Subscriptions can cost anywhere from $2 to $150 dollars per month, with the most expensive services offering several hours of one-on-one tutoring with a subject expert per month.

The 5 Best Homework Help Websites

So, what is the best homework help website you can use? The answer is that it depends on what you need help with.

The best homework help websites are the ones that are reliable and help you learn the material. They don’t just provide answers to homework questions–they actually help you learn the material.

That’s why we’ve broken down our favorite websites into categories based on who they’re best for . For instance, the best website for people struggling with math might not work for someone who needs a little extra help with science, and vice versa.

Keep reading to find the best homework help website for you!

Best Free Homework Help Site: Khan Academy

Price: Free!
Best for: Practicing tough material

Not only is Khan Academy free, but it’s full of information and can be personalized to suit your needs. When you set up your account , you choose which courses you need to study, and Khan Academy sets up a personal dashboard of instructional videos, practice exercises, and quizzes –with both correct and incorrect answer explanations–so you can learn at your own pace.

As an added bonus, it covers more course topics than many other homework help sites, including several AP classes.

Runner Up: Brainly.com offers a free service that allows you to type in questions and get answers and explanations from experts. The downside is that you’re limited to two answers per question and have to watch ads.

Best Paid Homework Help Site: Chegg

Price: $14.95 to $19.95 per month
Best for: 24/7 homework assistance

This service has three main parts . The first is Chegg Study, which includes textbook solutions, Q&A with subject experts, flashcards, video explanations, a math solver, and writing help. The resources are thorough, and reviewers state that Chegg answers homework questions quickly and accurately no matter when you submit them.

Chegg also offers textbook rentals for students who need access to textbooks outside of their classroom. Finally, Chegg offers Internship and Career Advice for students who are preparing to graduate and may need a little extra help with the transition out of high school.

Another great feature Chegg provides is a selection of free articles geared towards helping with general life skills, like coping with stress and saving money. Chegg’s learning modules are comprehensive, and they feature solutions to the problems in tons of different textbooks in a wide variety of subjects.

Runner Up: Bartleby offers basically the same services as Chegg for $14.99 per month. The reason it didn’t rank as the best is based on customer reviews that say user questions aren’t answered quite as quickly on this site as on Chegg. Otherwise, this is also a solid choice!

Best Site for Math Homework Help: Photomath

Price: Free (or $59.99 per year for premium services)
Best for: Explaining solutions to math problems

This site allows you to t ake a picture of a math problem, and instantly pulls up a step-by-step solution, as well as a detailed explanation of the concept. Photomath also includes animated videos that break down mathematical concepts to help you better understand and remember them.

The basic service is free, but for an additional fee you can get extra study tools and learn additional strategies for solving common math problems.

Runner Up: KhanAcademy offers in-depth tutorials that cover complex math topics for free, but you won’t get the same tailored help (and answers!) that Photomath offers.

Best Site for English Homework Help: Princeton Review Academic Tutoring

Price: $40 to $153 per month, depending on how many hours of tutoring you want
Best for: Comprehensive and personalized reading and writing help

While sites like Grammarly and Sparknotes help you by either proofreading what you write via an algorithm or providing book summaries, Princeton Review’s tutors provide in-depth help with vocabulary, literature, essay writing and development, proofreading, and reading comprehension. And unlike other services, you’ll have the chance to work with a real person to get help.

The best part is that you can get on-demand English (and ESL) tutoring from experts 24/7. That means you can get help whenever you need it, even if you’re pulling an all-nighter!

This is by far the most expensive homework site on this list, so you’ll need to really think about what you need out of a homework help website before you commit. One added benefit is that the subscription covers over 80 other subjects, including AP classes, which can make it a good value if you need lots of help!

Best Site for STEM Homework Help: Studypool

Best for: Science homework help
Price: Varies; you’ll pay for each question you submit

When it comes to science homework help, there aren’t a ton of great resources out there. The best of the bunch is Studypool, and while it has great reviews, there are some downsides as well.

Let’s start with the good stuff. Studypool offers an interesting twist on the homework help formula. After you create a free account, you can submit your homework help questions, and tutors will submit bids to answer your questions. You’ll be able to select the tutor–and price point–that works for you, then you’ll pay to have your homework question answered. You can also pay a small fee to access notes, lectures, and other documents that top tutors have uploaded.

The downside to Studypool is that the pricing is not transparent . There’s no way to plan for how much your homework help will cost, especially if you have lots of questions! Additionally, it’s not clear how tutors are selected, so you’ll need to be cautious when you choose who you’d like to answer your homework questions.

What Are the Pros and Cons of Using Homework Help Sites?

