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How to Write a Conclusion for Research Papers (with Examples)

The conclusion of a research paper is a crucial section that plays a significant role in the overall impact and effectiveness of your research paper. However, this is also the section that typically receives less attention compared to the introduction and the body of the paper. The conclusion serves to provide a concise summary of the key findings, their significance, their implications, and a sense of closure to the study. Discussing how can the findings be applied in real-world scenarios or inform policy, practice, or decision-making is especially valuable to practitioners and policymakers. The research paper conclusion also provides researchers with clear insights and valuable information for their own work, which they can then build on and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

The research paper conclusion should explain the significance of your findings within the broader context of your field. It restates how your results contribute to the existing body of knowledge and whether they confirm or challenge existing theories or hypotheses. Also, by identifying unanswered questions or areas requiring further investigation, your awareness of the broader research landscape can be demonstrated.

Remember to tailor the research paper conclusion to the specific needs and interests of your intended audience, which may include researchers, practitioners, policymakers, or a combination of these.

Table of Contents

What is a conclusion in a research paper, summarizing conclusion, editorial conclusion, externalizing conclusion, importance of a good research paper conclusion, how to write a conclusion for your research paper, research paper conclusion examples.

• How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal? 

Frequently Asked Questions

A conclusion in a research paper is the final section where you summarize and wrap up your research, presenting the key findings and insights derived from your study. The research paper conclusion is not the place to introduce new information or data that was not discussed in the main body of the paper. When working on how to conclude a research paper, remember to stick to summarizing and interpreting existing content. The research paper conclusion serves the following purposes: 1

• Warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem.
• Recommend specific course(s) of action.
• Restate key ideas to drive home the ultimate point of your research paper.
• Provide a “take-home” message that you want the readers to remember about your study.

Types of conclusions for research papers

In research papers, the conclusion provides closure to the reader. The type of research paper conclusion you choose depends on the nature of your study, your goals, and your target audience. I provide you with three common types of conclusions:

A summarizing conclusion is the most common type of conclusion in research papers. It involves summarizing the main points, reiterating the research question, and restating the significance of the findings. This common type of research paper conclusion is used across different disciplines.

An editorial conclusion is less common but can be used in research papers that are focused on proposing or advocating for a particular viewpoint or policy. It involves presenting a strong editorial or opinion based on the research findings and offering recommendations or calls to action.

An externalizing conclusion is a type of conclusion that extends the research beyond the scope of the paper by suggesting potential future research directions or discussing the broader implications of the findings. This type of conclusion is often used in more theoretical or exploratory research papers.

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The conclusion in a research paper serves several important purposes:

• Offers Implications and Recommendations : Your research paper conclusion is an excellent place to discuss the broader implications of your research and suggest potential areas for further study. It’s also an opportunity to offer practical recommendations based on your findings.
• Provides Closure : A good research paper conclusion provides a sense of closure to your paper. It should leave the reader with a feeling that they have reached the end of a well-structured and thought-provoking research project.
• Leaves a Lasting Impression : Writing a well-crafted research paper conclusion leaves a lasting impression on your readers. It’s your final opportunity to leave them with a new idea, a call to action, or a memorable quote.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper is essential to leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here’s a step-by-step process to help you create and know what to put in the conclusion of a research paper: 2

• Research Statement : Begin your research paper conclusion by restating your research statement. This reminds the reader of the main point you’ve been trying to prove throughout your paper. Keep it concise and clear.
• Key Points : Summarize the main arguments and key points you’ve made in your paper. Avoid introducing new information in the research paper conclusion. Instead, provide a concise overview of what you’ve discussed in the body of your paper.
• Address the Research Questions : If your research paper is based on specific research questions or hypotheses, briefly address whether you’ve answered them or achieved your research goals. Discuss the significance of your findings in this context.
• Significance : Highlight the importance of your research and its relevance in the broader context. Explain why your findings matter and how they contribute to the existing knowledge in your field.
• Implications : Explore the practical or theoretical implications of your research. How might your findings impact future research, policy, or real-world applications? Consider the “so what?” question.
• Future Research : Offer suggestions for future research in your area. What questions or aspects remain unanswered or warrant further investigation? This shows that your work opens the door for future exploration.
• Closing Thought : Conclude your research paper conclusion with a thought-provoking or memorable statement. This can leave a lasting impression on your readers and wrap up your paper effectively. Avoid introducing new information or arguments here.
• Proofread and Revise : Carefully proofread your conclusion for grammar, spelling, and clarity. Ensure that your ideas flow smoothly and that your conclusion is coherent and well-structured.

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Remember that a well-crafted research paper conclusion is a reflection of the strength of your research and your ability to communicate its significance effectively. It should leave a lasting impression on your readers and tie together all the threads of your paper. Now you know how to start the conclusion of a research paper and what elements to include to make it impactful, let’s look at a research paper conclusion sample.

How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal?

A research paper conclusion is not just a summary of your study, but a synthesis of the key findings that ties the research together and places it in a broader context. A research paper conclusion should be concise, typically around one paragraph in length. However, some complex topics may require a longer conclusion to ensure the reader is left with a clear understanding of the study’s significance. Paperpal, an AI writing assistant trusted by over 800,000 academics globally, can help you write a well-structured conclusion for your research paper. 

• Sign Up or Log In: Create a new Paperpal account or login with your details.  
• Navigate to Features : Once logged in, head over to the features’ side navigation pane. Click on Templates and you’ll find a suite of generative AI features to help you write better, faster.  
• Generate an outline: Under Templates, select ‘Outlines’. Choose ‘Research article’ as your document type.  
• Select your section: Since you’re focusing on the conclusion, select this section when prompted.  
• Choose your field of study: Identifying your field of study allows Paperpal to provide more targeted suggestions, ensuring the relevance of your conclusion to your specific area of research. 
• Provide a brief description of your study: Enter details about your research topic and findings. This information helps Paperpal generate a tailored outline that aligns with your paper’s content. 
• Generate the conclusion outline: After entering all necessary details, click on ‘generate’. Paperpal will then create a structured outline for your conclusion, to help you start writing and build upon the outline.  
• Write your conclusion: Use the generated outline to build your conclusion. The outline serves as a guide, ensuring you cover all critical aspects of a strong conclusion, from summarizing key findings to highlighting the research’s implications. 
• Refine and enhance: Paperpal’s ‘Make Academic’ feature can be particularly useful in the final stages. Select any paragraph of your conclusion and use this feature to elevate the academic tone, ensuring your writing is aligned to the academic journal standards. 

By following these steps, Paperpal not only simplifies the process of writing a research paper conclusion but also ensures it is impactful, concise, and aligned with academic standards. Sign up with Paperpal today and write your research paper conclusion 2x faster .  

The research paper conclusion is a crucial part of your paper as it provides the final opportunity to leave a strong impression on your readers. In the research paper conclusion, summarize the main points of your research paper by restating your research statement, highlighting the most important findings, addressing the research questions or objectives, explaining the broader context of the study, discussing the significance of your findings, providing recommendations if applicable, and emphasizing the takeaway message. The main purpose of the conclusion is to remind the reader of the main point or argument of your paper and to provide a clear and concise summary of the key findings and their implications. All these elements should feature on your list of what to put in the conclusion of a research paper to create a strong final statement for your work.

A strong conclusion is a critical component of a research paper, as it provides an opportunity to wrap up your arguments, reiterate your main points, and leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here are the key elements of a strong research paper conclusion: 1. Conciseness : A research paper conclusion should be concise and to the point. It should not introduce new information or ideas that were not discussed in the body of the paper. 2. Summarization : The research paper conclusion should be comprehensive enough to give the reader a clear understanding of the research’s main contributions. 3 . Relevance : Ensure that the information included in the research paper conclusion is directly relevant to the research paper’s main topic and objectives; avoid unnecessary details. 4 . Connection to the Introduction : A well-structured research paper conclusion often revisits the key points made in the introduction and shows how the research has addressed the initial questions or objectives. 5. Emphasis : Highlight the significance and implications of your research. Why is your study important? What are the broader implications or applications of your findings? 6 . Call to Action : Include a call to action or a recommendation for future research or action based on your findings.

The length of a research paper conclusion can vary depending on several factors, including the overall length of the paper, the complexity of the research, and the specific journal requirements. While there is no strict rule for the length of a conclusion, but it’s generally advisable to keep it relatively short. A typical research paper conclusion might be around 5-10% of the paper’s total length. For example, if your paper is 10 pages long, the conclusion might be roughly half a page to one page in length.

In general, you do not need to include citations in the research paper conclusion. Citations are typically reserved for the body of the paper to support your arguments and provide evidence for your claims. However, there may be some exceptions to this rule: 1. If you are drawing a direct quote or paraphrasing a specific source in your research paper conclusion, you should include a citation to give proper credit to the original author. 2. If your conclusion refers to or discusses specific research, data, or sources that are crucial to the overall argument, citations can be included to reinforce your conclusion’s validity.

The conclusion of a research paper serves several important purposes: 1. Summarize the Key Points 2. Reinforce the Main Argument 3. Provide Closure 4. Offer Insights or Implications 5. Engage the Reader. 6. Reflect on Limitations

Remember that the primary purpose of the research paper conclusion is to leave a lasting impression on the reader, reinforcing the key points and providing closure to your research. It’s often the last part of the paper that the reader will see, so it should be strong and well-crafted.

• Makar, G., Foltz, C., Lendner, M., & Vaccaro, A. R. (2018). How to write effective discussion and conclusion sections. Clinical spine surgery, 31(8), 345-346.
• Bunton, D. (2005). The structure of PhD conclusion chapters.  Journal of English for academic purposes ,  4 (3), 207-224.

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Home » Research Paper Conclusion – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Paper Conclusion – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Paper Conclusion

Definition:

A research paper conclusion is the final section of a research paper that summarizes the key findings, significance, and implications of the research. It is the writer’s opportunity to synthesize the information presented in the paper, draw conclusions, and make recommendations for future research or actions.

The conclusion should provide a clear and concise summary of the research paper, reiterating the research question or problem, the main results, and the significance of the findings. It should also discuss the limitations of the study and suggest areas for further research.

Parts of Research Paper Conclusion

The parts of a research paper conclusion typically include:

Restatement of the Thesis

The conclusion should begin by restating the thesis statement from the introduction in a different way. This helps to remind the reader of the main argument or purpose of the research.

Summary of Key Findings

The conclusion should summarize the main findings of the research, highlighting the most important results and conclusions. This section should be brief and to the point.

Implications and Significance

In this section, the researcher should explain the implications and significance of the research findings. This may include discussing the potential impact on the field or industry, highlighting new insights or knowledge gained, or pointing out areas for future research.

Limitations and Recommendations

It is important to acknowledge any limitations or weaknesses of the research and to make recommendations for how these could be addressed in future studies. This shows that the researcher is aware of the potential limitations of their work and is committed to improving the quality of research in their field.

Concluding Statement

The conclusion should end with a strong concluding statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader. This could be a call to action, a recommendation for further research, or a final thought on the topic.

How to Write Research Paper Conclusion

Here are some steps you can follow to write an effective research paper conclusion:

• Restate the research problem or question: Begin by restating the research problem or question that you aimed to answer in your research. This will remind the reader of the purpose of your study.
• Summarize the main points: Summarize the key findings and results of your research. This can be done by highlighting the most important aspects of your research and the evidence that supports them.
• Discuss the implications: Discuss the implications of your findings for the research area and any potential applications of your research. You should also mention any limitations of your research that may affect the interpretation of your findings.
• Provide a conclusion : Provide a concise conclusion that summarizes the main points of your paper and emphasizes the significance of your research. This should be a strong and clear statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader.
• Offer suggestions for future research: Lastly, offer suggestions for future research that could build on your findings and contribute to further advancements in the field.

Remember that the conclusion should be brief and to the point, while still effectively summarizing the key findings and implications of your research.

Example of Research Paper Conclusion

Here’s an example of a research paper conclusion:

Conclusion :

In conclusion, our study aimed to investigate the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students. Our findings suggest that there is a significant association between social media use and increased levels of anxiety and depression among college students. This highlights the need for increased awareness and education about the potential negative effects of social media use on mental health, particularly among college students.

Despite the limitations of our study, such as the small sample size and self-reported data, our findings have important implications for future research and practice. Future studies should aim to replicate our findings in larger, more diverse samples, and investigate the potential mechanisms underlying the association between social media use and mental health. In addition, interventions should be developed to promote healthy social media use among college students, such as mindfulness-based approaches and social media detox programs.

Overall, our study contributes to the growing body of research on the impact of social media on mental health, and highlights the importance of addressing this issue in the context of higher education. By raising awareness and promoting healthy social media use among college students, we can help to reduce the negative impact of social media on mental health and improve the well-being of young adults.

Purpose of Research Paper Conclusion

The purpose of a research paper conclusion is to provide a summary and synthesis of the key findings, significance, and implications of the research presented in the paper. The conclusion serves as the final opportunity for the writer to convey their message and leave a lasting impression on the reader.

The conclusion should restate the research problem or question, summarize the main results of the research, and explain their significance. It should also acknowledge the limitations of the study and suggest areas for future research or action.

Overall, the purpose of the conclusion is to provide a sense of closure to the research paper and to emphasize the importance of the research and its potential impact. It should leave the reader with a clear understanding of the main findings and why they matter. The conclusion serves as the writer’s opportunity to showcase their contribution to the field and to inspire further research and action.

When to Write Research Paper Conclusion

The conclusion of a research paper should be written after the body of the paper has been completed. It should not be written until the writer has thoroughly analyzed and interpreted their findings and has written a complete and cohesive discussion of the research.

Before writing the conclusion, the writer should review their research paper and consider the key points that they want to convey to the reader. They should also review the research question, hypotheses, and methodology to ensure that they have addressed all of the necessary components of the research.

Once the writer has a clear understanding of the main findings and their significance, they can begin writing the conclusion. The conclusion should be written in a clear and concise manner, and should reiterate the main points of the research while also providing insights and recommendations for future research or action.

Characteristics of Research Paper Conclusion

The characteristics of a research paper conclusion include:

• Clear and concise: The conclusion should be written in a clear and concise manner, summarizing the key findings and their significance.
• Comprehensive: The conclusion should address all of the main points of the research paper, including the research question or problem, the methodology, the main results, and their implications.
• Future-oriented : The conclusion should provide insights and recommendations for future research or action, based on the findings of the research.
• Impressive : The conclusion should leave a lasting impression on the reader, emphasizing the importance of the research and its potential impact.
• Objective : The conclusion should be based on the evidence presented in the research paper, and should avoid personal biases or opinions.
• Unique : The conclusion should be unique to the research paper and should not simply repeat information from the introduction or body of the paper.

Advantages of Research Paper Conclusion

The advantages of a research paper conclusion include:

• Summarizing the key findings : The conclusion provides a summary of the main findings of the research, making it easier for the reader to understand the key points of the study.
• Emphasizing the significance of the research: The conclusion emphasizes the importance of the research and its potential impact, making it more likely that readers will take the research seriously and consider its implications.
• Providing recommendations for future research or action : The conclusion suggests practical recommendations for future research or action, based on the findings of the study.
• Providing closure to the research paper : The conclusion provides a sense of closure to the research paper, tying together the different sections of the paper and leaving a lasting impression on the reader.
• Demonstrating the writer’s contribution to the field : The conclusion provides the writer with an opportunity to showcase their contribution to the field and to inspire further research and action.

Limitations of Research Paper Conclusion

While the conclusion of a research paper has many advantages, it also has some limitations that should be considered, including:

• I nability to address all aspects of the research: Due to the limited space available in the conclusion, it may not be possible to address all aspects of the research in detail.
• Subjectivity : While the conclusion should be objective, it may be influenced by the writer’s personal biases or opinions.
• Lack of new information: The conclusion should not introduce new information that has not been discussed in the body of the research paper.
• Lack of generalizability: The conclusions drawn from the research may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, limiting the generalizability of the study.
• Misinterpretation by the reader: The reader may misinterpret the conclusions drawn from the research, leading to a misunderstanding of the findings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of the main topics covered or a re-statement of your research problem, but a synthesis of key points derived from the findings of your study and, if applicable, where you recommend new areas for future research. For most college-level research papers, two or three well-developed paragraphs is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, more paragraphs may be required in describing the key findings and their significance.

Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Importance of a Good Conclusion

A well-written conclusion provides you with important opportunities to demonstrate to the reader your understanding of the research problem. These include:

• Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper . Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key findings in your analysis that advance new understanding about the research problem, that are unusual or unexpected, or that have important implications applied to practice.
• Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger significance of your study . The conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly re-emphasize  your answer to the "So What?" question by placing the study within the context of how your research advances past research about the topic.
• Identifying how a gap in the literature has been addressed . The conclusion can be where you describe how a previously identified gap in the literature [first identified in your literature review section] has been addressed by your research and why this contribution is significant.
• Demonstrating the importance of your ideas . Don't be shy. The conclusion offers an opportunity to elaborate on the impact and significance of your findings. This is particularly important if your study approached examining the research problem from an unusual or innovative perspective.
• Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem . This does not refer to introducing new information [which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and creative approaches for framing or contextualizing the research problem based on the results of your study.

Bunton, David. “The Structure of PhD Conclusion Chapters.” Journal of English for Academic Purposes 4 (July 2005): 207–224; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  General Rules

The general function of your paper's conclusion is to restate the main argument . It reminds the reader of the strengths of your main argument(s) and reiterates the most important evidence supporting those argument(s). Do this by clearly summarizing the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem you investigated in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found in the literature. However, make sure that your conclusion is not simply a repetitive summary of the findings. This reduces the impact of the argument(s) you have developed in your paper.

When writing the conclusion to your paper, follow these general rules:

• Present your conclusions in clear, concise language. Re-state the purpose of your study, then describe how your findings differ or support those of other studies and why [i.e., what were the unique, new, or crucial contributions your study made to the overall research about your topic?].
• Do not simply reiterate your findings or the discussion of your results. Provide a synthesis of arguments presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem and the overall objectives of your study.
• Indicate opportunities for future research if you haven't already done so in the discussion section of your paper. Highlighting the need for further research provides the reader with evidence that you have an in-depth awareness of the research problem but that further investigations should take place beyond the scope of your investigation.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is presented well:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument for your reader.
• If, prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from the data [this is opposite of the introduction, which begins with general discussion of the context and ends with a detailed description of the research problem]. 

