public safety essay

Presentations made painless

• Get Premium

107 Public Safety Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Public safety is a crucial aspect of any society, as it ensures the well-being and security of its citizens. In order to address the various issues related to public safety, it is important to have a comprehensive understanding of the different factors that can affect it. With this in mind, here are 107 public safety essay topic ideas and examples that can serve as a starting point for further research and discussion:

• The impact of social media on public safety
• Strategies for preventing school shootings
• The role of technology in enhancing public safety
• The importance of community policing in ensuring public safety
• The effectiveness of gun control laws in reducing crime rates
• The challenges of ensuring public safety in a multicultural society
• The impact of substance abuse on public safety
• The role of mental health services in addressing public safety concerns
• The relationship between poverty and crime rates
• The challenges of policing in urban areas
• The role of surveillance cameras in enhancing public safety
• The impact of domestic violence on public safety
• Strategies for preventing cybercrime
• The challenges of ensuring public safety during natural disasters
• The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs in reducing recidivism rates
• The role of public transportation in enhancing public safety
• The impact of climate change on public safety
• The challenges of ensuring public safety in rural areas
• The role of emergency response teams in ensuring public safety
• The effectiveness of community watch programs in reducing crime rates
• The impact of human trafficking on public safety
• The challenges of ensuring public safety in overcrowded prisons
• The role of education in promoting public safety awareness
• The effectiveness of restorative justice programs in reducing crime rates
• The impact of organized crime on public safety
• The challenges of ensuring public safety in border regions
• The role of mental health courts in addressing public safety concerns
• The effectiveness of gun buyback programs in reducing crime rates
• The impact of substance abuse treatment programs on public safety
• The challenges of ensuring public safety in a digital age
• The role of public health initiatives in promoting public safety
• The effectiveness of crime prevention through environmental design strategies
• The impact of mass shootings on public safety
• The challenges of ensuring public safety in a post-9/11 world
• The role of community centers in promoting public safety
• The effectiveness of early intervention programs in reducing crime rates
• The impact of racial profiling on public safety
• The challenges of ensuring public safety in a globalized world
• The role of neighborhood watch programs in promoting public safety
• The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing recidivism rates
• The impact of cyberbullying on public safety
• The challenges of ensuring public safety in a politically divided society
• The role of emergency preparedness in promoting public safety
• The effectiveness of gun violence restraining order laws in reducing crime rates
• The impact of hate crimes on public safety
• The challenges of ensuring public safety in a gentrifying neighborhood
• The role of social services in addressing public safety concerns
• The effectiveness of crime mapping technology in reducing crime rates
• The impact of human rights violations on public safety
• The challenges of ensuring public safety in a post-pandemic world
• The role of public safety campaigns in promoting awareness
• The effectiveness of diversion programs in reducing recidivism rates
• The impact of police militarization on public safety
• The challenges of ensuring public safety in a surveillance society
• The role of community engagement in promoting public safety
• The effectiveness of drug decriminalization in reducing crime rates
• The impact of environmental pollution on public safety
• The challenges of ensuring public safety in a post-truth era
• The role of restorative justice in addressing public safety concerns
• The effectiveness of mental health first aid training in reducing crime rates
• The impact of gun violence on public safety
• The challenges of ensuring public safety in a post-disaster recovery
• The role of public safety education in schools
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for youth offenders
• The impact of hate speech on public safety
• The challenges of ensuring public safety in a polarized society
• The role of crisis intervention teams in addressing mental health crises
• The effectiveness of trauma-informed care in reducing crime rates
• The role of community policing in promoting trust and cooperation
• The effectiveness of violence prevention programs in reducing crime rates
• The challenges of ensuring public safety during a public health crisis
• The role of technology in enhancing emergency response systems
• The role of community watch programs in promoting neighborhood safety
• The effectiveness of community policing in reducing crime rates

In conclusion, public safety is a multifaceted issue that requires a comprehensive approach to address the various challenges and concerns that can affect it. By exploring the various topics and examples provided above, individuals can gain a better understanding of the different factors that can impact public safety and work towards developing effective strategies and solutions to promote the well-being and security of all members of society.

Want to create a presentation now?

Instantly Create A Deck

Let PitchGrade do this for me

Hassle Free

We will create your text and designs for you. Sit back and relax while we do the work.

Explore More Content

• Privacy Policy
• Terms of Service

© 2023 Pitchgrade

Public Safety Essays

Qualitative and quantitative research methods, reducing recidivism through counseling and support programs for violent offenders, the mexican mafia: insights into a notorious criminal syndicate, what is the prison industrial complex and how does it affect america positively and negatively, reasons why gun control laws are bad, balancing the goals of corrections in the criminal justice system, the impact of ‘truth in sentencing’ legislation on the criminal justice system in wisconsin, creating a sustainable ecotourism model in florida: a case study for the everglades, city project: waco texas, dissenting opinion on miranda v. arizona (1966), demilitarizing the police force: promoting community-centric policing for public safety and civil liberties, dealing with a flood of decisions: a case study of wivenhoe dam operations, popular essay topics.

• American Dream
• Artificial Intelligence
• Black Lives Matter
• Bullying Essay
• Career Goals Essay
• Causes of the Civil War
• Child Abusing
• Civil Rights Movement
• Community Service
• Cultural Identity
• Cyber Bullying
• Death Penalty
• Depression Essay
• Domestic Violence
• Freedom of Speech
• Global Warming
• Gun Control
• Human Trafficking
• I Believe Essay
• Immigration
• Importance of Education
• Israel and Palestine Conflict
• Leadership Essay
• Legalizing Marijuanas
• Mental Health
• National Honor Society
• Police Brutality
• Pollution Essay
• Racism Essay
• Romeo and Juliet
• Same Sex Marriages
• Social Media
• The Great Gatsby
• The Yellow Wallpaper
• Time Management
• To Kill a Mockingbird
• Violent Video Games
• What Makes You Unique
• Why I Want to Be a Nurse
• Send us an e-mail

What Does the Research Say About Public Safety and Criminal Justice Reform?

As a spike in homicides triggers a political backlash, top experts identify how an inefficient and ineffective justice system fails to promote public safety.

• Pretrial Justice
• Community Supervision
• Reintegration
• Police Accountability
• Violence Reduction
• Community Safety
• Share on Twitter
• Share on Facebook
• Share on LinkedIn

Sign up for our newsletter

In 2020 , a record spike in homicides struck cities from coast to coast, big and small, red and blue. While preliminary official 2021 crime counts suggest the rate of increase has slowed , homicides still sit at elevated levels, and public safety has become a top concern for voters leading into the 2022 midterm elections.

Experts have posited various potential explanations for this sudden shift in homicide trends: the increased number of guns on the street; economic and social disruptions caused by the COVID- 19 pandemic; lack of trust in and cooperation with the justice system that sharpened following the murder of George Floyd and the resulting protests and calls for racial justice in summer 2020 . Meanwhile, partisan politicians and pundits continue to insist, despite research and common sense showing otherwise, that local criminal justice reforms are responsible for this nationwide trend. Firm explanations for the causes for the crime spike are premature and challenging due to data limitations , which undoubtedly complicates the efforts of policymakers who need to take quick action to address violence. 

As a philanthropy dedicated to improving lives by driving sustainable change to the justice system, the spike in homicides and the resulting political pushback by some against criminal justice reform led Arnold Ventures to reflect on the relationship between community safety and justice reform . Arnold Ventures’ programmatic work, from policing to pretrial justice to corrections, is built on the idea that reform and safety are not opposite ends of a spectrum, but can operate in tandem. 

That is why we turned to the experts to help us understand what the evidence says about the relationship between community safety, the justice system, and reform. We collaborated with eight scholars who have deep substantive and methodological expertise in their respective issue areas, and asked that they write discussion papers looking at the state of research around specific aspects of the criminal justice system. These papers each respond to two broad prompts. 

First, how does a particular aspect of the justice system advance or undermine community safety? 

Second, what is your summary or assessment of the evidence, and are there remaining research questions that need to be answered? 

The following six papers are the scholars’ independent and thoughtful reviews of the available evidence in response to those prompts: 

• Dr. Shani Buggs (University of California, Davis) discusses how sustained reductions in violence require investing in the people and neighborhoods most impacted by violence through adequately funded community-based violence intervention efforts.  Read the paper:  Community-Based Violence Interruption &  Public Safety
• Dr. Aaron Chalfin (University of Pennsylvania) discusses how investments in law enforcement are a scalable and effective strategy to maintain public safety, particularly when their efforts are focused on the places and people at the highest risk of violent crime.  Read the paper:  Policing &  Public Safety
• Dr. Sandra Susan Smith (Harvard University)  discusses how the costs of pretrial detention far outweigh its benefits for the vast majority of people brought into the system because of the extensive harms done to people detained, their families, and the communities in which they live. Read the paper:  Pretrial Detention, Pretrial Release &  Public Safety
• Dr. Jennifer Doleac (Texas A & M University) and Dr. Michael LaForest (Penn State University) discuss the limited empirical evidence of the effect of community supervision (probation and parole) policy and practice on community safety despite the scale of its use as a sanction for criminal behavior and alternative to incarceration.  Read the paper:  Community Supervision &  Public Safety
• Dr. Daniel Nagin (Carnegie Mellon University) discusses how the current incarceration practices in the United States, particularly multi-decade sentences, are an inefficient use of public resources and are not shown by evidence to have a deterrent effect on crime.  Read the paper:  Incarceration &  Public Safety
• Dr. Megan Denver and Ms. Abigail Ballou (Northeastern University) discuss how widespread post-conviction sanctions, restrictions, and disqualifications for individuals with criminal records and histories of justice system involvement can interact and accumulate in ways that are counterproductive to safety.  Read the paper:  Collateral Consequences &  Public Safety

These papers make a significant contribution to the public conversation as individual products, but they can also be read together as concluding: The evidence suggests there are real public safety benefits associated with the functions of the justice system. At the same time, some of the current practices remain inefficient, produce serious harms, and operate in ways that are counterproductive to community safety .

Reform efforts should be aimed at the specific practices and policies that fail to accomplish their stated goals, inflict unnecessary harm, and impose costs that outweigh the purported benefits. These financial, individual, and social costs aren’t limited to those who are arrested, prosecuted, detained, and incarcerated. Families, friends, communities, and the broader public all pay a price. 

It is also worth noting that policymakers and the public alike are waking up to the reality that, even during recent periods of historically low violent crime, gun violence and homicides have been concentrated in economically disadvantaged Black and Brown neighborhoods, and among young Black and Brown men. 1 2 3 4  For decades, the government has failed to provide the support and investment these neighborhoods need to be safe and thrive. In these communities, relationships with police and the justice system have been defined by a history of marginalization, coercion, and control and a lack of mutual trust and cooperation. 5 6 7

It is becoming increasingly clear that overreliance on punitive measures — like arrests, detention, and incarceration — not only have a disproportionate impact on poor Black and Brown communities, but are also insufficient to support lasting improvements to public safety. Experts and activists are working to craft and implement new ways to build sustainably safe neighborhoods by coupling community investments with a  system response .

At the same time, as these scholars discuss in their papers, significant gaps exist in our understanding of the efficacy of alternatives to the criminal justice system status quo. Consistent with our mission to maximize opportunity and minimize injustice — and encouraged by these compelling papers — Arnold Ventures will continue to build the evidence and test innovations on advancing safety and justice reform and use the best available evidence to drive public conversation and craft policy that can improve people’s lives. 

