write an article on vocational education

Essay on Vocational Education for Students and Children

500 words essay on vocational education.

It refers to a skill-based program that enables students to obtain knowledge, training, and practical skills of a specific trade. It is often referred to as technical or career education as it helps students develop skills in a particular discipline. In addition, they focus more on application-based training rather than theoretical knowledge.

Besides, diverse job functions from various sectors such as food and beverages, computer network cosmetology, banking and finance, tourism, skilled trades, and healthcare, etc. include vocational training.

Source: NIOS

Benefits of Vocational Training

The vocational training has many benefits not only for an individual but also for the nation. Furthermore, some benefits of vocational training are:

Job-ready – This training makes a person job-ready and students can directly get a job after completing their studies. In addition, it provides students the required set of skills and training for various jobs such as fashion designers, computer networking, interior designing and many more. Also, it makes the person skilled and ready for the job of their respective fields.

Low Education Cost – The fees of these courses are quite economic and anyone can easily afford to pay for them. Moreover, they are an easy alternative for those students who do not want to opt for a 3-year degree course. Many of these vocational courses are as good as degree courses and offer employment quickly. Besides, they are best for those students who cannot afford the cost of the degree course.

Career advancement – They are also the best alternative for those people who have a job and want to acquire new skills. Also, the duration of these courses is quite less compared to the degree courses but the set of skills taught is quite useful and important.

Besides, it is quite effective for a professional to improve the prospect of their career. In addition, dropouts and students who are less interested in academic studies can choose from a range of diverse courses in their field of interest.

Economic Development – The demand for skilled professionals in the various sector is growing day by day in the world. In addition, the existence of skilled manpower is beneficial to society as well as the economy of developing nations. With this, the need for importing manpower from other nation is also reduced.

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Growing Need for Vocational Education

The development of nations requires skilled manpower and vocational education prepares them for the job. Also, the demand for skilled labor has increased manifold in both the business and government sectors. Furthermore, over the year the vocational education has diversified immensely.

Moreover, vocational courses come as a surprise package as students get the opportunity to enhance and get trained to improve their natural talents and skills. Besides, they become highly successful in their field and fetch good packages.

In conclusion, the students who complete these courses are better at a job than those who only receive an academic education. Also, it is an asset of the country that helps the economy to develop and grow. In addition, there is a high demand for these skilled people in both the government and the business sector. Above all, it benefits students, society, nation, and employers.

FAQs about Essay on Vocational Education

Q.1 How vocational education is different from traditional education? A.1 In traditional education the main emphasis is on teaching and learning of theoretical materials. But vocational education emphasizes on learning and teaching of practical knowledge. Also, vocational education makes the person job-ready.

Q.2 Who is the father of vocational education? A.2 Charles Allen Prosser is known as the father of vocational education. His aim was to improve the education system of the country which later reforms the world.

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Benefits of Vocational Education

The benefits of vocational education: how it can shape your career.

When applying for a job online, you may have come across the requirement stating, ‘We need someone with 10 years of experience.’ Do you find this strange? That is the characteristic most organizations seek in job candidates. Increasing competition has resulted in businesses and organizations seeking candidates who already possess the knowledge and skills required when joining, thus saving a significant amount of training time. However, how is this possible?

Your chances of success can be improved with vocational education. A vocational education and skills training program is aimed at preparing students for a specific career path. Through this program, students are provided with essential skills necessary for their future employment. Training is usually provided through classroom instruction, practical training, and on-the-job experience.

What is Vocational Education?

First, let's understand what vocational education is all about. The vocational education and skills training programs are designed to prepare individuals for a specific job or career. Through this course, students can gain essential skills (or vocational skills) needed for future employment as well as general knowledge similar to what is learned in high school.

Alternatively, it can be referred to as career and technical education (CTE) or technical and vocational education and training (TVET). Students are prepared in various spheres of life for specific jobs, careers, and trades. There are a number of practical activities involved. This type of education is sometimes termed technical education, as trainees directly develop skills using a specific set of techniques. Apprenticeships are one of the oldest systems of learning in vocational education.

Developing Vocational Skills is Important

In the current labor market, a gap exists between available jobs and potential employees. The shortage of in-demand skills has led experts to conclude that most employees will not be able to meet these requirements. It goes without saying that vocational education is an important part of the job market.

There is constant change and evolution in the global economy. To stay relevant in our careers, we need to continually learn about a variety of topics.

As a result, vocational education programs are in high demand to help individuals develop their technical skills and build their knowledge base so they can easily get hired by companies that seek skilled individuals. It is important for a vocational education institute to appear credible.

Potential learners would be likely to enroll based on their success rate, well-designed website, and a vocational school logo that is professional and trustworthy.

There are several benefits to attending a vocational school. By learning and indulging in a specific trade, students can embark on an enlightening career path. Once students understand the importance of vocational education, they will find that this type of instruction offers unparalleled benefits. Some of these are mentioned below:

Practical Skills are The Focus

Vocational education training emphasizes "learning by doing". It is more important to focus on learning through practice rather than theory. Vocational schools devote a greater amount of time to training students in work-related skills. As part of their studies, students will acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to practice their chosen profession competently.

This form of learning provides an opportunity for students to gain work experience during their course rather than as something they must pursue outside of the classroom through internships or part-time employment. In addition to gaining practical experience in their field of study, graduates can get a head start on their careers once they begin working full-time.

Providing Students with a Global Education

Students attending vocational schools come from diverse backgrounds and life experiences. The course environment allows students to interact with other students of different races, ethnicities, and cultures. Globally, students attend classes from various nations and work in the hospitality industry throughout the world.

Globalization continues to grow every year. Due to the Internet, companies and customers can communicate instantly, reducing the gap between individuals from diverse backgrounds. Tourism and travel allow people to become familiar with different cultures and locations around the world. Every year, more individuals take advantage of these opportunities.

Students who receive an education that allows them to interact with such a diverse group of people will benefit in their careers. In addition to cross-cultural experience, students graduate with the insight needed to succeed in jobs overseas, including communication skills and a better understanding of different cultures. To put it another way, their organizations benefit from them in a globalized environment.

Flexible Class Schedules

The traditional university system is designed to accommodate recent high school graduates who are currently completing all their educational requirements before entering the workforce. The majority of them have fewer courses available in the evenings for students working a 9-5.

Due to the wide range of students they serve, vocational training schools offer more diverse options. Programs usually offer flexible schedules so students can attend while working or taking care of their families. Some programs also offer online programs that can be completed whenever the student has the time.

Bringing Passions to Life

The reason individuals choose vocational training is to follow their passions or jobs that interest them primarily. One can observe, as soon as they enter a vocational school, that they spend substantial amounts of time and energy pursuing something they are passionate about. Consequently, students benefit from an environment that is conducive to learning.

Provide Hands-on Experience

University education traditionally emphasizes theoretical knowledge rather than hands-on training and practical experience. For certain occupations, such as engineering, that type of knowledge is extremely valuable. While many people enroll in university programs, they primarily acquire background knowledge. Thus, as their careers progress, they will have to learn on the job.

Unlike traditional schools of education, vocational training schools emphasize both theoretical knowledge and practical skills. Thus, whether your employment is in information technology, holistic healthcare, or another industry, you are likely to be better prepared than someone whose degree emphasizes theoretical knowledge.

Providing More Direct Training

Students who attend a traditional four-year university do not have the opportunity to study their chosen field for four years. Generally speaking, universities emphasize the liberal arts to provide students with a well-rounded education.

It is unfortunate that in order to meet your credit requirements, you are required to take silly and sometimes unnecessary courses like ceramics and frisbee golf.

A vocational school specializes in training you for your particular profession, so you learn the skills that you will need on a daily basis in your career.

Programs That Are Adaptable

A vocational program is designed to support non-conventional students who have other responsibilities on top of their studies. With options such as online courses , evening classes, and night weekends, this alternative is particularly useful for those who work full-time but are trying to develop new career skills.

Finding a Job is Easier for Students

Students who complete a vocational program have specific training and practical experience in their particular fields. They know their prospective employer knows they have specialized training and experience in the area so that they can start the job right away.

There are many professional opportunities available to students as a result of this. It is no longer necessary for them to worry about applying for jobs with no specific work experience in their chosen field, without which they might not be considered for the position. The education students receive is designed to allow them to jump right into a position without the need for training and to prepare them for success in the workplace significantly faster than those who have attended traditional academic institutions.

Faster School Completion is Often Possible for Students

As vocational programs are oriented specifically towards career choice, students finish them faster than other programs. For example, U.S. Career Institute's Online HVAC School and Online Electrician School can be completed in as little as four to six months!

As a result of spending less time in school, students have the opportunity to transition from spending money on training and learning to making money in their careers more quickly, yielding a net benefit to themselves financially.

The purpose of education extends beyond ranks, grades, and numbers. We can mold and shape ourselves to create a better future with the help of this powerful weapon. Let's break stigmas and embrace alternative teaching methods that focus less on theory and rote learning. Children should be liberated and allowed to decide what they feel best suits them.

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The pros and cons of Vocational Education Training

November 23, 2023 •

7 min reading

Students interested in pursuing higher education encounter the choice between broader, liberal arts- educational options and vocational training. The academic vs. vocational debate affects many students preparing for their careers.

While both options offer excellent education and prepare students for their jobs, each offers a slightly different approach to learning and coursework. Students interested in pursuing a specific type of trade, such as working within the hospitality industry, will find that vocational schools can present several advantages and open many doors to success.

Advantages of vocational education training

Pursuing a vocational education has its advantages. By learning and focussing on a specific trade, students have the opportunity to immerse themselves in the trade allowing them to build an exciting career in a new field. As students recognize the value of vocational education training, they will find unparalleled advantages to this type of schooling.