The conclusion also provides a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with all the information about the topic . Depending on the discipline you are writing in, the concluding paragraph may contain your reflections on the evidence presented. However, the nature of being introspective about the research you have conducted will depend on the topic and whether your professor wants you to express your observations in this way. If asked to think introspectively about the topics, do not delve into idle speculation. Being introspective means looking within yourself as an author to try and understand an issue more deeply, not to guess at possible outcomes or make up scenarios not supported by the evidence.

II.  Developing a Compelling Conclusion

Although an effective conclusion needs to be clear and succinct, it does not need to be written passively or lack a compelling narrative. Strategies to help you move beyond merely summarizing the key points of your research paper may include any of the following:

• If your essay deals with a critical, contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem proactively.
• Recommend a specific course or courses of action that, if adopted, could address a specific problem in practice or in the development of new knowledge leading to positive change.
• Cite a relevant quotation or expert opinion already noted in your paper in order to lend authority and support to the conclusion(s) you have reached [a good source would be from your literature review].
• Explain the consequences of your research in a way that elicits action or demonstrates urgency in seeking change.
• Restate a key statistic, fact, or visual image to emphasize the most important finding of your paper.
• If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point by drawing from your own life experiences.
• Return to an anecdote, an example, or a quotation that you presented in your introduction, but add further insight derived from the findings of your study; use your interpretation of results from your study to recast it in new or important ways.
• Provide a "take-home" message in the form of a succinct, declarative statement that you want the reader to remember about your study.

III. Problems to Avoid

Failure to be concise Your conclusion section should be concise and to the point. Conclusions that are too lengthy often have unnecessary information in them. The conclusion is not the place for details about your methodology or results. Although you should give a summary of what was learned from your research, this summary should be relatively brief, since the emphasis in the conclusion is on the implications, evaluations, insights, and other forms of analysis that you make. Strategies for writing concisely can be found here .

Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues In the introduction, your task was to move from the general [the field of study] to the specific [the research problem]. However, in the conclusion, your task is to move from a specific discussion [your research problem] back to a general discussion framed around the implications and significance of your findings [i.e., how your research contributes new understanding or fills an important gap in the literature]. In short, the conclusion is where you should place your research within a larger context [visualize your paper as an hourglass--start with a broad introduction and review of the literature, move to the specific analysis and discussion, conclude with a broad summary of the study's implications and significance].

Failure to reveal problems and negative results Negative aspects of the research process should never be ignored. These are problems, deficiencies, or challenges encountered during your study. They should be summarized as a way of qualifying your overall conclusions. If you encountered negative or unintended results [i.e., findings that are validated outside the research context in which they were generated], you must report them in the results section and discuss their implications in the discussion section of your paper. In the conclusion, use negative results as an opportunity to explain their possible significance and/or how they may form the basis for future research.

Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned In order to be able to discuss how your research fits within your field of study [and possibly the world at large], you need to summarize briefly and succinctly how it contributes to new knowledge or a new understanding about the research problem. This element of your conclusion may be only a few sentences long.

Failure to match the objectives of your research Often research objectives in the social and behavioral sciences change while the research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back and refine the original objectives in your introduction. As these changes emerge they must be documented so that they accurately reflect what you were trying to accomplish in your research [not what you thought you might accomplish when you began].

Resist the urge to apologize If you've immersed yourself in studying the research problem, you presumably should know a good deal about it [perhaps even more than your professor!]. Nevertheless, by the time you have finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you have produced. Repress those doubts! Don't undermine your authority as a researcher by saying something like, "This is just one approach to examining this problem; there may be other, much better approaches that...." The overall tone of your conclusion should convey confidence to the reader about the study's validity and realiability.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Concluding Paragraphs. College Writing Center at Meramec. St. Louis Community College; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Leibensperger, Summer. Draft Your Conclusion. Academic Center, the University of Houston-Victoria, 2003; Make Your Last Words Count. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin Madison; Miquel, Fuster-Marquez and Carmen Gregori-Signes. “Chapter Six: ‘Last but Not Least:’ Writing the Conclusion of Your Paper.” In Writing an Applied Linguistics Thesis or Dissertation: A Guide to Presenting Empirical Research . John Bitchener, editor. (Basingstoke,UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 93-105; Tips for Writing a Good Conclusion. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Writing Conclusions. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Writing: Considering Structure and Organization. Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Don't Belabor the Obvious!

Avoid phrases like "in conclusion...," "in summary...," or "in closing...." These phrases can be useful, even welcome, in oral presentations. But readers can see by the tell-tale section heading and number of pages remaining that they are reaching the end of your paper. You'll irritate your readers if you belabor the obvious.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Another Writing Tip

New Insight, Not New Information!

Don't surprise the reader with new information in your conclusion that was never referenced anywhere else in the paper. This why the conclusion rarely has citations to sources. If you have new information to present, add it to the discussion or other appropriate section of the paper. Note that, although no new information is introduced, the conclusion, along with the discussion section, is where you offer your most "original" contributions in the paper; the conclusion is where you describe the value of your research, demonstrate that you understand the material that you’ve presented, and position your findings within the larger context of scholarship on the topic, including describing how your research contributes new insights to that scholarship.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

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• How to Write Discussions and Conclusions

The discussion section contains the results and outcomes of a study. An effective discussion informs readers what can be learned from your experiment and provides context for the results.

What makes an effective discussion?

When you’re ready to write your discussion, you’ve already introduced the purpose of your study and provided an in-depth description of the methodology. The discussion informs readers about the larger implications of your study based on the results. Highlighting these implications while not overstating the findings can be challenging, especially when you’re submitting to a journal that selects articles based on novelty or potential impact. Regardless of what journal you are submitting to, the discussion section always serves the same purpose: concluding what your study results actually mean.

A successful discussion section puts your findings in context. It should include:

• the results of your research,
• a discussion of related research, and
• a comparison between your results and initial hypothesis.

Tip: Not all journals share the same naming conventions.

You can apply the advice in this article to the conclusion, results or discussion sections of your manuscript.

Our Early Career Researcher community tells us that the conclusion is often considered the most difficult aspect of a manuscript to write. To help, this guide provides questions to ask yourself, a basic structure to model your discussion off of and examples from published manuscripts. 

Questions to ask yourself:

• Was my hypothesis correct?
• If my hypothesis is partially correct or entirely different, what can be learned from the results? 
• How do the conclusions reshape or add onto the existing knowledge in the field? What does previous research say about the topic? 
• Why are the results important or relevant to your audience? Do they add further evidence to a scientific consensus or disprove prior studies? 
• How can future research build on these observations? What are the key experiments that must be done? 
• What is the “take-home” message you want your reader to leave with?

How to structure a discussion

Trying to fit a complete discussion into a single paragraph can add unnecessary stress to the writing process. If possible, you’ll want to give yourself two or three paragraphs to give the reader a comprehensive understanding of your study as a whole. Here’s one way to structure an effective discussion:

Writing Tips

While the above sections can help you brainstorm and structure your discussion, there are many common mistakes that writers revert to when having difficulties with their paper. Writing a discussion can be a delicate balance between summarizing your results, providing proper context for your research and avoiding introducing new information. Remember that your paper should be both confident and honest about the results! 

• Read the journal’s guidelines on the discussion and conclusion sections. If possible, learn about the guidelines before writing the discussion to ensure you’re writing to meet their expectations. 
• Begin with a clear statement of the principal findings. This will reinforce the main take-away for the reader and set up the rest of the discussion. 
• Explain why the outcomes of your study are important to the reader. Discuss the implications of your findings realistically based on previous literature, highlighting both the strengths and limitations of the research. 
• State whether the results prove or disprove your hypothesis. If your hypothesis was disproved, what might be the reasons? 
• Introduce new or expanded ways to think about the research question. Indicate what next steps can be taken to further pursue any unresolved questions. 
• If dealing with a contemporary or ongoing problem, such as climate change, discuss possible consequences if the problem is avoided. 
• Be concise. Adding unnecessary detail can distract from the main findings. 

Don’t

• Rewrite your abstract. Statements with “we investigated” or “we studied” generally do not belong in the discussion. 
• Include new arguments or evidence not previously discussed. Necessary information and evidence should be introduced in the main body of the paper. 
• Apologize. Even if your research contains significant limitations, don’t undermine your authority by including statements that doubt your methodology or execution. 
• Shy away from speaking on limitations or negative results. Including limitations and negative results will give readers a complete understanding of the presented research. Potential limitations include sources of potential bias, threats to internal or external validity, barriers to implementing an intervention and other issues inherent to the study design. 
• Overstate the importance of your findings. Making grand statements about how a study will fully resolve large questions can lead readers to doubt the success of the research. 

Snippets of Effective Discussions:

Consumer-based actions to reduce plastic pollution in rivers: A multi-criteria decision analysis approach

Identifying reliable indicators of fitness in polar bears

• How to Write a Great Title
• How to Write an Abstract
• How to Write Your Methods
• How to Report Statistics
• How to Edit Your Work

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How to write a strong conclusion for your research paper

Last updated

17 February 2024

Reviewed by

Writing a research paper is a chance to share your knowledge and hypothesis. It's an opportunity to demonstrate your many hours of research and prove your ability to write convincingly.

Ideally, by the end of your research paper, you'll have brought your readers on a journey to reach the conclusions you've pre-determined. However, if you don't stick the landing with a good conclusion, you'll risk losing your reader’s trust.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper involves a few important steps, including restating the thesis and summing up everything properly.

Find out what to include and what to avoid, so you can effectively demonstrate your understanding of the topic and prove your expertise.

• Why is a good conclusion important?

A good conclusion can cement your paper in the reader’s mind. Making a strong impression in your introduction can draw your readers in, but it's the conclusion that will inspire them.

• What to include in a research paper conclusion

There are a few specifics you should include in your research paper conclusion. Offer your readers some sense of urgency or consequence by pointing out why they should care about the topic you have covered. Discuss any common problems associated with your topic and provide suggestions as to how these problems can be solved or addressed.

The conclusion should include a restatement of your initial thesis. Thesis statements are strengthened after you’ve presented supporting evidence (as you will have done in the paper), so make a point to reintroduce it at the end.

Finally, recap the main points of your research paper, highlighting the key takeaways you want readers to remember. If you've made multiple points throughout the paper, refer to the ones with the strongest supporting evidence.

• Steps for writing a research paper conclusion

Many writers find the conclusion the most challenging part of any research project . By following these three steps, you'll be prepared to write a conclusion that is effective and concise.

• Step 1: Restate the problem

Always begin by restating the research problem in the conclusion of a research paper. This serves to remind the reader of your hypothesis and refresh them on the main point of the paper. 

When restating the problem, take care to avoid using exactly the same words you employed earlier in the paper.

• Step 2: Sum up the paper

After you've restated the problem, sum up the paper by revealing your overall findings. The method for this differs slightly, depending on whether you're crafting an argumentative paper or an empirical paper.

Argumentative paper: Restate your thesis and arguments

Argumentative papers involve introducing a thesis statement early on. In crafting the conclusion for an argumentative paper, always restate the thesis, outlining the way you've developed it throughout the entire paper.

It might be appropriate to mention any counterarguments in the conclusion, so you can demonstrate how your thesis is correct or how the data best supports your main points.

Empirical paper: Summarize research findings

Empirical papers break down a series of research questions. In your conclusion, discuss the findings your research revealed, including any information that surprised you.

Be clear about the conclusions you reached, and explain whether or not you expected to arrive at these particular ones.

• Step 3: Discuss the implications of your research

Argumentative papers and empirical papers also differ in this part of a research paper conclusion. Here are some tips on crafting conclusions for argumentative and empirical papers.

Argumentative paper: Powerful closing statement

In an argumentative paper, you'll have spent a great deal of time expressing the opinions you formed after doing a significant amount of research. Make a strong closing statement in your argumentative paper's conclusion to share the significance of your work.

You can outline the next steps through a bold call to action, or restate how powerful your ideas turned out to be.

Empirical paper: Directions for future research

Empirical papers are broader in scope. They usually cover a variety of aspects and can include several points of view.

To write a good conclusion for an empirical paper, suggest the type of research that could be done in the future, including methods for further investigation or outlining ways other researchers might proceed.

If you feel your research had any limitations, even if they were outside your control, you could mention these in your conclusion.

After you finish outlining your conclusion, ask someone to read it and offer feedback. In any research project you're especially close to, it can be hard to identify problem areas. Having a close friend or someone whose opinion you value read the research paper and provide honest feedback can be invaluable. Take note of any suggested edits and consider incorporating them into your paper if they make sense.

• Things to avoid in a research paper conclusion

Keep these aspects to avoid in mind as you're writing your conclusion and refer to them after you've created an outline.

Dry summary

Writing a memorable, succinct conclusion is arguably more important than a strong introduction. Take care to avoid just rephrasing your main points, and don't fall into the trap of repeating dry facts or citations.

You can provide a new perspective for your readers to think about or contextualize your research. Either way, make the conclusion vibrant and interesting, rather than a rote recitation of your research paper’s highlights.

Clichéd or generic phrasing

Your research paper conclusion should feel fresh and inspiring. Avoid generic phrases like "to sum up" or "in conclusion." These phrases tend to be overused, especially in an academic context and might turn your readers off.

The conclusion also isn't the time to introduce colloquial phrases or informal language. Retain a professional, confident tone consistent throughout your paper’s conclusion so it feels exciting and bold.

New data or evidence

While you should present strong data throughout your paper, the conclusion isn't the place to introduce new evidence. This is because readers are engaged in actively learning as they read through the body of your paper.

By the time they reach the conclusion, they will have formed an opinion one way or the other (hopefully in your favor!). Introducing new evidence in the conclusion will only serve to surprise or frustrate your reader.

Ignoring contradictory evidence

If your research reveals contradictory evidence, don't ignore it in the conclusion. This will damage your credibility as an expert and might even serve to highlight the contradictions.

Be as transparent as possible and admit to any shortcomings in your research, but don't dwell on them for too long.

Ambiguous or unclear resolutions

The point of a research paper conclusion is to provide closure and bring all your ideas together. You should wrap up any arguments you introduced in the paper and tie up any loose ends, while demonstrating why your research and data are strong.

Use direct language in your conclusion and avoid ambiguity. Even if some of the data and sources you cite are inconclusive or contradictory, note this in your conclusion to come across as confident and trustworthy.

• Examples of research paper conclusions

Your research paper should provide a compelling close to the paper as a whole, highlighting your research and hard work. While the conclusion should represent your unique style, these examples offer a starting point:

Ultimately, the data we examined all point to the same conclusion: Encouraging a good work-life balance improves employee productivity and benefits the company overall. The research suggests that when employees feel their personal lives are valued and respected by their employers, they are more likely to be productive when at work. In addition, company turnover tends to be reduced when employees have a balance between their personal and professional lives. While additional research is required to establish ways companies can support employees in creating a stronger work-life balance, it's clear the need is there.

Social media is a primary method of communication among young people. As we've seen in the data presented, most young people in high school use a variety of social media applications at least every hour, including Instagram and Facebook. While social media is an avenue for connection with peers, research increasingly suggests that social media use correlates with body image issues. Young girls with lower self-esteem tend to use social media more often than those who don't log onto social media apps every day. As new applications continue to gain popularity, and as more high school students are given smartphones, more research will be required to measure the effects of prolonged social media use.

What are the different kinds of research paper conclusions?

There are no formal types of research paper conclusions. Ultimately, the conclusion depends on the outline of your paper and the type of research you’re presenting. While some experts note that research papers can end with a new perspective or commentary, most papers should conclude with a combination of both. The most important aspect of a good research paper conclusion is that it accurately represents the body of the paper.

Can I present new arguments in my research paper conclusion?

Research paper conclusions are not the place to introduce new data or arguments. The body of your paper is where you should share research and insights, where the reader is actively absorbing the content. By the time a reader reaches the conclusion of the research paper, they should have formed their opinion. Introducing new arguments in the conclusion can take a reader by surprise, and not in a positive way. It might also serve to frustrate readers.

How long should a research paper conclusion be?

There's no set length for a research paper conclusion. However, it's a good idea not to run on too long, since conclusions are supposed to be succinct. A good rule of thumb is to keep your conclusion around 5 to 10 percent of the paper's total length. If your paper is 10 pages, try to keep your conclusion under one page.

What should I include in a research paper conclusion?

A good research paper conclusion should always include a sense of urgency, so the reader can see how and why the topic should matter to them. You can also note some recommended actions to help fix the problem and some obstacles they might encounter. A conclusion should also remind the reader of the thesis statement, along with the main points you covered in the paper. At the end of the conclusion, add a powerful closing statement that helps cement the paper in the mind of the reader.

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• Writing Tips

How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

3-minute read

• 29th August 2023

If you’re writing a research paper, the conclusion is your opportunity to summarize your findings and leave a lasting impression on your readers. In this post, we’ll take you through how to write an effective conclusion for a research paper and how you can:

·   Reword your thesis statement

·   Highlight the significance of your research

·   Discuss limitations

·   Connect to the introduction

·   End with a thought-provoking statement

Rewording Your Thesis Statement

Begin your conclusion by restating your thesis statement in a way that is slightly different from the wording used in the introduction. Avoid presenting new information or evidence in your conclusion. Just summarize the main points and arguments of your essay and keep this part as concise as possible. Remember that you’ve already covered the in-depth analyses and investigations in the main body paragraphs of your essay, so it’s not necessary to restate these details in the conclusion.

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Highlighting the Significance of Your Research

The conclusion is a good place to emphasize the implications of your research . Avoid ambiguous or vague language such as “I think” or “maybe,” which could weaken your position. Clearly explain why your research is significant and how it contributes to the broader field of study.

Here’s an example from a (fictional) study on the impact of social media on mental health:

Discussing Limitations

Although it’s important to emphasize the significance of your study, you can also use the conclusion to briefly address any limitations you discovered while conducting your research, such as time constraints or a shortage of resources. Doing this demonstrates a balanced and honest approach to your research.