Braga, Anthony, David M. Hureau, and Andrew V. Papachristos. 2010. The concentration and stability of gun violence at micro places in Boston, 1980–2008. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 26:33–53

Weisburd DL, Bushway S, Lum C, Yang S-M (2004) Trajectories of crime at places: a longitudinal study of street segments in the city of Seattle. Criminology 42:283–321

Weisburd, David, and Cody W. Telep. 2014. Law of crime concentrations at places. In Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice, eds. David Weisburd and Gerben Buinsma. New York: Springer Verlag

Andresen, Martin A., and Nicolas Malleson. 2011. Testing the stability of crime patterns: Implications for theory and policy. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 48:58–82

Bell, Monica. 2020. “Legal Estrangement: A Concept for These Times.” American Sociological Association Special Issue: Race, Police Violence, and Justice , p.7-8

Hinton, Elizabeth and DeAnza Cook. 2021. “The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview.” Annual Review of Criminology, 4(1) , 261-86

Sossm, Joseph and Vesla Weaver. 2017. Police Are Our Government: Politics, Political Science, and the Policing of Race-Class Subjugated Communities . Annual Review of Political Science, 2017, 20:565-91

More from Policing

• “ The gold standard should be to implement policies that are supported by data” “ The gold standard should be to implement policies that are supported by data” Policing
• A Year of Criminal Justice Reform Wins A Year of Criminal Justice Reform Wins Policing
• 23 Stories of Transformative Policymaking from  2023 23 Stories of Transformative Policymaking from  2023 Year in Review
• Funding strong, causal evidence on what works: Q & A with Jennifer Doleac Funding strong, causal evidence on what works: Q & A with Jennifer Doleac Q&A
• Arnold Ventures’ Jennifer Doleac Speaks With Crime Stoppers of Houston About Criminal Justice Research Arnold Ventures’ Jennifer Doleac Speaks With Crime Stoppers of Houston About Criminal Justice Research Policing
• How a Former Police Officer is Working For Accountability How a Former Police Officer is Working For Accountability Policing
• Congress Is Engaging in a Harmful Piece of Political Theater by Disapproving D.C.’s Common Sense Police Reform Bill Congress Is Engaging in a Harmful Piece of Political Theater by Disapproving D.C.’s Common Sense Police Reform Bill Op-Ed
• Durham’s New Crisis Response Program Hits the Big Screen Durham’s New Crisis Response Program Hits the Big Screen Policing
• ‘ What It Means to Reimagine Justice’ ‘ What It Means to Reimagine Justice’ Q&A
• Investing in Fair and Effective Policing to Reduce Crime and Improve Community Safety Investing in Fair and Effective Policing to Reduce Crime and Improve Community Safety Policing
• ‘ Something Good Will Come of This’ ‘ Something Good Will Come of This’ Policing
• Our Take on the 2023 State of the Union Our Take on the 2023 State of the Union Policing
• Demanding Accountability After the Killing of Tyre Nichols Demanding Accountability After the Killing of Tyre Nichols Policing
• Alternatives to Police Crisis Response Are Driving Improved Public Safety Alternatives to Police Crisis Response Are Driving Improved Public Safety Policing
• 5 Things to Watch in Criminal Justice in  2023 5 Things to Watch in Criminal Justice in  2023 Look Ahead
• 5 Big Wins for Criminal Justice in  2022 5 Big Wins for Criminal Justice in  2022 2022 Year in Review
• 22 Stories of Change from  2022 22 Stories of Change from  2022 2022 Year in Review
• On Gun Policy, Judges and Policymakers Should Listen to Law Enforcement and Other Experts On Gun Policy, Judges and Policymakers Should Listen to Law Enforcement and Other Experts Op-Ed
• Part 2 : Building an Infrastructure Toward Police Accountability Part 2 : Building an Infrastructure Toward Police Accountability Policing
• Part 1 : Once an Outlier, New Jersey Is Making Inroads in Police Reform Part 1 : Once an Outlier, New Jersey Is Making Inroads in Police Reform Policing

What are you looking for?

Have an evidence-based week

Get The Abstract from Arnold Ventures delivered to your inbox.

Gun Control Essay: Important Topics, Examples, and More

Gun Control Definition

Gun control refers to the regulation of firearms to reduce the risk of harm caused by their misuse. It is an important issue that has garnered much attention in recent years due to the increasing number of gun-related incidents, including mass shootings and homicides. Writing an essay about gun control is important because it allows one to explore the various aspects of this complex and controversial topic, including the impact of gun laws on public safety, the constitutional implications of gun control, and the social and cultural factors that contribute to gun violence.

In writing an essay on gun control, conducting thorough research, considering multiple perspectives, and developing a well-informed argument is important. This may involve analyzing existing gun control policies and their effectiveness, exploring the attitudes and beliefs of different groups towards firearms, and examining the historical and cultural context of gun ownership and use. Through this process, one can develop a nuanced understanding of the issue and propose effective solutions to address the problem of gun violence.

Further information on writing essays on gun control can be found in various sources, including academic journals, policy reports, and news articles. In the following paragraphs, our nursing essay writing services will provide tips and resources to help you write an effective and informative guns essay. Contact our custom writer and get your writing request satisfied in a short term.

Gun Control Essay Types

There are various types of essays about gun control, each with its own unique focus and approach. From analyzing the effectiveness of existing gun laws to exploring the cultural and historical context of firearms in society, the possibilities for exploring this topic are virtually endless.

Let's look at the following types and examples from our essay writing service USA :

• Argumentative Essay : This essay clearly argues for or against gun control laws. The writer must use evidence to support their position and refute opposing arguments.
• Descriptive Essay: A descriptive essay on gun control aims to provide a detailed topic analysis. The writer must describe the history and evolution of gun laws, the different types of firearms, and their impact on society.
• Cause and Effect Essay: This type of essay focuses on why gun control laws are necessary, the impact of gun violence on society, and the consequences of not having strict gun control laws.
• Compare and Contrast Essay: In this type of essay, the writer compares and contrasts different countries' gun laws and their effectiveness. They can also compare and contrast different types of guns and their impact on society.
• Expository Essay: This type of essay focuses on presenting facts and data on the topic of gun control. The writer must explain the different types of gun laws, their implementation, and their impact on society.
• Persuasive Essay: The writer of a persuasive essay aims to persuade the reader to support their position on gun control. They use a combination of facts, opinions, and emotional appeals to convince the reader.
• Narrative Essay: A narrative essay on gun control tells a story about an individual's experience with gun violence. It can be a personal story or a fictional one, but it should provide insight into the human impact of gun violence.

In the following paragraphs, we will provide an overview of the most common types of gun control essays and some tips and resources to help you write them effectively. Whether you are a student, a researcher, or simply someone interested in learning more about this important issue, these essays can provide valuable insight and perspective on the complex and often controversial topic of gun control.

Persuasive Essay on Gun Control

A persuasive essay on gun control is designed to convince the reader to support a specific stance on gun control policies. To write an effective persuasive essay, the writer must use a combination of facts, statistics, and emotional appeals to sway the reader's opinion. Here are some tips from our expert custom writer to help you write a persuasive essay on gun control:

• Research : Conduct thorough research on gun control policies, including their history, effectiveness, and societal impact. Use credible sources to back up your argument.
• Develop a thesis statement: In your gun control essay introduction, the thesis statement should clearly state your position on gun control and provide a roadmap for your paper.
• Use emotional appeals: Use emotional appeals to connect with your reader. For example, you could describe the impact of gun violence on families and communities.
• Address opposing viewpoints: Address opposing viewpoints and provide counterarguments to strengthen your position.
• Use statistics: Use statistics to back up your argument. For example, you could use statistics to show the correlation between gun control laws and reduced gun violence.
• Use rhetorical devices: Use rhetorical devices, such as metaphors and analogies, to help the reader understand complex concepts.

Persuasive gun control essay examples include:

• The Second Amendment does not guarantee an individual's right to own any firearm.
• Stricter gun control laws are necessary to reduce gun violence in the United States.
• The proliferation of guns in society leads to more violence and higher crime rates.
• Gun control laws should be designed to protect public safety while respecting individual rights.

Argumentative Essay on Gun Control

A gun control argumentative essay is designed to present a clear argument for or against gun control policies. To write an effective argumentative essay, the writer must present a well-supported argument and refute opposing arguments. Here are some tips to help you write an argumentative essay on gun control:

• Choose a clear stance: Choose a clear stance on gun control policies and develop a thesis statement that reflects your position.
• Research : Conduct extensive research on gun control policies and use credible sources to back up your argument.
• Refute opposing arguments: Anticipate opposing arguments and provide counterarguments to strengthen your position.
• Use evidence: Use evidence to back up your argument. For example, you could use data to show the correlation between gun control laws and reduced gun violence.
• Use logical reasoning: Use logical reasoning to explain why your argument is valid.

Examples of argumentative essay topics on gun control include:

• Gun control laws infringe upon individuals' right to bear arms and protect themselves.
• Gun control laws are ineffective and do not prevent gun violence.

If you'd rather have a professional write you a flawless paper, you can always contact us and buy argumentative essay .

Do You Want to Ease Your Academic Burden?

Order a rhetorical analysis essay from our expert writers today and experience the power of top-notch academic writing.

How to Choose a Good Gun Control Topic: Tips and Examples

Choosing a good gun control topic can be challenging, but with some careful consideration, you can select an interesting and relevant topic. Here are seven tips for choosing a good gun control topic with examples:

• Consider current events: Choose a topic that is current and relevant. For example, the impact of the pandemic on gun control policies.
• Narrow your focus: Choose a specific aspect of gun control to focus on, such as the impact of gun control laws on crime rates.
• Consider your audience: Consider who your audience is and what they are interested in. For example, a topic that appeals to gun enthusiasts might be the ethics of owning firearms.
• Research : Conduct extensive research on gun control policies and current events. For example, the impact of the Second Amendment on gun control laws.
• Choose a controversial topic: Choose a controversial topic that will generate discussion. For example, the impact of the NRA on gun control policies.
• Choose a topic that interests you: You can choose an opinion article on gun control that you are passionate about and interested in. For example, the impact of mass shootings on public opinion of gun control.
• Consider different perspectives: Consider different perspectives on gun control and choose a topic that allows you to explore multiple viewpoints. For example, the effectiveness of background checks in preventing gun violence.

You can also buy an essay online cheap from our professional writers. Knowing that you are getting high-quality, customized work will give you the peace of mind and confidence you need to succeed!

Pro-Gun Control Essay Topics

Here are pro-gun control essay topics that can serve as a starting point for your research and writing, helping you to craft a strong and persuasive argument.

• Stricter gun control laws are necessary to reduce gun violence in America.
• The Second Amendment was written for a different time and should be updated to reflect modern society.
• Gun control and gun safety laws can prevent mass shootings and other forms of gun violence.
• Owning a gun should be a privilege, not a right.
• Universal background checks should be mandatory for all gun purchases.
• The availability of assault weapons should be severely restricted.
• Concealed carry permits should be harder to obtain and require more rigorous training.
• The gun lobby has too much influence on government policy.
• The mental health of gun owners should be considered when purchasing firearms.
• Gun violence has a significant economic impact on communities and the nation as a whole.
• There is a strong correlation between high gun ownership rates and higher gun violence rates.
• Gun control policies can help prevent suicides and accidental shootings.
• Gun control policies should be designed to protect public safety while respecting individual rights.
• More research is needed on the impact of gun control policies on gun violence.
• The impact of gun violence on children and young people is a significant public health issue.
• Gun control policies should be designed to reduce the illegal gun trade and access to firearms by criminals.
• The right to own firearms should not override the right to public safety.
• The government has a responsibility to protect its citizens from gun violence.
• Gun control policies are compatible with the Second Amendment.
• International examples of successful gun control policies can be applied in America.

Anti-Gun Control Essay Topics

These topics against gun control essay can help you develop strong and persuasive arguments based on individual rights and the importance of personal freedom.

• Gun control laws infringe on the Second Amendment and individual rights.
• Stricter gun laws will not prevent criminals from obtaining firearms.
• Gun control laws are unnecessary and will only burden law-abiding citizens.
• Owning a gun is a fundamental right and essential for self-defense.
• Gun-free zones create a false sense of security and leave people vulnerable.
• A Gun control law will not stop mass school shootings, as these are often premeditated and planned.
• The government cannot be trusted to enforce gun control laws fairly and justly.
• Gun control laws unfairly target law-abiding gun owners and punish them for the actions of a few.
• Gun ownership is a part of American culture and heritage and should not be restricted.
• Gun control laws will not stop criminals from using firearms to commit crimes.
• Gun control laws often ignore the root causes of gun violence, such as mental illness and poverty.
• Gun control laws will not stop terrorists from using firearms to carry out attacks.
• Gun control laws will only create a black market for firearms, making it easier for criminals to obtain them.
• Gun control laws will not stop domestic violence, as abusers will find other ways to harm their victims.
• Gun control laws will not stop drug cartels and organized crime from trafficking firearms.
• Gun control laws will not stop gang violence and turf wars.
• Gun control laws are an infringement on personal freedom and individual responsibility.
• Gun control laws are often rooted in emotion rather than reason and evidence.
• Gun control laws ignore the important role that firearms play in hunting and sport shooting.
• More gun control laws will only give the government more power and control over its citizens.

Example Essays

Whether you have been assigned to write a gun control research paper or essay, the tips provided above should help you grasp the general idea of how to cope with this task. Now, to give you an even better understanding of the task and set you on the right track, here are a few excellent examples of well-written papers on this topic:

Don’t forget that you always have a reliable essay writing service USA by your side to which you can entrust writing a brilliant essay for you!

Final Words

In conclusion, writing a sample rhetorical analysis essay requires careful analysis and effective use of persuasive techniques. Whether you are a high school student or a college student, mastering the art of rhetorical analysis can help you become a more effective communicator and critical thinker. With practice and perseverance, anyone can become a skilled writer and excel in their academic pursuits.

And if you're overwhelmed or unsure about writing your next AP lang rhetorical analysis essay, don't worry - we're here to help! Our friendly and experienced research paper writers are ready to guide you through the process, providing expert advice and support every step of the way. So why not take the stress out of writing and let us help you succeed? Buy essay today and take the first step toward academic excellence!

Looking to Take Your Academic Performance to the Next Level?

Say goodbye to stress, endless research, and sleepless nights - and hello to a brighter academic future. Place your order now and watch your grades soar!