Homework help websites can be a great resource if you’re struggling in a subject, or even if you just want to make sure that you’re really learning and understanding topics and ideas that you’re interested in. But, there are some possible drawbacks if you don’t use these sites responsibly.

We’ll go over the good–and the not-so-good–aspects of getting online homework help below.

3 Pros of Using Homework Help Websites

First, let’s take a look at the benefits.

#1: Better Grades Beyond Homework

This is a big one! Getting outside help with your studies can improve your understanding of concepts that you’re learning, which translates into better grades when you take tests or write essays.

Remember: homework is designed to help reinforce the concepts you learned in class. If you just get easy answers without learning the material behind the problems, you may not have the tools you need to be successful on your class exams…or even standardized tests you’ll need to take for college.

#2: Convenience

One of the main reasons that online homework help is appealing is because it’s flexible and convenient. You don’t have to go to a specific tutoring center while they’re open or stay after school to speak with your teacher. Instead, you can access helpful resources wherever you can access the internet, whenever you need them.

This is especially true if you tend to study at off hours because of your extracurriculars, work schedule, or family obligations. Sites that offer 24/7 tutoring can give you the extra help you need if you can’t access the free resources that are available at your school.

#3: Variety

Not everyone learns the same way. Maybe you’re more of a visual learner, but your teacher mostly does lectures. Or maybe you learn best by listening and taking notes, but you’re expected to learn something just from reading the textbook .

One of the best things about online homework help is that it comes in a variety of forms. The best homework help sites offer resources for all types of learners, including videos, practice activities, and even one-on-one discussions with real-life experts.

This variety can also be a good thing if you just don’t really resonate with the way a concept is being explained (looking at you, math textbooks!).

Not so fast. There are cons to homework help websites, too. Get to know them below!

3 Cons of Using Homework Help Websites

Now, let’s take a look at the drawbacks of online homework help.

#1: Unreliable Info

This can be a real problem. In addition to all the really good homework help sites, there are a whole lot of disreputable or unreliable sites out there. The fact of the matter is that some homework help sites don’t necessarily hire people who are experts in the subjects they’re talking about. In those cases, you may not be getting the accurate, up-to-date, and thorough information you need.

Additionally, even the great sites may not be able to answer all of your homework questions. This is especially true if the site uses an algorithm or chatbot to help students…or if you’re enrolled in an advanced or college-level course. In these cases, working with your teacher or school-provided tutors are probably your best option.

#2: No Clarification

This depends on the service you use, of course. But the majority of them provide free or low-cost help through pre-recorded videos. Watching videos or reading info online can definitely help you with your homework… but you can’t ask questions or get immediate feedback if you need it .

#3: Potential For Scamming

Like we mentioned earlier, there are a lot of homework help websites out there, and lots of them are scams. The review comments we read covered everything from outdated or wrong information, to misleading claims about the help provided, to not allowing people to cancel their service after signing up.

No matter which site you choose to use, make sure you research and read reviews before you sign up–especially if it’s a paid service!

When Does “Help” Become “Cheating”?

Admittedly, whether using homework help websites constitutes cheating is a bit of a grey area. For instance, is it “help” when a friend reads your essay for history class and corrects your grammar, or is it “cheating”? The truth is, not everyone agrees on when “help” crosses the line into “cheating .” When in doubt, it can be a good idea to check with your teacher to see what they think about a particular type of help you want to get.

That said, a general rule of thumb to keep in mind is to make sure that the assignment you turn in for credit is authentically yours . It needs to demonstrate your own thoughts and your own current abilities. Remember: the point of every homework assignment is to 1) help you learn something, and 2) show what you’ve learned.

So if a service answers questions or writes essays for you, there’s a good chance using it constitutes cheating.

Here’s an example that might help clarify the difference for you. Brainstorming essay ideas with others or looking online for inspiration is “help” as long as you write the essay yourself. Having someone read it and give you feedback about what you need to change is also help, provided you’re the one that makes the changes later.

But copying all or part of an essay you find online or having someone write (or rewrite) the whole thing for you would be “cheating.” The same is true for other subjects. Ultimately, if you’re not generating your own work or your own answers, it’s probably cheating.

5 Tips for Finding the Best Homework Help Websites for You

Now that you know some of our favorite homework help websites, free and paid, you can start doing some additional research on your own to decide which services might work best for you! Here are some top tips for choosing a homework help website.

Tip 1: Decide How You Learn Best

Before you decide which site or sites you’re going to use for homework help, y ou should figure out what kind of learning style works for you the most. Are you a visual learner? Then choose a site that uses lots of videos to help explain concepts. If you know you learn best by actually doing tasks, choose a site that provides lots of practice exercises.