Connecting to the Introduction

In your conclusion, you can circle back to your introduction , perhaps by referring to a quote or anecdote you discussed earlier. If you end your paper on a similar note to how you began it, you will create a sense of cohesion for the reader and remind them of the meaning and significance of your research.

Ending With a Thought-Provoking Statement

Consider ending your paper with a thought-provoking and memorable statement that relates to the impact of your research questions or hypothesis. This statement can be a call to action, a philosophical question, or a prediction for the future (positive or negative). Here’s an example that uses the same topic as above (social media and mental health):

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In a short paper—even a research paper—you don’t need to provide an exhaustive summary as part of your conclusion. But you do need to make some kind of transition between your final body paragraph and your concluding paragraph. This may come in the form of a few sentences of summary. Or it may come in the form of a sentence that brings your readers back to your thesis or main idea and reminds your readers where you began and how far you have traveled.

So, for example, in a paper about the relationship between ADHD and rejection sensitivity, Vanessa Roser begins by introducing readers to the fact that researchers have studied the relationship between the two conditions and then provides her explanation of that relationship. Here’s her thesis: “While socialization may indeed be an important factor in RS, I argue that individuals with ADHD may also possess a neurological predisposition to RS that is exacerbated by the differing executive and emotional regulation characteristic of ADHD.”

In her final paragraph, Roser reminds us of where she started by echoing her thesis: “This literature demonstrates that, as with many other conditions, ADHD and RS share a delicately intertwined pattern of neurological similarities that is rooted in the innate biology of an individual’s mind, a connection that cannot be explained in full by the behavioral mediation hypothesis.”  

Highlight the “so what”  

At the beginning of your paper, you explain to your readers what’s at stake—why they should care about the argument you’re making. In your conclusion, you can bring readers back to those stakes by reminding them why your argument is important in the first place. You can also draft a few sentences that put those stakes into a new or broader context.

In the conclusion to her paper about ADHD and RS, Roser echoes the stakes she established in her introduction—that research into connections between ADHD and RS has led to contradictory results, raising questions about the “behavioral mediation hypothesis.”

She writes, “as with many other conditions, ADHD and RS share a delicately intertwined pattern of neurological similarities that is rooted in the innate biology of an individual’s mind, a connection that cannot be explained in full by the behavioral mediation hypothesis.”  

Leave your readers with the “now what”  

After the “what” and the “so what,” you should leave your reader with some final thoughts. If you have written a strong introduction, your readers will know why you have been arguing what you have been arguing—and why they should care. And if you’ve made a good case for your thesis, then your readers should be in a position to see things in a new way, understand new questions, or be ready for something that they weren’t ready for before they read your paper.

In her conclusion, Roser offers two “now what” statements. First, she explains that it is important to recognize that the flawed behavioral mediation hypothesis “seems to place a degree of fault on the individual. It implies that individuals with ADHD must have elicited such frequent or intense rejection by virtue of their inadequate social skills, erasing the possibility that they may simply possess a natural sensitivity to emotion.” She then highlights the broader implications for treatment of people with ADHD, noting that recognizing the actual connection between rejection sensitivity and ADHD “has profound implications for understanding how individuals with ADHD might best be treated in educational settings, by counselors, family, peers, or even society as a whole.”

To find your own “now what” for your essay’s conclusion, try asking yourself these questions:

• What can my readers now understand, see in a new light, or grapple with that they would not have understood in the same way before reading my paper? Are we a step closer to understanding a larger phenomenon or to understanding why what was at stake is so important?  
• What questions can I now raise that would not have made sense at the beginning of my paper? Questions for further research? Other ways that this topic could be approached?  
• Are there other applications for my research? Could my questions be asked about different data in a different context? Could I use my methods to answer a different question?  
• What action should be taken in light of this argument? What action do I predict will be taken or could lead to a solution?  
• What larger context might my argument be a part of?  

What to avoid in your conclusion  

• a complete restatement of all that you have said in your paper.  
• a substantial counterargument that you do not have space to refute; you should introduce counterarguments before your conclusion.  
• an apology for what you have not said. If you need to explain the scope of your paper, you should do this sooner—but don’t apologize for what you have not discussed in your paper.  
• fake transitions like “in conclusion” that are followed by sentences that aren’t actually conclusions. (“In conclusion, I have now demonstrated that my thesis is correct.”)
• picture_as_pdf Conclusions

How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

Find out which type of conclusion best suits your research, how to write it step-by-step, and common mistakes to avoid.

When writing a research paper, it can be challenging to make your point after providing an extensive amount of information. For this reason, a well-organized conclusion is essential. 

A research paper’s conclusion should be a brief summary of the paper’s substance and objectives; what you present in your research paper can gain impact by having a strong conclusion section.

In this Mind The Graph article, you will learn how to write a conclusion for a research report in a way that inspires action and helps the readers to better understand your research paper. This article will provide you the definition and some broad principles before providing step-by-step guidance.

What is a conclusion for a research paper and why is it important?

A conclusion is where you summarize the main points and, if appropriate, make new research suggestions. It is not merely a summary of the key points discussed or a rehash of your research question.

The reader is expected to comprehend from the article’s conclusion why your study should be significant to them after reading it. A conclusion of one or two well-developed paragraphs is appropriate for the majority of research papers; however, in a few unusual cases, more paragraphs may be required to highlight significant findings and their importance.

Just as the introduction is responsible for giving the reader a first impression on the subject, the conclusion is the chance to make a final impression by summarizing major information of your research paper and, most often, giving a different point of view on significant implications.

Adding a strong conclusion to your research paper is important because it’s a possibility to give the reader the comprehension of your research topic. Given that the reader is now fully informed on the subject, the conclusion also gives you a chance to restate the research problem effectively and concisely.

Examples of conclusions for a research paper

Now that you are aware of what a conclusion is and its significance for a research paper, it is time to provide you with some excellent samples of well-structured conclusions so you may get knowledge about the type of conclusion you can use for your research paper.

Argumentative Research Paper Conclusion

The most convincing arguments from your research paper should be added to the conclusion if you want to compose a strong argumentative conclusion.

Additionally, if your thesis statement expresses your perspective on the subject, you should think about restarting it as well as including any other pertinent information.

Example: As a result of the sixth extinction, which is currently affecting Earth, many species are vanishing every day. There are at least three strategies that people could employ to keep them from going extinct entirely in the ensuing fifty years. More recycling options, innovative plastic production techniques, and species preservation could save lives.

Analytical Research Paper Conclusion

The first thing you should do is reiterate your thesis and list the main elements of your arguments.

There should undoubtedly be a spotlight on a bigger context in the analytical research paper conclusion, which is the key distinction between it and other types of conclusions. It means you can add some meaning to the findings.

Example: Elon Musk has revolutionized the way we drive, pay for things, and even fly. His innovations are solely motivated by the desire to simplify things, but they inevitably alter the course of history. When Musk was a student, he had his first idea for PayPal, which is now among the most widely used methods of online payment. Likewise with Tesla automobiles.

Comparative Research Paper Conclusion

The conclusion of a comparative essay should be deeply analytical. To clearly express your conclusions, you must be very thorough when reviewing the data. Furthermore, the sources must be reliable.

A paraphrased thesis statement and a few sentences describing the significance of your study research are also required, as per normal.

Example: Gas-powered vehicles are ineffective and inefficient compared to electric vehicles. Not only do they emit fewer pollutants, but the drivers also get there more quickly. Additionally, gas cars cost more to maintain. Everything stems from the details of the far more straightforward engines used in electric cars.

How to write a conclusion for a research paper

In this section, you will learn how to write a conclusion for a research paper effectively and properly. These few easy steps will enable you to write the most convincing conclusion to your research paper.

1. Remember about the main topic

The statement must be written clearly and concisely to be effective, just one sentence. Remember that your conclusion should be concise and precise, expressing only the most important elements.

2. Reaffirm your thesis

Restate the research paper’s thesis after that. This can be done by going back to the original thesis that you presented in the research’s introduction. The thesis statement in your conclusion must be expressed differently from how it was in the introduction. This section can also be written effectively in a single sentence.

3. Sum important points in a summary

It’s time to make a list of the important arguments in your research paper. This phase can be made simpler by reading over your research and emphasizing only the main ideas and evidence.

Remember that the conclusion should not contain any new information. Focus only on the concepts you cover in your paper’s main body as a result. And also, keep in mind that this brief summary reminds your readers of the importance of the topic you are researching.

4. Emphasize the importance

At this stage, you can genuinely express a few words about how significant your arguments are. A succinct but impactful sentence can successfully achieve its aim. You could also attempt to examine this circumstance from a wider perspective.

Give an example of how your discoveries have affected a certain field. It would be beneficial if you made an effort to answer the question, “So what?” if there was any ambiguity.

5. Finish up your argument

As you wrap up your conclusion, consider posing a question or a call to action that will encourage readers to consider your point of view even further. This sentence can also answer any queries that were not addressed in the paper’s body paragraphs.

In addition, if there is an unresolved question in the main body, this is a fantastic area to comment on.

Common mistakes you should avoid

After learning the fundamentals of producing a strong research paper conclusion, it’s time to learn the common mistakes to avoid.

• Weak conclusion: If your ending is weak, readers will feel dissatisfied and disappointed. Writing ambiguous closing lines for essays also lowers the quality of the paper and the capacity of your arguments to support your main topic.
• Abrupt conclusion: Your research has to be an expression of your writing as a whole, not just a section. Therefore, make sure your thoughts are fully stated.
• Adding new information: Only your research should only be summarized in the conclusion. As the conclusion cannot contain extra information, make sure to offer all of your conclusions and supporting evidence in the body paragraphs.
• Absence of focus: A conclusion needs to be concise and well-focused. Avoid concluding the research with inane or superfluous details.
• Absurd length: Research must be of a proper length—neither too long nor too short. If you write more than is necessary, you can miss the point, which is to revisit the paper’s argument straightforwardly. Additionally, if you write too little, your readers will think you’re being negligent. It should be written in at least one or two whole paragraphs.

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How to Write a Research Paper Conclusion Section

What is a conclusion in a research paper?

The conclusion in a research paper is the final paragraph or two in a research paper. In scientific papers, the conclusion usually follows the Discussion section , summarizing the importance of the findings and reminding the reader why the work presented in the paper is relevant.

However, it can be a bit confusing to distinguish the conclusion section/paragraph from a summary or a repetition of your findings, your own opinion, or the statement of the implications of your work. In fact, the conclusion should contain a bit of all of these other parts but go beyond it—but not too far beyond! 

The structure and content of the conclusion section can also vary depending on whether you are writing a research manuscript or an essay. This article will explain how to write a good conclusion section, what exactly it should (and should not) contain, how it should be structured, and what you should avoid when writing it.  

Table of Contents:

What does a good conclusion section do, what to include in a research paper conclusion.

• Conclusion in an Essay
• Research Paper Conclusion 
• Conclusion Paragraph Outline and Example
• What Not to Do When Writing a Conclusion

The conclusion of a research paper has several key objectives. It should:

• Restate your research problem addressed in the introduction section
• Summarize your main arguments, important findings, and broader implications
• Synthesize key takeaways from your study

The specific content in the conclusion depends on whether your paper presents the results of original scientific research or constructs an argument through engagement with previously published sources.

You presented your general field of study to the reader in the introduction section, by moving from general information (the background of your work, often combined with a literature review ) to the rationale of your study and then to the specific problem or topic you addressed, formulated in the form of the statement of the problem in research or the thesis statement in an essay.

In the conclusion section, in contrast, your task is to move from your specific findings or arguments back to a more general depiction of how your research contributes to the readers’ understanding of a certain concept or helps solve a practical problem, or fills an important gap in the literature. The content of your conclusion section depends on the type of research you are doing and what type of paper you are writing. But whatever the outcome of your work is, the conclusion is where you briefly summarize it and place it within a larger context. It could be called the “take-home message” of the entire paper.

What to summarize in the conclusion

Your conclusion section needs to contain a very brief summary of your work , a very brief summary of the main findings of your work, and a mention of anything else that seems relevant when you now look at your work from a bigger perspective, even if it was not initially listed as one of your main research questions. This could be a limitation, for example, a problem with the design of your experiment that either needs to be considered when drawing any conclusions or that led you to ask a different question and therefore draw different conclusions at the end of your study (compared to when you started out).

Once you have reminded the reader of what you did and what you found, you need to go beyond that and also provide either your own opinion on why your work is relevant (and for whom, and how) or theoretical or practical implications of the study , or make a specific call for action if there is one to be made.   

How to Write an Essay Conclusion

Academic essays follow quite different structures than their counterparts in STEM and the natural sciences. Humanities papers often have conclusion sections that are much longer and contain more detail than scientific papers. There are three main types of academic essay conclusions.

Summarizing conclusion

The most typical conclusion at the end of an analytical/explanatory/argumentative essay is a summarizing conclusion . This is, as the name suggests, a clear summary of the main points of your topic and thesis. Since you might have gone through a number of different arguments or subtopics in the main part of your essay, you need to remind the reader again what those were, how they fit into each other, and how they helped you develop or corroborate your hypothesis.

For an essay that analyzes how recruiters can hire the best candidates in the shortest time or on “how starving yourself will increase your lifespan, according to science”, a summary of all the points you discussed might be all you need. Note that you should not exactly repeat what you said earlier, but rather highlight the essential details and present those to your reader in a different way. 

Externalizing conclusion

If you think that just reminding the reader of your main points is not enough, you can opt for an externalizing conclusion instead, that presents new points that were not presented in the paper so far. These new points can be additional facts and information or they can be ideas that are relevant to the topic and have not been mentioned before.

Such a conclusion can stimulate your readers to think about your topic or the implications of your analysis in a whole new way. For example, at the end of a historical analysis of a specific event or development, you could direct your reader’s attention to some current events that were not the topic of your essay but that provide a different context for your findings.

Editorial conclusion

In an editorial conclusion , another common type of conclusion that you will find at the end of papers and essays, you do not add new information but instead present your own experiences or opinions on the topic to round everything up. What makes this type of conclusion interesting is that you can choose to agree or disagree with the information you presented in your paper so far. For example, if you have collected and analyzed information on how a specific diet helps people lose weight, you can nevertheless have your doubts on the sustainability of that diet or its practicability in real life—if such arguments were not included in your original thesis and have therefore not been covered in the main part of your paper, the conclusion section is the place where you can get your opinion across.    

How to Conclude an Empirical Research Paper

An empirical research paper is usually more concise and succinct than an essay, because, if it is written well, it focuses on one specific question, describes the method that was used to answer that one question, describes and explains the results, and guides the reader in a logical way from the introduction to the discussion without going on tangents or digging into not absolutely relevant topics.

Summarize the findings

In a scientific paper, you should include a summary of the findings. Don’t go into great detail here (you will have presented your in-depth  results  and  discussion  already), but do clearly express the answers to the  research questions  you investigated.

Describe your main findings, even if they weren’t necessarily the ones anticipated, and explain the conclusion they led you to. Explain these findings in as few words as possible.

Instead of beginning with “ In conclusion, in this study, we investigated the effect of stress on the brain using fMRI …”, you should try to find a way to incorporate the repetition of the essential (and only the essential) details into the summary of the key points. “ The findings of this fMRI study on the effect of stress on the brain suggest that …” or “ While it has been known for a long time that stress has an effect on the brain, the findings of this fMRI study show that, surprisingly… ” would be better ways to start a conclusion. 

You should also not bring up new ideas or present new facts in the conclusion of a research paper, but stick to the background information you have presented earlier, to the findings you have already discussed, and the limitations and implications you have already described. The one thing you can add here is a practical recommendation that you haven’t clearly stated before—but even that one needs to follow logically from everything you have already discussed in the discussion section.

Discuss the implications

After summing up your key arguments or findings, conclude the paper by stating the broader implications of the research , whether in methods , approach, or findings. Express practical or theoretical takeaways from your paper. This often looks like a “call to action” or a final “sales pitch” that puts an exclamation point on your paper.

If your research topic is more theoretical in nature, your closing statement should express the significance of your argument—for example, in proposing a new understanding of a topic or laying the groundwork for future research.

Future research example

Future research into education standards should focus on establishing a more detailed picture of how novel pedagogical approaches impact young people’s ability to absorb new and difficult concepts. Moreover, observational studies are needed to gain more insight into how specific teaching models affect the retention of relationships and facts—for instance, how inquiry-based learning and its emphasis on lateral thinking can be used as a jumping-off point for more holistic classroom approaches.

Research Conclusion Example and Outline

Let’s revisit the study on the effect of stress on the brain we mentioned before and see what the common structure for a conclusion paragraph looks like, in three steps. Following these simple steps will make it easy for you to wrap everything up in one short paragraph that contains all the essential information: 

One: Short summary of what you did, but integrated into the summary of your findings:

While it has been known for a long time that stress has an effect on the brain, the findings of this fMRI study in 25 university students going through mid-term exams show that, surprisingly, one’s attitude to the experienced stress significantly modulates the brain’s response to it. 

Note that you don’t need to repeat any methodological or technical details here—the reader has been presented with all of these before, they have read your results section and the discussion of your results, and even (hopefully!) a discussion of the limitations and strengths of your paper. The only thing you need to remind them of here is the essential outcome of your work. 

Two: Add implications, and don’t forget to specify who this might be relevant for: 

Students could be considered a specific subsample of the general population, but earlier research shows that the effect that exam stress has on their physical and mental health is comparable to the effects of other types of stress on individuals of other ages and occupations. Further research into practical ways of modulating not only one’s mental stress response but potentially also one’s brain activity (e.g., via neurofeedback training) are warranted.

This is a “research implication”, and it is nicely combined with a mention of a potential limitation of the study (the student sample) that turns out not to be a limitation after all (because earlier research suggests we can generalize to other populations). If there already is a lot of research on neurofeedback for stress control, by the way, then this should have been discussed in your discussion section earlier and you wouldn’t say such studies are “warranted” here but rather specify how your findings could inspire specific future experiments or how they should be implemented in existing applications. 