The focus on practical skills

"Learning by Doing" is the core of Vocational Education Training. Practical learning more than theoretical learning is the priority. Students in vocational schools spend significantly more time practicing tangible skills that they will need and can apply to the workplace. The focus of their studies is on acquiring knowledge and competencies that they need to work proficiently in their chosen field.

With this style of learning, work experience becomes an actual part of the course itself, rather than something to be pursued outside of course time through internships or low-level jobs. Students have the opportunity to graduate with practical experience in their chosen field, which helps them hit the ground running once they begin their full-time job.

They are more prepared to begin their jobs immediately.

An education that prepares students for the global stage

Vocational schools attract students with a variety of different life experiences. Students have the chance to attend courses and work closely with classmates from different ethnic, cultural, and economic backgrounds. Students come from a variety of different countries to attend classes together and then go on to work in hospitality businesses around the world.

The world becomes increasingly globalized with each passing year. The internet connects businesses and customers instantaneously, which helps break down barriers between people of different backgrounds. Travel and tourism provide people with the opportunities to explore different cultures and locations. More people take advantage of these possibilities with each passing year.

With an education that allows students to work closely with such a diverse group of people, it becomes easy to see how these educational opportunities benefit professionals. Students graduate with intimate experience of working cross-culturally, a better understanding of communicating with people from different backgrounds, and the insight they need to thrive in jobs worldwide. In other words, they become assets to their organizations in the globalized world.

Building better relationships with classmates and professors

The schooling experience differs when it comes to the vocational education experience. Students spend significantly more time in their physical classes and less time working on outside projects. In a traditional classroom, students might spend only a few hours a week in their classes as they need time to work on their research papers. Whereas in a vocational school, they spend many hours working intensely on the practical skills and subject matter they learn in the course.

This results in an environment where classmates and professors build better and deeper relationships. Students work together closely with their classmates and form relationships with their professors as they move through the program. Working with people in a collaborative manner is a highly underrated skill. It is something that one has to be able to ace for the rest of their professional lives . Vocational education and training provides students with the opportunity to actively engage with their classmates, professors and get first-hand experience of working in groups.

Students also have immersive classes because they might need access to specialized equipment or environments to learn and practice their newfound skills. This further gives them hands-on experience in the field and ensures they will be prepared for the first day on the job.

Students' hours in a vocational setting closely imitate the typical work hours in the field, making the transition from a student to a professional even smoother.

Awakening passions

Students in vocational jobs enter their career paths because they have the chance to pursue their passion or a career that interests them. When they get to the vocational school, one can notice that the significant hours spent every week pursuing something they want to devote their time and energy to.. This promotes an excellent learning environment for students.

Adaptable Programs

Vocational Courses are intended to support non-conventional students who wish to study while balancing other obligations. Options such as online learning, evening, night weekend make this alternative beneficial for those trying to develop new career expertise while working full-time.

Economic benefits of vocational education

Students entering vocational programs also experience various economic benefits by choosing this educational path. Here are a few of the most common ones we see.

They often have an easier time finding a job

When students graduate from a vocational program, they have work experience and specific training for their exact field. In other words, their prospective employer knows that this candidate has gone through specialized learning, practice in the field and is prepared to start in the new position right away with minimal training.

Students find that this can open many professional avenues. They do not have to worry about applying for jobs without specific work experience in their chosen field, devoid of which the applicant may not be considered. Rather than having to start off in jobs that also provide training, students have the education they need to jump right into the position and lay the foundation for a successful career significantly faster than others who had attended traditional academic schools.

Students can often finish school faster

Students finish vocational programs faster than the education programs in other fields as the learning focuses specifically on the career choice.

With less time spent in school, students get to transition from spending money for learning and training opportunities to making money in their careers faster, allowing them to create net benefits for themselves from a financial standpoint.

Schools in the vocational sector often cost less than other types of learning institutions

Vocational Education is generally a low-priced alternative for individuals as vocational courses can be completed in two years or less. Tuition and other fees that go into learning this field do not run as high as they do at other types of schools. This contributes further to the financial savings experienced by students during their education. They pay less each year they are in school, which helps them decrease any debt they have to take on to pay for school, allowing them to begin building their savings and establishing their financial security faster than those who spend thousands more on their education.

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Challenges facing vocational education.

Although the benefits for students entering vocational educational programs are many, there are a few challenges of vocational education that those entering a related field should be aware of. Understanding these challenges can help students make the best decisions for their school and professional careers. They can make plans that will help them accommodate these challenges and set themselves up for academic and professional success.

Less of an opportunity to explore different subjects

In a traditional academic school program, students have opportunities to explore different subjects and disciplines outside their core topics for their future degrees. In other words, a student majoring in mathematics may also take some classes on philosophy or similar liberal arts studies. This can help to create a well-rounded course of study that helps to create a broader education.

In a vocational setting, however, the subjects that students study revolve around their core concentration. While they may take some closely related tangential courses, they have fewer opportunities to take classes well outside their discipline.

Employers who focus on vocational students might be less able to adapt

Some organizations have encountered struggles when it comes to adapting with students who were educated in primarily vocational settings. Students who did not have the opportunity to broaden their skills across various disciplines and topics might be less willing and able to transition and adopt new technology and strategies within the workplace. Since their education focused on learning a specific means of completing certain routine tasks and engaging within the industry, sharp changes might be challenging to adopt.

However, students and employers can counter this problem through regular employee training. Schools themselves can also work to provide classes that explore some of the cutting-edge technologies that might become more mainstream over the course of the students’ careers, so they feel more poised to transition in the workplace. Schools can also offer workshops or refresher courses designed to introduce graduated students to some of the latest industry advancements and how new capabilities can benefit the sector and consumers.

When it comes to educating students, many find that two main paths exist. The first, a traditional four-year degree, offers students academic and professional education through intensive coursework. The lessons consist of core subjects in their area of study as well as other various broad courses that touch upon other disciplines. Meanwhile, vocational education focuses on providing learning opportunities for those who want to excel within a particular trade. While there are benefits and drawbacks to each system, understanding how these two types of education relate to each other and their impact on students and their future career is critical for anyone deciding on their academic career.

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Academic and vocational education divides students – radical change could make education more equal

Lecturer in Education, University of Manchester

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Kathryn Telling is a member of the Socialist Educational Association's National Executive.

Elizabeth Gregory does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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Politicians across parties are proposing ways to promote vocational education in England. Rishi Sunak has pledged to limit “ rip-off ” university courses and boost apprenticeships – diverting school students away from university and towards vocational education.

Labour leader Keir Starmer has spoken of his desire to end “the snobbery that looks down on vocational education” through curriculum reform. These include a greater focus on digital skills and verbal fluency in the classroom. He also wants to ensure that children study a creative art or sport until age 16 .

Meanwhile, Andy Burnham, the Labour mayor of Greater Manchester, has launched proposals for a Manchester baccalaureate , currently at consultation stage. The Mbacc is intended to offer a clearer route from the age of 14 for students who want to follow a vocational pathway towards employment rather than university.

However, these proposed reforms may merely entrench the division between academic and vocational education. A more radical proposal could see the two paths integrated throughout the school system – with all students picking from both academic and vocational subjects.

Separate paths

The divided system in English education has been in place since the 1944 Education Act. This established a tiered system of grammar schools for children judged more academically able, technical grammars that focused on vocational skills, and secondary moderns for the majority. Which school children went to was decided by a test taken at age 11 .

In the early 1950s, only around 20% of children went to grammar schools. Most other children went to secondary moderns, since so few technical grammars were built . Selection at 11 was removed in most counties in England and Wales by the mid-1970s. But the idea of separate academic and vocational pathways has remained to this day in post-16 education, with separate qualifications available.

Recent attempts to close the gap between academic and vocational qualifications have, arguably, been unsuccessful. T-levels were introduced to be a vocational and equal status alternative to A-levels , but have not been received as such. Not all universities accept them for entrance. This sends a clear message to young people that a vocational choice is seen as second best.

Learners are affected physically as well as emotionally by this hierarchy. Students are often separated into different institutions or study on the same site but in different buildings. School sixth forms largely only offer A-levels , so young people following a vocational pathway must go elsewhere, such as a further education college.

Changing public attitudes takes time. Research by one of us (Elizabeth Gregory) with students suggests that their narratives around vocational qualifications are getting more positive. Almost all the study’s participants on a vocational pathway wanted to go on to university, and all spoke about the skills they were developing to secure the career of their choice. But parents and teachers – whose opinions were valuable to the students – still saw academic qualifications as the better option.

Changing the system

An important change would be to end the physical division that separates young people. This means students being taught alongside one another in the same institutions, regardless of pathway.

More support is needed for teachers if they are to provide even-handed advice to students and their families. Vocational pathways should be recommended because this is the best option for the student, rather than a second-best option for those not as good at exams.

Parity in entrance requirements is also needed. Universities have a duty to ensure applicants are suitable for their chosen course. However, excluding young people with appropriate vocational qualifications maintains the hierarchies that suggest some types of knowledge are more valuable than others.

A radical change, though, might work even better.

Twenty years ago, a review of 14-19 education , commissioned by the government, recommended a structure that would let young people mix and match vocational and academic qualifications until they were 18 or 19. The idea was a common diploma for all, where a range of interests could be pursued without the need to choose between different – and differently valued – qualification types.

These radical suggestions were not implemented, but there have been more recent calls to revisit them, from both academics and educational activists .

Now that all young people have to stay in education or training until they are 18 , a system like this could feasibly be put in place.