Tip 2: Determine Which Subjects You Need Help With

Just because a homework help site is good overall doesn’t mean that it’s equally good for every subject. If you only need help in math, choose a site that specializes in that area. But if history is where you’re struggling, a site that specializes in math won’t be much help. So make sure to choose a site that you know provides high-quality help in the areas you need it most.

Tip 3: Decide How Much One-On-One Help You Need

This is really about cost-effectiveness. If you learn well on your own by reading and watching videos, a free site like Khan Academy is a good choice. But if you need actual tutoring, or to be able to ask questions and get personalized answers from experts, a paid site that provides that kind of service may be a better option.

Tip 4: Set a Budget

If you decide you want to go with a paid homework help website, set a budget first . The prices for sites vary wildly, and the cost to use them can add up quick.

Tip 5: Read the Reviews

Finally, it’s always a good idea to read actual reviews written by the people using these homework sites. You’ll learn the good, the bad, and the ugly of what the users’ experiences have been. This is especially true if you intend to subscribe to a paid service. You’ll want to make sure that users think it’s worth the price overall!

What’s Next?

If you want to get good grades on your homework, it’s a good idea to learn how to tackle it strategically. Our expert tips will help you get the most out of each assignment…and boost your grades in the process.

Doing well on homework assignments is just one part of getting good grades. We’ll teach you everything you need to know about getting great grades in high school in this article.

Of course, test grades can make or break your GPA, too. Here are 17 expert tips that’ll help you get the most out of your study prep before you take an exam.

Ashley Sufflé Robinson has a Ph.D. in 19th Century English Literature. As a content writer for PrepScholar, Ashley is passionate about giving college-bound students the in-depth information they need to get into the school of their dreams.

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Completing homework and reading assignments

Jun 17, 2020 • faq.

When your instructor assigns y ou a hom ework or reading assignment, you will have until the due date to complete an assignment for full credit. A late work policy will be applied to responses submitted after the due date.

If an instructor grants you an extension, you will be able to submit work for full credit until the extension deadline.

NOTE : If your instructor grants you an extension after they have already graded an assignment, you will only be able to attempt questions that haven’t been graded yet.

Topics included:

Reading assignment walk-through
Homework assignment walk-through
What is an individual review?
How do I know I have completed an assignment?

Reading assignment walk-through:

1. Click on a reading assignment on your dashboard.

2. The first page of the assignment is the details page, which includes:

Due date : the deadline for you to submit your work for full credit
Close date : the deadline for you to submit any late work
Late work policy information
Score weights for correctness vs completeness
Number of points the assignment is worth

3. Click Start to begin the assignment.

4. On pages with reading sections, you can highlight and make notes and view/manage your highlights via the My Highlights button. Learn more about highlighting here .

5. When answering questions, you can see the question type and the section in the textbook it comes from.

6. Click Overview to see a grid view of all the steps you have completed so far . You can navigate to any of these steps in this window.

Homework assignment walk-through:

1. Click on your homework assignment.

Close date : the deadline for you to submit any late work for credit

4. In the table above your assignment, you will see an overview of all the questions. You can click on any question to quickly navigate to that page.

5. When answering questions, you can see the number of points it is worth, as well as where in the textbook the question comes from. For written-response questions such as this one, you can re-submit as many times as you like until the due date. You can click on the info icon to learn more.

6. If you see ‘This question is closed’ that means the question has been closed for grading and you can no longer edit/add a response. You can click on the info icon to learn more.

What is Individual Review?

Your individual review is a set of questions that are tailored to you based on how you have performed so far in your course. These can show up in both your reading and homework assignments.

How do I know I have completed all the steps for an assignment?

You will know you have successfully completed an assignment when you see this completion page at the end.

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Suzanne Whitney, Wrightslaw Research Editor

Sue is the co-author of the 2001 book, Wrightslaw: No Child Left Behind. In 2015, Congress reauthorized the No Child Left Behind Act and replaced it with the Every Student Succeeds Act so NCLB is no longer good law.

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Reading Fluency - How Can I Get a Program That Works? Sue provides advice about how you can get appropriate reading instruction that will meet your child's needs. She offers a plan to obtain the knowledge you need to be an effective, educated member of your child's IEP team.

One Reason Kids Aren't Learning to Read . If we were graduating and certifying people who could teach reading they would be doing it. I can't find any state that requires a candidate for a certified education position to have training/certification in even one research based reading progra..

Why Use Research Based Reading Programs? Sue explains the reasoning behind the requirements in NCLB for research based programs and answers more questions about reading and research based reading programs.