Three: The most important thing is that your conclusion paragraph accurately reflects the content of your paper. Compare it to your research paper title , your research paper abstract , and to your journal submission cover letter , in case you already have one—if these do not all tell the same story, then you need to go back to your paper, start again from the introduction section, and find out where you lost the logical thread. As always, consistency is key.    

Problems to Avoid When Writing a Conclusion 

• Do not suddenly introduce new information that has never been mentioned before (unless you are writing an essay and opting for an externalizing conclusion, see above). The conclusion section is not where you want to surprise your readers, but the take-home message of what you have already presented.
• Do not simply copy your abstract, the conclusion section of your abstract, or the first sentence of your introduction, and put it at the end of the discussion section. Even if these parts of your paper cover the same points, they should not be identical.
• Do not start the conclusion with “In conclusion”. If it has its own section heading, that is redundant, and if it is the last paragraph of the discussion section, it is inelegant and also not really necessary. The reader expects you to wrap your work up in the last paragraph, so you don’t have to announce that. Just look at the above example to see how to start a conclusion in a natural way.
• Do not forget what your research objectives were and how you initially formulated the statement of the problem in your introduction section. If your story/approach/conclusions changed because of methodological issues or information you were not aware of when you started, then make sure you go back to the beginning and adapt your entire story (not just the ending). 

Consider Receiving Academic Editing Services

When you have arrived at the conclusion of your paper, you might want to head over to Wordvice AI’s AI Writing Assistant to receive a free grammar check for any academic content. 

After drafting, you can also receive English editing and proofreading services , including paper editing services for your journal manuscript. If you need advice on how to write the other parts of your research paper , or on how to make a research paper outline if you are struggling with putting everything you did together, then head over to the Wordvice academic resources pages , where we have a lot more articles and videos for you.

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How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

Last Updated: June 29, 2023 Approved

This article was co-authored by Christopher Taylor, PhD . Christopher Taylor is an Adjunct Assistant Professor of English at Austin Community College in Texas. He received his PhD in English Literature and Medieval Studies from the University of Texas at Austin in 2014. wikiHow marks an article as reader-approved once it receives enough positive feedback. This article received 42 testimonials and 82% of readers who voted found it helpful, earning it our reader-approved status. This article has been viewed 2,257,893 times.

The conclusion of a research paper needs to summarize the content and purpose of the paper without seeming too wooden or dry. Every basic conclusion must share several key elements, but there are also several tactics you can play around with to craft a more effective conclusion and several you should avoid to prevent yourself from weakening your paper's conclusion. Here are some writing tips to keep in mind when creating a conclusion for your next research paper.

Sample Conclusions

Writing a basic conclusion.

• Do not spend a great amount of time or space restating your topic.
• A good research paper will make the importance of your topic apparent, so you do not need to write an elaborate defense of your topic in the conclusion.
• Usually a single sentence is all you need to restate your topic.
• An example would be if you were writing a paper on the epidemiology of infectious disease, you might say something like "Tuberculosis is a widespread infectious disease that affects millions of people worldwide every year."
• Yet another example from the humanities would be a paper about the Italian Renaissance: "The Italian Renaissance was an explosion of art and ideas centered around artists, writers, and thinkers in Florence."

• A thesis is a narrowed, focused view on the topic at hand.
• This statement should be rephrased from the thesis you included in your introduction. It should not be identical or too similar to the sentence you originally used.
• Try re-wording your thesis statement in a way that complements your summary of the topic of your paper in your first sentence of your conclusion.
• An example of a good thesis statement, going back to the paper on tuberculosis, would be "Tuberculosis is a widespread disease that affects millions of people worldwide every year. Due to the alarming rate of the spread of tuberculosis, particularly in poor countries, medical professionals are implementing new strategies for the diagnosis, treatment, and containment of this disease ."

• A good way to go about this is to re-read the topic sentence of each major paragraph or section in the body of your paper.
• Find a way to briefly restate each point mentioned in each topic sentence in your conclusion. Do not repeat any of the supporting details used within your body paragraphs.
• Under most circumstances, you should avoid writing new information in your conclusion. This is especially true if the information is vital to the argument or research presented in your paper.
• For example, in the TB paper you could summarize the information. "Tuberculosis is a widespread disease that affects millions of people worldwide. Due to the alarming rate of the spread of tuberculosis, particularly in poor countries, medical professionals are implementing new strategies for the diagnosis, treatment, and containment of this disease. In developing countries, such as those in Africa and Southeast Asia, the rate of TB infections is soaring. Crowded conditions, poor sanitation, and lack of access to medical care are all compounding factors in the spread of the disease. Medical experts, such as those from the World Health Organization are now starting campaigns to go into communities in developing countries and provide diagnostic testing and treatments. However, the treatments for TB are very harsh and have many side effects. This leads to patient non-compliance and spread of multi-drug resistant strains of the disease."

• Note that this is not needed for all research papers.
• If you already fully explained what the points in your paper mean or why they are significant, you do not need to go into them in much detail in your conclusion. Simply restating your thesis or the significance of your topic should suffice.
• It is always best practice to address important issues and fully explain your points in the body of your paper. The point of a conclusion to a research paper is to summarize your argument for the reader and, perhaps, to call the reader to action if needed.

• Note that a call for action is not essential to all conclusions. A research paper on literary criticism, for instance, is less likely to need a call for action than a paper on the effect that television has on toddlers and young children.
• A paper that is more likely to call readers to action is one that addresses a public or scientific need. Let's go back to our example of tuberculosis. This is a very serious disease that is spreading quickly and with antibiotic-resistant forms.
• A call to action in this research paper would be a follow-up statement that might be along the lines of "Despite new efforts to diagnose and contain the disease, more research is needed to develop new antibiotics that will treat the most resistant strains of tuberculosis and ease the side effects of current treatments."

• For example, if you are writing a history paper, then you might discuss how the historical topic you discussed matters today. If you are writing about a foreign country, then you might use the conclusion to discuss how the information you shared may help readers understand their own country.

Making Your Conclusion as Effective as Possible

• Since this sort of conclusion is so basic, you must aim to synthesize the information rather than merely summarizing it.
• Instead of merely repeating things you already said, rephrase your thesis and supporting points in a way that ties them all together.
• By doing so, you make your research paper seem like a "complete thought" rather than a collection of random and vaguely related ideas.

• Ask a question in your introduction. In your conclusion, restate the question and provide a direct answer.
• Write an anecdote or story in your introduction but do not share the ending. Instead, write the conclusion to the anecdote in the conclusion of your paper.
• For example, if you wanted to get more creative and put a more humanistic spin on a paper on tuberculosis, you might start your introduction with a story about a person with the disease, and refer to that story in your conclusion. For example, you could say something like this before you re-state your thesis in your conclusion: "Patient X was unable to complete the treatment for tuberculosis due to severe side effects and unfortunately succumbed to the disease."
• Use the same concepts and images introduced in your introduction in your conclusion. The images may or may not appear at other points throughout the research paper.

• Include enough information about your topic to back the statement up but do not get too carried away with excess detail.
• If your research did not provide you with a clear-cut answer to a question posed in your thesis, do not be afraid to indicate as much.
• Restate your initial hypothesis and indicate whether you still believe it or if the research you performed has begun swaying your opinion.
• Indicate that an answer may still exist and that further research could shed more light on the topic at hand.

• This may not be appropriate for all types of research papers. Most research papers, such as one on effective treatment for diseases, will have the information to make the case for a particular argument already in the paper.
• A good example of a paper that might ask a question of the reader in the ending is one about a social issue, such as poverty or government policy.
• Ask a question that will directly get at the heart or purpose of the paper. This question is often the same question, or some version of it, that you may have started with when you began your research.
• Make sure that the question can be answered by the evidence presented in your paper.
• If desired you can briefly summarize the answer after stating the question. You could also leave the question hanging for the reader to answer, though.

• Even without a call to action, you can still make a recommendation to your reader.
• For instance, if you are writing about a topic like third-world poverty, you can various ways for the reader to assist in the problem without necessarily calling for more research.
• Another example would be, in a paper about treatment for drug-resistant tuberculosis, you could suggest donating to the World Health Organization or research foundations that are developing new treatments for the disease.

Avoiding Common Pitfalls

• These sayings usually sound stiff, unnatural, or trite when used in writing.
• Moreover, using a phrase like "in conclusion" to begin your conclusion is a little too straightforward and tends to lead to a weak conclusion. A strong conclusion can stand on its own without being labeled as such.

• Always state the main argument or thesis in the introduction. A research paper is an analytical discussion of an academic topic, not a mystery novel.
• A good, effective research paper will allow your reader to follow your main argument from start to finish.
• This is why it is best practice to start your paper with an introduction that states your main argument and to end the paper with a conclusion that re-states your thesis for re-iteration.

• All significant information should be introduced in the body of the paper.
• Supporting evidence expands the topic of your paper by making it appear more detailed. A conclusion should narrow the topic to a more general point.
• A conclusion should only summarize what you have already stated in the body of your paper.
• You may suggest further research or a call to action, but you should not bring in any new evidence or facts in the conclusion.

• Most often, a shift in tone occurs when a research paper with an academic tone gives an emotional or sentimental conclusion.
• Even if the topic of the paper is of personal significance for you, you should not indicate as much in your paper.
• If you want to give your paper a more humanistic slant, you could start and end your paper with a story or anecdote that would give your topic more personal meaning to the reader.
• This tone should be consistent throughout the paper, however.

• Apologetic statements include phrases like "I may not be an expert" or "This is only my opinion."
• Statements like this can usually be avoided by refraining from writing in the first-person.
• Avoid any statements in the first-person. First-person is generally considered to be informal and does not fit with the formal tone of a research paper.

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• ↑ http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/724/04/
• ↑ http://www.crlsresearchguide.org/18_Writing_Conclusion.asp
• ↑ http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/PlanResearchPaper.html#conclusion
• ↑ http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/conclusions/
• ↑ http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/conclude.html

About This Article

To write a conclusion for a research paper, start by restating your thesis statement to remind your readers what your main topic is and bring everything full circle. Then, briefly summarize all of the main points you made throughout your paper, which will help remind your readers of everything they learned. You might also want to include a call to action if you think more research or work needs to be done on your topic by writing something like, "Despite efforts to contain the disease, more research is needed to develop antibiotics." Finally, end your conclusion by explaining the broader context of your topic and why your readers should care about it, which will help them understand why your topic is relevant and important. For tips from our Academic co-author, like how to avoid common pitfalls when writing your conclusion, scroll down! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Organizing Academic Research Papers: 9. The Conclusion

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of your points or a re-statement of your research problem but a synthesis of key points. For most essays, one well-developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, a two-or-three paragraph conclusion may be required.

Importance of a Good Conclusion

A well-written conclusion provides you with several important opportunities to demonstrate your overall understanding of the research problem to the reader. These include:

• Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper . Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key points in your analysis or findings.
• Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger implications of your study . The conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly answer the "so what?" question by placing the study within the context of past research about the topic you've investigated.
• Demonstrating the importance of your ideas . Don't be shy. The conclusion offers you a chance to elaborate on the significance of your findings.
• Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem . This does not refer to introducing new information [which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and creative approaches for framing/contextualizing the research problem based on the results of your study.

Conclusions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion . San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008.

Structure and Writing Style

https://writing.wisc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/535/2018/07/conclusions_uwmadison_writingcenter_aug2012.pdf I.  General Rules

When writing the conclusion to your paper, follow these general rules:

• State your conclusions in clear, simple language.
• Do not simply reiterate your results or the discussion.
• Indicate opportunities for future research, as long as you haven't already done so in the discussion section of your paper.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to restate the main argument . It reminds the reader of the strengths of your main argument(s) and reiterates the most important evidence supporting those argument(s). Make sure, however, that your conclusion is not simply a repetitive summary of the findings because this reduces the impact of the argument(s) you have developed in your essay.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or point of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument for your reader.
• If, prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from the data.

The conclusion also provides a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with all the information about the topic . Depending on the discipline you are writing in, the concluding paragraph may contain your reflections on the evidence presented, or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the research you have done will depend on the topic and whether your professor wants you to express your observations in this way.

NOTE : Don't delve into idle speculation. Being introspective means looking within yourself as an author to try and understand an issue more deeply not to guess at possible outcomes.

II.  Developing a Compelling Conclusion

Strategies to help you move beyond merely summarizing the key points of your research paper may include any of the following.

• If your essay deals with a contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem.
• Recommend a specific course or courses of action.
• Cite a relevant quotation or expert opinion to lend authority to the conclusion you have reached [a good place to look is research from your literature review].
• Restate a key statistic, fact, or visual image to drive home the ultimate point of your paper.
• If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point with a relevant narrative drawn from your own life experiences.
• Return to an anecdote, an example, or a quotation that you introduced in your introduction, but add further insight that is derived from the findings of your study; use your interpretation of results to reframe it in new ways.
• Provide a "take-home" message in the form of a strong, succient statement that you want the reader to remember about your study.

III. Problems to Avoid Failure to be concise The conclusion section should be concise and to the point. Conclusions that are too long often have unnecessary detail. The conclusion section is not the place for details about your methodology or results. Although you should give a summary of what was learned from your research, this summary should be relatively brief, since the emphasis in the conclusion is on the implications, evaluations, insights, etc. that you make. Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues In the introduction, your task was to move from general [the field of study] to specific [your research problem]. However, in the conclusion, your task is to move from specific [your research problem] back to general [your field, i.e., how your research contributes new understanding or fills an important gap in the literature]. In other words, the conclusion is where you place your research within a larger context. Failure to reveal problems and negative results Negative aspects of the research process should never be ignored. Problems, drawbacks, and challenges encountered during your study should be included as a way of qualifying your overall conclusions. If you encountered negative results [findings that are validated outside the research context in which they were generated], you must report them in the results section of your paper. In the conclusion, use the negative results as an opportunity to explain how they provide information on which future research can be based. Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned In order to be able to discuss how your research fits back into your field of study [and possibly the world at large], you need to summarize it briefly and directly. Often this element of your conclusion is only a few sentences long. Failure to match the objectives of your research Often research objectives change while the research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back and refine your original objectives in your introduction, as these changes emerge they must be documented so that they accurately reflect what you were trying to accomplish in your research [not what you thought you might accomplish when you began].

Resist the urge to apologize If you've immersed yourself in studying the research problem, you now know a good deal about it, perhaps even more than your professor! Nevertheless, by the time you have finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you have produced. Repress those doubts!  Don't undermine your authority by saying something like, "This is just one approach to examining this problem; there may be other, much better approaches...."

Concluding Paragraphs. College Writing Center at Meramec. St. Louis Community College; Conclusions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions . The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Leibensperger, Summer. Draft Your Conclusion. Academic Center, the University of Houston-Victoria, 2003; Make Your Last Words Count . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Tips for Writing a Good Conclusion . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion . San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Writing Conclusions . Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Writing: Considering Structure and Organization . Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Don't Belabor the Obvious!

Avoid phrases like "in conclusion...," "in summary...," or "in closing...." These phrases can be useful, even welcome, in oral presentations. But readers can see by the tell-tale section heading and number of pages remaining to read, when an essay is about to end. You'll irritate your readers if you belabor the obvious.

Another Writing Tip

New Insight, Not New Information!

Don't surprise the reader with new information in your Conclusion that was never referenced anywhere else in the paper. If you have new information to present, add it to the Discussion or other appropriate section of the paper.  Note that, although no actual new information is introduced, the conclusion is where you offer your most "original" contributions in the paper; it's where you describe the value of your research, demonstrate your understanding of the material that you’ve presented, and locate your findings within the larger context of scholarship on the topic.

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• Last Updated: Jul 18, 2023 11:58 AM
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How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper: Examples & Tips

You might be wondering about how to write a conclusion paragraph for a research paper. It may seem like your readers should understand your main arguments by the end, so there is no need for it. However, there are several aspects that prove the importance of a conclusion section in research.

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Its first and primary function is, of course, a summary of all the main ideas and evidence in the paper. Sometimes research can be quite lengthy so putting all the thoughts you want to share in one place is very handy. Moreover, the conclusion shows how important your work is and suggests new ways of looking at the problem.

Our guide and research paper conclusion example are here to help you with your assignment!

• ❗ Importance of a Conclusion
• 👣 Writing Steps
• 📑 Conclusion Types & Examples
• ❌ Common Mistakes

🔗 References

❗ importance of a conclusion in a research paper.

A conclusion intends to remind the readers about the main arguments and findings of the whole paper. However, it also highlights the significance of the work. Both these functions help create a long-lasting, memorable impression from your research paper , so always include this part and try to think of the ways to make it even more effective.

Since having a strong concluding paragraph is so crucial for the overall success, you might want to check out a step-by-step guide on writing it. It can assure you don’t miss any vital moments. Moreover, you need to find out what conclusion type would be the best!

👣 How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper Step by Step

Below are only a few simple steps that can allow you to write the most persuasive research paper.

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📑 Types & Examples of Research Paper Conclusions

You may be assigned to write a persuasive or argumentative paper. Or your professor might ask you to develop an analytical or comparative research paper.

Should you write their conclusions in the same way? The answer is “No”. When you write different types of assignments, you need different conclusions.

Argumentative Research Paper Conclusion

To write an excellent argumentative paper conclusion, you need to highlight the most persuasive and strong arguments you have — no need to add many details. In addition, don’t forget you should include the essential components of the conclusion, such as paraphrasing your thesis statement, which points out your opinion on the chosen topic. If you used a strong thesis statement generator , it won’t be hard to do.

Argumentative Research Paper Conclusion Example

Right now, Earth is facing the issue of the sixth extinction, which causes numerous species to fade every day. There are at least three ideas people might use to prevent their total extinction in the next fifty years. More ways of recycling, new approaches to plastic production, and conservation of species could be life-saving.

Analytical Research Paper Conclusion

First, you should restate your thesis statement and summarize the critical points of your arguments. The main difference between the analytical research paper conclusion and other types is that there should definitely be a highlight of a broader context. It means you can add some meaning to the findings.

Analytical Research Paper Conclusion Example

Elon Musk has made a revolution in the way we pay, drive, and even fly. His ideas come only from the desire to make things easier, but eventually, they change the world. Musk first thought about PayPal when he was a student, and now it’s one of the most popular online payment systems. The same with Tesla cars.