What’s more, proposed changes to higher education funding would see the introduction of a tuition-fee loan that could be used flexibly over a person’s working life. This could further reduce the need to make early education and career decisions, opening up routes to both vocational and academic qualifications later in life.

If politicians want to tackle inequalities in secondary education and create academic and vocational qualifications that promote equality rather than perpetuate hierarchies, more sweeping reforms may be needed than those currently on the table.

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Essay on Importance of Vocational Education

Students are often asked to write an essay on Importance of Vocational Education in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Importance of Vocational Education

Introduction.

Vocational education, also known as technical education, is crucial in today’s world. It provides practical skills and knowledge, making individuals job-ready.

Why Vocational Education

Vocational education is essential as it equips students with specific skills for particular jobs. This type of education bridges the gap between education and employment.

Benefits of Vocational Education

Vocational education offers hands-on training, making learning more engaging. It also increases employability, as industries often seek people with practical skills.

In conclusion, vocational education plays a vital role in creating a skilled workforce. It’s a valuable alternative to traditional academic paths.

250 Words Essay on Importance of Vocational Education

The necessity of vocational education.

In the face of technological advancements, the labor market is shifting towards skill-based jobs. Vocational education bridges the gap between academic theory and practical application, fostering a workforce that is adept at handling real-world challenges.

Economic Impact

Vocational education has a profound impact on the economy. It reduces unemployment rates by providing skill-based training, which in turn boosts productivity and economic growth. Moreover, it fosters entrepreneurship, stimulating the creation of new businesses and job opportunities.

Social Impact

Vocational education also has significant social implications. It promotes social inclusion by providing equal opportunities for all, regardless of their academic backgrounds. Furthermore, it empowers individuals, fostering self-reliance and financial independence.

In conclusion, vocational education is an essential component of any education system. It equips individuals with practical skills, thereby enabling them to thrive in the modern job market. Its economic and social impacts underscore its importance and necessity in today’s world.

500 Words Essay on Importance of Vocational Education

Vocational education, also known as technical education, has gained significant attention in today’s rapidly evolving job market. It is an education that directly prepares individuals for a specific trade, craft, or career, offering a practical alternative to traditional academic paths. This essay will delve into the importance of vocational education, highlighting its benefits and its potential impact on the future workforce.

The Need for Vocational Education

Vocational education offers several advantages over conventional academic routes. Firstly, it provides a faster pathway to employment. Through hands-on training and internships, students can gain real-world experience, making them job-ready upon graduation. This practical approach not only makes learning more engaging but also increases the likelihood of employment.

Secondly, vocational education promotes entrepreneurship. By teaching specific trades, it empowers individuals to start their own businesses, fostering innovation and economic growth. It cultivates a culture of self-reliance and creativity, which is crucial in today’s competitive business landscape.

Vocational Education and the Future Workforce

Moreover, vocational education can help address social issues such as unemployment and income inequality. By providing affordable, accessible education, it opens up opportunities for people from diverse backgrounds, promoting social mobility and economic equality.

In conclusion, vocational education is a critical component of a balanced education system. It offers a practical alternative to traditional academic paths, providing students with the skills they need to succeed in today’s dynamic job market. By fostering entrepreneurship and preparing students for the future workforce, vocational education plays a key role in driving economic growth and social progress. Its importance cannot be overstated, and it deserves more recognition and support from policymakers, educators, and society at large.

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Spotlight on Vocational Education and Training

• Education and skills
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• Teachers and educators
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• Vocational education and training (VET)

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This Spotlight presents data and analysis on vocational education and training (VET) from Education at a Glance 2023 . VET is a key component of most education systems in OECD countries. About one in three 25-34 year-olds have a vocational qualification as their highest level achieved, whether at upper secondary, post-secondary non-tertiary or short-cycle tertiary level.

The first part of the Spotlight focuses on upper secondary programmes, analysing their components and outlining the main challenges to countries aiming to improve their quality, while promoting equity and ensuring better labour-market opportunities for their graduates. The second part focuses on progression pathways open to VET graduates and higher-level vocational programmes. Taken together, the two parts of this spotlight demonstrate the huge diversity of OECD country VET programmes.

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• Published: 15 December 2023

Knowledge mapping of vocational education and training research (2004–2020): a visual analysis based on CiteSpace

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• Jiayun Liu 1 ,
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Scientific Reports volume  13 , Article number:  22348 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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The study aims to analyze the leading researchers of vocational education and training from dimensions of individuals, institutions and countries. This article utilises the scientific information measurement software—CiteSpace—to conduct a scientometric analysis of 2,024 articles on vocational education and training from the Web of Science (W.o.S.). According to the research results, some useful conclusions can be drawn as follows: (1) vocational education and training research has become interdisciplinary and subject involved are “psychology”, “sociology”, “economics” and “pedagogy”; (2) the United States, the Netherlands and Australia make the majority of contributions and there are numerous collaborations among countries; (3) Univ Amsterdam, Univ Utrecht and Univ Melbourne were the main research institutions; (4) J Vocat Educ Train, Rev Educ Res, Thesis Elev, Econ Educ Rev and J Educ Work were the top 5 highly cited journals; (5) “Engagement”, “Program”, “Self-efficacy”, “High school”, “Predictor” and “Labor market” have become major research hotspots currently.

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Social innovation and higher education: evolution and future promise

Introduction.

Nowadays the importance of vocational education and training has been highlighted by the rapid economic and social development with relatively mature vocational education and training systems established in countries like the United States, Germany, Australia, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. Subsequently, researchers with academic backgrounds in economics 1 , 2 , 3 , management 4 , 5 , 6 , and information technology 7 , 8 , 9 around the world have paid close attention to the courses 10 , 11 , professions 12 , entrepreneurship 13 , 14 , skills 15 , 16 and evaluations 17 of this field.

Social changes are manifested in greater mobility of workers, shifting labor markets, frequent changes of professions, the disappearance of several professions and the emergence of new ones 18 , 19 . The emergence of artificial intelligence tools, which are transforming the entire landscape of the labor market, is becoming a significant risk and challenge. The need to learn constantly and throughout life and the instability of professional development make vocational education and training the most important and defining sector of education 20 , 21 . Many researchers agree that its role will constantly grow and cover all sectors of professional implementation 22 , 23 . Bibliographic analysis of the field of research in the field of vocational education is rapidly evolving, but there are fewer review works on this sector than it requires 24 .

Vocational education and training are studied from the point of view of assistance from the state administration or municipalities in the retraining of employees 6 , 16 ; many country case studies provide insight into the differences in the educational context of individual countries 2 , 3 , 11 , 14 . Experimental studies on combining vocational education and work or other types of employment make it possible to assess the potential of problems that require solutions 25 , 26 , 27 . The use of technical and digital tools within vocational education is also being devoted to more and more research 9 , 28 , 29 .

The existing research results have laid an important foundation for the reform and development of vocational education and training. However, vocational education and training still have a series of problems that need to be solved, such as the large gap between the skill supply of vocational education and the skill demand of the labor market, and the low enthusiasm of enterprises to participate in vocational education and training 4 , 9 . In addition, although many scholars use a variety of research methods from different dimensions to explore related issues of vocational education and training, few studies have investigated vocational education and training comprehensively and systematically 23 , 30 . There is an urgent need for bibliometric analysis to identify areas of development, areas of greatest interest among researchers, and stratification of research by country, institution, and area. This will allow the efforts of new researchers to be more targeted and their quality improved.

The objectives of this study are as follows:

Analyze the leading researchers of vocational education and training from dimensions of individuals, institutions and countries;

Figure out the distribution of journals related to vocational education and training;

Delve into the main research topics and knowledge structure in this field;

Aggregate the research hotspots and frontiers in this field.

The data used in the study were obtained through advanced retrieval from the Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC): "Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-E) (2004–2020)"; Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) (2004–2020)"; "Conference Proceedings Citation Index-Science (CPCI-S) (2004–2020)". These data are intended to provide comprehensive, scientific and systematical research on the existing literature related to vocational education and training. The retrieval strategy was as follows: TS = ("Vocational Education" or "Technical and Vocational Education and Training" or "Technical Education" or "Technical and Further Education" or "Technical and Further Education" or ((VET) or (TVET) and (education))), and with language options of "English" and literature type selection "Article". Here VET is the "Vocational Education and Training" abbreviation and TVET "Technical and Vocational Education and Training" abbreviation.

Indeed, 644 data sources were retrieved from SCI-E, 697 from SSCI, and 693 from CPCI-S. A total of 118 duplicate articles were identified. The cleansing of a sample of data sources was carried out manually by carefully studying the content of abstracts and excerpts from the sources or full versions if they were available. Finally, a total of 2,024 bibliographic citations were obtained (Fig.  1 ).

Literature related to vocational education and training from 2004 to 2020.

Research tools

Information visualization is the process of representing and visualizing abstract data with the help of computer software, which can enhance researchers' perception of abstract information 31 . Based on the existing literature, visualization analysis can adopt the method of dynamic graphic visualization to reveal the trends, hotspots and frontiers of scientific research. Therefore, information visualization can facilitate researchers to understand and predict the frontiers and trends of scientific research opportunely and break new grounds for new ideas amid complex information.

In this study, the analysis software CiteSpace 5.7 was used to conduct research cooperation, cited references and co-occurrence analysis of keywords in literature pertinent to vocational education and training. CiteSpace is an important software in bibliometrics 32 . CiteSpace visualized knowledge maps can be used to identify, display and predict research trends and elucidate knowledge structure and development 33 . Therefore, CiteSpace's visualized knowledge map was adopted in this study to analyze literature in the field of vocational education and training. The analysis elements included Author, Institution, Country, Cited authors, Cited journals, Cited journals, and Cited references.