My Son Has LD. How Can I Get the School to Teach Him to Read ? You are on the right track, but you do not have enough information. Find out what else you need to know and do.

Are Any Schools Using Research to Improve Reading? Jimmy Kilpatrick, publisher of EducationNews , asks: "Do you know of any school in the nation that has adopted and used successfully the NIH research in reading?" Sue Whitney explains how things are changing and why. Preventing Reading Difficulties and Reading Failure: Early Intervention and Prevention - Sue responds to a teacher's request for information about research on teaching children; includes a comprehensive list of free publications, articles, research - and a free video.

Interpreter as Teacher? Not in IDEA . Interpreters are not teachers. It is ridiculous that an IEP team would design an education plan that does not specify a teacher. It needs to be a teacher who speaks the same language as your son. Genes & Dyslexia: A Simple Test to Identify Dyslexic Children at Birth is Less Than One Year Away - The ease with which we can learn to read is governed by our biological make-up. A genetic test for dyslexia should be available within a year or less. Pediatricians will be able to accurately identify children with dyslexia at birth. How Can I Get a Trained Certified Reading Teacher? "I want my daughter to receive instruction from a certified, trained instructor who can bring her up to grade level. What can I do?"

Mom Needs Help: Child Can't Read - "My son cannot read. The teachers and principal at his school are wonderful. They want my son to have an aide during the day. The school board will not approve this. As a single mother of three children and a college student myself, I feel like I am being ignored." Getting Help for Children with Reading Problems - You have to ensure that your child learns to read, with or without help from the school. If you wait until you convince the school, you will miss the window of opportunity your son has to learn to read fluently

Reading is NOT "One Size Fits All" . A reading program needs to be chosen based upon the unique and individual needs of a particular student. One reading program will not work for all students, even if the reading program is research based. Reading Recovery & IEP Problems - Unless you have an independent evaluation that tells you that Reading Recovery is appropriate for your child, do not invest time in the program just because it is available, or just to see if it will work.

Research-Based Reading Instruction - Are there experts in this field? Is there a way to find tutors for children with reading problems and independent evaluators? Is there an organization that can answer questions that educators, school board members, and parents have about effective reading instruction? -- Yes to all these questions. Teaching a Child to Read: Special Ed or Reading First? - Is my son prohibited from being in Reading First because he's in special ed?

What Are the Criteria for Remedial Reading Programs? This article defines three reasons for reading failure, six qualities of effective reading programs, requirements for research based reading programs - and the price children pay when we do not teach them to read. Sue also describes the federal model reading program (90 minutes of instruction, 5 days a week) with frequent objective assessments, and provides you with questions you should ask about your child's reading program.

My Child is Making Progress - WHY Would the School Switch Reading Programs? Sue discusses the puzzling question of switching from one reading program to another program that is not interchageable and how making the change will require starting at a lower level in order to fill in gaps.

ADHD Diagnosis Should Not Mean Academic Failure . Does it make sense to you that distractibility and organization are the only problems? Children do not fail unless there is a reason for it.

Reading Comprehension Programs and Assessments . The most research-based and proven reading comprehension program on the planet is only useful when the comprehension issue is at the print level of language. Time for an evaluation.

High Test Scores, Disruptive in Class...Academic or Discipline Issue ? Unless your daughter has had a very recent private sector neuropsychological evaluation, you probably do not know specifically what she needs. Without knowing what she needs, it is more than likely you will not be successful in finding an appropriate school or program.

Advocacy Strategies

Can the School Retain an Honor Student Because of Health Needs? Sue recommends requesting eligibility under IDEA and explains why. She also provides a sample letter to request an eligibility meeting.

Can We Include a Health Care Plan in My Child's IEP? There is no need to write a separate Section 504 Plan. You should be able to include all needed accommodations in your daughter's IEP.

Are These Good IEP Goals? When IEP goals make no sense, you need to know your child's present levels - that is the starting point for writing good IEP goals.

Migraines, Medication, and Missed Instruction. Requesting Eligibility . How to write a letter to request an eligibility meeting under IDEA, and a sample letter. What Type of Training is Required to Become an Advocate? Sue Whitney, explains what you need to learn to become an advocate and where you can get training. You'll also find a reading and resource list.

All Wound Up With No Idea Where to Go . It's time focus on your son's needs and learn the skills you need to make things change for the better. how to focus your energy. It will help you "unwind" and turn your emotions into skilled advocacy.

Can a Child Be Punished for Not Meeting IEP Goals? If the teacher fails to meet the instructional objective, it makes no sense to punish the child. It is the teacher's failure. She has not taught your child what he needs to be able to do in order the reach the goa..