Comparative Research Paper Conclusion

An effective comparative paper conclusion requires some analytical skills. You need to be very careful in looking through facts to clearly formulate your findings. Moreover, the sources need to be trustworthy. And, as usual, you need to add a paraphrased thesis statement and a few words about the importance of your study research.

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Comparative Research Paper Conclusion Example

Electric cars are proven to be more efficient and effective than gas cars. Not only do they produce fewer emissions, but the drivers reach their destination point faster. Moreover, gas cars are more expensive to maintain. It all derives from the specifics of the electric cars’ engines, which are much simpler.

❌ Common Mistakes You Should Avoid

Are you ready to pass your writing? Wait! Have you checked it for the most common mistakes? If no, below are several general errors you should avoid.

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Very, very useful website for students. I appreciate people who kindly share brilliant writing tips with others! Thanks a lot!

Great article! It helped me to complete my research papers conclusion that was a real nightmare for me! Thank you so much for it!

I was on my way to completing my research paper and going to finish the conclusion by copy-pasting the introduction. Thank God, I wanted to read some articles on conclusion writing. After reading your post on this question, I completed my conclusion following your instructions. Believe my research paper is worth an excellent mark!

In response to a comment from Lynn: Thank you for noting this unfortunate mistake in the text. Obviously, we spend a lot of time compiling, writing, and editing materials, but there’s always room for a simple human error! Thanks again, and have a great day! 🙂

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Writing A Case Study

Case Study Examples

Brilliant Case Study Examples and Templates For Your Help

15 min read

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A Complete Case Study Writing Guide With Examples

Simple Case Study Format for Students to Follow

Understand the Types of Case Study Here

It’s no surprise that writing a case study is one of the most challenging academic tasks for students. You’re definitely not alone here!

Most people don't realize that there are specific guidelines to follow when writing a case study. If you don't know where to start, it's easy to get overwhelmed and give up before you even begin.

Don't worry! Let us help you out!

We've collected over 25 free case study examples with solutions just for you. These samples with solutions will help you win over your panel and score high marks on your case studies.

So, what are you waiting for? Let's dive in and learn the secrets to writing a successful case study.

• 1. An Overview of Case Studies
• 2. Case Study Examples for Students
• 3. Business Case Study Examples
• 4. Medical Case Study Examples
• 5. Psychology Case Study Examples 
• 6. Sales Case Study Examples
• 7. Interview Case Study Examples
• 8. Marketing Case Study Examples
• 9. Tips to Write a Good Case Study

An Overview of Case Studies

A case study is a research method used to study a particular individual, group, or situation in depth. It involves analyzing and interpreting data from a variety of sources to gain insight into the subject being studied. 

Case studies are often used in psychology, business, and education to explore complicated problems and find solutions. They usually have detailed descriptions of the subject, background info, and an analysis of the main issues.

The goal of a case study is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject. Typically, case studies can be divided into three parts, challenges, solutions, and results. 

Here is a case study sample PDF so you can have a clearer understanding of what a case study actually is:

Case Study Sample PDF

How to Write a Case Study Examples

Learn how to write a case study with the help of our comprehensive case study guide.

Case Study Examples for Students

Quite often, students are asked to present case studies in their academic journeys. The reason instructors assign case studies is for students to sharpen their critical analysis skills, understand how companies make profits, etc.

Below are some case study examples in research, suitable for students:

Case Study Example in Software Engineering

Qualitative Research Case Study Sample

Software Quality Assurance Case Study

Social Work Case Study Example

Ethical Case Study

Case Study Example PDF

These examples can guide you on how to structure and format your own case studies.

Struggling with formatting your case study? Check this case study format guide and perfect your document’s structure today.

Business Case Study Examples

A business case study examines a business’s specific challenge or goal and how it should be solved. Business case studies usually focus on several details related to the initial challenge and proposed solution. 

To help you out, here are some samples so you can create case studies that are related to businesses: 

Here are some more business case study examples:

Business Case Studies PDF

Business Case Studies Example

Typically, a business case study discovers one of your customer's stories and how you solved a problem for them. It allows your prospects to see how your solutions address their needs. 

Medical Case Study Examples

Medical case studies are an essential part of medical education. They help students to understand how to diagnose and treat patients. 

Here are some medical case study examples to help you.

Medical Case Study Example

Nursing Case Study Example

Want to understand the various types of case studies? Check out our types of case study blog to select the perfect type.

Psychology Case Study Examples 

Case studies are a great way of investigating individuals with psychological abnormalities. This is why it is a very common assignment in psychology courses. 

By examining all the aspects of your subject’s life, you discover the possible causes of exhibiting such behavior. 

For your help, here are some interesting psychology case study examples:

Psychology Case Study Example

Mental Health Case Study Example

Sales Case Study Examples

Case studies are important tools for sales teams’ performance improvement. By examining sales successes, teams can gain insights into effective strategies and create action plans to employ similar tactics.

By researching case studies of successful sales campaigns, sales teams can more accurately identify challenges and develop solutions.

Sales Case Study Example

Interview Case Study Examples

Interview case studies provide businesses with invaluable information. This data allows them to make informed decisions related to certain markets or subjects.

Interview Case Study Example

Marketing Case Study Examples

Marketing case studies are real-life stories that showcase how a business solves a problem. They typically discuss how a business achieves a goal using a specific marketing strategy or tactic.

They typically describe a challenge faced by a business, the solution implemented, and the results achieved.

This is a short sample marketing case study for you to get an idea of what an actual marketing case study looks like.

 Here are some more popular marketing studies that show how companies use case studies as a means of marketing and promotion:

“Chevrolet Discover the Unexpected” by Carol H. Williams

This case study explores Chevrolet's “ DTU Journalism Fellows ” program. The case study uses the initials “DTU” to generate interest and encourage readers to learn more. 

Multiple types of media, such as images and videos, are used to explain the challenges faced. The case study concludes with an overview of the achievements that were met.

Key points from the case study include:

• Using a well-known brand name in the title can create interest.
• Combining different media types, such as headings, images, and videos, can help engage readers and make the content more memorable.
• Providing a summary of the key achievements at the end of the case study can help readers better understand the project's impact.

“The Met” by Fantasy

“ The Met ” by Fantasy is a fictional redesign of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, created by the design studio Fantasy. The case study clearly and simply showcases the museum's website redesign.

The Met emphasizes the website’s features and interface by showcasing each section of the interface individually, allowing the readers to concentrate on the significant elements.

For those who prefer text, each feature includes an objective description. The case study also includes a “Contact Us” call-to-action at the bottom of the page, inviting visitors to contact the company.

Key points from this “The Met” include:

• Keeping the case study simple and clean can help readers focus on the most important aspects.
• Presenting the features and solutions with a visual showcase can be more effective than writing a lot of text.
• Including a clear call-to-action at the end of the case study can encourage visitors to contact the company for more information.

“Better Experiences for All” by Herman Miller

Herman Miller's minimalist approach to furniture design translates to their case study, “ Better Experiences for All ”, for a Dubai hospital. The page features a captivating video with closed-captioning and expandable text for accessibility.

The case study presents a wealth of information in a concise format, enabling users to grasp the complexities of the strategy with ease. It concludes with a client testimonial and a list of furniture items purchased from the brand.

Key points from the “Better Experiences” include:

• Make sure your case study is user-friendly by including accessibility features like closed captioning and expandable text.
• Include a list of products that were used in the project to guide potential customers.

“NetApp” by Evisort 

Evisort's case study on “ NetApp ” stands out for its informative and compelling approach. The study begins with a client-centric overview of NetApp, strategically directing attention to the client rather than the company or team involved.

The case study incorporates client quotes and explores NetApp’s challenges during COVID-19. Evisort showcases its value as a client partner by showing how its services supported NetApp through difficult times. 

• Provide an overview of the company in the client’s words, and put focus on the customer. 
• Highlight how your services can help clients during challenging times.
• Make your case study accessible by providing it in various formats.

“Red Sox Season Campaign,” by CTP Boston

The “ Red Sox Season Campaign ” showcases a perfect blend of different media, such as video, text, and images. Upon visiting the page, the video plays automatically, there are videos of Red Sox players, their images, and print ads that can be enlarged with a click.

The page features an intuitive design and invites viewers to appreciate CTP's well-rounded campaign for Boston's beloved baseball team. There’s also a CTA that prompts viewers to learn how CTP can create a similar campaign for their brand.

Some key points to take away from the “Red Sox Season Campaign”: 

• Including a variety of media such as video, images, and text can make your case study more engaging and compelling.
• Include a call-to-action at the end of your study that encourages viewers to take the next step towards becoming a customer or prospect.

“Airbnb + Zendesk” by Zendesk

The case study by Zendesk, titled “ Airbnb + Zendesk : Building a powerful solution together,” showcases a true partnership between Airbnb and Zendesk. 

The article begins with an intriguing opening statement, “Halfway around the globe is a place to stay with your name on it. At least for a weekend,” and uses stunning images of beautiful Airbnb locations to captivate readers.

Instead of solely highlighting Zendesk's product, the case study is crafted to tell a good story and highlight Airbnb's service in detail. This strategy makes the case study more authentic and relatable.

Some key points to take away from this case study are:

• Use client's offerings' images rather than just screenshots of your own product or service.
• To begin the case study, it is recommended to include a distinct CTA. For instance, Zendesk presents two alternatives, namely to initiate a trial or seek a solution.

“Influencer Marketing” by Trend and WarbyParker

The case study "Influencer Marketing" by Trend and Warby Parker highlights the potential of influencer content marketing, even when working with a limited budget. 

The “Wearing Warby” campaign involved influencers wearing Warby Parker glasses during their daily activities, providing a glimpse of the brand's products in use. 

This strategy enhanced the brand's relatability with influencers' followers. While not detailing specific tactics, the case study effectively illustrates the impact of third-person case studies in showcasing campaign results.

Key points to take away from this case study are:

• Influencer marketing can be effective even with a limited budget.
• Showcasing products being used in everyday life can make a brand more approachable and relatable.
• Third-person case studies can be useful in highlighting the success of a campaign.

Marketing Case Study Example

Marketing Case Study Template

Now that you have read multiple case study examples, hop on to our tips.

Tips to Write a Good Case Study

Here are some note-worthy tips to craft a winning case study 

• Define the purpose of the case study This will help you to focus on the most important aspects of the case. The case study objective helps to ensure that your finished product is concise and to the point.
• Choose a real-life example. One of the best ways to write a successful case study is to choose a real-life example. This will give your readers a chance to see how the concepts apply in a real-world setting.
• Keep it brief. This means that you should only include information that is directly relevant to your topic and avoid adding unnecessary details.
• Use strong evidence. To make your case study convincing, you will need to use strong evidence. This can include statistics, data from research studies, or quotes from experts in the field.
• Edit and proofread your work. Before you submit your case study, be sure to edit and proofread your work carefully. This will help to ensure that there are no errors and that your paper is clear and concise.

There you go!

We’re sure that now you have secrets to writing a great case study at your fingertips! This blog teaches the key guidelines of various case studies with samples. So grab your pen and start crafting a winning case study right away!

Having said that, we do understand that some of you might be having a hard time writing compelling case studies.

But worry not! Our expert case study writing service is here to take all your case-writing blues away! 

With 100% thorough research guaranteed, our online essay service can craft an amazing case study within 24 hours! 

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Dr. Barbara is a highly experienced writer and author who holds a Ph.D. degree in public health from an Ivy League school. She has worked in the medical field for many years, conducting extensive research on various health topics. Her writing has been featured in several top-tier publications.

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• Open access
• Published: 17 April 2024

Breaking down barriers to mental healthcare access in prison: a qualitative interview study with incarcerated males in Norway

• Line Elisabeth Solbakken 1 , 2 ,
• Svein Bergvik 3 &
• Rolf Wynn 1 , 4  

BMC Psychiatry volume  24 , Article number:  292 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

Mental health problems are highly prevalent in prison populations. Incarcerated persons generally come from disadvantaged backgrounds and are living under extraordinary conditions while in prison. Their healthcare needs are complex compared to the general population. Studies have found that incarcerated individuals are reluctant to seek help and that they experience challenges in accessing mental healthcare services. To some extent, seeking treatment depends on the degree of fit between potential users and health services, and actual use might be a better indication of accessibility than the fact that services are available. This study aimed to explore individual and systemic facilitators and barriers to accessing mental healthcare in a prison context.

An analytical approach drawing on elements of constructivist Grounded theory was the methodological basis of this study. Fifteen male participants were recruited from three prisons in Northern Norway. Data was collected through in-depth interviews on topics such as help-seeking experiences, perceived access to services and availability of health information.

We found that distrust in the system, challenges with the referral routines, worries about negative consequences, and perceived limited access to mental healthcare were barriers to help-seeking among incarcerated individuals. How prison officers, and healthcare personnel respond to incarcerated persons reporting mental distress could also be critical for their future willingness to seek help. Providing information about mental health and available services, initiating outreaching mental health services, and integrating mental health interventions into treatment programs are examples of efforts that might reduce barriers to accessing services.

Conclusions

Facilitating access to mental health services is crucial to accommodate the mental health needs of those incarcerated. This study provides insights into the complex interplay of individual, social and systemic factors that may contribute to the utilization of mental health care among incarcerated persons. We suggest that correctional and healthcare systems review their practices to facilitate access to healthcare for people in prison.

Peer Review reports

Mental health of people in prison

The rates of mental disorders are considerably higher among incarcerated individuals than in the general population [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Co-morbidities are common, and around 20% of incarcerated individuals have concurrent mental and substance use disorders [ 5 ]. They are at increased risk for all-cause mortality, self-harm, violence, and victimization, and suicide rates are about 3–6 times higher among incarcerated males relative to males in the broader population [ 6 ]. Adverse life experiences and disadvantaged living conditions from an early age may explain the observed accumulation of mental health problems in prison populations worldwide [ 7 , 8 ]. Genetic predispositions combined with environmental stressors are implicated in the development of mental disorders [ 9 , 10 ]. People in prison generally experience low educational achievements, low income, and unstable housing. Thus, the poor mental health of prison populations is caused by a complex interplay of social, environmental, and genetic factors [ 7 , 11 ]. In addition to the pre-existing burdens, incarcerated individuals are facing prison–specific challenges such as loss of autonomy, social isolation, bullying and violence that may exacerbate mental health issues [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Considering the elevated rates of mental health problems in prison, facilitating access to mental health services is crucial to accommodate the needs of those incarcerated.

Access to mental health services

The treatment gap refers to the proportion of individuals with mental health problems within a specific community that require treatment without receiving it [ 16 ]. Variable access to mental healthcare and high levels of unmet mental health needs are universal challenges in communities across the world [ 17 , 18 ]. Even when health services are available, individual and systemic barriers may hinder their use. In a narrow sense, access to healthcare may be considered equivalent to available services. However, some argue that a more meaningful way to define access is the “degree of fit” between the potential users and health services [ 19 ]. For instance, if services are accessible in terms of transportation and treatment costs and whether they are compatible with potential users’ personal attitudes, beliefs and preferences. “Having access” can be understood as the potential for using available mental health services. “Gaining access”, is the individual process of choosing to use those services [ 20 ]. Within this frame of reference, access to services is more precisely defined by the actual use of services.

Mental health help-seeking

Across settings and populations, the majority of those suffering from mental health problems do not seek treatment [ 21 , 22 , 23 ]. The literature on help-seeking gives insight into the intrapersonal factors involved in accessing mental health care. Within this context, help-seeking has been defined as: " an adaptive coping process that is the attempt to obtain external assistance to deal with a mental health concern” [ 24 ]. The process of seeking help involves becoming aware of a mental health problem that may require intervention; articulating the psychological challenges in a way that can be understood by others; awareness of help sources that are available and accessible; and a willingness to talk about the mental health problem to available help sources [ 25 ]. Throughout the help-seeking process, personal thoughts and feelings become increasingly interpersonal as an individual confides in and seeks support from others. It is not uncommon to share mental health concerns with informal sources of support such as friends and family prior to, or even instead of, seeking professional help [ 26 ]. Moreover, informal networks are found to facilitate but may also discourage professional formal help-seeking for mental health problems [ 27 , 28 ].

The theory of planned behavior (TPB), a well-known model within behavior change research, may also provide a framework for understanding how personal attitudes and social influences are implicated in accessing healthcare. Subjective norms, attitudes, and perceived behavioral control are elements of TPB that are particularly important for understanding the help-seeking process [ 29 ]. In this context, subjective norms refer to a person’s beliefs about other peoples’ practice or approval of help-seeking and are related to expectations of social support in pursuing professional help. Attitudes refer to appraisals of seeking professional mental help as beneficial or harmful and a judgement of whether help-seeking would be constructive compared to alternative behaviors. Perceived behavioral control can be divided into self-efficacy (the confidence that one can seek help), and controllability (the extent of personal control in the help-seeking process). A recent review found that attitudes and perceived behavioral control predict help-seeking intentions across different population groups and cultures [ 30 ].

Access to mental health services in prison

Equity is essential in healthcare to ensure that the health system meets the needs of different groups of people and individuals [ 20 ]. “The principle of equivalence” is a widely endorsed standard for healthcare in correctional settings [ 31 ]. This principle is laid down in the United Nations´ Nelson Mandela Rules. Rule number 24 states that: “Prisoners should enjoy the same standards of health care that are available in the community, and should have access to necessary health-care services free of charge without discrimination on the grounds of their legal status” [ 32 ] (p.8) However, some argue that equal standards are not sufficient to meet the complex needs of incarcerated individuals and that mental healthcare in prison must be more intensive and integrative than services provided in the community [ 33 , 34 , 35 ]. In reality there are several reports of shortcomings in the delivery of mental healthcare in prison in many countries across the world, as mental disorders in incarcerated persons are underdiagnosed and undertreated [ 6 , 34 ]. Studies from Canada, the US, and the UK indicate that a significant proportion of incarcerated people with mental health problems have not received adequate treatment [ 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 ]. Suggested explanations for unmet needs are underfunding, failure in screening procedures and quality at reception, demand for more mental health knowledge among prison staff, and possible underrating of the severity of mental health problems by the prison administrations to reduce treatment costs [ 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ]. Taken together these reports suggest that mental health services do not fit the complex needs of incarcerated persons in high-income countries. There is less knowledge about the situation in low- and middle-income countries. However, the elevated rates of mental disorders in these countries suggest that unmet needs among incarcerated persons are a widespread challenge [ 1 ].