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

Related Articles

• WordPress.org
• Documentation
• Learn WordPress
• Members Newsfeed

Simple & Easy Public Safety Essay Topics

• Essay Topics

Simple & Easy Public Safety Essay Titles

• An Economic Evaluation of BIDS and Public Safety via Private Action
• To Ensure Public Safety, Gun Control Laws are Necessary.
• The Tragic History of the French Revolutionary Committee of Public Safety’s Reign of Terror
• The Value of Public Safety Class and My Senior Year in School
• The Centre for Education and Training in Public Safety in Maryland
• Incarceration and Crime: Evidence from California’s Realignment of Public Safety
• Act to Reduce Recidivism and Improve Public Safety
• Analysis of the U.K. Homeland Security Public Safety Market Share, Size, Growth, and Trends
• Maryland’s Public Safety Education and Training Center Security Plan
• Seattle’s Public Safety Put at Risk by the Terrorist Threat
• Records Management for Public Safety and Law Enforcement
• Should Gun Control be Considered a Public Safety Issue?
• Development of Mobile Networks for Public Safety and Security
• Academic Papers on California’s Public Safety Budget Cuts
• The Value of Personal Safety in Comparison to the Importance of Public Safety
• Georges Jacques Danton’s Contribution to the Committee of Public Safety during the French Revolution
• More Hooligan Control, Less Public Safety, or Both?
• Measuring Mexico’s Public Safety Transfers and Expenditure Needs
• How American victims are affected by public safety
• The Department of Public Safety and the Police Department

Good Essay Topics on Public Safety

• French Revolution: The Public Safety Committee’s Goals
• Are Refugee Settlement Areas More Prone to Crime? Refugee Admissions and Public Safety
• Public Safety Impacts of Mandatory Jail Sentences
• The market for Mobile Broadband and LTE in Public Safety, 2012-2017
• How Californians’ Budget cuts Affect Police and Fire Safety
• The failure of “Tough on Crime” Policies to Increase Public Safety as Measured by the Crime Rate
• The Reign of Terror in France Led by the Committee of Public Safety
• Public Safety is a Discipline that Suits Some People
• Police Racial Profiling is Ineffective and Detriments Public Safety
• Public Safety Regulation and the Concepts of Risk, Fear, Blame, and Shame
• Business Improvement Districts and the Provision of Public Safety by Non-Governmental Organisations: Volunteering to be Taxed
• Ad-Hoc Cognitive Radio Networks for Public Safety: Secure Routing and Scheduling
• The Function of Police in Promoting Public Safety
• The Cost of Capital Punishment is Justifiable due to Public Safety
• The public safety community must be able to discern the truth with sound judgment.
• The Effects of Legalizing Marijuana on Public Safety, Social Costs, and Health
• Concerns about Public Safety and Privacy because of the Increased Use of Recreational and Commercial Drones in Public Spaces
• The Texas Department of Public Safety’s Code of Ethics
• The Centre for Child Rights and Public Safety
• Public safety environment leadership
• The South Elgin Police Department is a Service for Public Safety
• Race’s Impact on the Public Safety Sector
• Terrorism: Freedom Is Not More Important Than Public Safety

Related Articles

The art of crafting a well-written expository essay can be challenging for…

1. The Impact of Artificial Intelligence in Everyday Life 2. Climate Change…

Introduction A compare and contrast essay is one of the most common…

Pedagogue is a social media network where educators can learn and grow. It's a safe space where they can share advice, strategies, tools, hacks, resources, etc., and work together to improve their teaching skills and the academic performance of the students in their charge.

If you want to collaborate with educators from around the globe, facilitate remote learning, etc., sign up for a free account today and start making connections.

Pedagogue is Free Now, and Free Forever!

• New? Start Here
• Frequently Asked Questions
• Privacy Policy
• Terms of Service
• Registration

Don't you have an account? Register Now! it's really simple and you can start enjoying all the benefits!

We just sent you an Email. Please Open it up to activate your account.

I allow this website to collect and store submitted data.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Wiley - PMC COVID-19 Collection

Personal privacy VS. public safety: A hybrid model of the use of smart city solutions in fighting the COVID‐19 pandemic in Moscow

Sergey a. revyakin.

1 HSE University, Moscow Russia

Associated Data

Data derived from public domain resources.

Technological advancements and big data have brought many improvements to smart city infrastructure. During the COVID‐19 outbreak, smart city technologies were considered one of the most effective means of fighting the pandemic. The use of technology, however, implies collecting, processing personal data, and making the collected data publicly available which may violate privacy. While some countries were able to freely use these technologies to fight the pandemic, many others were restricted by their privacy protection legislation. The literature suggests looking for an approach that will allow the effective use of smart city technologies during the pandemic, while complying with strict privacy protection legislation. This article explores the approach applied in Moscow, Russia, and demonstrates the existence of a hybrid model that might be considered a suitable tradeoff between personal privacy and public health. This study contributes to the literature on the role of smart city technologies during pandemics and other emergencies.

1. INTRODUCTION

Along with effective urban management, smart city technologies are useful for effective emergency management (Ekman,  2019 ; Liu & Li,  2020 ). The COVID‐19 outbreak and the associated government restrictions triggered a significant increase in the use of smart city technologies to fight the pandemic (Inn,  2020 ; Markotkin,  2021 ). According to the literature (Inn,  2020 ; WHO,  2019 ), smart city technologies can be useful in identifying, tracking, and forecasting outbreaks through big data analytics, enhancing public security via improved facial recognition and infrared technologies, delivering supplies, and assisting surveillance. The investment in smart city technologies improved the quality of planning, preparation, and forecasting during the pandemic (Sharifi et al.,  2021 ).

The benefits of using smart city technologies are evident, however, the municipalities of many countries can not use such technologies to the fullest to fight the pandemic because they raise concerns about the “erosion of privacy” and could violate privacy protection regulations (Kummitha,  2020 ). That is why such countries have to apply the restrictions on using these technologies, applying “a human‐driven” approach (Kummitha,  2020 ; Kupferschmidt & Cohen,  2020 ). Some other countries were able to immediately and forcefully activate the full capacity of smart city technologies to keep the pandemic under control by applying “the techno‐driven” approach. The literature describes the pros and cons of these approaches when using smart city technologies during pandemics but advises looking for a tradeoff between personal privacy and public safety (Kitchin,  2020 ). The article demonstrates one of those tradeoffs represented by a hybrid approach applied in Moscow. Based on the above and considering that Moscow has the most advanced smart city technologies in Russia and strict privacy regulations at the same time, the article answers the following research question: How did Moscow use its smart city technologies to fight against COVID‐19?

To answer the research question, the author studied the literature, government reports and decrees, WHO reports, newspaper articles, other websites, and tested the functionality of the federal and Moscow authorities' mobile applications. The key finding of the research is that Moscow adopted a hybrid approach that combines the features of both the human‐driven and techno‐driven approaches. That approach has not been described in the literature and could be considered as a potential compromise between the concerns about the privacy of individuals and public safety. This approach could be applied by other countries with strict privacy regulations. The article also proposes a qualification matrix, which can be used to define the type of approach applied by a municipality.

The article is organized as follows. The second section contains a literature review aimed at developing qualification criteria to distinguish between human‐driven and technology‐driven approaches to using smart city technologies and define which smart city devices support specific types of government measures (active surveillance, issuing warnings, identification of the infected, isolation, lockdown, and quarantine). The third section describes the research methodology, while the fourth section describes the results (the approach adopted by Moscow authorities). The fifth section contains the overall discussion and considers the theoretical and practical implications of this research and suggests areas for future study. The sixth section provides conclusions and limitations.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. techno‐and human‐driven approaches during a pandemic: criteria for qualification.

A smart city requires collecting and integrating data obtained from sensors, physical devices, software applications, personal cameras, the Internet, smartphones, and similar devices (Quijano‐Sánchez et al.,  2020 ) for further analysis using artificial intelligence algorithms. It requires opening the data for public consideration to increase the transparency on the virus outbreak, which would decrease privacy (Janssen & van den Hoven,  2015 ). In countries with advanced privacy protection regulations, the use of smart city technologies to track people during the pandemic were perceived as a significant increase in digital control (Markotkin,  2021 ) and a form of government overreach (The Wall Street Journal,  2020 ). The literature suggests that the free flow of information and data collection makes the technology work effectively (Kummitha,  2020 ), but “the challenge is how much data is enough”? (The New York Times,  2020a ). When looking for trade‐offs, this is one of the critical questions to be theoretically explored and practically addressed using liberty‐friendly principles of the adoption of technologies (Kitchin,  2020 ).

In line with the difference between “technology‐push” and “demand‐pull” theories of social change and technological innovation (Kim & Lee,  2009 ), Kummitha ( 2020 ) suggested the key differences between the two approaches to using smart city technologies during a pandemic (Table  1 ).

The key differences between Techno‐ and Human‐driven approaches during a pandemic: criteria for qualification

The approach to using smart city technologies during a pandemic represents a type of the decision the authorities need to make. That means, within the same technological equipment the decision made (the approach applied) could be different. The techno‐driven approach suggests the immediate and forceful use of the full capacity of smart city technologies to keep the pandemic under control. It requires the synchronization and replication at all levels of government at once (Kummitha,  2020 ) as well as the collection and the use of citizens' data (Cabestan,  2020 ). China was the first country that used smart city technologies to track citizens, which was solely aimed at fighting the pandemic (Selinger,  2020 ). The activation of all the technologies available in smart cities allowed the Chinese government to apply effective non‐pharmaceutical measures to stop the spread of COVID‐19 (Kummitha,  2020 ). As reported by The Wall Street Journal, “in South Korea, investigators scan smartphone data to find within 10 min people who might have caught coronavirus from someone they met. Israel has tapped its Shin Bet intelligence unit, usually focused on terrorism, to track down potential coronavirus patients through telecom data”. (The Wall Street Journal,  2020 ). The techno‐driven approach requires citizens to follow the protocols and does not consider the context (Janssen & Kuk,  2016 ). This is one of the reasons why it raises concerns about “erosion of privacy” and freedom (The Wall Street Journal,  2020 ). The literature doubts that the techno‐driven approach adopted in China could be replicated anywhere else in the world (Kupferschmidt & Cohen,  2020 ).

Western democracies adopted a human‐driven approach (Kummitha,  2020 ) (Table  1 ). This approach adopted when the government has restrictions on the collection and use of citizens' data (personal data protection and privacy laws) (Kupferschmidt & Cohen,  2020 ) and therefore has to take the context into account and be very selective when using technologies because of the many sensitive limitations (Kummitha,  2020 ).

Thus, the approach chosen by municipalities depends on a number of factors: the extent to which the regulations allow tracking citizens, collecting personal data, and addressing an individual if specifically required for public safety (Table  2 ).

Techno‐and human‐driven approaches during a pandemic: additional criteria for qualification

As shown in Table  2 , the techno‐driven approach implies data collection and processing at an individual level, while the human‐driven approach deals with aggregated data. The literature points out that the techno‐driven approach is more effective during a pandemic than the human‐driven approach (Kummitha,  2020 ; WHO,  2019 ), because, for example, relying on anonymous data may not be as effective as collecting data from individuals (Stamati et al.,  2015 ). Relying on quantitative analysis, Yang and Chong (Yang & Chong,  2021 ) concluded that the investment in smart cities decreases the number of COVID‐19 cases. That is one of the reasons why “technology” is considered a key factor in predicting and controlling a pandemic such as COVID‐19 (Yang & Chong,  2021 ). However, along with the benefits, the use of AI and Big Data (for the techno‐driven approach) could raise concerns, because increased transparency (making the collected data publicly available) may violate privacy (Janssen & van den Hoven,  2015 ). The literature also specifies other reasons why technology alone could not be an effective solution in the public sector (Kuziemski & Misuraca,  2020 ). While the opportunities are well‐described, the literature points out that “the risks and downsides are given less attention” and “the effects are hard to predict and accountability requires both the curation of data and algorithm” (Janssen & Kuk,  2016 , p. 376). That is why “evidence‐based policies are not a panacea for many reasons” (Nam,  2020 , p. 1). The literature does not conclude which approach (techno‐ or human‐driven) is preferable for smart city authorities during a pandemic and suggests tailoring it to the local needs and resources available (Inn,  2020 ). Considering that each approach has its pros and cons, Kitchin ( 2020 ) suggests that governments should try to respect both civil liberties (not to collect, process, and share personal data—the human‐driven approach) and public health (collect, process, and share personal data—the techno‐driven approach). Therefore, further research of possible trade‐offs is required to make the use of smart city technologies during a pandemic more liberty‐friendly.

2.2. Types of measures municipalities may implement during a pandemic

Based on WHO‐recommended strategies for the prevention and control of communicable diseases (WHO,  2001 ), which is aligned with the epidemic theory (Patten & Arboleda‐Flórez,  2004 ), there are four types of measures that municipalities can implement during a pandemic: (1) active surveillance and issuing warnings; (2) identification of the infected; (3) isolation; and (4) lockdown and quarantine.

Active surveillance and warnings are measures aimed at preventing citizens from being infected. Identification is the measure aimed at identifying possibly infected citizens for further tests and decisions on isolation and quarantine. Once an infected person is identified, they need to be isolated from society. Isolation is a process of instructing a person on the next steps toward quarantine. Lockdown and quarantine are the measures aimed at preventing infected persons from infecting others.