A network of cited references, co-authors and keywords co-occurrence can represent the scientific knowledge domains 34 . The network provides a systematic and scientific description of the evolving field of scientific knowledge through knowledge mapping, a novel method of literature analysis, enabling researchers to better understand knowledge structures, research collaborations and the hotspots and trends of research 35 .

Research process

In this study, a visual analysis of the bibliography of vocational education and training was conducted through CiteSpace. The research process was as follows: Firstly, the basic knowledge cluster of vocational education and training was constructed according to the reference literature of the field. This cluster is necessary for the next steps to identify the main clusters in the knowledge graph and highlight the most influential literature in this field of knowledge. Also, the basic knowledge cluster will help to study the evolution of each cluster, and future trends and identify key literature from a timeline perspective.

Secondly, the hotspots and frontiers of vocational education and training can be identified based on the frequency of the keywords in the related literature. Meanwhile, keyword bursts can also reveal the evolution of vocational education and training and determine the latest research trends. Burst refers to the significant change in the value of a variable over a relatively short period, which is adopted by Citespace to identify research frontiers.

Finally, the researchers, research institutions and countries were visualized to identify the major contributors to the evolution of knowledge in vocational education and training.

Research limitations

The results obtained may be limited to searching only the Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC) database, without considering Scopus or other relevant data sources. Also, the sample may not contain sources that directly relate to the topic under study but did not use the corresponding keywords in the article description or other identifiers, and this happens.

Knowledge clustering of vocational education and training research

The emergence and development of any new knowledge are based on existing research and findings, and so are vocational education and training. In general, the frontiers of research in a particular discipline can be represented by journal papers to a certain degree, and the cited references form the knowledge base for the journal paper. The important references can be clustered and the co-cited clustering can be determined with the help of specialized computer software, an important step in figuring out the knowledge base for vocational education and training.

The distribution of selected bibliographic citations by year is presented in Fig.  1 and Table 1 . First, one should evaluate the relatively uniform growth in the number of works devoted to the topic under study throughout the entire period under study. The only exception is the sharp increase in the number of studies in 2012.

In Eq.  1 \({c}_{ij}\) represents the number of co-occurrences of i and j, \({s}_{i}\) is the frequency of occurrence of i, \({s}_{j}\) is the frequency of occurrence of j.

After running CiteSpace, the knowledge mapping was obtained.

Cluster names related to the field of vocational education and training were extracted with the application of MI (Mutual Information). The formula is calculated as Eq.  2 , where \({g}_{st}\) is the number of shortest paths from node s to node t; \({n}_{st}^{i}\) is the number of shortest paths through node i among the \({g}_{st}\) shortest paths from node s to node t. 166 clusters were generated based on the co-primer clustering information with 10 main clusters.

Modularity Q is a measure of visual networks ranging from 0 to 1. The formula is calculated as Eq.  3 ; \(P(w|{c}_{i})\) is the co-occurrence probability of w and c, \(P(w)P({c}_{i})\) is the frequency of occurrence of w, \(P({c}_{i})\) is the frequency of occurrence of i-type values). The higher the value, the better the network clustering. In general, Modularity Q ranging from 0.3 to 0.8 indicates that network clustering is acceptable. Weighted Mean Silhouette S is a homogeneous indicator of network clustering ranging from − 1 to 1. The larger the Weighted Mean Silhouette S, the higher the clustering homogeneity. In general, Weighted Mean Silhouette S below 0.5 means that the clustering results are acceptable, and above 0.7 means that the clustering results are more reliable 36 . Figure  2 shows the Modularity Q value of 0.392 and the Weighted Mean Silhouette S value of 0.9641 for the visual network in the field of vocational education and training. Weighted Mean Silhouette S values of all 10 major clusters are above 0.8. The above data demonstrate that knowledge mapping is a high-quality clustering of the knowledge domain of vocational education and training.

Co-cited literature clusters.

Table 2 further provides a more detailed description of each of the knowledge clusters depicted.

It can be concluded from Table 2 that Vocational Interests (#0) ranked first in the knowledge cluster that includes job quality, linkage, occupation, completion, ring-biased Technological change, Labour market entry and dual training system, including 62 literature, most of which were published around 2014. The Weighted Mean Silhouette S value of the cluster is 0.966, indicating the high homogeneity of the 62 literature in the cluster. Among them, General Education, Vocational Education, and Labor-Market Outcomes over the Life-Circle, by Hanushek et al. 37 on Journal of Human Resources , are the articles with the highest citation (60% of the articles in this cluster cited this article); Vocational Education and Employment over the Life Cycle by Forster et al. 38 on Sociological Science , ranks the second (34% of the studies in the cluster cited this article); Educational Systems and the Trade-Off between Labor Market Allocation and Equality of Educational Opportunity by Bol and Van de Werfhorst 18 on Comparative Education Review ranks the third (27% of the studies in the cluster cited this article).

The second clustering is Workplace Simulation (#1) with 55 articles, and the Weighted Mean Silhouette S value of the cluster is 0.879. The most cited article was Students' Learning Processes during School-based Learning and Workplace Learning in Vocational Education: A Review by Schaap et al. 40 on Vocations and Learning . Forty percent of the studies in the cluster cited this article. The third cluster, Task Shifting (#2), consisted of 42 articles. The Weighted Mean Silhouette S value of the cluster is 0.967, a high homogeneity. The detailed information of each major cluster is shown in Table 3 .

In addition, widely recognized studies can be identified based on the number of citations. The top 3 studies with the highest citations (over 20 citations) are as follows: General Education, Vocational Education, and Labor-Market Outcomes over the Life-Cycle published by Hanushek et al. 37 on Journal of Human Resources (37 citations); Students' Learning Processes during School-based Learning and Workplace Learning in Vocational Education: A Review by Schaap et al. 40 (22 citations) on Vocations and Learning ; Vocational Education and Employment over the Life Cycle by Forster et al. 38 on Sociological Science (20 citations).

Given the lack of expansion of the thematic field of research after 2013, as shown further in tables, it can be assumed that the Vocational Interests knowledge cluster has focused the most interest of researchers and perhaps provided the most topics for further in-depth research. It is the state of the labor market and the relationship with employment that has received the most attention. researchers in connection with vocational education.

Distribution of countries

The number of papers published by different countries and their academic influence can be elaborated on in Table 4 . It can be inferred that the United States was the most productive among the top 10 countries followed by the Netherlands and Australia in the field of vocational education and training with 260 papers published from 2004 to 2020, accounting for about 14% of all literature. However, China ranked sixth with 88 papers, accounting for 4.8% of all papers, far lower than that of the United States. In terms of betweenness centrality value, the USA (0.67), England (0.36) and Germany (0.27) ranked in the top three, indicating a significant academic influence on the field of vocational education and training. Betweenness centrality indicates the strength of a node's influence on the flow of information in the graph. This is a measure of the influence of a separate node in a whole network 33 . The United States ranked first regarding the academic influence in the field of vocational education and training research while China is still in a relatively disadvantaged position. A more complete visual representation of the distribution of academic influence by country is presented in Fig.  3 .

Network of countries distribution for VET.

Burstiness (Table 4 the last section) is an increase and decrease in activity or frequency of publications that disrupts the continuity or pattern of distribution. In this case, the higher this indicator, the more uneven the participation of publications from this university in the research field being studied. The Burstiness results of countries more active in the field of vocational education and training (Table 4 , Burstiness section) showed that: Turkey ranked first with a value of 12.38, followed by England which has been more active in this field. However, although Sweden and New Zealand are not very active in this field, academic attention has been drawn to them.

Distribution of research institutions

In terms of the production of research institutions in the field of vocational education and training, Univ Amsterdam ranked first with 30 articles, followed by Univ Utrecht (28 articles) and Univ Melbourne (22 articles) (Fig.  4 ).

Network of institutions for VET research.

However, the ranking of research institutions based on betweenness centrality demonstrated significant influence from other research centers. The top three universities with betweenness centrality were IZA (0.09), Univ Turku (0.09) and Univ Helsinki (0.07), indicating the importance and influence of these three universities in the field of vocational education and training. Regarding the post surge capacity, Gazi Univ was in the lead with a surge of 5.52, followed by Leiden Univ (5.02) and Univ Utrecht (4.24). See Table 5 for details.

Cited journals

In the citation network of journals, the larger the circle, the higher the citation frequency (Fig.  5 ).

Cited journals network.

Totally 233 pieces of literature on J Vocat Educ Train were cited; 208 on Rev Educ Res ; 181 on Thesis Elev ; and 156 on Econ Educ Rev (Table 6 ).

However, from 2004 to 2020, Thesis Elev ranked first in burst detection with a burst value of 31.74. Other journals with relatively high emergent detection values include SOC SCI Res, Comp Educ, Teach Teach, Econ J, J Labor Econ, etc. These journals mainly come from the fields of psychology, sociology, economics and pedagogy, the source of knowledge in the field of vocational education and training.

Hotspots and trends of the research on vocational education and training

The research hotspot is the focus of researchers' attention shared by a group of interrelated papers in a relatively short period. Keywords are the gist and soul of an academic paper, a highly summarized and refined research problem, and an important index of research hotspots. Therefore, the research hotspots and main characteristics of a certain field can be abstracted from the change in keyword frequency. In this study, "Keyword" was selected from the CiteSpace node types for Keyword co-occurrence network analysis. The larger the node, the more important the node.