Mental health help-seeking in prison

Evidence suggests that the immense burden of mental disorders among people in prison is not matched by a proportional use of mental healthcare [ 41 ]. Several reports from various correctional settings have documented that incarcerated persons are reluctant to seek help for mental health problems [ 41 ]. Among the reported barriers to help-seeking in prison are confidentiality concerns [ 42 ], fear of stigma associated with a diagnosis [ 43 ], a preference for self-management or informal support [ 44 ], lack of knowledge of psychological services [ 42 , 44 ] and distrust in the system [ 45 ]. In addition, systemic factors may influence access to healthcare in prison. The culture in all-male prisons typically demands that those imprisoned mask their vulnerabilities by adopting a tough and dominant demeanor [ 46 ]. Experiencing mental illness and receiving professional mental health treatment is also associated with an increased risk of victimization in incarcerated individuals [ 47 ].

Mental health literacy (MHL) is a concept that includes the knowledge and attitudes that influence how people manage their mental health needs [ 48 ]. Having sufficient knowledge and access to information about mental health and mental health services can be a prerequisite for seeking professional help [ 49 ]. For people living in the community, seeking online information and advice is an important strategy for gaining knowledge about how to cope with mental health challenges [ 50 , 51 , 52 ]. For security reasons, access to the Internet is typically severely limited for those imprisoned [ 53 , 54 ]. Hence, this essential mental health information source is largely unavailable to them. Accordingly, incarcerated individuals are reliant on finding mental health information through information pamphlets, books, TV programs, newspapers or consulting healthcare professionals [ 55 ]. Some argue that limited access to online information and digital health services may have consequences for the well-being and successful rehabilitation of those incarcerated [ 53 , 56 , 57 ]. Thus, there are reasons to believe that restricted access to mental health information may also affect help-seeking and access to healthcare for incarcerated individuals.

The rationale for the current study

Fostering health-promoting environments and adequate access to mental healthcare within prisons is a public health imperative increasingly acknowledged in the literature [ 33 ]. Moreover, the mental health of incarcerated persons is a matter of public safety since untreated severe mental disorders are associated with a higher risk of recidivism [ 58 , 59 ]. People in prison retain their right to health services, and in principle, incarcerated persons have access to mental health services. A vital question, however, is how incarcerated persons experience gaining access and how this affects their actual use of services. Existing research on the provision of mental healthcare in prisons, particularly within a Scandinavian context, is sparse, leaving significant knowledge gaps. The question of access to health information for incarcerated persons is similarly understudied. This study aimed to investigate how incarcerated persons experience individual and systemic factors that facilitate or impede access to mental healthcare in prison.

The Helsinki Declaration of Medical Research involving human subjects and services laid the basis of the ethical considerations of this study [ 60 ]. The study was approved by the Data Protection Officer of the University Hospital of North Norway (No. 02415). The Norwegian Correctional system, which is responsible for the welfare of incarcerated individuals, approved of the study (Ref. 200900463-347). The Regional Health Research Ethics Committee concluded that the project was outside their mandate (Ref. 40,701).

The principles of voluntariness and informed consent are central to human subject research. Individuals in prison are considered vulnerable due to their restricted freedom and autonomy, poor health status, higher incidence of learning disabilities, and lower literacy levels. Consequently, additional precautions are required to ensure that research with incarcerated participants is conducted ethically [ 61 ]. User participation in designing research that includes vulnerable groups is crucial to achieving this objective [ 61 , 62 ]. Measures in accordance with recommendations were taken to ensure consent information that is complete, relevant, and understandable [ 63 ]. A user representative from Way-Back, an organization that supports incarcerated persons with reentry to their communities, contributed to the project’s planning. The user representative provided input on information about the study, research questions, the interview guide and how to conduct the interviews. The input was used to tailor information and for conducting the interviews in accordance with the constraints of the prison contexts and the needs of the incarcerated individuals. The choice of whether to reimburse participants in prison studies is debated. Because of the relative deprivation of prison life, some argue that even small incentives could potentially result in undue influence for participation in research [ 64 ]. For this reason, we chose to abstain from offering reimbursement for the participants in this study.

Study context

At any given time, about 3000 persons are serving a sentence in Norway, of which 5.6% are women and 26.2% are non-Norwegian citizens [ 65 ]. A recent study found that almost 60% of incarcerated persons in Norway had a diagnosed mental disorder, together with a 33% rise in the one-year prevalence of mental disorders between the years 2010–2019 [ 66 ]. Thus, the proportion of people with mental disorders entering prison has been increasing. In Norway, access to necessary healthcare is considered a basic human right and is legislated in the Patient’s Rights Act section 2 [ 67 ]. Healthcare is primarily tax-funded, with a nominal service fee and a relatively low cap on yearly individual costs [ 68 ]. Norway has committed to “the principle of equivalence” meaning that those imprisoned retain their right to healthcare equal to that of the general population [ 31 ]. Prison health services serve incarcerated persons with milder mental health problems and are accessible by self-referral through a paper-based request system. The prison health services can refer those who experience moderate to severe mental disorders to specialist mental health services, and treatment is often provided in prison by mental health professionals from local hospitals For people imprisoned in Norway, healthcare and medications are free of charge [ 69 ], eliminating one significant barrier to mental healthcare access [ 70 ]. Furthermore, as the municipalities and local hospitals provide health services - the importation of services promotes equity and that services are independent of the correctional system, thereby strengthening the rights of people in prison [ 71 ].

A study found that incarcerated persons in Norway were reluctant to seek help for mental health problems from prison health services unless they had concurrent sleep or substance use problems [ 72 ]. A survey by Bjørngaard et al. [ 73 ] found lower patient satisfaction with prison health services compared to people using community health services and that those with mental health problems were less satisfied compared to incarcerated patients with other health challenges. A survey representative of the Norwegian prison population found that 20% of incarcerated males sample reported that they had received mental health services, while 25% reported that they had been in need of mental health services in prison but had not received any [ 11 ]. More recent reports suggest that mental health services are insufficient to meet the needs of those imprisoned in Norway and that incarcerated individuals referred due to their severe mental illness may not be admitted to specialist services for in-patient assessment and treatment [ 74 , 75 ]. These reports indicate that mental health services do not fit the complex needs of incarcerated persons in Norway and that there are potential obstacles in their access to mental healthcare.

Study design

This study was underpinned by relativist epistemology which is based on the assumption of multiple individual realities that allow for different understandings of the same phenomenon [ 76 ]. The study design was suitable for exploring and explaining commonly experienced individual, social, cultural and structural factors that influence help-seeking and access to mental healthcare for incarcerated individuals. The study incorporates vital Grounded Theory (GT) components, including initial coding, categorizing data, constant comparative methods involving inductive and abductive reasoning, and memoing [ 77 ]. The use of theoretical sampling, which is rare in prison research due to ethical and practical constraints [ 78 ], was not employed in this study. Data collection concluded once additional data no longer contributed new insights or further elaborated the developed categories.

Preconceptions

The first author, a clinical community psychologist and a PhD student, worked part-time as a prison officer for two years during her psychology education. This experience gave her an insider’s view of the correctional system, inevitably influencing her initial perceptions. Before conducting the interviews, she held a somewhat optimistic view of the correctional system’s capacity to support and enhance the mental health of those incarcerated. However, this perspective was challenged through the narratives of the study participants, who conveyed powerful personal accounts that highlighted substantial barriers to obtaining mental health services within the prison environment. The other two authors, serving as supervisors, are also researchers and mental health professionals with considerable clinical experience. Their diverse backgrounds contributed to a supervisory dynamic that adresssed the research topic’s complexities. Throughout the study, the authors engaged in a process of collaborative reflection, concerned with maintaining a balance between engaging with participant stories and sustaining a critical stance towards the data. These discussions were essential in helping the first author navigate an empathetic understanding of the participant’s experiences with the necessary analytical objectivity required for rigorous qualitative research.

Participants and study settings

Fifteen males serving a prison sentence were recruited from three prisons in Northern Norway. Thirteen of the participants served a sentence at a high security level, while two served at lower security. The participants’ age ranged from the early twenties to the late sixties (M: 43.6 years). Two participants had other nationalities, while the rest were Norwegian citizens. Further details about the participants must be withheld to preserve their privacy. When citing individual participants, they are anonymized by using pseudonyms.

Recruitment

Participants were recruited through posters in the prison ward that conveyed basic information, including the fact that the interviews were confidential and would be recorded. The posters encouraged those interested in participating to approach a contact person for more information. A prison officer, a social worker or a reintegration coordinator were assigned the role as contact persons in the selected prisons. Those who actively approached the contact person were given more comprehensive written information about the study. Requiring an active choice by incarcerated individuals was done to enhance their experience of self-determination and autonomy in their decision to participate. The contact person scheduled appointments with the participants, and the interviewer had no prior knowledge of the participants other than what they presented in the interviews. One potential participant cancelled the interview appointment due to health issues on the interview day and withdrew from the study.

The first author conducted face-to-face, in-depth interviews. The interviews took place in prison visitation rooms or in an office in the health wards. Before the interview, the participants were given information about the study and their rights as research participants and signed a written consent form. The interviewer was alone with the participants during the interview and had a personal alarm as a safety precaution. The interview guide covered topics on knowledge of mental health and available services, help-seeking experiences, and access to mental health information (sample questions provided in Table  1 ). The participants were asked open-ended questions and were invited to speak freely on these topics. Thus, the order and framing of questions varied depending on where they fit into the participants’ narratives. This allowed for following up on the participants’ experiences and may have given the participants an increased sense of control in the interview. The first author who conducted the interviews was attentive to signs of emotional discomfort in participants and avoided pressure on sensitive topics. After the interviews, the participants were encouraged to ask questions and comment on their experience and reminded of their right to withdraw from the study. Nearly all the participants expressed that the experience of participating in the study was positive and that they appreciated the chance to contribute to the research project.

The first author transcribed the audio-recorded interviews in Norwegian, ensuring a verbatim account of the participants’ narratives. The initial eight interviews were transcribed before initiating data analysis. This early examination of the data facilitated a refinement of the interview guide, which was then applied to the subsequent seven interviews to deepen the inquiry. Data collection and analysis were concurrent as the study progressed from the ninth interview, which allowed for immediate integration of new data into the evolving analytical framework. The data was examined using the NVivo 12 software, which supported the systematic organization and analysis of the data. The data was analyzed line-by-line, searching for incidents in the form of recurring beliefs, actions, experiences, and explanations [ 79 ]. The constant comparison method was applied throughout the analysis. In the initial coding phase, incidents were compared to incidents, and through this process underlying recurring concepts and similarities were identified and assigned codes. Subsequently, codes were then compared to codes, and related codes were organized into conceptual categories, reflecting both common features and divergent viewpoints [ 77 ]. In the intermediate coding phase, the data was abstracted into categories which were compared to each other, and relationships between categories were developed and refined. The authors engaged in a collaborative and reflective dialogue throughout this process, meeting regularly to deliberate on preconceptions, the emerging categories and their interpretations. This dynamic exchange was informed by memos that captured analytical decisions, insights, and evolving interpretations, thus guiding the reflective process. In the last stage, advanced coding, a core category which binds the other categories and sub-categories together was developed. Through a collaborative process the categories were substantiated with representative quotes, which, upon completion of the analysis, were translated from Norwegian to English for inclusion in the report. This resulted in a nuanced understanding grounded in the participants’ experiences and the researchers’ interpretative lens.

The data analysis yielded four main categories illustrating the participants’ active engagement in identifying challenges and facilitators for mental healthcare access within the prison environment. The first category, “Mental health awareness,” captures how beliefs and knowledge concerning mental health were influenced by the experiences and constraints inherent to prison life, potentially affecting the pursuit of help and access to healthcare services. The second main category reveals how systemic sub-cultural values can obstruct healthcare access, whereas, on a personal level, fellow inmates served as vital support for obtaining mental health services. The third main category, “Access to mental health care,” examines how organizational and systemic barriers impede access to mental healthcare. The final main category, “Enhancing access to services,” delineates factors that lowered the bar for mental healthcare access. The core category, “Breaking down barriers,” encapsulates the dynamic interplay between incarcerated individuals and the contextual factors that influenced their ability and willingness to access mental healthcare in prison. This central theme also recognizes the collaborative effort between participants and researchers in identifying problem areas and solutions to mental healthcare access, thereby “breaking down barriers”. An outline of these categories is presented in Table  2 .

Mental health awareness

An information void.

Seeking information can be an essential first step for recognizing symptoms of mental illness that may require intervention. Prior to imprisonment, visiting their general practitioner or using online search engines were the preferred methods for finding health information for the participants in this study. In prison, however, access to the Internet is severely limited:

Where can we get information? We do not have access to computers or anything. So, I would have to call someone on the outside to get them to print articles and send them to me by post. So, no. We don’t know our rights, we don’t know about the services available to us, as a matter of fact we know very little. There’s an information void. Stuart

A few of the participants referred to the prison library as a source of information. Some also said that they could talk to health care professionals, correctional officers, or other staff members like the priest, to get mental health information. Fellow incarcerated individuals who had experienced mental health problems and received health services were also mentioned by some participants. The common thread in all suggestions was a dependency on others to access information about mental health. Only a couple of participants had tried to find mental health information during their time in prison. However, they found it difficult to obtain:

The only choice I have is to ask the prison officers to print it [mental health information], but sometimes they don’t want to do it because they think it’s bad. And I have tried to search for psychosis and such in school [in prison], but then the teachers ask why I would seek out such a gloomy subject. It feels a bit complicated to obtain information. Larry

Participants from all three prisons also pointed out the need for more information about mental healthcare in prison:

We have a notice board on the ward (…). The information should be hung there for people to see, that there is a psychologist here, and that you can talk to her. ‘cause I’ve seen little of that sort in here. Liam

One participant underscored that information about available mental health services is particularly important for those with no experience from such services prior to imprisonment:

It [information] must tell you about your opportunities. To normalize it [seeking help] in a way. And the threshold must be low. I think many experience that it is too high. If I hadn’t been in contact with mental health services before I came here, the threshold for seeking help would have been sky high for me as well. Neil

Awareness of mental health issues

Factors in the prison context were fundamental to the participants’ explanations of mental health problems. Many participants attributed the onset or worsening of mental health problems to the shock of imprisonment and to the continuous hardships of prison life. Understanding symptoms as primarily caused by external stressors such as prison hardship may have influenced their appraisals about the need to seek help. As Frank stated:

I’ve always had good mental health. Until I came here, inside these walls. Frank

Frank reported considerable symptoms of post-traumatic stress. Understanding his symptoms as something triggered by the prison living conditions, he did not see how seeking professional help could benefit him. Like many other participants, he insisted that the correctional system needed to change and had lost hope that he could improve his own situation.

In contrast, other participants who attributed their mental health problems to external stressors concluded that they indeed needed help to cope. The suffering they experienced during their first weeks in prison motivated them to seek formal help:

I asked to talk to a psychologist in here. ‘Cause, I felt that I needed to. ‘Cause in the beginning when I came here, it all seemed dark. No matter how hard I tried to do the right thing, there was some sort of dark force that was just pushing on, and the obstacles were piling up. Travis

For some, their main motivation for seeking help was to receive professional validation from healthcare personnel regarding the negative health consequences of their prison experiences. Some also hoped that healthcare professionals could advocate for better living conditions:

And it is good that others [psychologists] can take part in these things. So that it is manifested what prisons actually do to people. Jack

Social influences on help-seeking

Prison culture and mental health stigma.

The participants described how the culture within prison influenced their willingness to talk about mental health issues. The importance of appearing strong and dominant within the prison setting was emphasized by many. According to several participants, the talk at the wards was characterized by attempts to one-up the others’ stories about criminal activities to appear tough. Many also explained that hiding vulnerabilities was critical in the prison community, and some also underlined the potential for victimization for those who were not able to conform to the prison norms:

You are wearing a prison mask. You cannot show weakness. ‘Cause then you’ll soon be a victim, a sitting duck. I have experienced inmates that have, eh mostly stayed in their cells. They have been harassed so badly that they are sitting there crying. The prison milieu can be tough. Neil

Choosing to confide in and seek advice from peers can also have negative consequences. Several of the participants said that it was wise to be careful with who you chose to share mental health related issues with:

Let’s say you talk about your personal feelings, and about your sentence and stuff, right. They can be very nice to you there and then, before they stab you in the back later on, spreading everything you’ve said to destroy you. It is a cynical game. Bobby

Bobby went on to explain that a fellow incarcerated individual could use personal information for harassing, blackmailing and threatening the family of someone who has confided in them, if a conflict should arise. Some of the participants also addressed directly how the prison climate may influence willingness to seek mental health treatment:

They do not want to go to a psychologist and talk. Because then they are seen as weak and not able to cope. Because in prison everyone should be tough. Drug lords and such. But, on the inside they are not like that. Nicky

The role of peers in accessing mental health services

Despite the clear barriers, fellow incarcerated appeared to be an important informal help source for mental health problems. Many of the participants had observed signs of emotional distress among their incarcerated peers and described how they had given them advice and encouragement. According to several participants, those imprisoned also had an essential role in recognizing mental health problems in their peers:

There is no-one who talks to us regularly to check on how we are doing. That’s not a priority here. So, unless some of the inmates take on the role of an officer or a psychologist, then there’s no-one who reports concern (…) There are many inmates who are taking on a role as a social worker, but it’s kinda wrong. They are neither paid for it, nor qualified. They do it because no-one else does. Stuart

Although none of the participants said that they themselves had been prompted to seek help by peers, they told stories of how they had pushed their peers to seek formal help:

A fellow inmate. I could tell he was struggling because he talked to me as the only person. In a way, I was his psychologist. The days when he was down in the dumps, I tried to talk to him (…) And I said, listen up. It’s for your own good. I will write a request form, and we will arrange contact with a psychologist (…) and it will help. Nicky

Experiencing fellow incarcerated people in distress appeared to be common, and participants also explained how they reported to prison officers their concerns about peers with self-harm and suicide plans:

There was a fella’ who told me that he knew exactly how to take his own life (…). “I’ll just do it like this and this and this”. And, uhm. Then he said he was going to do it. And I thought that I would have to report it, and I did. Roy

Roy went on to describe in detail how his reported concern led to a prison officer interrupting the suicide attempt by the fellow incarcerated, thereby saving his life. Several other participants shared similar stories, indicating that peers played a significant role in recognizing and getting help for mental health related problems in prison.