These four measures could be supported by smart city technologies to a different extent. Table  3 demonstrates that the “Active surveillance and issuing warnings” type of measures relies on the largest number of smart city devices: “As advised by WHO and learned from the Chinese context, early surveillance is the most effective strategy available for the prevention of transmission” (Kummitha,  2020 , p. 8).

Available smart city technologies to support the four types of measures during a pandemic

Therefore, the approach municipalities choose is based on:

• Whether a municipality activates all available smart city components to fight the pandemic, or uses them selectively because of some limitations;
• Whether a municipality uses smart city components to support the four types of measures or only some of them.

I will elaborate upon the above in Section  4 to explore the approach adopted by the Moscow authorities.

3. RESEARCH APPROACH

This section describes the data selected for the study, the methods, and the analytical approach adopted. This paper is a part of a more extensive research project 1 that focuses on the analysis of changes in public administration driven by digital technologies.

3.1. Case selection

As mentioned, while the techno‐driven approach was predominantly used in China (Kupferschmidt & Cohen,  2020 ), Western countries adopted a human‐driven approach (Kummitha,  2020 ). Russia is geographically located between China and Western countries and has an advanced smart city infrastructure and strict privacy regulations at the same time. Russia was one of the most severely affected countries in the world (as of May 8, 2020, Russia had the third‐largest number of new coronavirus cases identified in the world (Worldometer,  2020 )). Considering the above, the author decided to study Russia's experience in using smart city technologies in fighting the COVID‐19 pandemic. The study analyzes Moscow's experience for three main reasons.

Firstly, being the capital city, Moscow has the most advanced smart city technologies in Russia, and the article aims to explore whether the authorities were able to use the technologies in line with the privacy protection laws in place. In terms of smart city devices, nowadays, Moscow authorities collect data from surveillance cameras (installed on public buses, the subway, and at traffic lights, 193,000 cameras in total) (Forbes,  2020a ; Moscow Department of Information Technology,  2020 ), taxi and car‐sharing services, transport (transport card transactions), GLONASS sensors, and Caesar‐Satellite anti‐theft systems (BBC,  2020b ). The AI system allows for finding a person's location in the city based on a photo. The main source of photos has been doctors, who are required to take pictures of infected (quarantined) citizens when visiting them (BBC,  2020b ). The cameras are also used to identify the elderly who left their home. However, the system has reportedly had some problems identifying individuals wearing face masks (BBC,  2020b ). Since 2015, Moscow authorities have had access to geolocation data from mobile providers and have been collecting voice samples of citizens calling the city hotline (BBC,  2020b ). Free Wi‐Fi points, the mos. ru, and other city services were used as data sources; and since 2017, even if a person turned on the incognito mode in a browser, the system would recognize the person and collect data (BBC,  2020b ). It was declared that Moscow authorities have no direct access to the bank transaction history of the residents; but the authorities have access to the data on citizen's property and related payments (BBC,  2020b ). In some countries, such as South Korea, the government monitored both the phones and credit cards of the infected and quarantined citizens after informing them about these measures (Lee & Lee,  2020 ). Moscow is equipped with similar types of smart city devices as China and South Korea, except for robots and temperature screening systems (sensors) for public places.

Secondly, due to the high population concentration, Moscow had the largest number of the infected in Russia and there was an urgency to use any available means to combat the spread of the disease.

Finally, at first glance, it was hard to determine whether the approach applied by the Moscow authorities was techno‐driven or human‐driven. During the outbreak, the Russian government did not introduce equal and synchronized measures for all Russian cities. However, the Moscow authorities experimented with measures and technologies to keep the pandemic under control. Upon the introduction of certain measures in Moscow, other cities and regions adopted some of the measures as well (Vedomosti,  2020b ).

3.2. Identification of the data

The following data sources were used to answer the research question: scholarly articles, news articles, government reports and decrees, mobile applications of the Moscow and federal authorities, and WHO reports.

WHO reports were found using Google, by filtering the search results of trusted sources. Research articles about the role of technologies in tackling COVID‐19 transmission were found using a search engine in Scopus on May 8, 2020, and updated on May 12, 2021, with search phrases such as “coronavirus OR COVID‐19 AND “smart technology” OR “smart city”” (1688 documents in Scopus, 49,576 results in Science Direct), ““Smart City” AND Moscow AND COVID‐19 OR pandemic” (23 documents in Scopus, 83,269 results in Science Direct). The results were narrowed down by using filters, searching within search results, using recommended and cited articles to find information on the article's scope. To find newspaper articles on the devices that were used in smart cities around the world, I looked through news items that covered the first 5 months of 2020. The search was conducted in Google and Yandex News, and the results were limited to popular and trusted media sources. The search for the use of specific devices of the smart city system was performed using Google, with search phrases such as “Moscow coronavirus temperature sensors public places”. Government reports (both nationwide and Moscow‐specific), and decrees on the measures during the pandemic in Russia were found on the relevant government websites or trusted law databases using Google. Google and the App Store were used to explore websites, infection maps, and applications. In total 59 sources (articles, newspapers, websites) were selected and cited in this paper.

3.3. Analysis

To assess whether a techno‐ or human‐driven approach was applied by Moscow, I considered Kummitha's ( 2020 ) definition of the key differences between the approaches (Table  1 ). I defined three key criteria for determining the approach to using smart city technologies during a pandemic based on the literature (Table  2 ). Also based on the literature, I distributed the types of smart city components of the four types of municipal measures during a pandemic that they could support (Table  3 ). Using the qualification matrices to explore the approach described in Tables  2 and ​ and3, 3 , I would conclude that the approach used by Moscow authorities was technology‐driven, if:

• It was characterized by the immediate and forceful activation of all 2 available smart city devices for all 3 types of measures.
• The authorities collected the personal data of citizens (data from surveillance cameras, geolocation, temperature screening systems, QR‐codes, etc.).
• The authorities openly shared data processing results (the data on the travel history/paths of the infected citizens), based on that the authorities contacted those who got infected or possibly got infected to apply the measures.

I would conclude that the approach applied by Moscow authorities was human‐driven, if:

• 4 It was characterized by selective and time distributed activation of smart city devices.
• 5 The authorities did not collect the personal data of citizens, and would rather collect anonymous data.
• 6 The authorities were not openly sharing data after processing; the authorities predominantly were focused on sharing anonymous aggregated data on the infected citizens and warnings to society.

In order to determine the approach adopted by Moscow authorities, I explored the smart city components that were available in Moscow and the extent to which they had been used to fight the pandemic (Tables  4 and ​ and5). 5 ). Based on the results, I made a conclusion on the type of the approach that was adopted by Moscow authorities and suggested the qualification matrix to define the approach applied by the authorities during the pandemic (Table  6 ).

Smart city technologies of Moscow in action during the pandemic

The approach of the Moscow authorities to use smart city technologies during the outbreak of COVID‐19

Qualification matrix for the approach applied by the authorities during the pandemic

The first infected person in Russia was identified in Moscow (Ministry of DDCMM of the Russian Federation,  2020 ) and Moscow was the city with the largest number of infected citizens in Russia. In this section, I explore the extent to which Moscow used its smart technologies to fight COVID‐19. I describe the key features of the approach used by the Russian government and focus on the comparison between the available and utilized components of Moscow's smart city system.

4.1. COVID‐19 outbreak: Key features of the government's approach

There are two main features of the approach adopted by the Russian government during the COVID‐19 outbreak. First, a State of Emergency was not declared, lockdown or quarantine measures were not introduced in Russia; secondly, each region could introduce its own measures (Vedomosti,  2020b ). When the federal government launched a mobile application designed for self‐identification and for using QR passes, it was not mandatory for use by citizens or regional governments (Ministry of DDCMM of the Russian Federation,  2020 ). As a result, the application was not widely and systematically used. The literature points out that the transfer of measures from the national to municipal level was one of the success factors in fighting the pandemic in other countries (Huynh et al.,  2020 ).

When the situation began to deteriorate, Moscow authorities introduced a self‐isolation regime for all citizens. Moscow authorities developed several scenarios for COVID‐19 transmission in Russia and introduced measures for each possible scenario; all other regions considered the Moscow's experience the best practice (Vedomosti,  2020a ). Moscow Mayor Sobyanin signed a decree on regulation and restrictions, but despite the pandemic, a State of Emergency was not introduced in Moscow, along with the lockdown and quarantine measures. At the same time, quarantine was introduced for elderly people in Moscow — adults 65 or older being most vulnerable (Forbes,  2020b ). The common protocol of the identification of infected people in Moscow was self‐identification. Moscow authorities distributed instructions (the websites of Moscow's Mayor and Moscow's Government,  2020 ) stating that if a citizen has SARS or seasonal allergy symptoms, they should call a doctor for further instructions. Moscow authorities were quite transparent in sharing the information daily through a special website and in the media (The official portal of the Moscow's Mayor and Moscow's Government,  2020 ).

4.2. Smart city components used during the pandemic in Moscow

The Smart City concept is quite popular in Russia. Based on the IQ Index of Russian cities 4 (covering 191 cities), Moscow has the highest urban digitalization index, followed by Kazan and Saint Petersburg (Russian newspaper [Rossiyskaya Gazeta],  2020 ). The Smart City concept of Moscow is similar to other projects all around the world and is aimed at “the development of urban management by increasing the efficiency and transparency of urban management; improving the life quality of the Moscow population by the large‐scale use of information and communication technologies in the social sphere, in the sphere of ensuring the integrated security of the city of Moscow and in other spheres of city administration in Moscow, as well as in the citizens' everyday life” (Ruzina,  2020 ). Moscow authorities have been implementing smart city technologies since 2010 based on the Singapore model (International Telecommunication Union,  2018 ). Moscow was ranked 72nd in the Smart City Index 2019 (The IMD World Competitiveness Center,  2019 ), which ranks 102 cities worldwide and measures how citizens perceive the impact of policies on their daily lives. Singapore holds the 1st place, Zurich and Oslo are in 2nd and 3rd, respectively.

When the pandemic began and the self‐isolation regime was introduced, Moscow authorities announced that they would use the current smart city system to monitor citizens (RBC,  2021 ). The wide use of smart city technologies to fight the pandemic was possible due to changes in federal legislation that were introduced in April 2020 (Markotkin,  2021 ). These changes allowed the Moscow authorities to conduct experiments involving the use of smart city technologies to improve the life of the citizens and the efficiency of governance (Markotkin,  2021 ), however, these new amendments guaranteed the protection of privacy during the experiments.

However, there was no forceful and immediate activation of available smart city technologies for active surveillance, identification, and isolation of infected persons—the approach was time distributed and selective (not all available smart city technologies were used, the measures differ from the ones in other regions of Russia) (Table  4 ).

For instance, high alert mode was put into place in Moscow on March 16 (Moscow Government,  2020 ). A “social monitoring” application to track infected citizens was launched on April 2, 2020 ( Mjerija Moskvy Gotova Primenjat’ QR‐Kody Dlja Kontrolja Rezhima Izoljacii [The Moscow City Government Is Ready to Apply QR Codes to Control the Mode of Isolation],   2020 ), and from April 13, 2020, the QR‐pass system was introduced for those who needed to leave their residence ( Sobjanin Ob'javil o Vvedenii v Moskve Specpropuskov. Chto Jeto Znachit [Sobyanin Announced the Introduction of Special Passes in Moscow. What Does It Mean],   2020 ).

Not all available smart city technologies were activated in Moscow to keep the virus under control. The technologies were mostly focused on the isolation and quarantine of infected citizens and less focused on active surveillance to issue warnings and tracking to identify potentially infected persons to isolate them for further lockdown and quarantine. Evidence of the wide use of the technologies (cameras, for instance) for active surveillance and issuing warnings for COVID‐19‐related purposes in Moscow has not been found. However, these technologies were used in urgent situations: surveillance cameras were used to track potentially infected citizens when the first infected person was identified (Vedomosti,  2020a ). Based on surveillance camera records and geolocation data from mobile phones, all persons that the infected person contacted (including family members) were identified and quarantined. Text messages were used to inform potentially infected citizens of their status and the need to self‐isolate (RIA Novosti,  2020b ). This demonstrates that the data were collected and processed on an individual level and were not anonymized. However, smart city technologies were used in cases of emergency. Moscow authorities were sharing aggregated (anonymized) data on Internet websites only and never published the data on the travel history of the infected citizens. Publicly available maps for Russia (Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation,  2020 ) and Moscow (Mash,  2020 ) show the addresses from where infected persons were taken to a hospital.

The approach introduced by Moscow authorities was issue‐based—smart city technologies were used only based on evidence (when an infected person was identified). The most active measure of the authorities to prevent the disease among citizens was to issue a recommendation to self‐isolate. Self‐identification mode was required for infected citizens (who had symptoms and were suspected of being infected). While WHO recommendations and the Chinese experience show that “governments need to impose lockdowns as early as possible” (Kummitha,  2020 , p. 8), lockdowns and quarantines were not imposed in Moscow.