Our School Says the IEP has Expired: Now What? IEPs do not expire. An IEP remains in effect until a new one is written or you agree that an IEP for specialized instruction and related services is no longer needed. Behavior Problems and Discipline: What Parents and Teachers Need to Know - Learn about the child's right to a free appropriate education, the role of the IEP team, functional behavior assessments, behavior intervention plans, and alternative educational settings.

Transition from Special Ed Teacher to Special Ed Advocate. You are wise to prepare for becoming an advocate when you retire What's next? Sue Whitney offers 13 tips about what you need to do.

Behavior Problems: It Isn't Okay Just to Teach the Easy Kids - Sometimes schools discipline - even suspend or expel - students with disabilities for behavior caused by their disabilities. What should a parent do after the principal unilaterally moved her child from one class to another? Sue provides advice about how to deal with this "teacher problem" and how to avoid similar problems in the future.

How Can I File a Section 504 Complaint? - A parent is distressed when his child is dismissed from a sports team. Sue offers a plan to deal with the immediate crisis, provides information about how to get an appropriate 504 Plan - and to ensure that the school implements the plan.

Must Colleges Waive Course Requirements for Students with Disabilities? Should We File a Section 504 Complaint? In this article, Sue answers this question, "My son's disability diagnosis prevents higher math and the Disability Services office at his college denied a waiver for a higher math class requirement. How do we file a Section 504 complaint against the school?"

How to Organize a Successful Parent Group - In response to a parent's request for advice, Sue explains how to develop a communication network, build a simple website, publicize events, team up with other groups, and more. "The key to success is to empower others by providing quality information."

How to Work Effectively With Your State Advisory Panel . This is good place to be if you would like to encourage change. Here are some more tips that will be helpful as you serve. Child's Test Scores Dropping, School Doesn't Care - What Can I Do? - Although it is normal to feel angry and frustrated when your child needs help, this won't help your son in the long run. If you focus on who is to blame, you are likely to burn out before you . . ." Your Child's IEP & Progress in the General Curriculum - Your child's IEP should be based on information from current evaluations (present levels of educational performance) and your state's curriculum and standards . Making the Transition from School to Work - Parents need to start thinking about transition to adulthood when their children are toddlers. Schools do not need to address this issue until the child is 16. Model Section 504 Plans - You can download excellent model 504 plans and health plans from the American Diabetes Association site . These forms can be modified to cover other medical problems. Tip : Consult with your child's pediatrician to make sure the plan is complete and covers all your child's health needs. Most Powerful Advocacy Tool in IDEA 2004: Your State Advisory Panel - Sue Whitney explains why your state advisory panel is a powerful tool for change, and asks you to get involved. Child Has Health Problems, School Reports Him Truant - Sue Whitney explains, "You need to take steps to document that your child's absences were due to illness. You also need to prevent this from happening again. Here is your plan . . .". This article includes links to sample Section 504 and medical plans. What Can I Ask the School to Do? - Advice for parents who have questions about what they can ask the school to do and how to prepare for meetings. Learn about IEPs, research-based reading programs, retention, and other thorny issues. What Can One Person Do? (Do YOU have a free hour? ) - Realistically, what can one person do? Isn't it expensive and time consuming to make any changes? Don't you have to know a lot before you can teach others? Don't you need a base to start from? I don't think so . . .

Retention & High-Stakes Testing Retention! Special Ed Teacher Needs Ammunition - Retention is not an educationally sound practice for any student, regardless of whether or not they have a disability.

Why Retain? It Didn't Work the First Time . Sue responds to a parent's fear that her son will not learn to read. She explains that redoing the same unsuccessful reading instruction all over again for a second year is ineffective.

Retention is Not a Form of Specialized Instruction . Meeting your child's needs through an effective IEP would be the logical approach. Since his instruction in second grade the first time through did not meet his needs, it does not seem logical to repeat that again.

What Diploma Path is Your Child On? Will Retention Push Him Off That Path? Don't bet the farm on the elementary school teacher's understanding of state and federal law. You need to be very sure that you understand which diploma you have agreed to.

The School Just Told Me They Plan to Retain My Son . You will need to educate yourself before you can get the school to educate your son. This article will tell you where to start.

Exit Exams Can Be Optional If You Plan Ahead - Describes a simple strategy that allows students who complete high school coursework but do not pass the state exit exam to graduate with a high school diploma - with or without a graduation ceremony.

10 Strategies to Fight Mandatory Retention Policies - Since High Stakes! Can the School Use a Single Test to Retain My Child? was published, many people have written about Florida's "mandatory retention policy" that third graders who do not pass the FCAT must be retained. So far, no one has been able to provide anything in the law that backs this up.