Access to mental healthcare

Self-referral and disempowerment.

In order to access prison healthcare, those imprisoned must write and deliver a paper-based request form. All the participants in this study were aware that this is the way to contact prison healthcare, and most of them knew that the general practitioner working at the prison could refer them to a psychologist or to a psychiatric hospital. Unfortunately, the request form system seemed to amplify the participants’ perceptions of disempowerment. Rather than seeing themselves as agents taking charge of their own situation and health, they were left passively waiting to be contacted after filling out the forms:

You are pacified when you must write a request form to talk to someone. Then you don’t know when they are coming to talk to you. And then it’s like, the problem may be swept under the rug when they finally get to you. Tommy

According to the participants, many of these request forms seemed to disappear, and it could take an exceedingly long time before they got any response to their request:

Many times, when you write a request form it disappears. Nothing happens. Those request forms are worthless most of the time. Keith

There were also several participants who voiced concern over the confidentiality of the request forms even when the forms were delivered in closed envelopes:

We can see for ourselves that they [prison officers] open and read, uhm, confidential information, [lowers his voice] and to put it mildly, uhm, breaches in confidentiality are all too common. It is alarming! Neil

One of the informants also explained that incarcerated persons who had mother tongues other than Norwegian could have problems with understanding and filling out request forms to health, and that forms that were not filled out correctly were of no value. According to Roy and other participants, the correctional system did not give sufficient information and guidance about the request forms:

They might not know how to write, or understand what it [the form] says, you know? Potentially it is severe for that guy, right. It’s garbage! Garbage, that request form. They haven’t received any request from him. Roy

The perceived availability of mental healthcare

The perceptions of accessibility of mental health care varied between the participants. A few of the participants were in active treatment with a psychologist at the time of the interviews, and they had experienced the access as unproblematic. Common for some of these participants was that they had been in treatment before they entered prison:

From sending my request and to receiving an acceptance letter it took one and a half weeks. Less than three weeks later I was in treatment. It was efficient. Much quicker than I’ve ever experienced before. Neil

However, many participants said that they could not access secondary mental health services. There were two notable sub-groups among the participants who perceived that access to specialized psychological treatment was limited. The first group shared stories about living unstructured lives at the edge of society. They seemed to have little confidence in health care and correctional services, and were less hopeful of their own potential of being rehabilitated:

I have tried for several years now, but I didn’t get help. They can say whatever they want about how easy it is to access a psychologist and prison healthcare and everything, but it is not true. Ronny

Two of the participants explained how they would have to take drastic measures such as performing violent acts or acting weird to get help for their mental health problems When Marlon was asked how he could access mental health services he responded:

You would have to either hurt yourself, or someone else, so that they end up in hospital. Marlon

The interviewer asked if it was possible to access mental health services by using less drastic measures, Marlon answered:

Uhm. Naaah. I don’t know. I do not think so. Not from my experience. Marlon

Another sub-group having difficulties accessing mental health services was those in prison for the first time. Most had led more typical lives with stable employment and housing conditions before imprisonment. When they sought mental health services, they were told that these adjustment problems were normal in prison:

I’ve been struggling for several periods here and have said that I wanted to talk to a nurse or a psychologist. And then I was referred to a psychologist. And the psychologist assessed me, and said that: “Nothing’s wrong with you, you are just having a hard time, I cannot help you”. So, you do not get anyone to talk to, unless you- I don’t know what you must have really, but I sure ain’t got it. The nurses say that they haven’t got the time, and the psychologist says that I am not ill. And then I am left to feel bad. In my case, there is no service really. Stuart

Prison officers’ role in mental healthcare and accessing services

Several participants stated that mental health problems and well-being were not high on the prison agenda. Many would have appreciated it if correctional officers on a more regular basis had asked how they were doing and believed that this would have facilitated them to open up and talk about mental health issues.

In my opinion, mental health is forgotten here in a way. Physical activity, movement, workouts, yes. Since I arrived here some months ago, only twice I’ve been asked: “Hi, how are you? Is there something you want to talk about?” Travis

Some also said that they knew people in prison who were unaware of their own need for mental health care or unable to access help, and argued that the correctional system should do more to help these people to access care:

You have the type where people do not get help because they themselves are not able to request help from the prison health services and the prison officers do not see to that they get the help they need. Neil

Some were concerned about how acute health problems were handled in the weekends and evenings when prison health services were unavailable. In these situations, prison officers were left to decide whether or not to contact emergency healthcare services. Several of the participants were not satisfied by this arrangement:

(…) they think that they can make a doctor’s judgement. That they can decide that it is not that important. It is rude. It is trespassing norms. Jack

Some participants told stories of how their peers in prison did not seem to get the help they needed even though it was apparent that they were in a bad state mentally:

I have reported concern about people, before they started cutting themselves and f***ing themselves up. But what worries me, is that even though I voiced my concern to both prison health services and prison officers, no measures were taken. Before it was too late. Stuart

Asking for help from correctional officers could also have consequences. Ronny served at a lower security level. He experienced that his requests to see a psychologist were met by suggestions of transferring him to a higher security level:

I have written request forms: “I need to speak to a psychologist. Immediately”. And then they [the prison officers] are threatening me by saying that they are going to transfer me to a higher security level. They ask if I am going to hurt myself. No, I tell them. I’m not going to hurt myself. I just need to talk to a psychologist. Ronny

Another participant described how he had sometimes cut himself by shards from plates and drinking glass to suppress mental suffering. He explained how he on one occasion used the intercom to notify the officers that they needed to come and pick up a glass that was triggering an urge to self-harm. The participant said that initially a single officer came to his cell to pick up the glass:

A few minutes later there were four officers, and they unlocked the cell door, and there were a lot of questions. I guess they were worried about my mental state, and I said that I appreciated the concern. Then I reminded them that I had asked them to pick up the glass so I would NOT cut myself, so if they were to use that against me, it would be unfair. Tommy

He reassured that the situation had been resolved with the conversation. However, he had the impression that disclosing mental distress to officers could increase the risk for being transferred to a higher security level, or to a security cell.

Enhancing access to services

The perceived advantages of seeking professional help.

There were some commonly experienced benefits of seeking mental healthcare among the participants. Coming off drugs and living under stable conditions in prison provided some participants an opportunity to reflect on their lives and to gather motivation to work on their addiction and mental health problems:

I have been thinking a lot about treatment in an institution. I know how it went the last few times I got out [of prison]. Within half an hour I was sitting there with the needle. And if I don’t do anything before I get out, the same will happen again. I’m trying to prevent it (…) I’ve had treatment for drug and alcohol use before. And back then there was a psychologist who said that, once you’ve been clean for a year, then the brain is back to normal. I can feel it, like, my mindset is already changing . Kurt

For about half of the participants, seeking professional help was related to their motivation for living a law-abiding life after prison. The participants linked substance use to both mental health problems and a criminal lifestyle, and getting treatment was seen as essential for preventing recidivism:

I have lived a rough life, and I have no-one, NO-ONE. How long am I going to live? One doesn’t know. But I’ll be fifty soon. So, I must make it now. I really have to make it now [his voice bursts]. And it depends on many psychological factors. So, I’m choosing to use all the things that I have access to in prison, like treatment for drug addiction. Roy

Although many had previous experience of treatment for their substance use, they still had hopes that treatment could help them. Liam had previously experienced that consultations with a psychologist brought up subjects that was difficult for him to talk about:

I regret that I quit, because it could have done me good. But I guess it got too personal, and it stirred up things. Liam

He also explained that at the time he was more interested in doing drugs than going to therapy. However, he still believed that treatment could help him:

I will probably contact a psychologist, now that I’m about to get treatment for my addictions. It is easier to open up when there are no substances involved. Liam

In summary, seeking professional help for mental health problems was perceived to promote in-prison coping, rehabilitation, and preparation for life outside of prison for most of the participants.

Lowering the bar for accessing mental health services .

Many of the participants expressed skepticism towards ‘the system’. They described how they had been let down and disappointed by the child welfare services, the criminal justice system, and healthcare professionals. Experiences from childhood to adult life had led to a lack of confidence that healthcare personnel and the correctional system and society had their best interest at heart. For them, it was important that healthcare professionals were perceived as genuine and “on their side”:

The experience of being believed and listened to… They do not have to relate, to say that they understand so damn much, ‘cause that’s not really important. Marlon

Several participants said that barriers for talking about mental health were reduced when healthcare personnel reached out in the prison ward. One of the prisoners described two nurses who used to visit the prison wing every day at lunch-hour. He appreciated that it was possible to request a private conversation in the cell, and that he was taken seriously:

They were highly skilled. And they listened. They listened to what you had to say, and they understood you. Tommy

Having previous positive experiences of mental health treatment and knowledge of what to expect from mental health services also seemed to reduce barriers for in-prison help-seeking from some of the participants:

I saw a psychologist on a regular basis, once a week (…). And after six consultations I was past the worst in some sense. I was provided with the tools I needed to cope. Bobby .

This participant had experience with psychological treatment outside of prison and had tried to access mental health services for months in prison. However, he believed his challenges were too mild to get help from a psychologist. He emphasized the need for available low-threshold services for those who suffer from milder mental health problems:

It should be available for everyone who wants it. It should not be embarrassing, it should not be taboo, it should be… A natural part of it, really. Bobby

In addition, when services were provided as standard procedure and a natural part of rehabilitation, they were perceived as less stigmatizing. Nicky described how he was placed on a prison ward that was specialized in substance use treatment:

And when you are placed in that ward, then you are automatically assigned to a psychologist from the substance use clinic, that you can have weekly consultations with. Nicky .

Some also suggested that the systematic screening and assessment of health and social problems also could facilitate access to mental health services and this was suggested as an integral part of healthcare and rehabilitation in prison by some of the participants. Ronny underscored the importance of proper assessment:

What is this person’s problem? Why did he come back? Is there something happening to him on the outside? Could he need help with anything? Maybe someone should ask him? Ronny

Ronny went on describing the nice brochures of the correctional system, with promises of assessment of strengths and needs of individuals, but he claimed that this did not happen in reality. This view was shared by several of the other participants, as they called for more assessment to benefit the mental health and rehabilitation of incarcerated individuals.

Mental health support from different sources

The participants had different preferences regarding where to get help. Support from friends and family was seen as important for most of the participants. However, health professionals could sometimes be preferred over informal or semi-formal sources because of their role in advocating for better living conditions in prison:

I get visits from my family, but I’d like to talk to someone here in prison, so that they could gain awareness of the actual problem. If I’m spitting venom to some random lady that is here as a volunteer with the Red Cross, it’s useless, I think. If I talk to a nurse who works here at this establishment, she could perhaps do something about some of our challenges. Stuart

The cultural competency of health care personnel could also be a key factor in promoting help-seeking and forming a therapeutic alliance with people in prison. Many incarcerated individuals have lived on the edge of society, while most health care personnel, and particularly doctors and psychologists, are from the upper middle class. These cultural differences may form an abyss between the incarcerated individuals and mental healthcare personnel:

A psychologist does not have a criminal record. Now I’m generalizing. But they have performed well in school. Have passed through the system. Highly educated. Their lives have been smooth sailing (…) They have not experienced the shadow side of life. Tommy

This participant had one prior positive experience with a psychologist, but his general impression of psychologists was that they were of no help. He did not feel a connection with any of the others and had written them off completely. He preferred talking to a representative from a user organization who have led a similar life to himself:

I know that they know exactly how I’m feeling. They have served a prison sentence. And they… They have lived experience, and then it’s much easier to listen to what they have to say, because I know it’s not knowledge that they have acquired through reading. Tommy

Prison officers can also be of help to incarcerated people who experience mental health problems. Nicky said that while he was at a lower security level, he had been to a sports event outside prison with an officer and some fellow incarcerated. He had a panic attack because of all the people who kept arriving at the venue and he had to go outside for some fresh air. The prison officer followed him and was understanding, and told Nicky that he had seen many incarcerated people with similar reactions:

He was understanding and said: It will be OK. After that day at the match, coincidently, he ended up being my primary contact officer. And to socialize me back to society he fixed it so that every weekend he was working we could go to a shopping mall, to try. Little by little, by little. (…) It helped. It did. Yes. Nicky

Although Nicky had no plan to seek help for his anxiety symptoms, he appreciated the support he received from his primary contact officer.

Bobby, on the other hand, had some informal support from fellow incarcerated and had also talked with a priest. He said that he often ruminated when he had time alone in his cell and emphasized his need for sharing his thoughts with others and receiving advice. He explained why he preferred to get help from formal sources:

So, to have someone who is an outsider. Who’s not an inmate. Who has got a sensible outlook on life, that can guide you– I think that’s important. (…) Because when you talk to a fellow inmate, then… It can go in the opposite direction, right. Because many have been through major crises, they have lost friends, they have lost family, maybe they have lost their girlfriend and wife, their children won’t speak to them, right? Bobby

Most participants also held the prison priests in high regard and appreciated the availability of the service. However, talking with a priest was not seen as a replacement for a consultation with a psychologist:

It was peculiar, when I asked for someone to talk with, the priest was offered first. For me it is alright, I go to church. But I’m thinking, if someone is not a Christian. I’m like: a priest? Or if you’re not religious. A session with the priest is more like a consultation towards God and his will. He can be a good listener [the priest], but you might not get the help you need in a mental sense. So, a psychologist, a “talking person” in prison is necessary. That could check on you sometimes.

This study’s findings demonstrate that many of the factors deciding access to mental healthcare are firmly rooted at the organizational level of the correctional and healthcare systems. Prisons in the Scandinavian countries, including Norway, are presumptuously humane compared to harsher correctional settings in other parts of the world. One could assume that these favorable conditions would be more conducive to mental healthcare access. However, the systemic barriers we found largely overlapped with challenges reported in other countries [ 42 , 43 , 44 ]. In addition, we found that individual beliefs, attitudes and aspirations also influence willingness to seek mental healthcare. Interestingly, most of these intrapersonal factors are tightly interwoven with the participant’s appraisals of how the prison conditions influence their mental health. This study also addresses an important knowledge gap in the literature, namely how restrictions on access to mental health information could influence mental health help-seeking for people in prison. The identified core category, “Breaking down barriers”, reflects an overarching focus on solutions to improving mental healthcare access based on the experiences of the participants in this study.

Access to health information

Knowledge of available services and how to access them is a prerequisite for mental health help-seeking [ 80 ]. The participants in our study claimed that information about mental health services was unsatisfactory, and lack of such information has also been noted as a barrier to help-seeking in other prison-based studies [ 44 ]. Moreover, sufficient levels of mental health literacy are positively associated with increased intentions for help-seeking from both informal and formal sources [ 81 ]. The participants in our study reported severely restricted access to their preferred sources of health information and a dependency on others to obtain such information. Since information seeking may occur before individuals are ready to share their health concerns with others, having to rely on others for accessing information is a potential barrier for recognizing mental health problems [ 25 ]. Thus, it is likely that the limited access to mental health information negatively impacts incarcerated persons capacity to manage their own mental health needs. The potential consequences of restrictions on access to health information among people in prison need more research attention. However, findings from other populations suggest that closing the apparent health information gap could be an important intervention for improving help-seeking for mental health problems [ 82 , 83 ].

The social influences on accessing mental healthcare

The participants reported that prison culture reduced their willingness to seek support from fellow incarcerated and the use of professional help for mental health problems. The TBP element “subjective norms” posits that beliefs about the opinions of others may influence the willingness to seek help [ 29 ]. Attributing mental health problems to personal weakness may reflect a stereotyped attitude involved in stigmatizing mental disorders [ 84 ]. Stigma may lead to concerns about what others might think if one were to seek help, and may delay or hinder help-seeking efforts [ 80 , 85 ]. It also seemed to be an important constraint to mental healthcare access in our study. This corresponds with findings from other studies [ 45 , 46 , 47 ] and suggests that fear of appearing weak is also a significant barrier to help-seeking in a Scandinavian prison context. Based on our findings and recommendations, we advise that focus on health education and normalization of mental health problems are measures that could decrease stigma [ 86 ], and increase willingness to seek mental health support and treatment among people in prison.

Although the culture among those incarcerated was perceived to discourage seeking support for mental health problems, fellow incarcerated also played a key role in supporting those who experienced mental health problems. They were more available than other help sources and had lived experience with distress related to imprisonment. Since information about available services was insufficient, fellow incarcerated were also perceived as an important source of information. Thus, naturally occurring peer support seemed to normalize mental health problems, possibly reducing stigma and lowering the threshold for mental health help-seeking. From the literature, we know that peer-based health interventions is effective in correctional settings [ 87 ], and formalizing peer-based health information and support could be beneficial in interventions aiming to increase the use of mental health services.

Beliefs and motivations for help-seeking

The prison environment was embedded in the participants’ beliefs: attributing the onset and worsening of mental health problems to the prison conditions was common among the participants. According to the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), attitudes about the potential benefits of help-seeking and alignment with individual goals affect the readiness and willingness to seek professional help [ 29 ]. Our data supported this notion. Some participants abstained from seeking professional help as they did not see how it might benefit them in their goal of improving their living conditions. For others, a prominent motive for seeking professional help was to receive validation and help managing their challenging life situations and the everyday stressors of prison life. A few participants also framed mental health help-seeking as a mission to document the consequences of imprisonment. By sharing their experiences with professionals, they hoped healthcare personnel could help them advocate for better conditions in prison. Obtaining sufficient knowledge about essential aspects of prison life is essential for health professionals working in a prison setting [ 88 ]. Based on our findings we propose that the ability of healthcare staff to communicate their understanding of the influence of prison living conditions on mental health is crucial for gaining trust and building an alliance with their incarcerated patients.