The business community tried to contribute by offering technologies to the authorities. For instance, AT Consulting VOSTOK developed a solution to identify infected citizens (including the potentially infected) (ComNews,  2020 ). Drone producers suggested using drones for monitoring public places (to avoid crowds) and infrastructure during an emergency shutdown of enterprises for alerting the citizens about antiviral activities, for the expedited delivery of medical tests, samples, vaccines, and drugs, and for applying antiseptics and disinfectants to potentially infected areas (RBC,  2020 ). However, none of those suggestions were accepted by Moscow authorities.

As mentioned in Section  4.1 , no uniform anti‐COVID‐19 measures were implemented in all Russian regions (Vedomosti,  2020b ). Moscow was leading the way in introducing the regulation to get COVID‐19 under control, and the regions were adopting some of them. For instance, in Tatarstan, it was required that citizens receive a text message with a permit to leave their homes. The permit was valid for only 1 hour, and it could be obtained only twice a day. QR‐code identification was launched in the Nizhny Novgorod region (The website of the Moscow Mayor and Moscow Government, 2020). In many other regions of Russia, AI systems were used to quickly collect data on the number of free hospital beds, ambulance crews online, etc (RIA Novosti,  2020a ). These data were used to make forecasts and arrange medical assistance effectively. Using AI allows the reduction in the number of people involved in the collection and analysis of information (from 100 to 200 specialists at a call‐center to 10–15).

In order to assess people's perception of smart technologies applied by the Moscow authorities during the pandemic, a number of surveys were conducted. One survey reported, “The population does not believe in an easy solution, as in H.G. Wells' The War of the Worlds; on the contrary, the more the screws are tightened, the quieter the crisis is perceived” (translated by the author) ( How Do Russians Respond to the Epidemic? Polling Stories [Kak Rossijane Reagirujut Na Jepidemiju? Istorii Oprosov], 2020 ). Citizens experienced issues with some of the technologies, for instance, with the Social Monitoring application aimed at tracking home‐treated infected citizens (issues with downloading the app, registration, issues with uploading a photo, etc.) even when mobile devices were provided to the infected by the mayor's office ( “Social Monitoring”: How Moscow Mocks the Quarantined Sick [“Social'nyj Monitoring”: Kak Moskva Izdevaetsja Nad Zapertymi v Karantin Bol'nymi], 2020 )). As a consequence, people were fined for violating the regulations and were not happy about it (gave the application low scores and negative reviews) ( Mobile Application “Social Monitoring” Reviews, 2021 ).

5. DISCUSSION

5.1. the approach of the moscow authorities: neither techno‐driven nor human‐driven.

The approach of the Moscow authorities could be qualified as human‐driven because it was selective and time distributed, and the authorities shared aggregated (anonymized) data on the infected citizens (Table  5 ).

In other regions of Russia, AI systems were used to quickly collect data to make forecasts and arrange medical assistance effectively (RIA Novosti,  2020a ). However, this practice was not common for all Russian regions. The absence of harmonized country‐wide measures to fight the pandemic (Vedomosti,  2020b ) also proves that the approach of the authorities was rather selective.

However, the approach introduced by Moscow authorities also has the attributes of the technology‐driven approach (Table  5 ), because it allows for collecting the personal data along with the ability to contact infected or potentially infected individuals when required (based on the data processing results). For instance, the Moscow authorities were collecting the personal data from surveillance cameras, mobile phones, and so on, and were using them when they needed to find, track, or inform (by a text message) the infected or potentially infected persons.

Thus, I concluded that Moscow authorities adopted a hybrid model that combines features of the techno‐driven and human‐driven models (Table  5 ). Smart city technologies in Moscow were used selectively and were mostly focused on the isolation and quarantine of the infected and less focused upon active surveillance to issue warnings, identify potentially infected persons and to isolate them for further lockdown and quarantine. These technologies allowed the authorities to collect the personal data and use them when there was a need to find, track, or inform the infected or potentially infected person, but it was shared only in an anonymized form. A State of Emergency was not declared, lockdown and quarantine were not introduced in Russia, and there were no uniform country‐wide measures in place (each of the regions was able to introduce their own measures to fight the pandemic).

5.2. Theoretical and practical implications

“Human history has always been about keeping up with technological advances to make life more comfortable (fire), easier (the wheel), more productive (the printing press, steam power), and more mobile (the car)”. (Done,  2012 , p. 53). Humanity has achieved fantastic results in the development of technology, but during the pandemic, it faced the paradox of the inability to use it at full capacity. This is because along with the development of the technologies, humanity was developing the concept of key civil rights and liberties, which resulted in the implementation of legislation such as the European Convention on Human Rights (Glas,  2013 ) or General Data Protection Regulation (Otto,  2018 ). “But in emergencies like pandemics, privacy must be weighed against other considerations, like saving lives”, said Mila Romanoff, the data and governance lead for United Nations Global Pulse (The New York Times,  2020a ). “I am more and more convinced the greatest battle of our time is against the “religion of privacy”. It literally could get us all killed”, said the former Portuguese Europe Minister Bruno Macaes (BBC,  2020a ).

Authorities around the world were not ready for the COVID‐19 outbreak and when it happened, they used the means that were available in each specific country or municipality. As demonstrated in Section  2.1 , the available literature defines the techno‐driven and human‐driven approaches used by the authorities during the pandemic. The techno‐driven approach is considered more effective in fighting the pandemic (Kummitha,  2020 ; WHO,  2019 ), but it cannot be replicated in countries with strict privacy regulations (Kupferschmidt & Cohen,  2020 ). The active use of technologies during the pandemic was criticized for overreach and the “erosion of privacy” (The Wall Street Journal,  2020 ) because “the increased surveillance and health data disclosures have also drastically eroded people's ability to keep their health status private” (The New York Times,  2020a ). The governments were also expected to find ways to use technologies while complying with data protection laws at the same time, and to reconsider the balance between personal privacy and public safety (The New York Times,  2020a ). The technologies are developing very rapidly and the literature suggests that a trade‐off model is needed to harmonize civil liberties and public health (Kitchin,  2020 ).

In this regard, the article demonstrates the existence of a hybrid model that could represent a new generation of approaches aimed at finding a meaningful balance between privacy and public safety, using the benefits of technology. The literature shows that technology alone could not be an effective solution in the public sector (Kuziemski & Misuraca,  2020 ) and a hybrid model of the use of smart city technologies significantly resonates with this statement. The model relies on the strength of the technology and acknowledges its role in fighting the pandemic, allowing the authorities for temporary tracking of the infected persons for the sake of public safety. However, using such a model might require amending the legislation in time to make it work, which might be quite difficult to do in some countries. This is one of the limitations of the hybrid model. The existence of emergency protocols for the use of smart city technologies could be a solution for such countries. The hybrid model is selective in using technologies (not all available technologies are used at all stages of fighting the pandemic, and the protocols used could differ from one region to the next) and it is cautious with data collection (for many reasons). For instance, Russia “lacks the vast troves of user data possessed by China” (Goode,  2020 , p. 1).

The existence of hybrid models is important for several reasons. First, from a theoretical point of view, the hybrid model adopted in Moscow demonstrates the existence of alternative models other than the two main model types identified in the literature (Table  5 ). Further research could focus on developing a classification of hybrid models and analyzing the factors that shape them in different countries. Based on the demand for the trade‐off between civil rights and public safety, hybrid models need to be explored further. At the same time, the findings of the article contributes to the studies of the public administration model in Russia.

Secondly, from a practical point of view, the hybrid model will allow governments to have a third option and use smart city technologies effectively while meeting the requirements of local regulations on privacy. That means that authorities do not need to choose one of the two main approaches but could consider a hybrid model (Table  5 ). There are clear practical intentions from the countries that were not satisfied with the human‐driven models to find such a hybrid approach. “These are strange times. Germany, perhaps the most privacy‐conscious nation on Earth, is considering a mobile phone app that would trace the contacts of anyone infected with COVID‐19” (BBC,  2020a ). During the emergency, former New York Governor Cuomo “got the unlimited authority to rule by executive order during state crises like pandemics and hurricanes” (The New York Times,  2020a ). Another example of such an approach comes from Israel where the government was allowed to use mobile provider data of infected people within 30 days: “We have to maintain the balance between the rights of the individual and needs of general society, and we are doing that”, said former Israeli Prime Minister Benyamin Netanyahu at the time (The New York Times,  2020b ). Nevertheless, when looking for a balance the authorities would need to decide on how much data is enough, and further research and practical experiments should help in answering this question.

Thirdly, the existence of a hybrid model is important from a political point of view, because using a techno‐driven approach that violates freedoms could negatively affect the political reputation of governors even if it is successful from a healthcare point of view. The use of a flexible and meaningful approach could bring many benefits for the politicians who could, for instance, arrange public participation in choosing the extent of using the technologies in emergency situations.

The results described in Table  5 could be presented as a Qualification matrix for the approach applied by the authorities during a pandemic (Table  6 ).

The Qualification matrix could be useful for the theoretical analysis of models applied in other countries (regions) and classifying them. The matrix is also useful for a self‐audit and policy development within a region and a country. “The pandemic may, finally, humanize the use of high‐tech in cities. The smart city models of a generation ago were all about regulation and control—the state online. What's emerging in this pandemic are good programs and protocols which create community”, stated Richard Sennett, Professor of Urban Studies at MIT (Digital Leaders,  2020 ). Therefore, the exploration of new hybrid models of a government approach to pandemics, including the limitations and new trade‐offs, could be popular for some time, because many questions remain to be answered both in theory and in practice.

6. CONCLUSION

Many countries implemented smart city technologies, but during the COVID‐19 outbreak in 2020, some countries were able to use its full capacity (the techno‐driven approach), while others could do this only selectively (the human‐driven approach) because of strict privacy protection legislation. The literature suggests that along with these two approaches, an alternative model would add value. The Russian Federation has advanced smart city infrastructure and strict legislation on privacy protection simultaneously. This paper explored the approach of the Moscow authorities to using smart city technologies during the COVID‐19 outbreak in 2020 and concluded that the authorities used a hybrid approach which demonstrates the features of both human‐driven and techno‐driven approaches. The author developed a Qualification matrix to define the approach used by authorities during the pandemic.

This research was based on publicly available sources of information and did not rely on any internal data of the authorities that could potentially influence the findings. For instance, only publicly available data were used when assessing whether smart city devices were utilized for the specific government measure. That may mean that other devices can also be used, but no information about such devices was available via the open sources. This is the main limitation of this research. As the next step, the results of the research could be validated through interviews with the managers of the smart city system of Moscow.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

This article is a part of a research project implemented as part of the Basic Research Program at HSE University. The research was undertaken independently by the author.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the editor and reviewers for their encouragement and guidance throughout the review process. The paper has significantly benefited from their comments. I also thank Rama Krishna Reddy Kummitha, Michael Revyakin, Keld Pedersen, Joel Cumberland and David Connolly for their discussions on the drafts of this paper.

Revyakin, S. A. (2022). Personal privacy VS. public safety: A hybrid model of the use of smart city solutions in fighting the COVID‐19 pandemic in Moscow . Public Administration and Development , 42 ( 5 ), 281–292. 10.1002/pad.1997 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