Answers to Questions about Accommodations on High-Stakes Tests - If the IEP or 504 plan calls for these accommodations in other school situations, they may be called for on a state test where the score is reported for accountability under NCLB. However, if . . . "

* * * * * * * * * *

Note: In 2015, Congress reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), the statute formerly known as No Child Left Behind. The new statute, Every Student Succeeds Act , was signed into law by President Obama on December 10, 2015.

No Child Left Behind

Parent Volunteers are NOT a Substitute for Trained Teachers - Answers to a parent's questions about volunteers in the classroom. Sue explains the need for formal accommodation and treatment plans for students with disabilities that are implemented by trained teachers, NOT parent volunteers. Answering Questions about Support for NCLB - Up until now, schools continued to get federal money, whether they taught kids or not. Now we are requiring results in exchange for the money. As a taxpayer and a parent, that makes sense to me. NCLB, School Choice and Tutoring - Children who attend schools that do not make Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) may be able to transfer to better performing schools or receive free tutoring and other supplemental services. Parents need to plan ahead to make this happen. NCLB: Measuring Annual Yearly Progress - Confused about AYP? You aren't alone. In this article, you'll learn how AYP is calculated and how progress is measured toward the goal of teaching all children to read at grade level by 2014. NCLB: How Will Kids Be Tested in NCLB? A psychologist writes: "I have a question about NCLB. As I read it, all kids need to be on grade level as measured by the statewide assessments. As a psychologist, I don't get it. School Choice and Supplemental Educational Services - If you do your homework and plan ahead, you can take advantage of opportunities in No Child Left Behind when they arise. Something Fairly Amazing Happened on December 9 - NCLB - "Several critical elements in title I as amended by the NCLB Act ensure that schools are held accountable for educational results, so that the best education possible is provided to each and every student (emphasis added).” (Federal Register December 9, 2003) What Teachers, Principals & School Administrators Need to Know About NCLB - The No Child Left Behind Act affects virtually every person employed in the public school system.

An Interview with Suzanne Whitney: Parents, Laws and NCLB (EducationNews.org) - "Is the educational process becoming more complex?" Sue Whitney answers questions about IDEA, IEPs, No Child Left Behind and Section 504. (11/14/05) States Send Millions Back to Feds! Lack of Federal Funds? Not Really . States Sit on 5.7 Billion in Federal Education Funds - How Does Your State Rank? Response to "NCLB Weapons of Public Education Destruction" To Top Last Revised: 2/14/2021

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Artificial Intelligence

Best printer 2024, best printer for home use, office use, printing labels, printer for school, homework printer you are a printer we are all printers

After a full year of not thinking about printers, the best printer is still whatever random brother laser printer that’s on sale..

By Nilay Patel , editor-in-chief of the Verge, host of the Decoder podcast, and co-host of The Vergecast.

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If you buy something from a Verge link, Vox Media may earn a commission. See our ethics statement.

A blurry photo of a Brother laser printer.

It’s been over a year since I last told you to just buy a Brother laser printer , and that article has fallen down the list of Google search results because I haven’t spent my time loading it up with fake updates every so often to gain the attention of the Google search robot.

It’s weird because the correct answer to the query “what is the best printer” has not changed, but an entire ecosystem of content farms seems motivated to constantly update articles about printers in response to the incentive structure created by that robot’s obvious preferences . Pointing out that incentive structure and the culture that’s developed around it seems to make a lot of people mad , which is also interesting!

Anyway, here’s the best printer for 2024: a Brother laser printer. You can just pick any one you like; I have one with a sheet feeder and one without a sheet feeder. Both of them have reliably printed return labels and random forms and pictures for my kid to color for years now, and I have never purchased replacement toner for either one. Neither has fallen off the WiFi or insisted I sign up for an ink-related hostage situation or required me to consider the ongoing schemes of HP executives who seem determined to make people hate a legendary brand with straightforward cash grabs and weird DRM ideas .

I am including a box with buttons to buy a Brother laser printer; the buttons kick us back small affiliate fees if you press them and buy a printer. Don’t feel compelled to do it; my only ask is that you make this article go viral by sharing it in faux-outrage that the EIC of The Verge has published an article partially generated by AI, because after the buttons I am going to include a bunch of AI-generated copy from Google’s Gemini in order to pad this thing out.

Brother HL-L2305W

The Brother HL-L2305W is a basic laser printer that connects to Wi-Fi, works reliably, and lasts ages on a single toner cartridge. It’s a printer that just prints, and everyone you know already has one.