In terms of keywords frequency (Table 6 ), related research mainly focused on vocational education and training in vocational education, the transition, inequality, gender, perception, attitude, and the program, work, school, and skill, among which, the keyword "vocational education" ranked first for appearing 399 times, followed by education (234 times) and vocational education and training (181 times). Betweenness centrality higher topics include health, adolescent, perspective, gender, employment, model, etc.

Meanwhile, keyword selection was carried out to clearly show the research hotspots in different years and their interrelation and evolution. Since none of the keywords identified during the study were localized for the period after 2013, we can conclude that the thematic field of research after this time developed almost exclusively intensively, and not extensively, that is, the research hotspots that had already been emphasized earlier were explored (Fig.  6 ).

Timeline of co-citation clusters from 2004 to 2020.

Keywords that appeared more than 25 times were selected and checked for betweenness centrality, as shown in Table 7 .

Compared with previous research 23 , 24 , this research uses CiteSpace V to analyze the research hotspots and research frontiers of vocational education and training from 2004 to 2020, and finds that:

First, the annual volume of research literature is steadily increasing, but the growth rate is relatively low. This is the same as the result of Hui's research 23 . The reasons for this result are as follows: The first is that the academic level and subject status of vocational and technical education are not yet mature, and its knowledge fields and subject boundaries are not clear enough, which causes the subject of vocational and technical education to face multiple identity crises 27 , 28 . The second is that the interdisciplinary nature of vocational education makes its research power scattered in many disciplines such as pedagogy, economics, management, and sociology, while there are fewer academic groups specializing in vocational and technical education 3 , 7 .

Second, from the perspectives of research countries, institutions, authors and journals, the main drivers of research in the field of vocational education and training come from the United States, the Netherlands and Australia, with Univ Amsterdam, Univ Utrecht and Univ Melbourne as the leading institutions. De Bruijn from Utrecht University, Christopher Winch from University of Westminster Univ Westminster, Pietty Runhaar from Deakin University, Martin Mulder from King's College, and Derek G Shendell from Rutgers State University, were the major contributors to vocational education and training. Literature on J VOCAT Educ Train was the most highly cited (233 times), followed by the top five journals including Rev Educ Res (208 times), Thesis Elev (181 times), Econ Educ Rev (156 times) and J Educ Work (150 times). This is different from Yu and Zhou's research results 24 . Through analysis of 719 literature titles, Li proposed that the main research countries for vocational education and training are European countries and the United States 12 . The reasons for the difference between the two may be: The first is the sample size. This study uses 3844 literature titles in the Web of Science database, which has a larger sample size coverage and more effective results; while Li's research has only 719 literature titles and a smaller sample range. The second is the time frame. This research uses 15 years of literature from 2004 to 2020, which represents the latest research characteristics in the field of vocational education and training; while Li uses literature from 2000 to 2009, which can only represent the characteristics of previous research.

Third, in terms of the most popular research topics, growth, vocational education and training, politics, university, secondary education, the environment, China, and other aspects of inequality took the lead from 2004 to 2015, and after 2015 20 , 24 . Other researchers agree with the results obtained in that study showing that the field started to focus on inequality, the teacher, professional development, engagement, program, self-efficacy, high school, the predictor and labor market, among which, the fields of engagement, program, self-efficacy, high school, predictor and labor market are still active and may become future research directions 16 , 24 . This is consistent with Hui's research results 23 . Technological changes and socio-economic development require vocational education and training to gradually shift the focus to students’ cross-industry abilities, and to pay close attention to the dynamic needs of the labor market. In addition, this has a certain relationship with the gradual change of vocational education research from macro to meso and micro.

Although an effective visual analysis of the relevant studies in the field of international vocational education and training from 2004 to 2020 was conducted, the obtained data cannot fully represent the overall picture of the development of international vocational education and training. Limited by research conditions, the related studies of international vocational education and training from the Web of Science were downloaded from 2004 to 2020. Significant potential for future research is to explain the observed spillovers in the influence and contributions of different countries and institutions over significant periods and how they change due to market influences, changes in technology, and other possible factors. Future researchers are encouraged to use a wider range of journals over a longer period.

Conclusions

By drawing the scientific knowledge map of international Vocational Education and Training from 2004 to 2020, this paper intuitively demonstrates the growth law of papers, knowledge sources, author contributions, institutional cooperation and national cooperation in this research field. It also analyzes the research hotspots in the field of vocational education and training, and draws the following conclusions from a comprehensive perspective:

Paper growth law. From 2004 to 2009, the development of Vocational Education and Training research was relatively slow. Since 2010, new Vocational Education and Training research has shown a vigorous development trend. The amount of new media research will reach its peak in 2020. The author predicts that in the future, Vocational Education and Training research will continue to show a trend of vigorous development.

Knowledge source. In the field of Vocational Education and Training, 12 journals have been cited more than 120 times. These journals mainly focus on psychology, sociology, economics and pedagogy. This shows that the knowledge in the field of Vocational Education and Training mainly comes from the above four disciplines.

Author contribution. Hanushek Ea, Forster AG, Bol T, Schaap, Akkerman, McGrath, Brockmann, Kuijpers, Nylund and other highly cited authors have provided high-quality papers and belong to high-impact authors.

Institutional cooperation. The most researched institution in the field of Vocational Education and Training is Univ Amsterdam (30 articles), followed by Univ Utrecht (28) and Univ Melbourne (22 articles), Maastricht Univ (22 articles), and Univ Helsinki (22 articles). On the whole, there is a lack of cooperation and exchanges between institutions, and no large-scale cooperation network has been formed.

Country cooperation. The country with the most research in the field of Vocational Education and Training is the USA (260 articles), followed by NETHERLANDS (251) and AUSTRALIA (217). Although there are many research results in the field of Vocational Education and Training in various countries, the cooperation network between countries needs to be strengthened urgently.

Research hotspots. The relatively high intermediary centrality in the field of Vocational Education and Training is health (0.13), adolescent (0.13), gender (0.1), employment (0.1), and model (0.1). This shows that the above content is a research hotspot in this field.

Data availability

Data will be available from the corresponding author (Xueshi Wu) on request.

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Acknowledgements

Jiangxi Province Social Science Planning general project Research on Modern Governance Mechanism of Mixed Ownership Vocational Colleges (No.: 18JY21).

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Yumi Tian, Jiayun Liu, Xin Xu & Xueshi Wu

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Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.T. and J.L.; methodology, X.X.; software, X.W.; validation, Y.T., J.L. and X.X.; formal analysis, X.W.; investigation, X.W.; resources, Y.T.; data curation, J.L.; writing—original draft preparation, X.X.; writing—review and editing, Y.T.; visualization, X.X.; supervision, X.X.; project administration, X.W.; funding acquisition, Y.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Xueshi Wu .

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Tian, Y., Liu, J., Xu, X. et al. Knowledge mapping of vocational education and training research (2004–2020): a visual analysis based on CiteSpace. Sci Rep 13 , 22348 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-49636-7

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• Published: 18 April 2017

Guiding workplace learning in vocational education and training: a literature review

• Susanna Mikkonen 1 ,
• Laura Pylväs 1 ,
• Heta Rintala 2 ,
• Petri Nokelainen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8195-7001 2 &
• Liisa Postareff 3  

Empirical Research in Vocational Education and Training volume  9 , Article number:  9 ( 2017 ) Cite this article

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This review provides an overview of the empirical research concerning guidance in the context of vocational education and training (VET). The study examines practices, providers and supporting and hindering factors related to guidance and learning at the workplace. After the inclusion/exclusion process, the final number of research articles included in this review is 18. Results show strong evidence for the collective nature of workplace guidance, with the entire work community providing learners with guidance and assistance. Guidance provided to VET students at workplaces seems to relate strongly to the activities of the members of communities of practice. Guidance provided by the members of communities of practice opens up opportunities for learners to participate in collective practices by gradually assuming more responsibility and more demanding tasks as their skills develop. The learner’s self-regulative skills, such as responsibility and the ability to take the initiative and to actively seek guidance, affect how guidance is afforded to him/her in the work community during training. Furthermore, these skills may also determine the learner’s prospects for developing expertise in future workplaces.

Interest in workplace learning has grown in recent decades due to the changing character of work and the acknowledgement of the workplace as a learning environment (e.g. Fuller and Unwin 2003 , 2011 ; Illeris 2003 ). In the context of vocational education and training (VET), apprenticeships and work-based learning have been promoted (e.g., European Commission 2015 ). The aim of this review is to provide an overview of guidance and learning at the workplace in the context of vocational education and training. In VET programmes, theoretical studies in vocational institutions and practical training at workplaces should be considered complementary providing different kind of opportunities for learning (Aarkrog 2005 ). The connective model of Guile and Griffiths ( 2001 ) emphasises close collaboration between vocational institutions and workplaces in creating an ideal way to organize workplace learning for VET students. The model underlines that the context and the access provided to artefacts and people influences learning, while opportunities to participate in forms of social practice with different communities of practice are central to learning. Learners require opportunities to recontextualise their theoretical and practical knowledge in new contexts in order to create new knowledge and practices (Griffiths and Guile 2003 ). Thus, different kinds of practices, such as assistance from more experienced others and boundary crossing facilitate learning within and between the different contexts of education and work (Akkerman and Bakker 2011 , 2012 ; Griffiths and Guile 2003 ). Research has shown that close collaboration between students, workplaces and vocational institutions benefits learning (Savoie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003 ; Virtanen and Tynjälä 2008 ; Virtanen et al. 2014 ).