1 Under the Basic Research Program at the HSE University.

2 Where applicable.

3 Where applicable.

4 Index of digitalization of the urban economy.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

• 360TV. (2020). Franciya odobrila prilozhenie dlya slezhki iz‐za SOVID‐19. Kak kontroliruyut lyudej v drugih stranah? [France approved COVID‐19 surveillance application. How to control people in other countries?]. Retrieved from https://360tv.ru/news/tekst/slezhka-iz-za-sovid-19/
• BBC . (2020a). Coronavirus: Privacy in a pandemic . Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-52135916
• BBC . (2020b). Smart city or big brother? How the city Hall learned to know everything about Muscovites ["Umnyj gorod" ili “Starshij brat”? Kak meriya nauchilas’ znat’ o moskvichah vsyo] . Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/russian/features-52219260
• Cabestan, J. P. (2020). The state and digital society in China: Big brother Xi is watching you . Issues & Studies , 56 ( 1 ), 2040003. 10.1142/S1013251120400032 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• CNN. (2020). Singapore deploys robot “dog” to encourage social distancing. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2020/05/08/tech/singapore-coronavirus-social-distancing-robot-intl-hnk/index.html
• ComNews . (2020). Resident of Novosibirsk Academpark AT Consulting Vostok has developed an IT system to combat coronavirus [Rezident novosibirskogo Akademparka AT Consulting Vostok razrabotal IT‐sistemu dlya bor’by s koronavirusom] . Retrieved from https://www.comnews.ru/content/205355/2020-04-02/2020-w14/rezident-novosibirskogo-akademparka-consulting-vostok-razrabotal-it-sistemu-dlya-borby-koronavirusom
• Coronavirus‐monitor. (2020). Coronavirus online map. Retrieved from https://coronavirus-monitor.com/
• Done, A. (2012). Facing up to a changing world. In Global trends (Issue June) (pp. 247–265). 10.1057/9780230358973_14 [ CrossRef ]
• Editorial. (2020). Face ID firms battle Covid‐19 as users shun fingerprinting. Biometric Technology Today , 2020 (4), 1–2. 10.1016/S0969-4765(20)30042-4 [ CrossRef ]
• Ekman, A. (2019). China’s smart cities: The new geopolitical battleground (Issue December) . Études de l’Ifri. Retrieved from https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/ekman_smart_cites_battleground_2019.pdf [ Google Scholar ]
• Forbes . (2020a). How Moscow received for $ 3.2 million the world’s best face recognition system [Kak Moskva poluchila za $3,2 mln luchshuyu v mire sistemu raspoznavaniya lic] . Retrieved from https://www.forbes.ru/tehnologii/392303-kak-moskva-poluchila-za-32-mln-luchshuyu-v-mire-sistemu-raspoznavaniya-lic
• Forbes . (2020b). Russia has begun to restrict exit from cities, putin is in Kommunarka, and the auto industry is stopping: COVID‐19 pandemic news [V Rossii nachali ogranichivat’ vyezd iz gorodov, putin v Kommunarke, a avtopromyshlennost’ ostanavlivaetsya: novosti pandemii . Retrieved from https://www.forbes.ru/tehnologii/395915-v-rossii-nachali-ogranichivat-vyezd-iz-gorodov-putin-v-kommunarke
• Glas, L. R. (2013). European convention on human rights . Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights , 31 ( 2 ), 210–216. 10.1192/pb.27.12.463-a [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Goode, P. (2020). Russia and digital surveillance in the wake of COVID‐19 . PONARS Eurasia Policy Memo. Retrieved from https://www.ponarseurasia.org/russia‐and‐digital‐surveillance‐in‐the‐wake‐of‐covid‐19/ [ Google Scholar ]
• How do Russians respond to the epidemic? Polling stories [Kak rossijane reagirujut na jepidemiju? Istorii oprosov] . (2020). Retrieved from https://www.kramola.info/vesti/protivostojanie/kak‐rossiyane‐reagiruyut‐na‐epidemiyu‐istorii‐oprosov
• Huynh, D. , Tosun, M. S. , & Yilmaz, S. (2020). All‐of‐government response to the COVID‐19 pandemic: The case of Vietnam . Public Administration and Development , 40 ( 4 ), 236–239. 10.1002/pad.1893 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Inn, T. L. (2020). Smart city technologies take on COVID‐19 . Penang Institute Issues, 27. 10.7551/mitpress/11426.003.0005 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• International Telecommunication Union . (2018). Implementing ITU‐T internati onal standards to shape smart sustainable cities: The case of Moscow . Retrieved from https://www.itu.int/en/publications/Documents/tsb/2018-U4SSC-Case-of-Moscow/files/downloads/The-Case-of-Moscow-E_18-00503.pdf
• Janssen, M. , & Kuk, G. (2016). The challenges and limits of big data algorithms in technocratic governance . Government Information Quarterly , 33 ( 3 ), 371–377. 10.1016/j.giq.2016.08.011 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Janssen, M. , & van den Hoven, J. (2015). Big and open linked data (BOLD) in government: A challenge to transparency and privacy? Government Information Quarterly , 32 ( 4 ), 363–368. 10.1016/j.giq.2015.11.007 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kim, W. , & Lee, J.‐D. (2009). Measuring the role of technology‐push and demand‐pull in the dynamic development of the semiconductor industry: The case of the global DRAM market . Journal of Applied Economics , 12 ( 1 ), 83‐108. 10.1016/S1514-0326(09)60007-6 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kitchin, R. (2020). Civil liberties or public health, or civil liberties and public health? Using surveillance technologies to tackle the spread of COVID‐19 . Space and Polity , 24 ( 3 ), 362–381. 10.1080/13562576.2020.1770587 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kummitha, R. K. R. (2020). Smart technologies for fighting pandemics: The techno‐ and human‐driven approaches in controlling the virus transmission . Government Information Quarterly. 101481. 10.1016/j.giq.2020.101481 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kupferschmidt, K. , & Cohen, J. (2020). Can China’s COVID‐19 strategy work elsewhere? In Science (Vol. 367 ( 6482 ), pp. 1061–1062). 10.1126/science.367.6482.1062 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kuziemski, M. , & Misuraca, G. (2020). AI governance in the public sector: Three tales from the frontiers of automated decision‐making in democratic settings . Telecommunications Policy, 101976. 10.1016/j.telpol.2020.101976 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Leaders, D. (2020). Smart cities during COVID‐19 . Retrieved from https://digileaders.com/smart-cities-during-covid-19/
• Lee, D. , & Lee, J. (2020). Testing on the move: South Korea’s rapid response to the COVID‐19 pandemic . Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives , 5 , 100111. 10.1016/j.trip.2020.100111 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Liu, H. , & Li, Y. (2020). Smart cities for emergency management . Nature , 578 ( 7796 ), 515. 10.1038/d41586-020-00523-5 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mansfield‐Devine, S. (2020). Editorial. Computer Fraud & Security , 2020 (4), 2. 10.1016/S1361-3723(20)30034-8 [ CrossRef ]
• Markotkin, N. (2021). Does coronavirus herald the age of totalitarian surveillance in Russia and Eurasia? Retrieved from https://carnegie.ru/commentary/84044
• Mash . (2020). Where in Moscow they took the coronavirus diagnosed . Retrieved from https://coronavirus.mash.ru/
• Ministry of DDCMM of the Russian Federation . (2020). The federal application “Stopkoronavirus Government Services” will not be applied in Moscow [Federal’noe prilozhenie «Gosuslugi Stopkoronavirus» ne budet primenyat’sya v Moskve] . Retrieved from https://digital.gov.ru/ru/events/39746/
• Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation . (2020). Map of the distribution of coronavirus in our country: [Karta rasprostraneniya koronavirusa u nas v strane:] . Retrieved from https://covid19.rosminzdrav.ru/
• Mjerija Moskvy gotova primenjat’ QR‐kody dlja kontrolja rezhima izoljacii [The Moscow City Government is ready to apply QR codes to control the mode of isolation] . (2020). Retrieved from https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/4309878
• Mobile application “Social Monitoring” reviews . (2021). Retrieved from https://www.otzyvru.com/mobilnoe-prilojenie-sotsialniy-monitoring
• Moscow Department of Information Technology . (2020). Information technology [informacionnye tekhnologii] . Retrieved from https://video.dit.mos.ru/
• Moscow Government . (2020). Ukaz mjera Moskvy ot 16 marta 2020 goda № 21‐UM “O vnesenii izmenenija v ukaz Mjera Moskvy ot 5 marta 2020 g. № 12‐UM” [decree of the mayor of Moscow No. 21‐UM, March 16, 2020 “on the amendments to decree of the mayor of Moscow No. 12‐UM, March 5, 2020”.] . Retrieved from https://rg.ru/2020/03/16/moscow-ukaz21-reg-dok.html
• Nam, T. (2020). Do the right thing right! Understanding the hopes and hypes of data‐based policy . Government Information Quarterly , 37 ( 3 ), 101491. 10.1016/j.giq.2020.101491 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Novosti, R. I. A. (2020a). The expert told how the project of “smart city” helped in the fight against COVID‐19 [Ekspert rasskazal, kak proekt “umnogo goroda” pomog v bor’be s COVID‐19] . Retrieved from https://ria.ru/20200514/1571411223.html
• Novosti, R. I. A. (2020b). Pravitel’stvo Moskvy razoslalo SMS letevshim s bol’nymi koronavirusom [Moscow government sent out a text message to those who flew with coronavirus patients] . Retrieved from https://ria.ru/20200311/1568434059.html
• Otto, M. (2018). Regulation (EU) 2016/679 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (General Data Protection Regulation—GDPR) (pp. 958–981). International and European Labour Law, 2014. 10.5771/9783845266190-974 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Patten, S. B. , & Arboleda‐Flórez, J. A. (2004). Epidemic theory and group violence . Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology , 39 ( 11 ), 853–856. 10.1007/s00127-004-0867-9 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Quijano‐Sánchez, L. , Cantador, I. , Cortés‐Cediel, M. E. , & Gil, O. (2020). Recommender systems for smart cities . Information Systems , 92 , 101545. 10.1016/j.is.2020.101545 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• RBC . (2020). Sobyanin has been suggested using drones to fight coronavirus [Sobyaninu predlozhili ispol’zovat’ bespilotniki dlya bor’by s koronavirusom] . Retrieved from https://www.rbc.ru/technology_and_media/11/04/2020/5e9048ea9a7947acdee3399e
• RBC . (2021). Innovacii protiv pandemii: Kak Moskva boretsya s COVID‐19 [innovations against the pandemic: How Moscow fights COVID‐19 . Retrieved from https://www.rbc.ru/technology_and_media/27/12/2021/61c6ecb09a7947b96e1a8c9a
• Reuters. (2020). European mobile operators share data for coronavirus fight. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-europe-telecoms/european-mobile-operators-share-data-for-coronavirus-fight-idUSKBN2152C2
• Russian newspaper [Rossiyskaya Gazeta] . (2020). The smartest cities in Russia announced [Nazvany samye umnye goroda Rossii] . Retrieved from https://rg.ru/2020/03/03/nazvany‐samye‐umnye‐goroda‐rossii.html
• Ruzina, E. I. (2020). From information city to smart city: Russian experience of state entrepreneurship . Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies , 138 , 419–430. 10.1007/978-3-030-15577-3_41 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Selinger, C. (2020). Security trumps freedom? How governments are deploying mass surveillance tools in the name of coronavirus [Bezopasnost’ prevyshe svobody? Kak pravitel’stva vnedrjajut instrumenty massovoj slezhki pod predlogom koronavirusa . Retrieved from https://forklog.com/bezopasnost-prevyshe-svobody-kak-pravitelstva-vnedryayut-instrumenty-massovoj-slezhki-pod-predlogom-koronavirusa/
• Sharifi, A. , Khavarian‐Garmsir, A. R. , & Kummitha, R. K. R. (2021). Contributions of smart city solutions and technologies to resilience against the COVID‐19 pandemic: A literature review . Sustainability , 13 ( 14 ), 8018. 10.3390/su13148018 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shaw, R., Kim, Y., & Hua, J. (2020). Governance, technology and citizen behavior in pandemic: Lessons from COVID‐19 in East Asia. Progress in Disaster Science , 6 , 100090. 10.1016/j.pdisas.2020.100090 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sobjanin ob’javil o vvedenii v Moskve specpropuskov . (2020). Chto jeto znachit [Sobyanin announced the introduction of special passes in Moscow. What does it mean] . Retrieved from https://realty.rbc.ru/news/5e90b9c49a7947ed33760d3e
• “Social’nyj monitoring”: kak Moskva izdevaetsja nad zapertymi v karantin bol’nymi [“Social Monitoring”: How Moscow Mocks the Quarantined Sick]. (2020). Retrieved from  https://www.yaplakal.com/forum1/topic2115063.html
• Stamati, T. , Papadopoulos, T. , & Anagnostopoulos, D. (2015). Social media for openness and accountability in the public sector: Cases in the Greek context . Government Information Quarterly , 32 ( 1 ), 12–29. 10.1016/j.giq.2014.11.004 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• The IMD World Competitiveness Center . (2019). IMD smart city index 2019. IMD world competitiveness center’s smart city observatory . Retrieved from https://www.imd.org/globalassets/wcc/docs/smart_city/smart_city_index_digital.pdf
• The New York Times . (2020a). As coronavirus surveillance Escalates, personal privacy plummets . Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/23/technology/coronavirus-surveillance-tracking-privacy.html
• The New York Times . (2020b). To track coronavirus, Israel Moves to tap secret trove of cellphone data . Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/16/world/middleeast/israel-coronavirus-cellphone-tracking.html
• The official portal of the Moscow’s Mayor and Moscow’s Government . (2020a). Coronavirus: Official information [Koronavirus: oficial’naya informaciya] . Retrieved from https://www.mos.ru/city/projects/covid-19/
• The official portal of the Moscow Mayor and Moscow Government . (2020b). Moscow is technically ready for the operational launch of a smart home control system [Moskva tekhnicheski gotova k operativnomu zapusku umnoj sistemy kontrolya soblyudeniya domashnego rezhima] . Retrieved from https://www.mos.ru/news/item/72153073/
• The Wall Street Journal . (2020). How coronavirus is eroding privacy . Retrieved from https://www.wsj.com/articles/coronavirus-paves-way-for-new-age-of-digital-surveillance-11586963028
• Vedomosti . (2020a). How Moscow authorities plan to fight coronavirus [Kak vlasti Moskvy sobirayutsya borot’sya s koronavirusom] . Retrieved from https://www.vedomosti.ru/society/articles/2020/03/04/824469-borotsya-s-koronavirusom
• Vedomosti . (2020b). Kak regiony samoizoliruyutsya ot koronavirusa [How regions self‐isolate from coronavirus] . Retrieved from https://www.vedomosti.ru/society/articles/2020/03/30/826650-regioni-koronavirusa
• WHO . (2001). WHO recommended strategies for the prevention and control of communicable diseases . Retrieved from https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/67088/WHO_CDS_CPE_SMT_2001.13.pdf
• WHO . (2019). Report of the WHO‐China joint Mission on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) . Retrieved from https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/who-china-joint-mission-on-covid-19-final-report.pdf
• Worldometer . (2020). COVID‐19 coronavirus pandemic . Retrieved from https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/
• Yang, S. , & Chong, Z. (2021). Smart city projects against COVID‐19: Quantitative evidence from China . Sustainable Cities and Society , 70 ( February ), 102897. 10.1016/j.scs.2021.102897 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

A lock ( ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

• About Program Portfolio

Public Safety Program

• The Public Safety Program aims to reduce, prevent, or eliminate occupational exposures, injuries, illnesses, and fatalities through research and prevention.
• Fire service, law enforcement, corrections, emergency medical service (EMS), and wildland firefighting, are some of the most dangerous jobs worldwide.