Here’s what Google Gemini had to say when I asked it about Brother laser printers, which is not worth reading but which is by definition an incredible example of experience, expertise, authority, and trustworthiness because Google is synthesizing the entire web for this information, right? Isn’t that the whole idea of these LLMs, or are we just kind of fooling ourselves

Brother laser printers are strong contenders in the market, but they might not be the absolute “best” for everyone. Here’s a breakdown of why Brother laser printers are popular and some things to consider:

Strengths of Brother Laser Printers:

Cost-effective for high volume printing: Brother laser printers are known for their lower running costs, especially for black and white printing. Toner cartridges last longer than inkjet cartridges, bringing down the cost per page.
Fast printing speeds: Brother laser printers excel in print speed, making them ideal for offices or frequent users who need quick printing.
Sharp text quality: Laser technology produces crisp, sharp black and white text, perfect for documents and professional presentations.
Reliable performance: Brother printers are generally known for their durability and reliability.

However, there are some trade-offs to consider:

Higher upfront cost: Laser printers tend to be more expensive than inkjet printers initially.
Limited color options: While some Brother models offer color laser printing, they might be pricier and have higher color toner costs compared to inkjet printers. Inkjets often provide a wider range of vibrant colors for photos and graphics.
Bulkier size: Laser printers are generally larger and heavier than inkjets due to the toner technology.

So, Brother laser printers are a great choice for:

High-volume black and white printing needs: Offices or frequent users who primarily print documents will benefit from the cost-effectiveness and speed of Brother laser printers.
Users who prioritize sharp text quality: Brother lasers excel in producing crisp, professional-looking text documents.

However, if you:

Need a budget-friendly option for occasional printing: An inkjet printer might be a better choice.
Require vibrant color printing for photos or graphics: A high-quality inkjet photo printer might be a better fit.
Have limited space: A more compact inkjet printer could be a better option.

Ultimately, the best printer depends on your specific needs and priorities. Consider your printing volume, color requirements, budget, and available space to make an informed decision. Brother laser printers are strong contenders, especially for black and white printing needs, but weigh the pros and cons against other options like inkjets before deciding.

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IMAGES

Reading Homework: Making it Meaningful
Asian young Student in casual suit reading and doing homework in
Homework
Reading Homework: Making it Meaningful
Mother or Teacher Helping for School Kids Doing Homework, Reading Stock
Mother and Child Daughter Doing Homework Writing and Reading Stock

VIDEO

Homework reading
Homework 1
Do my homework(reading)with me!😭😭😭
school work reading book
homework lesson 5 reading analog voltages
English homework / Reading from Nayeli Proaño ♡