In the field of workplace learning, sociocultural theories consider learning as an ongoing, both an individual and social process of participation shaped by social, organizational, cultural and other contextual factors (Hager 2013 ). Tynjälä ( 2013 ) 3-P model of workplace learning acknowledges the sociocultural environment as a context that defines the possibilities and constraints of workplace learning. According to the model, there are three basic components in the learning phenomenon. The presage component includes both learner factors and learning context which relates to work organization and its features including organisation of work, partnerships and networks. Tynjälä ( 2013 ) points out that these factors do not affect the learning process directly but rather through the learner’s interpretation of the factors, which is in line with the constructivist’s view of learning. The process component encompasses the learning activities through participation, collaboration and interaction, whereas the product component includes diverse learning outcomes (Tynjälä 2013 ). Billett ( 2002a , b ) notes that participation in social practices is regulated by the workplace affordances and shapes both the learning process and the outcome. However, eventually an individual, the learner, can choose whether or not to engage in the process of learning.

As a process workplace learning is often considered incidental or informal, even if it could instead be seen as non-formal with different levels of intention to learn, including implicit, reactive and deliberate learning (Eraut 2004 ). Alternatively, one can regard all learning experiences as intentional because they aim at ensuring the continuity of social and work practices (Billett 2002b ). Ethnographic field studies on apprenticeships by Lave and Wenger ( 1991 ) suggest that learning happens in everyday interactions and through participation in communities of practice. However, the theory by Lave and Wenger ( 1991 ) has also been opposed as it neglects guidance and formal education, and is based on the idea that skills, knowledges and practices are passed on to novices. By doing this, the theory ignores the reciprocity of learning and the continuation of learning even after a full membership in a community of practice has been obtained (Fuller et al. 2005 ). Tanggaard ( 2005 ) states that studies on apprenticeship often describe apprentices gradually acquiring greater responsibilities and widening participation in new stages of production, but not much is said about how new skills are taught or didactically instructed. Tanggaard continues that teaching at the workplace is loosely organised as a possibility for the apprentice to receive help and get advice in the daily work situations, and takes place in connection with various social relations. Nielsen ( 2008 ) concludes that important educational interventions and instructional processes are used at workplaces, but they are not necessarily recognised as such.

The use of various terms related to pedagogical practices or interventions taking place at workplaces is heterogeneous and oftentimes incoherent. The concept of guidance is often used in the context of workplace learning (e.g. Billett 2002b , 2014 ). Coaching , tutoring and mentoring are similar activities which all have the underlying intention of providing support and encouraging the professional development and learning of individuals. However, the lines between the concepts of guidance, coaching, tutoring and mentoring are blurred although the underlying meaning of these concepts differ from each other (see Gallacher 1997 ; Wisker et al. 2013 ). Coaching refers to a process which occurs between peers or colleagues and is rather structured and systematic in nature (Gallacher 1997 ). Coaching has a rather narrow focus as it often concerns a specific problem, and the role of the coach is to help the coachee to define and overcome this problem (Wisker et al. 2013 ). Tutoring refers to offering support given by a responsible person within the organisation to a person, usually a novice, related to more practical matters. Tutors have a key role in acting between the institution and the individual (Wisker et al. 2013 ). Mentoring is about monitoring and assisting an individual’s development over a longer period of time, and mentoring can take the form of individual, group or peer mentoring (Wisker et al. 2013 ). Mentoring is also a term frequently used in higher education context to refer to personal support, career development and introduction to professional networks (Pearson and Kayrooz 2004 ). Another concept often adopted in the higher education context is supervision , which takes place when individuals have a long-term task, i.e. a thesis or a project. Similar with coaching and mentoring, supervising aims at enabling and supporting individuals to develop their skills and achieve tasks. However, supervision has a broader scope in that it often includes working alongside with the individual, as well as negotiation and dialogue, to enable the person to take an active role in developing the skills and processes. Thus, giving answers and fixed solutions is avoided in supervision (Wisker et al. 2013 ). Supervision has traditionally referred to a master-apprentice relationship, but lately the role of the academic community in supervision has been emphasized (Mainhard et al. 2009 ). Furthermore, good supervision is characterised by an emphasis on the learning processes and general work processes instead of the product (see Pearson and Brew 2002 ; Vehviläinen and Löfström 2016 ).

In this study, we use the term guidance to describe the support that members of the work community and teachers from vocational institutes provide for students (see also Virtanen and Tynjälä 2008 ). We also utilize Billett ( 2002b ) division of direct and indirect guidance to describe various guidance practices at the workplace. The social and physical environment of the workplace provides indirect guidance that is accessed in everyday work activities when the physical arrangements assist workplace learning and provide access to observing and listening more experienced coworkers and peers (Billett 2002b ). As much of what one must learn cannot be learnt through trial and error alone, intentional workplace learning strategies, such as guided learning, are necessary to assist an individual in developing procedures and concepts required for shared practice (Billett 2002b ). Direct guidance refers to close guidance and direct interaction between more experienced workers and learners (Billett 2002b ). Billett ( 2002b ) concludes that workplace pedagogic practices comprise three interdependent planes of guided engagement with work activities. The first plane includes everyday participation at work and the organizing of access to knowledge through observing and listening, but also by engaging in tasks of increasing accountability and understanding the goals of the required performance. The second plane comprises direct guidance and intentional learning strategies that are directed towards developing and promoting values, procedures, and understandings. Guided learning at work includes the use of modeling, coaching and scaffolding as well as other techniques to develop understanding and to engage learners in learning for themselves. The third plane of guided learning focuses on extending the adaptability of learners’ knowledge to new situations and circumstances. The use of questioning, problem-solving, dialogues and group discussions aim at assisting learners to assess the scope and the limits of their knowledge and the possibilities of its transfer to new situations.

This literature review presents an overview of the empirical research on guidance and learning at the workplace in the context of vocational education and training. The goal is to provide a holistic view on how guidance actualizes at the workplace by identifying practices, providers and supporting and hindering factors related to guidance and learning at the workplace. The research questions are the following:

(RQ1) What kind of guidance practices are used at the workplace?

(rq2) who provides guidance at the workplace, (rq3) which factors of guidance support or hinder learning at the workplace.

In this article, we will next describe our literature review method and the studies selected for this review. In the result section, we seek to answer our three research questions based on the articles selected for this review. In the conclusions and discussion, we will further discuss the empirical findings from the selected studies and provide suggestions for future research. We will also discuss some limitations of this study.

Method and overview of the studies selected for the review

The research method of this study is a literature review. The review type for this study is a mapping review (Grant and Booth 2009 ). A mapping review aims at mapping out and categorizing existing literature on a particular topic. Mapping reviews characterize the quantity and quality of literature and aim at identifying gaps in research literature from which to commission further research. For the literature review, we collected data by searching electronic databases to identify relevant studies. Search terms included guidance, counselling, supervision, mentoring, coaching, instruction, scaffolding, modeling, explanation, reflection and explorations in combination with the terms apprenticeship, workplace learning, on - the - job learning, work - based, vocational training and vocational education . In addition to searching through electronic databases, we manually searched the archives of journals focusing on workplace learning and vocational education.

In the initial article search, we searched for peer-reviewed articles from the ERIC (Education Resources Information Center) and Education Research Complete databases. The article search yielded 1209 articles from the ERIC database and 1136 articles from Education Research Complete (2275 all together after duplicates removed). We then started to limit the number of articles to those relevant to our study according to our specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. First, we only included studies published between 1995 and 2015 with full-text available and the language of the publication being English. This left us with 489 articles. We read the abstracts of these articles, and also the full texts in case the abstracts didn’t provide enough information for decision making. In the process, we included empirical studies focusing on guidance in the context of workplace learning within the vocational education and training system. We therefore excluded studies focusing on mentoring employees in corporate settings. We did include studies on guided learning at the workplace in apprenticeship education and during on-the-job learning periods in vocational education, but excluded studies in the higher education context. After the first round of the inclusion/exclusion process, we searched the reference lists of the articles selected for the review to identify additional relevant studies. The Google Scholar database was also included in the search at the end of the process, but no new articles were found.

Although the search yielded a decent amount of articles, a minimum number of them actually discussed guided learning at the workplace. Most of the articles excluded from this review covered workplace learning (not guidance), mentoring programs in enterprises or guidance on levels of education other than vocational education and training (e.g. higher education). After the inclusion/exclusion process, the final number of research articles included in the review was 18 (see Table  1 ). Two researchers participated in both setting the inclusion/exclusion criteria and in discussing the articles selected for the study. Other scholars (Nielsen 2008 ; Tanggaard 2005 ) have previously noted the tendency in research on apprenticeship education to overlook issues of guidance at the workplace. The literature search process for this article further supports this finding: studies related to the guidance of VET students at workplaces are few indeed.

The data was collected and studies were assessed using a data extraction matrix, which included information on sample size, study design and results related to guidance and workplace learning. The assembly of the data was guided by the three research questions presented in “ Background ”. We arranged the collected data to identify claims made in the literature. Two researchers further thematized the claims into broader categories, first independently and then together, by comparing and discussing the claims until they reached consensus. Based on the theoretical background and literature surveyed, we then listed the factors of guidance that support or prevent learning at workplaces in a table. We also identified practices that individuals and groups at workplaces typically use to provide learners with guidance. The following sections will present and further discuss the findings in greater detail.

In Table  1 , we have presented the 18 articles selected for this study. The studies cover various training programmes within the vocational education and training framework. In nine articles (articles 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 13 and 14), the training programmes could be described as more traditional apprenticeship programmes with the majority of the learning taking place at the workplace. In nine articles (articles 2, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17 and 18), the vocational training programmes involved both school-based and work-based learning, with variation in the length of the on-the-job learning periods.