To Learn More‎

Every day across the nation, emergencies occur that threaten people's life, well-being, property, peace, and security. During these events, society relies on public safety workers to respond, protect, and restore the safety, security, and routine.

The Public Safety Program sets national priorities, encourages new NIOSH projects to address program priorities, and monitors NIOSH-funded projects and grants. Through partnership development, the program identifies the most salient needs with a comprehensive goal to improve occupational safety and health (OSH). The program supports the most important research, understand effective intervention strategies, and implements those strategies to improve workplace practice. The Public Safety Program also tracks impacts achieved by NIOSH projects and partner efforts in support of sector goals.

Program priorities

The Public Safety Program has selected research priorities on the basis of burden, need and impact. The Program collaborated with other NIOSH research programs to write the research goals in the NIOSH Strategic Plan for FYs 2019-2026 . Priority areas include (but are not limited to):

• Reduce occupational cancer, cardiovascular disease, adverse reproductive outcomes.
• Reduce occupational immune, infectious, dermal diseases and hazardous exposures to illicit drugs.
• Reduce occupational respiratory diseases including fixed airways diseases such as COPD.
• Reduce traumatic injuries including motor vehicle crashes (MVC), violence, and substance use/misuse.
• Prevent negative mental health outcomes such as PTSD, compassion fatigue, and depression.

What we've accomplished

In 2022-2023, the Program:

• Published an article assessing exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (e.g. benzene, styrene) during controlled-residential and training fires. Results indicate an increase in urinary VOC concentrations from pre- to post-fire measurements.
• Published a training video on row house firefighting tactics and challenges.
• Published an article examining firefighters' injuries in Ohio workers' compensation claims. Results indicate common injury events were overexertions and struck-by incidents.
• Published a safety advisory providing recommendations for using and training on the portable radio emergency alert button during a Mayday .
• Published an article evaluating the impact of COVID-19 on medical examiner and coroners' workload and resource needs. Results indicate increased workload and challenges, including PPE access and burnout, during the pandemic.

What's ahead

In the future, the Program aims to:

• Publish an analysis of first responder suicides from the National Violent Death Reporting System.
• Develop a document on prevention measures for motor vehicle crashes among law enforcement.
• Produce educational poster for incarcerated workers on safe use of disinfectants.
• Evaluate firefighters' exposure to VOCs and naphthalene when wearing different PPE configurations.
• Publish communication products on fighting strip mall fires.
• Enroll 200,000 firefighters in the NFR.
• Improve existing wildland firefighter PPE standards through collaborations.

Contact the Public Safety Program with any questions or comments.

Please enter your email address.

More information on specific workplace safety and health topics and useful resources can be found on the following pages:

• Fire Service
• Law Enforcement
• Corrections
• Emergency Medical Services
• Wildland Firefighting

NORA Council

The Public Safety Program helps lead the NORA Public Safety Sector Council . The council brings together individuals and organizations to share information, form partnerships, and promote adoption and dissemination of solutions that work.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)

The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 established NIOSH as a research agency focused on the study of worker safety and health, and empowering employers and workers to create safe and healthy workplaces.

NIOSH Research Programs

The Downfall of Maximilien Robespierre: how he Sealed his own Fate

This essay about Maximilien Robespierre’s fall from power during the French Revolution explains how he transitioned from a defender of the people to the architect of the Reign of Terror. Initially admired for his commitment to the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity, Robespierre gained significant power as the leader of the Committee of Public Safety. However, his governance soon turned tyrannical, characterized by extreme measures such as the de-Christianization campaigns and the widespread use of the guillotine. His paranoia and autocratic rule led him to target perceived enemies, ultimately alienating his allies. The essay details how his final speech, hinting at further purges, spurred his former colleagues to arrest and execute him, using the very methods he had employed. Robespierre’s story serves as a reminder of the perils of unchecked power and the importance of maintaining a balance between revolutionary ideals and political realities.

How it works

Maximilien Robespierre’s story is like something straight out of a dramatic play. Initially, he was the people’s hero during the French Revolution, championing the causes of freedom, equality, and fraternity. But as the leader of the Committee of Public Safety, he morphed into the chief architect of the Reign of Terror, where thousands were sent to the guillotine on the slightest suspicion of disloyalty. His descent from revered leader to despised tyrant is a stark lesson in how power can corrupt.

Robespierre’s early days in the revolution painted him as a defender of the downtrodden and a fierce opponent of the monarchy. His powerful speeches and firm stance on the people’s rights earned him a spot at the revolutionary heart, propelling him to significant power within the government. As he climbed higher, he took control of the Committee of Public Safety, which had the daunting task of protecting the newly formed republic from internal and external threats. Unfortunately, Robespierre’s idea of “protection” involved purging France of anyone he deemed a threat.

The Reign of Terror, under his command, was brutal and unforgiving. Initially, it might have seemed a necessary evil to stave off the revolution’s enemies, but as time wore on, the criteria for who counted as an enemy became dangerously vague. Robespierre’s paranoia didn’t discriminate, and soon even his closest allies found themselves at risk. The more power he gained, the more he seemed to lose touch with reality, seeing enemies in every shadow.

Robespierre’s relentless pursuit of a utopian republic led him to endorse extreme measures, like the de-Christianization campaigns, which alienated many. His autocratic style didn’t help either. He isolated himself by denouncing and eliminating groups and individuals, including leading revolutionaries who had been his early comrades, like the Girondins and Georges Danton. His insistence on political purity created a stifling atmosphere of fear and suspicion that pervaded every aspect of French life.

His downfall began to take shape when he delivered a foreboding speech to the National Convention in July 1794, hinting at yet more purges, including potential members of the Convention itself. This was a tactical error—no one felt safe. Spooked and desperate, his former colleagues banded together to protect their own necks. They quickly turned on him, initiating his arrest and swiftly bringing him to the guillotine—a grim end that he had prescribed for so many others.

Robespierre’s execution was a culmination of his own rigid and ruthless policies, which ultimately left him isolated and vulnerable. His rise and fall serve as a poignant example of how a leader’s iron grip can slip when the balance of power shifts. His story is a reminder of the complexities of revolutionary fervor and the dangers of absolute power that disregards the voice of the people it initially sought to elevate.

Cite this page

The Downfall of Maximilien Robespierre: How He Sealed His Own Fate. (2024, May 12). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/the-downfall-of-maximilien-robespierre-how-he-sealed-his-own-fate/

"The Downfall of Maximilien Robespierre: How He Sealed His Own Fate." PapersOwl.com , 12 May 2024, https://papersowl.com/examples/the-downfall-of-maximilien-robespierre-how-he-sealed-his-own-fate/

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Downfall of Maximilien Robespierre: How He Sealed His Own Fate . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-downfall-of-maximilien-robespierre-how-he-sealed-his-own-fate/ [Accessed: 16 May. 2024]

"The Downfall of Maximilien Robespierre: How He Sealed His Own Fate." PapersOwl.com, May 12, 2024. Accessed May 16, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/the-downfall-of-maximilien-robespierre-how-he-sealed-his-own-fate/

"The Downfall of Maximilien Robespierre: How He Sealed His Own Fate," PapersOwl.com , 12-May-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-downfall-of-maximilien-robespierre-how-he-sealed-his-own-fate/. [Accessed: 16-May-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Downfall of Maximilien Robespierre: How He Sealed His Own Fate . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-downfall-of-maximilien-robespierre-how-he-sealed-his-own-fate/ [Accessed: 16-May-2024]

Don't let plagiarism ruin your grade

Hire a writer to get a unique paper crafted to your needs.

Our writers will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+!

Please check your inbox.

You can order an original essay written according to your instructions.

Trusted by over 1 million students worldwide

1. Tell Us Your Requirements

2. Pick your perfect writer

3. Get Your Paper and Pay

Hi! I'm Amy, your personal assistant!

Don't know where to start? Give me your paper requirements and I connect you to an academic expert.

short deadlines

100% Plagiarism-Free

Certified writers

American detained in Russia for allegedly 'violating public order,' Moscow court says

An American visiting Russia was detained for allegedly "violating public order" and remanded in custody for 10 days, a Moscow court said Tuesday.

William Russell Nycum had been drinking with friends at a bar before allegedly climbing into a children's library in Moscow, REN TV, a local television station, first reported on Monday.

"In accordance with the protocol on an administrative offense, a U.S. citizen drank alcoholic beverages, then was found in the yard, naked, expressed obvious disrespect for society, citizens and public order, for which he was detained by police officers," a Moscow court said Tuesday.

Nycum allegedly began to undress once he was inside the library, the station reported.

The TV station published a video that it said showed Nycum near the library, along with photos that it said showed his belongings inside the library. One photo appeared to show a shattered window.

The station also published a photo that appeared to show Nycum's visa to enter Russia.

The U.S. Embassy in Moscow has "no higher priority than the safety and security of U.S. citizens overseas," a spokesperson said Tuesday.

"We are aware of reports that a U.S. citizen has been detained in Russia," the spokesperson said. "We take seriously our commitment to assist U.S. citizens abroad and provide all appropriate consular assistance. Due to privacy considerations, we have no further comment."

A U.S. soldier was separately detained in Vladivostok, Russia, on Thursday on charges of criminal misconduct, according to the U.S. Army.

ABC News' Ellie Kaufman and Joe Simonetti contributed to this story.

Crime & Public Safety | 3 men charged in Whitey Bulger’s 2018 prison…

Share this:.

• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Reddit (Opens in new window)
• Click to print (Opens in new window)
• Your Tax Dollars
• Massachusetts

Breaking News

Crime & public safety | rich shertenlieb’s co-hosts announced for his new 100.7 wzlx show: ‘some of my favorite people on the planet’, crime & public safety, crime & public safety | 3 men charged in whitey bulger’s 2018 prison killing have plea deals, prosecutors say.

WASHINGTON (AP) — Three men charged in the 2018 prison killing of notorious Boston gangster James “Whitey” Bulger have reached plea deals with prosecutors, according to court papers filed Monday.

The plea deals for Fotios “Freddy” Geas, Paul J. DeCologero and Sean McKinnon were disclosed nearly six years after the 89-year-old gangster was beaten to death in his cell at a troubled West Virginia prison.

Geas, a onetime Mafia hitman, and DeCologero, a Massachusetts gangster, were accused of repeatedly hitting Bulger in the head while McKinnon served as a lookout.

DeCologero told an inmate witness that Bulger was a “snitch” and that as soon as he came into their unit, they planned to kill him. DeCologero also told an inmate that he and Geas used a belt with a lock attached to it to bludgeon Bulger to death, prosecutors said.

Geas and DeCologero were identified as suspects shortly after Bulger’s death, but they remained uncharged for years as the investigation dragged on.

Prosecutors in West Virginia federal court asked the court to schedule hearings for the men to change their not-guilty pleas and to be sentenced, though they didn’t provide further details about the plea agreements, which have not been filed in court.

Belinda Haynie, an attorney for Geas, declined to comment Monday. Attorneys for the other two defendants didn’t immediately respond to requests for comment from The Associated Press.

The Justice Department said last year that it would would not seek the death sentence for Geas and DeCologero, who were charged with murder. All three men were charged with conspiracy to commit first-degree murder, which carries up to a life sentence. McKinnon was also charged with making false statements to a federal agent.

Bulger, who ran the largely Irish mob in Boston in the 1970s and ’80s, served as an FBI informant who ratted on the main rival to his gang. He became one of the nation’s most-wanted fugitives after fleeing Boston in 1994 thanks to a tip from his FBI handler that he was about to be indicted. He was captured at the age of 81 after more than 16 years on the run.

In 2013, he was convicted in a string of 11 killings and dozens of other gangland crimes, many of them committed while he was said to be an FBI informant.

Bulger was killed just hours after he was transferred from a Florida lockup to USP Hazelton in West Virginia and placed in the general population. Bulger’s transfer to Hazelton, where workers had already been sounding the alarm about violence and understaffing, and his placement in the general population instead of more protective housing was widely criticized by experts after his killing.