COMMENTS

Key Lessons: What Research Says About the Value of Homework
Too much homework may diminish its effectiveness. While research on the optimum amount of time students should spend on homework is limited, there are indications that for high school students, 1½ to 2½ hours per night is optimum. Middle school students appear to benefit from smaller amounts (less than 1 hour per night).
Effective Practices for Homework
Optimal time per night spent on homework varies with grade level. For, primary, upper elementary, middle school, and high school grades, the optimal time is about 20, 40, 60, and 90 minutes, respectively. Homework is given often. Reports indicate that students may get as many 400 assignments per year in grades 7-10.
How to Motivate Students to Actually Do Homework and Reading
And I sometimes delegate some portion of the work to a teaching assistant. The most common homework given to students in most classes is reading. To incentivize that, I typically assign reading exercises and quizzes. First, I ask students to submit analog or digital notes related to what they read.
Does Homework Improve Reading Achievement?
That starts to change as one transitions into the upper grades, presumably because students are more able to apply their reading skills independently. In grades 3-8, homework has a fairly consistent impact on achievement — and the payoff tends to increase as students advance through the grades (but so does the amount of homework time needed ...
Free Online Reading Passages and Literacy Resources
CommonLit is a comprehensive literacy program with thousands of reading lessons, full-year ELA curriculum, benchmark assessments, and standards-based data for teachers. Get started for free. for teachers, students, & families. Explore school services.
ELA practice (beta)
Syntax: sentences and clauses. Syntax: conventions of standard English. Usage and style. ELA practice exercises (beta) for 2nd to 9th grade, covering reading comprehension and vocabulary. Aligned to Common Core State Standards for Reading: Literature; Reading: Informational Text, and Vocabulary Acquisition and Use.
How to help kids with reading at home
There are many low-cost tools that can help kids with reading. Graphic organizers can help kids keep track of their thoughts when reading. For example, kids can use this graphic organizer to help them keep track of the elements of a story. Story elements graphic organizer PDF - 47.5 KB. Download.
Homework Helps: A Reading Specialist's Tips
Find a combination of assigned homework and additional reading, writing, and math fun. The major goal of homework is to improve or to enhance learning. Homework should be relevant and purposeful, and involve practice, preparation, and extension. It should be meaningful practice work, but it should not be trivial busy work.
Homework challenges and strategies
The challenge: Managing time and staying organized. Some kids struggle with keeping track of time and making a plan for getting all of their work done. That's especially true of kids who have trouble with executive function. Try creating a homework schedule and set a specific time and place for your child to get homework done.
How to Do Homework: 15 Expert Tips and Tricks
You finish one episode, then decide to watch another even though you've got SAT studying to do. It's just more fun to watch people make scones. D. Start the episode, but only catch bits and pieces of it because you're reading Twitter, cleaning out your backpack, and eating a snack at the same time. 5.
The Pros and Cons of Homework
Homework has long been a source of debate, with parents, educators, and education specialists debating the advantages of at-home study. ... reading a book, or socializing with friends and family. Having leisure time teaches kids valuable skills that cannot be acquired when doing their homework at a computer. Plus, students need to get enough ...
Reading Homework Help and Exercises
Reading homework can also include long-term projects, like book reports. Many kids struggle with reading homework, but your child may find it less challenging if he practices reading frequently outside of the classroom. Encourage at least 30 minutes of reading for pleasure each day. You may also want to provide additional comprehension ...
An Examination of the Associations between ADHD, Homework Behavior and
Homework has been long associated with school achievement in domains of math, science and reading, with research suggesting higher reading comprehension skills are associated with higher levels of homework assignment and completion (Artelt, Baumert, Julius-McElvany, & Peschar, 2001).
PDF Suitable Homework Boosts Highschool Learning Effects
The Figure Shows a Correlation of the Optimal Time Spending on Homework and Reading Scores of Grade 4 Students (Nixon, 2015). Students' biggest issue with homework is long time consuming. Pope and Galloway recently surveyed more than 4,300 students from 10 high-achieving high schools. Students reported bringing home an average of just over ...
Learning to Read, Reading to Learn
The ability to notice, think about, and work with the individual sounds in spoken words. refers to an understanding that words and syllables are comprised of a sequence of elementary speech sounds. This understanding is essential to learning to read an alphabetic language.
The 5 Best Homework Help Websites (Free and Paid!)
Best Paid Homework Help Site: Chegg. Price: $14.95 to $19.95 per month. Best for: 24/7 homework assistance. This service has three main parts. The first is Chegg Study, which includes textbook solutions, Q&A with subject experts, flashcards, video explanations, a math solver, and writing help.
Free Worksheets for Kids
K5 Learning offers free worksheets, flashcards and inexpensive workbooks for kids in kindergarten to grade 5. Become a member to access additional content and skip ads. Free worksheets for kindergarten to grade 5 kids. Over 10,000 math, reading, grammar and writing, vocabulary, spelling and cursive writing worksheets.
Homework Pros and Cons
Homework does not help younger students, and may not help high school students. We've known for a while that homework does not help elementary students. A 2006 study found that "homework had no association with achievement gains" when measured by standardized tests results or grades. [ 7]
English Reading: English Texts for Beginners
English texts for beginners to practice reading and comprehension online and for free. Practicing your comprehension of written English will both improve your vocabulary and understanding of grammar and word order. The texts below are designed to help you develop while giving you an instant evaluation of your progress. Prepared by experienced ...
Completing homework and reading assignments
Reading assignment walk-through: 1. Click on a reading assignment on your dashboard. 2. The first page of the assignment is the details page, which includes: Due date: the deadline for you to submit your work for full credit. Close date: the deadline for you to submit any late work. Late work policy information.
Homework
Reading 101. Explore reading basics as well as the key role of background knowledge and motivation in becoming a lifelong reader and learner. Watch our PBS Launching Young Readers series and try our self-paced Reading 101 course to deepen your understanding. ... Homework. By: Adrienne Yorinks. Illustrated by: Richard Egielski. Genre: Fiction ...
Doing Your Homework: Reading, Research-based Instruction, Creative
Suzanne Whitney writes Doing Your Homework, a series about reading, research based instruction, creative advocacy strategies, and school improvement. Sue is the co-author of the 2001 book, Wrightslaw: No Child Left Behind.
Free AI Homework Helper
A 24/7 free homework AI tutor that instantly provides personalized step-by-step guidance, explanations, and examples for any homework problem. Improve your grades with our AI homework helper!
Best printer 2024, best printer for home use, office use, printing
Anyway, here's the best printer for 2024: a Brother laser printer. You can just pick any one you like; I have one with a sheet feeder and one without a sheet feeder.