Total number of participants in the 18 reviewed articles was 3485, of which 681 participated in qualitative and 2804 in quantitative studies. Qualitative methods dominated the sample, as they were applied in 10 studies between 1999–2015. Three studies (2008–2014) applied quantitative methods and four mixed-method studies (2000–2011) applied both qualitative and quantitative methods. Participation selection criteria was explicit in most of the reviewed articles (16), but only 11 articles described participants’ demographic data (e.g., age, gender, work experience). Further, only six articles mentioned voluntary participation. Most common data collection method was interview (10 articles), but also observation (8 articles) and surveys (5 articles) were applied. Nine of the articles applied individual level data collection (interviews and surveys), five applied both individual and group level data collection (observations and focus group interviews or conversations), and two articles were based on group level data.

In this chapter, we look into how guidance is actualized at workplaces and seek to identify the kinds of guidance practices typically used at the workplace (RQ1). The articles selected for this literature review introduce a variety of practices through which guidance is provided for students and apprentices at workplaces (Table  2 ).

In five articles out of 18 (Evanciew and Rojewski 1999 ; Filliettaz 2011 ; Koskela and Palukka 2011 ; Onnismaa 2008 ; Tanggaard 2005 ), guidance was described as a process during which more experienced workers and novices work together: Novices work under the surveillance of experts, while experts monitor the work of the students and provide help if needed. The help provided by experts can involve for example hints and clues on how to successfully complete a task (Evanciew and Rojewski 1999 ), providing instructions and making sure that students have understood them (Filliettaz 2011 ), and asking questions or providing hints that allow trainees to make independent assessments as to what to do next (Koskela and Palukka 2011 ). Sometimes the trainers can also give somewhat more direct orders about which task should be performed next (Koskela and Palukka 2011 ). Tanggaard ( 2005 ) describes the help provided by experts as a kind of frustration control that helps when the apprentices cannot cope on their own.

Five articles described guidance as an activity of explanation (Collin and Valleala 2005 ; Evanciew and Rojewski 1999 ; Koskela and Palukka 2011 ; Onnismaa 2008 ; Tanggaard 2005 ). Evanciew and Rojewski ( 1999 ) state that apprentices benefit from their mentors’ descriptions of the ‘tricks of the trade’ and thereby gain access to information unavailable at school. The process of explanation can also be seen as involving the sharing of tacit knowledge with newcomers at the workplace. The transfer of tacit knowledge seems most efficient when more experienced professionals work together with inexperienced apprentices (Koskela and Palukka 2011 ; Onnismaa 2008 ). Collin and Valleala ( 2005 ) also describe the process of categorization, which involves ‘unpacking’ work-related categories, with experienced workers who explain which topics certain categories cover (e.g. confidential information). Categorization is a central activity of socializing new workers into the workplace and contributes to the building of mutual understanding about work-related categories.

Of the 18 articles, five saw guidance as involving conversations and discussions with others as well as reflection of one’s learning (Filliettaz 2011 ; Smith 2000 ; Winters et al. 2009 ; Wegener 2014 ; Virtanen et al. 2014 ). Virtanen and Tynjälä ( 2008 ) define self-assessment as students evaluating their own performance. Discussing and assessing learning, however, occurs more frequently in the presence of others. According to Virtanen and Tynjälä’s study (2008), discussions with other employees are the most widely used form of guidance during on-the-job learning periods of VET students. Smith ( 2000 ) reports that discussions with fellow workers and supervisors are in frequent use at workplaces and help apprentices develop their knowledge. Filliettaz ( 2011 ) describes more experienced workers giving systematic feedback to apprentices and thus inviting apprentices to engage in conversations. Winters et al. ( 2009 ) and Virtanen et al. ( 2014 ) also report on somewhat more formal training discussions that involve teachers from vocational institutes and that include discussions with experts about the meaning of students’ experiences during studies. Winters et al. ( 2009 ) however notes, that during the discussions involving students, teachers and workplace mentors, the potential to engage students in reflecting on their experiences was not utilised. Similarly, Wegener ( 2014 ) notes that discussions involving teachers, students and supervisors don’t necessarily stimulate reflection, as students tend to view discussions as test situations and feel like they need to provide “right” answers, instead of more freely discussing their experiences. Instead of formal situations, students tend to initiate reflection at everyday interactions at the workplace, where reflection is not the object per se. However, according to Wegener, educators have difficulties acting on these initiatives.

In four articles out of 18, guidance was described as a process of scaffolding and fading (Evanciew and Rojewski 1999 ; Filliettaz 2011 ; Nielsen 2008 ; Tanggaard 2005 ). Nielsen 2008 ) defines scaffolding as “ a process whereby beginners in a profession are supported by experienced workers so as to improve their basis for participating in a social practice ”. Through the scaffolding process, newcomers are introduced to new areas of the profession and eventually invited to take over more responsibility in the production process. Scaffolding includes the gradual withdrawal of support as the beginner’s skills improve (fading). The articles covered in this review described the apprentices as assuming increasing responsibility and enjoying progressive recognition as legitimate and trustworthy members of the work community. Scaffolding can thus be seen as supporting the identity formation of apprentices (Filliettaz 2011 ; Nielsen 2008 ). Nielsen ( 2008 ) states that scaffolding can also serve to communicate bodily know-how (non-verbal scaffolding) to apprentices. A significant part of what is being learned in craft production requires for the apprentice to develop a bodily sense of the products. Scaffold instruction enables apprentices to observe and touch the product, and together with the master to evaluate its quality. Tanggaard ( 2005 ) describes the typical scaffolding situations as often representing a more asymmetrical relationship between the experienced and the not so experienced workers, which can sometimes lead to the apprentice not being critical towards existing practices.

Three articles describe the observation of demonstrations by more experienced workers and supervisors as central to guidance processes at the workplace (Evanciew and Rojewski 1999 ; Smith 2000 ; Tanggaard 2005 ). Smith ( 2000 ) distinguishes between worker observations and environment observations. Worker observation can be described as “ structured observation of the process being demonstrated by a fellow worker ”. Smith argues that apprentices highly appreciate demonstrations as a method of learning. Similarly, both Evanciew and Rojewski ( 1999 ) and Tanggaard ( 2005 ) state that apprentices found observing the work and demonstrations by more experienced workers as valuable and beneficial for their learning. However, according to, Smith ( 2000 ) environment observation (“ unstructured observation of the workplace to identify visual cues from artefacts, objects, and physical arrangements ”) was not seen as an effective way to learn by the apprentices, nor was it appreciated by the supervisors, who rather saw it as a waste of time.

Three articles mentioned allowing independent work and encouraging students to experiment and explore on their own as part of guidance activities (Evanciew and Rojewski 1999 ; Reegård 2015 ; Smith 2000 ). Reegård ( 2015 ) describes the managers quickly introducing apprentices to work and trusting them with a lot of responsibility and autonomy from early on. On the one hand, this was seen as a deliberate pedagogical strategy. On the other hand, independency could be seen as a signal of poor formal training awareness and lack of resources available for guidance. Smith ( 2000 ) also describes the activity of practicing as a form of independent work of students. Hairdressers for example were expected to practice with dummy heads before treating the hair of customers. Evanciew and Rojewski ( 1999 ) mention that trainers sometimes encourage apprentices to attempt or explore a task on their own before requesting help from their trainers. The use of exploration, however, is rare. Smith ( 2000 ) states that the use of exploration is highly valued by the apprentices but often limited and not encouraged by the workplaces because of production and safety issues. Trials and experimentation outside of established work methods at the workplace is discouraged.

In this chapter, we seek to identify the providers of guidance at the workplace. We are interested in recognizing the people or groups of people who are involved in the process of providing guidance for students. The results of this chapter are summarized in Table  3 .

The research identifies people or groups of people as providers of guidance at the workplace. Interestingly, of the 18 articles featured in this paper, only two (Koskela and Palukka 2011 ; Savoie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003 ) mention designated workplace trainers as the only ones responsible for guiding learners. Other articles highlight the more collective nature of workplace guidance and identify different groups of people as providing guidance for learners.

Of the 18 articles, ten view workplace guidance from a more collective perspective and claim that nominated trainers are not the only ones providing learners with guidance (Chan 2014 ; Collin and Valleala 2005 ; Corney and du Plessis 2010 ; Evanciew and Rojewski 1999 ; Gurtner et al. 2011 ; Onnismaa 2008 ; Reegård 2015 ; Smith 2000 ; Tanggaard 2005 ; Wegener 2014 ). Other members of the work community are also involved in providing guidance for newcomers when they share workplace situations. Although learners are usually assigned a designated workplace trainer, other colleagues, experts and workplace managers also interact with them while they engage in their work tasks. Filliettaz ( 2011 ) refers to this as distributed or collective guidance. Tanggaard ( 2005 ) claims that apprentices often develop a significant relationship with a person other than their designated trainer as an instructor, provided that person is readily available for guidance. Apprentices often build their own networks for learning and choose instructors with whom they feel comfortable.

Seven of the 18 articles mention that guidance can also come from fellow learners (Corney and du Plessis 2010 ; Filliettaz 2011 ; Fuller and Unwin 2004 ; Gurtner et al. 2011 ; Nielsen 2008 ; Smith 2000 ; Tanggaard 2005 ). Corney and du Plessis ( 2010 ) refer to this as strengths-based natural mentoring or peer mentoring, which uses the supportive networks young people naturally build in their work contexts. Peer mentoring involves a more mutual approach and is based on reciprocal relationships and equality. Tanggaard ( 2005 ) uses the term ‘symmetrical instruction’ to describe situations in which apprentices with nearly the same level of competence guide and instruct each other. He claims that symmetrical instruction helps apprentices to develop critical attitudes towards the work, in contrast to situations of asymmetrical instruction, where apprentices might imitate more experienced workers without questioning how they do things. Asymmetrical instruction also opens up opportunities for reflection as well as even technical innovations and new ideas through cooperation with apprentices. Fuller and Unwin ( 2004 ) note that apprentices also spend significant amounts of time helping other workers, which challenges the traditional novice-expert dichotomy and suggests that apprentices can also utilize their prior experience and learning to provide guidance for others.