A Justice Department inspector general investigation found in 2022 that his killing was the result of multiple layers of management failures, widespread incompetence and flawed policies at the Bureau of Prisons. The inspector general found no evidence of “malicious intent” by any bureau employees, but said a series of bureaucratic blunders left Bulger at the mercy of rival gangsters behind bars.

DeCologero, who was in an organized crime gang led by his uncle in Massachusetts, was convicted of buying heroin that was used to try to kill a teenage girl his uncle wanted dead because he feared she would betray the crew to police. The heroin didn’t kill her, so another man broke her neck, dismembered her and buried her remains in the woods, court records say.

Geas was a close associate of the Mafia and acted as an enforcer, but was not an official “made” member because he is Greek, not Italian. He and his brother were sentenced to life in prison in 2011 for their roles in several violent crimes, including the 2003 killing of Adolfo “Big Al” Bruno, a Genovese crime family boss in Springfield, Massachusetts. Another mobster ordered Bruno’s killing because he was upset he had talked to the FBI, prosecutors said.

McKinnon had been on federal supervised release after serving prison time for stealing guns from a firearms dealer when he was arrested on charges in Bulger’s killing.

Raby reported from Charleston, West Virginia.

More in Crime & Public Safety

Crime & Public Safety | Karen Read murder trial Day 13: Colin Albert faces cross examination

Politics | Boston Police records debunk ACLU, critics’ claim that piñata activated ShotSpotter

Crime & Public Safety | Karen Read murder trial witness sheds tears as she highlights being ‘harassed’ during Day 12

Crime & Public Safety | Massachusetts schools ‘Shelter in Place’ amid fight at school bus stop: Man allegedly pulled out gun, bit other man

Public Safety Exception: Miranda’s Warnings Essay (Critical Writing)

The following case reviews the issues in questioning Dzhokar Tsarnaev, the main suspect behind the Boston Marathon bombings. In that case, the man was hospitalized due to the injuries caused by the police capturing him. It is unknown whether he had been questioned or not, however, some people find doing this rather unethical in the depicted situation. They believe that questioning a person in such a situation is unethical and may lead to further individual rights violations.

The Miranda warning allows suspects to not answer questions during interrogations. It informs suspects that their claims may be used against them and that they may exercise this notification at any time. Given Tsarnaev’s situation, there is no wonder that this notification may serve as an advantage for him. Moreover, there are ethical sides to it, as his condition may be too severe or even critical to be interrogated. Thus, some would find applying the Miranda warning in this situation a reasonable idea.

Another complication, which, in some way, works to Tsarnaev’s advantage, is the severity of his current medical condition. The suspect may not be in a suitable physical state to be interrogated (brain trauma, shock, and many other medical issues). Asking such suspect questions could lead to misinformation or any attempts at further investigation being futile. Such a complication may be emphasized in cases when a suspect may need surgery during their hospitalization. This further emphasizes the complicated nature of such criminal cases.

While creating a case in other situations would be questionable, given the fact that the crime at hand is terrorism, the possible consequences of not interrogating the suspect would have been far too devastating. The best outcome is that it may be discovered that there are no bombs in other locations. In a worst-case scenario, if a suspect like Tsarnaev dies before being discharged, his knowledge of other attack locations will perish with him, leading to countless casualties.

Public safety exceptions to the Miranda warning are extremely rare and reviewed individually. This concept has been used more frequently in terrorist-related cases similar to Tsarnaev’s (Miranda Warning, n. d.). The severity of the given situation invalidates Anthony D. Romero’s claims about the interrogation being unconstitutional, as the risks outweigh his concerns. Thus, believing that cases similar to Tsarnaev’s deserve a lighter approach would be a rather misguided viewpoint.

It is important to mention that suspects similar to Tsarnaev tend to be reluctant to provide details on their crimes. The injuries caused by the police capturing him further emphasize this perspective. This implies that Tsarnaev was never open to confessing or uncovering any information from the start. This is why the benefits provided by the Miranda warning serve as more of a problem than an individual rights advantage.

In conclusion, Miranda warnings can lead to negative consequences if exercised in terrorist cases. In a case similar to Tsarnaev’s, it is advisable to proceed with the investigation, as the possible risks are far too devastating. A suspect like Tsarnaev may benefit from the Miranda warning, considering he was reluctant to provide much information from the start. If he dies before being discharged, the information will perish with him, leading to casualties in other locations caused by terrorist attacks. This is why Anthony D. Romero’s claims are rather misguided. Thus, it is advisable to interrogate the suspect before it is too late.

Public-safety exception to Miranda . (n.d.). Miranda Warning. Web.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2023, May 12). Public Safety Exception: Miranda’s Warnings. https://ivypanda.com/essays/public-safety-exception-mirandas-warnings/

"Public Safety Exception: Miranda’s Warnings." IvyPanda , 12 May 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/public-safety-exception-mirandas-warnings/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Public Safety Exception: Miranda’s Warnings'. 12 May.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Public Safety Exception: Miranda’s Warnings." May 12, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/public-safety-exception-mirandas-warnings/.

1. IvyPanda . "Public Safety Exception: Miranda’s Warnings." May 12, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/public-safety-exception-mirandas-warnings/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Public Safety Exception: Miranda’s Warnings." May 12, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/public-safety-exception-mirandas-warnings/.

• Miranda vs. Arizona: Background and Implication
• Miranda Warnings in the United States
• The Importance of Miranda Rights
• Debate on Whether to Defend Civil Liberties or Counterterrorism Measures
• Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy
• The Case of Saudi Arabia's Soft Counter-Terrorism Strategy
• Transnational Organized Crime in the United States
• Terrorism Prevention: Operation Geronimo

• Policy Statements
• Job Listings
• Year in Review
• Latest News
• Press Credentials
• Voice of The Food Industry Blog
• Top Sellers
• How to Place an Order
• Asset Protection and Grocery Resilience Conference
• Biotechnology Vocabulary
• Biotechnology Frequently Asked Questions
• Bioengineering aka GMO
• Gene Editing
• The FoodKeeper
• Sustainability
• Crisis Management
• Diversity, Equity & Inclusion
• Feeding Assistance Toolkit
• White House Conference on Hunger, Nutrition and Health
• Food Price Inflation
• UPC Random Weight Perishables
• FreshForward
• Frozen Foods
• Food for Health
• Independent Operator
• Product Code Dating
• GMO Labeling
• Labor & Employment
• Omnichannel
• SmartLabel® Implementation Recommendations
• Supplier Diversity
• Supply Chain Forum
• MarkeTechnics
• Supermarket Employee Day
• Store Manager Awards
• Grocery Store Chains Net Profit
• Average Total Store Size – Square Feet
• Food Retailing Industry Speaks
• Food Industry Glossary
• The Evolving Grocery Experience
• U.S. Grocery Shopper Trends
• Conferences
• Digital Seminars
• On-Demand Learning
• College and University Programs
• Future Leaders eXperience
• Food Retail Leader Certificate
• Retail Management Certificate
• Food Safety News
• Backgrounders
• SafeMark Food Safety Training
• Safe Quality Food Institute
• Partnership For Food Safety Education
• Food Protection Committee Portal
• FSMA Resource Center
• Traceability Rule
• Priority Issues
• Issue Papers
• State Associations
• Government Relations Newsletters
• FoodPAC and FMI LEAD Fund
• Government Relations Staff
• Voting Resources
• Advocacy Center
• FMI v. Argus Leader
• Newsletters
• Directories
• Executive Leadership Awards
• Share Groups
• Frequently Asked Questions
• FMI Foundation
• Family Meals
• Sponsorships & Advertising
• Best Practices
• Asset Protection
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Food Safety
• Fresh Foods
• Government Relations
• Health and Well-being
• Private Brands
• Retail Operations
• Supply Chain

Stay Connected

What do epa’s new pfas drinking water regulations mean for the food industry.

By Dr. Shelby Furman, Director, Food and Product Safety Programs, FMI 

It is essential to ensure that water that is consumed is safe and free of contaminants. A contaminant in drinking water is defined as anything other than water molecules. These can be classified in four ways: physical, chemical, biological and radiological. Though not all contaminants in water are considered harmful, some contaminants have potential health effects and have been or are starting to be regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).  

Of the standards set by the EPA, there is one regulation in particular that has made headlines recently: the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWR) , which are legally enforceable standards and treatment methods that apply to public water systems (PWS). This regulation is intended to protect public health by limiting the levels of contaminants in public drinking water, such as microorganisms, disinfectants and inorganic/organic chemicals.  

A set of contaminants that are of particular interest are chemicals known as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). These substances are man-made chemicals that are used for their water, oil and grease resistance properties. However, they also do not break down easily and have the ability to accumulate in the environment and the body, leading to a growing concern over their potential health effects.  

In April 2024, the EPA announced final regulations on six PFAS and established health-based, non-enforceable Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLGs) that range from 0-10 parts per trillion (ppt): 

• PFOA (Perfluorooctanoic Acid)
• PFOS (Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid)
• PFHxS (Perfluorohexane sulfonate)
• PFNA (Perfluorononanoic acid)
• HFPO-DA (Gen-X chemicals)
• Mixture containing two or more of PFHxS, PFNA, HFPO-DA, and PFBS (Perfluorobutane sulfonic acid)

EPA also finalized legally enforceable Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) that are more easily achievable, which range from 4-10 ppt. As a part of the regulation, by 2027, public water systems must have completed initial monitoring for the listed PFAS. The water systems must also provide the levels of PFAS in their drinking water beginning in 2027. By 2029, water systems must implement solutions to reduce the monitored PFAS if they exceed the Maximum Contaminant Levels. Beginning in 2029, public water systems that violate one or more of the MCLs must take action on reducing the level of PFAS in the water supply and must notify the public of such violation.

What impact does the NPDWR have on the food industry?

With this regulation, FMI members might have some questions about what this means for their operations. The ruling specifically regulates public water systems and does not require action from the food industry at this time. That said, operations relying on PWS should work cooperatively with utility officials to ensure compliance and uninterrupted service at their facilities. Food facilities have the responsibility to ensure the use of water that is safe and of adequate quality in their operations to comply with U.S. Food and Drug Administration Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) requirements. FDA considers using water that meets the standards for household drinking water would also be acceptable for the production of food products, and facilities can rely on the standards in EPA’s NPDW regulations to satisfy the GMP requirements.

What impact does the NPDWR have on bottled water?

Bottled water is regulated by the FDA; therefore, EPA’s rule does not apply directly. Currently, FDA has not established standards for PFAS in bottled water. Because EPA has finalized these standards, FDA is now required to evaluate what PFAS standards are appropriate. The agency is in its initial phase of research and is currently conducting a targeted survey for PFAS in bottled water. Results from its 2016 targeted survey did not detect PFAS in bottled water.

FMI will continue to monitor regulatory changes and the impact on the food industry and will update our members promptly with any new information.

• Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) FMI Backgrounder
• Final PFAS National Primary Drinking Water Regulation
• Fact Sheet: Treatment Options for Removing PFAS in Drinking Water
• Fact Sheet: Benefits and Costs of Reducing PFAS in Drinking Water
• Current Good Manufacturing Practice, Hazard Analysis, and Risk-Based Preventive Controls for Human Food

Related Posts

Celebrating Excellence: PepsiCo Receives FMI’s 2024 Food Safety Innovation Award

We are proud to recognize PepsiCo as the recipient of this year’s award for their comprehensive approach to food safety. PepsiCo is the first product supplier company to receive the award and joins a prestigious list of past award recipients.

Traceability Is Important, But It Must Be Done Right

Food safety is the single most important issue the food industry prioritizes every day. FMI supports strong traceability systems, but it must be done in a way that is practical, achievable, and produces measurable results in enhancing food safety.

• Privacy Policy
• Terms of Use

© FMI All rights reserved.

Website design by Matrix Group International, Inc. ®

Sign Up for the

FREE daily briefing on top stories in food retailing.

• fmi-icon-frozen-goods
• fmi-icon-workforce
• fmi-icon-certificate
• fmi-icon-pharmacy
• fmi-icon-food-safety
• fmi-icon-asset-protection
• fmi-icon-education force-icon-3
• fmi-icon-research
• fmi-icon-government-affairs
• fmi-icon-get-involved
• fmi-icon-industry-topic force-icon-3
• fmi-icon-labeling
• fmi-icon-corporate-social-responsibility
• fmi-icon-payments
• fmi-icon-crisis-management
• fmi-icon-private-brands
• fmi-icon-food-assistance
• fmi-icon-supplier-diversity
• fmi-icon-fresh-foods
• fmi-icon-supply-chain
• fmi-icon-general-merchandise
• fmi-icon-technology
• fmi-icon-health-wellness
• fmi-icon-total-store-collaboration
• fmi-icon-Health-Reform
• fmi-icon-wage-labor
• fmi-icon-independent-operator
• fmi-icon-wholesaler-topic
• fmi-icon-newsroom force-icon-3
• fmi-icon-tax-reform
• fmi-icon-about_icon force-icon-4
• fmi-icon-about_icon
• fmi-icon-cart
• fmi-icon-blog_icon force-icon-5
• fmi-icon-Communications
• fmi-icon-omnichannel
• fmi-icon-biotechnology-topic