Another important motivator for many participants seeking help was their aspirations to live a law-abiding life after being released. It has been increasingly recognized that the relationship between mental disorders and criminal activity is complex and that integrated treatment that addresses both criminogenic factors (i.e. antisocial attitudes and behavior, substance use, criminal network, family issues and low educational/vocational engagement) and mental health issues is a must to prevent recidivism [ 89 ]. This view corresponds with the beliefs and preferences for rehabilitation and healthcare of several participants in our study. They were worried about their reintegration into society, which motivated them to seek professional help. Substance use treatment, in particular, was seen as essential to attaining rehabilitative goals. However, some participants who had served multiple sentences were less positive towards help-seeking. They had more negative experiences and seemed less hopeful that mental healthcare could improve their situation. Their low expectations for potential gain combined with a perceived lack of personal control in the help-seeking process, appeared to stall help-seeking for these participants. We suggest that implementing health services with a concurrent focus on addressing both criminogenic needs and mental disorders could be especially important for fostering healthcare utilization for people with a history of reoffending.

Organizational barriers to accessing mental healthcare

The perceived challenges with the paper-based request system were considered a significant barrier to healthcare access. TPB postulates that behavioral control and self-efficacy are important in help-seeking [ 29 ]. In a system where autonomy is limited, one could assume that a self-referral system can be empowering for those seeking help. However, the participants seemed to experience the opposite as they were left passively waiting for an answer to their request. Some also expressed confidentiality concerns, as they believed that prison officers read the request notes. Thus, the process of accessing health services seemed to diminish, rather than enhance their notions of control and self-efficacy. Improving the reliability of responses to requests and ensuring confidentiality could increase the experience of control in the self-referral process and may also empower imprisoned persons to seek help.

A barrier rooted in the interactions between the individual and the helping services was found in various expressions of skepticism towards “the system” by many participants. Earlier studies have also reported distrust in the system as a barrier to help-seeking [ 41 , 44 ]. Our results elaborate on these findings as the participants spoke of how suicides and severe self-harm by fellow incarcerated people contributed to diminished faith in the system. Some had voiced concern over the health and welfare of peers and had experienced that they were not listened to by the prison officers. According to the participants, many of their fellow incarcerated people had more severe symptoms of mental health problems and did not seem to have access to the help they needed. This confirmed their beliefs that the system took little interest in their mental health, and for some of them this led to a growing feeling of hopelessness and resentment. In addition, the high prevalence of mental disorders in prison implies that incarcerated persons witness people in severe distress regularly and for prolonged periods. This issue is largely unexplored and unrecognized in prison research, and the impact of these experiences on mental well-being and recovery should be investigated further.

Participants who experienced mental distress and adjustment problems had difficulties in accessing mental health services. They needed someone to talk to about their situation that could give them advice on how to cope, however they did not fulfil the criteria for secondary mental health services. Minor mental health problems in Norwegian prisons are to be handled by the prison healthcare services. However, according to the participants their capacity is very limited. This finding corresponds to other studies [ 90 ] documenting that access to integrated mental health services was limited for those with milder mental health problems. In the community, the establishment of low threshold services for people with mental health problems has been an important commitment as early intervention can prevent the development of more serious conditions. This may be even more important for those imprisoned, since coping strategies such as physical activity and seeking social support are less accessible [ 91 ].

Prison officer’s influence on access to mental healthcare

Prison officers were perceived to have a key role as gatekeepers to healthcare. Officers can facilitate access to healthcare by encouraging help-seeking or directly contacting healthcare services based on observations and conversations with incarcerated individuals [ 39 , 41 , 92 ]. The participants in our study pointed out the need for prison officers to take their health concerns more seriously, and that the threshold for contacting healthcare services by their request was too high. In addition, being asked directly about their psychological state by staff members was seen to ease talks about mental health by the participants. Our results support the notion that prison officers that are responsive to the mental healthcare needs of incarcerated persons could build confidence that these needs would be attended to when required [ 92 ]. Thus, ensuring sufficient mental health knowledge and awareness among prison officers of their role in mental healthcare access is an essential task for correctional systems.

Previous studies have found that the correctional systems´ procedures for managing suicidal risk is a potential obstacle for help-seeking. The fear of being moved or placed in a safety cell without personal belongings was identified as a barrier to disclosing suicidal thoughts [ 39 , 93 ]. In Norway, the risk of self-harm and suicide is ideally handled by increasing social contact, activities, monitoring and healthcare. However, in the face of acute mental crisis and severe suicide risk, placing persons in solitary confinement is not an uncommon practice [ 94 ]. Challenges with having incarcerated persons admitted and treated in specialized health care institutions, understaffing, and a lack of central guidelines for handling suicide risk may contribute to the use of solitary confinement for incarcerated persons in acute mental distress in the Norwegian correctional system [ 94 ]. The Norwegian Parliamentary Ombudsman reports that fear of solitary confinement and being placed in a security cell is a barrier to seeking help for suicidal ideations and plans [ 95 ]. In our study, participants who had asked for help when they were in acute distress experienced that the officers assumed that they intended to harm themselves. They were faced with the potential of being transferred to a higher security level or being placed in solitary confinement. Thus, how prison officers respond to incarcerated persons’ reports of acute mental distress could be of critical importance for their willingness to seek help for mental health issues in the future. However, more research on the perceived and actual consequences of disclosing mental distress and suicidal ideations in prison is needed to inform interventions to promote help-seeking.

Enhancing access to mental healthcare in prison

The participants underscore some conditions that may lower the bar mental healthcare utilization. Earlier positive experiences with mental healthcare in the community was mentioned by participants as important for their willingness to seek such services in prison, which also corresponds with findings in earlier studies [ 42 , 96 ]. In addition, the participants saw mental health services that were outreaching and integrated as positive. A few participants also highlighted mental health screening at reception to discover mental disorders that may need intervention. Screening at intake, and outreaching and integrated services are also recommended in the prison research literature [ 88 ]. Our findings show that these recommended measures may also make intuitive sense to incarcerated persons - common for all of them are that they seem to reduce stigma related to utilizing mental healthcare.

Our results indicate that incarcerated persons with both milder and more severe mental disorders experience barriers to accessing mental healthcare. These results are in line with studies from other correctional settings reporting unmet needs due to challenges with access and delivery of mental healthcare [ 37 , 38 , 39 ]. The underutilization of mental health services by incarcerated persons suggests that the ‘degree of fit’ between their needs and the available mental healthcare requires improvement. The World Health Organization (WHO) advocates for correctional systems with health and well-being as an integrated part of their core business and culture [ 33 ]. Along these lines, we found that participants called for a correctional system with mental health higher on the agenda. Some also preferred to seek help for mental health problems from other sources than mental health professionals. This finding supports the recommendation of the WHO that it is important to build mental health competency in all staff members in contact with those imprisoned. As many of the barriers to mental healthcare utilization are rooted in the wider correctional setting, we also suggest that the correctional and healthcare systems, in collaboration, should review their practices to enhance perceived efficacy in accessing healthcare.

Limitations

The data in this study are based on interviews with fifteen participants from three prisons. The participants were self-selected and may have had more knowledge, interest, and willingness to talk about mental health issues than the average person in prison. We cannot claim that the results represent a complete account of access to mental healthcare and help-seeking among incarcerated persons in Norway. However, our findings were consistent with findings from other studies from Norway and correctional settings in some other countries. We have presented details about the participants, method, data, and context to allow others to consider the potential transferability of the results. We hope our findings encourage further research on access to mental healthcare for people in prison.

Mental healthcare that is outreaching and integrated is perceived to facilitate access and decrease stigma. The correctional system should address access to health information, the referral system, and their responses to incarcerated persons who disclose distress to facilitate access to healthcare. Our results also indicate that mental healthcare extends beyond the scope of health services, suggesting that sufficient mental health knowledge and agency is needed at all levels of the correctional system.

Data availability

The data produced in the course of this research is not openly accessible owing to considerations regarding privacy. However, they can be obtained from the corresponding author upon a reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Theory of planned behavior

Mental health literacy

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank the study participants and the correctional facilities for their cooperation.

Open access funding provided by UiT The Arctic University of Norway (incl University Hospital of North Norway). The study was supported by a grant from the North Norway Regional Health Authority (Helse Nord RHF). The funding body had no role in study design, data collection, analysis, or writing of the manuscript. The study was supported by the Publication Fund of UiT The Arctic University of Norway.

Open access funding provided by UiT The Arctic University of Norway (incl University Hospital of North Norway)

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All authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. LES conducted the interviews and their transcription. All authors analyzed the data. LES drafted the manuscript. All authors participated in revising the manuscript and approved the final version.

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Solbakken, L.E., Bergvik, S. & Wynn, R. Breaking down barriers to mental healthcare access in prison: a qualitative interview study with incarcerated males in Norway. BMC Psychiatry 24 , 292 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05736-w

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05736-w

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What the data says about crime in the U.S.

A growing share of Americans say reducing crime should be a top priority for the president and Congress to address this year. Around six-in-ten U.S. adults (58%) hold that view today, up from 47% at the beginning of Joe Biden’s presidency in 2021.

We conducted this analysis to learn more about U.S. crime patterns and how those patterns have changed over time.

The analysis relies on statistics published by the FBI, which we accessed through the Crime Data Explorer , and the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), which we accessed through the  National Crime Victimization Survey data analysis tool .

To measure public attitudes about crime in the U.S., we relied on survey data from Pew Research Center and Gallup.

Additional details about each data source, including survey methodologies, are available by following the links in the text of this analysis.

With the issue likely to come up in this year’s presidential election, here’s what we know about crime in the United States, based on the latest available data from the federal government and other sources.

How much crime is there in the U.S.?

It’s difficult to say for certain. The  two primary sources of government crime statistics  – the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) – paint an incomplete picture.

The FBI publishes  annual data  on crimes that have been reported to law enforcement, but not crimes that haven’t been reported. Historically, the FBI has also only published statistics about a handful of specific violent and property crimes, but not many other types of crime, such as drug crime. And while the FBI’s data is based on information from thousands of federal, state, county, city and other police departments, not all law enforcement agencies participate every year. In 2022, the most recent full year with available statistics, the FBI received data from 83% of participating agencies .

BJS, for its part, tracks crime by fielding a  large annual survey of Americans ages 12 and older and asking them whether they were the victim of certain types of crime in the past six months. One advantage of this approach is that it captures both reported and unreported crimes. But the BJS survey has limitations of its own. Like the FBI, it focuses mainly on a handful of violent and property crimes. And since the BJS data is based on after-the-fact interviews with crime victims, it cannot provide information about one especially high-profile type of offense: murder.

All those caveats aside, looking at the FBI and BJS statistics side-by-side  does  give researchers a good picture of U.S. violent and property crime rates and how they have changed over time. In addition, the FBI is transitioning to a new data collection system – known as the National Incident-Based Reporting System – that eventually will provide national information on a much larger set of crimes , as well as details such as the time and place they occur and the types of weapons involved, if applicable.

Which kinds of crime are most and least common?

Property crime in the U.S. is much more common than violent crime. In 2022, the FBI reported a total of 1,954.4 property crimes per 100,000 people, compared with 380.7 violent crimes per 100,000 people.  

By far the most common form of property crime in 2022 was larceny/theft, followed by motor vehicle theft and burglary. Among violent crimes, aggravated assault was the most common offense, followed by robbery, rape, and murder/nonnegligent manslaughter.

BJS tracks a slightly different set of offenses from the FBI, but it finds the same overall patterns, with theft the most common form of property crime in 2022 and assault the most common form of violent crime.

How have crime rates in the U.S. changed over time?

Both the FBI and BJS data show dramatic declines in U.S. violent and property crime rates since the early 1990s, when crime spiked across much of the nation.

Using the FBI data, the violent crime rate fell 49% between 1993 and 2022, with large decreases in the rates of robbery (-74%), aggravated assault (-39%) and murder/nonnegligent manslaughter (-34%). It’s not possible to calculate the change in the rape rate during this period because the FBI  revised its definition of the offense in 2013 .

The FBI data also shows a 59% reduction in the U.S. property crime rate between 1993 and 2022, with big declines in the rates of burglary (-75%), larceny/theft (-54%) and motor vehicle theft (-53%).

Using the BJS statistics, the declines in the violent and property crime rates are even steeper than those captured in the FBI data. Per BJS, the U.S. violent and property crime rates each fell 71% between 1993 and 2022.

While crime rates have fallen sharply over the long term, the decline hasn’t always been steady. There have been notable increases in certain kinds of crime in some years, including recently.

In 2020, for example, the U.S. murder rate saw its largest single-year increase on record – and by 2022, it remained considerably higher than before the coronavirus pandemic. Preliminary data for 2023, however, suggests that the murder rate fell substantially last year .

How do Americans perceive crime in their country?

Americans tend to believe crime is up, even when official data shows it is down.

In 23 of 27 Gallup surveys conducted since 1993 , at least 60% of U.S. adults have said there is more crime nationally than there was the year before, despite the downward trend in crime rates during most of that period.

While perceptions of rising crime at the national level are common, fewer Americans believe crime is up in their own communities. In every Gallup crime survey since the 1990s, Americans have been much less likely to say crime is up in their area than to say the same about crime nationally.

Public attitudes about crime differ widely by Americans’ party affiliation, race and ethnicity, and other factors . For example, Republicans and Republican-leaning independents are much more likely than Democrats and Democratic leaners to say reducing crime should be a top priority for the president and Congress this year (68% vs. 47%), according to a recent Pew Research Center survey.

How does crime in the U.S. differ by demographic characteristics?

Some groups of Americans are more likely than others to be victims of crime. In the  2022 BJS survey , for example, younger people and those with lower incomes were far more likely to report being the victim of a violent crime than older and higher-income people.

There were no major differences in violent crime victimization rates between male and female respondents or between those who identified as White, Black or Hispanic. But the victimization rate among Asian Americans (a category that includes Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders) was substantially lower than among other racial and ethnic groups.

The same BJS survey asks victims about the demographic characteristics of the offenders in the incidents they experienced.

In 2022, those who are male, younger people and those who are Black accounted for considerably larger shares of perceived offenders in violent incidents than their respective shares of the U.S. population. Men, for instance, accounted for 79% of perceived offenders in violent incidents, compared with 49% of the nation’s 12-and-older population that year. Black Americans accounted for 25% of perceived offenders in violent incidents, about twice their share of the 12-and-older population (12%).

As with all surveys, however, there are several potential sources of error, including the possibility that crime victims’ perceptions about offenders are incorrect.

How does crime in the U.S. differ geographically?

There are big geographic differences in violent and property crime rates.

For example, in 2022, there were more than 700 violent crimes per 100,000 residents in New Mexico and Alaska. That compares with fewer than 200 per 100,000 people in Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire and Maine, according to the FBI.

The FBI notes that various factors might influence an area’s crime rate, including its population density and economic conditions.

What percentage of crimes are reported to police? What percentage are solved?

Most violent and property crimes in the U.S. are not reported to police, and most of the crimes that  are  reported are not solved.

In its annual survey, BJS asks crime victims whether they reported their crime to police. It found that in 2022, only 41.5% of violent crimes and 31.8% of household property crimes were reported to authorities. BJS notes that there are many reasons why crime might not be reported, including fear of reprisal or of “getting the offender in trouble,” a feeling that police “would not or could not do anything to help,” or a belief that the crime is “a personal issue or too trivial to report.”

Most of the crimes that are reported to police, meanwhile,  are not solved , at least based on an FBI measure known as the clearance rate . That’s the share of cases each year that are closed, or “cleared,” through the arrest, charging and referral of a suspect for prosecution, or due to “exceptional” circumstances such as the death of a suspect or a victim’s refusal to cooperate with a prosecution. In 2022, police nationwide cleared 36.7% of violent crimes that were reported to them and 12.1% of the property crimes that came to their attention.

Which crimes are most likely to be reported to police? Which are most likely to be solved?

Around eight-in-ten motor vehicle thefts (80.9%) were reported to police in 2022, making them by far the most commonly reported property crime tracked by BJS. Household burglaries and trespassing offenses were reported to police at much lower rates (44.9% and 41.2%, respectively), while personal theft/larceny and other types of theft were only reported around a quarter of the time.

Among violent crimes – excluding homicide, which BJS doesn’t track – robbery was the most likely to be reported to law enforcement in 2022 (64.0%). It was followed by aggravated assault (49.9%), simple assault (36.8%) and rape/sexual assault (21.4%).

The list of crimes  cleared  by police in 2022 looks different from the list of crimes reported. Law enforcement officers were generally much more likely to solve violent crimes than property crimes, according to the FBI.

The most frequently solved violent crime tends to be homicide. Police cleared around half of murders and nonnegligent manslaughters (52.3%) in 2022. The clearance rates were lower for aggravated assault (41.4%), rape (26.1%) and robbery (23.2%).

When it comes to property crime, law enforcement agencies cleared 13.0% of burglaries, 12.4% of larcenies/thefts and 9.3% of motor vehicle thefts in 2022.

Are police solving more or fewer crimes than they used to?

Nationwide clearance rates for both violent and property crime are at their lowest levels since at least 1993, the FBI data shows.

Police cleared a little over a third (36.7%) of the violent crimes that came to their attention in 2022, down from nearly half (48.1%) as recently as 2013. During the same period, there were decreases for each of the four types of violent crime the FBI tracks:

• Police cleared 52.3% of reported murders and nonnegligent homicides in 2022, down from 64.1% in 2013.
• They cleared 41.4% of aggravated assaults, down from 57.7%.
• They cleared 26.1% of rapes, down from 40.6%.
• They cleared 23.2% of robberies, down from 29.4%.

The pattern is less pronounced for property crime. Overall, law enforcement agencies cleared 12.1% of reported property crimes in 2022, down from 19.7% in 2013. The clearance rate for burglary didn’t change much, but it fell for larceny/theft (to 12.4% in 2022 from 22.4% in 2013) and motor vehicle theft (to 9.3% from 14.2%).

Note: This is an update of a post originally published on Nov. 20, 2020.

• Criminal Justice

John Gramlich is an associate director at Pew Research Center

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