Five articles argue that teachers from vocational institutions sometimes also participate in guiding the workplace learning of the VET students (Corney and du Plessis 2010 ; Wegener 2014 ; Winters et al. 2009 ; Virtanen and Tynjälä 2008 ; Virtanen et al. 2014 ). The process of guidance clearly involves teachers, especially in planning and evaluating learners’ workplace learning periods. Although workplace trainers are primarily responsible for guiding their students, teachers also visit workplaces during on-the-job learning periods and provide guidance for their students through discussions. Discussions between students and teachers are vital pedagogical elements of workplace learning that help to integrate school learning and workplace learning. Setting goals for workplace learning periods with teachers shows the student that he/she must learn at least some vocational qualifications at the workplace. Wegener ( 2014 ) notes that the different kind of didactical practices may also lead to conflicts between teachers and workplace supervisors.

In this chapter, we have classified the findings on guidance and work environment into four categories: (1) learner factors, (2) direct guidance, (3) indirect guidance and learning context, and (4) connectivity. Table  4 presents the summary of the supporting factors and Table  5 shows an overview of the hindering factors related to guidance and learning in the workplace.

Learner factors

The studies selected for this review show that apprentices are often required to work autonomously and receive support only if necessary. Apprentices are largely responsible for their own learning and must often initiate activities to develop their skills by themselves (Gurtner et al. 2011 ; Reegård 2011; Savoie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003 ; Smith 2000 ; Tanggaard 2005 ). Such situations often push learners to develop the self-regulative skills (Reegård 2015 ; Virtanen and Tynjälä 2008 ; Virtanen et al. 2014 ) and strong social skills (Evanciew and Rojewski 1999 ; Savoie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003 ) that are essential to initiating requests for guidance. The work community may however view excessive requests for guidance or being a slow learner as tiresome behavior, which may lead to the discontinuation of the apprentice’s training in the workplace (Gurtner et al. 2011 ; Nielsen 2008 ). Evanciew and Rojewski ( 1999 ) also report that apprenticeships are sometimes even terminated because of the apprentice’s lack of appropriate social skills and work ethic, despite the trainer’s failure to allocate sufficient time to teach these skills. The learner’s deliberate career choice and previous work experience support motivation for and engagement in workplace learning (Chan 2014 ).

Direct guidance

Smith ( 2000 ) notes that the workplace and workplace management can also support guidance by securing adequate resources for the workplace trainer. The trainer should always be provided with sufficient time to make space in the production schedule for training and supervision activities. Support from the workplace for the workplace trainer is essential in order to train and guide apprentices to fulfill a legitimate role in the work community. A major hindrance to the success of workplace guidance comes from a work community that fails to commit to guiding learners.

Support from the designated workplace trainer is an important feature of guidance that has been shown to support workplace learning. First, a close personal relationship with the workplace trainer has proved to be a valuable resource for apprentices. Relationships with supportive mentors assist apprentices’ workplace learning processes. Supportive workplace trainers trust their apprentices and enhance their self-esteem by praising them when they have carried out their work duties well (Chan 2014 ; Evanciew and Rojewski 1999 ). Instructional situations at workplaces have the potential to facilitate identity transformation and to provide access to new communities of practice (Koskela and Palukka 2011 ; Nielsen 2008 ). Instructional situations should include aspects of mutual recognition and identity formation (Nielsen 2008 ). Virtanen et al. ( 2014 ) state that the opportunity to receive individual guidance seems to be the most important factor in producing successful workplace learning outcomes. Tanggaard ( 2005 ) states that the potential for developing a personal relationship with the workplace trainer is greater at the workplace than at school. Workplace mentors are usually able to work longer and in greater detail, and thus to assist in learning, than teachers. However, according to, Chan ( 2014 ) even designated trainers sometimes lack personal engagement and commitment to guiding apprentices, which can lead to apprentices disengaging from their work. When workplace trainers fail to commit to guidance, apprentices receive insufficient support for their learning. Not being allowed to work independently and depending heavily on trainers keeps apprentices from becoming productive members of the work team. The degree of work autonomy can sometimes even depend on the work climate and the goodwill of the trainers (Savoie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003 ). The asymmetric power relationship between a learner and an instructor makes the instructor a role model, which can sometimes lead to uncritical imitation of poor habits (Tanggaard 2005 ). According to, Tanggaard 2005 apprentices often select their own network of trainers who best fit their personality. Trainers’ unexpected reactions to requests for guidance limit initiative (Smith 2000 ).

The research underscores the importance of workplace trainers’ pedagogical skills. Receiving support from a range of different workers at the workplace benefits apprentices’ learning. The availability of workplace support from a broad range of workers, even those with no formal training role, benefits apprentices’ learning (Chan 2014 ; Savoie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003 ; Tanggaard 2005 ). The trainer’s pedagogical awareness and skills affect how the workplace serves as a learning environment. Pedagogical skills also influence the way in which experienced workers are able to share their knowledge and to provide opportunities for apprentices to participate in productive tasks at work (Filliettaz 2011 ). Pedagogical skills can also appear as the ability to share knowledge or to raise questions and initiative (Fuller and Unwin 2004 ; Gurtner et al. 2011 ). Structured training for trainers is recommended to improve the overall quality of guidance at the workplace (Filliettaz 2011 ; Smith 2000 ). Virtanen and Tynjälä ( 2008 ) state that the pedagogical training of workplace trainers may also improve the critical thinking skills of VET students. Some researchers have noted, however, that workplace trainers show efficient training behaviors even without receiving formal training (Evanciew and Rojewski 1999 ; Koskela and Palukka 2011 ). Onnismaa ( 2008 ) states that workplace trainers are also challenged to take into account apprentices’ prior experience and personal goals when guiding them. To facilitate learning, trainers can promote critical reflection, a central tenet of professional growth (Onnismaa 2008 ). Nevertheless, promoting reflection shouldn’t become a way of leaving the learners on their own drawing their own interpretations and decisions (Wegener 2014 ). Trainers themselves must also engage in self-reflection and continuous observation of their interactions (Koskela and Palukka 2011 ).

Indirect guidance and learning context

The research underlines the importance of the ability of the communities of practice to provide apprentices with a supportive work atmosphere. A supportive learning environment includes a social and friendly atmosphere, positive attitudes towards helping apprentices, good workplace relationships among employees and meeting the apprentices’ needs (Chan 2014 ; Smith 2000 ). When other workers are reluctant to help apprentices, there is no guarantee that guidance will be provided. A poor work climate at the workplace affects guidance and the learning affordances offered to the apprentices. If more experienced workers view the apprentice as a potential threat, they may seek to guard their own positions and may be less willing to encourage young people. Competition between workers and the fear of newcomers replacing the experienced workers may compel them not to share their expertise (Fuller and Unwin 2004 ; Nielsen 2008 ; Onnismaa 2008 ). Furthermore, Filliettaz ( 2011 ) states that power issues between workers affect the work climate and the learning affordances arising from work-productive tasks. Competition and conflicts between workers can place the apprentice in an uncomfortable position, where he/she must choose sides between workers and the people from whom he/she wishes to receive guidance. In such situations, apprentices bear the burden of always having to be the first to request assistance (Chan 2014 ; Reegård 2015 ; Smith 2000 ).

Several studies highlighted the problem concerning the lack of time and resources set aside for guidance (Gurtner et al. 2011 ; Nielsen 2008 ; Onnismaa 2008 ; Smith 2000 ). Guiding apprentices is not considered a priority; instead, production schedules sometimes become more important than instructing apprentices. When the main focus of the workplace is on preserving productivity, guidance seldom receives adequate attention (Savoie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003 ). This leads to apprentices having limited access to work operations and only being assigned simple work tasks that will not risk slowing production. Workplaces that focus mainly on productivity often fail to provide adequate conditions for workplace learning. Under these conditions, the apprentices’ learning may remain limited, and the apprentices’ legitimacy, weak (Fuller and Unwin 2004 ; Gurtner et al. 2011 ; Savoie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003 ; Smith 2000 ).

A sense of equality and community at work are important factors in learning a profession (Collin and Valleala 2005 ; Fuller and Unwin 2004 ). Non-hierarchical socialization processes and task equality, with all employees (including the managers) completing the same types of tasks, also fosters the integration of apprentices into work communities (Reegård 2015 ). Reciprocal relationships between all members of work communities help to build mutual trust and respect (Fuller and Unwin 2004 ; Nielsen 2008 ; Onnismaa 2008 ). Sharing knowledge and skills among colleagues regardless of age and status is essential to the development of expertise (Fuller and Unwin 2004 ; Onnismaa 2008 ). Relationships between peers at the workplace should also be encouraged, because peer learning provides guidance and support, especially if guidance is unavailable from other providers (Tanggaard 2005 ). Peer guidance is easily accessible and less risky than asking advice from experts, which explains its significance, especially in the beginning of the learning process (Gurtner et al. 2011 ). Moreover, support from family, friends, and significant others, is also considered important and affects learning at the workplace (Chan 2014 ; Corney and du Plessis 2010 ).

In work communities, the apprentice must be seen as a legitimate rather than a marginal member of the work team. Seeing apprentices in a central role also calls for the apprentices to be able to influence workplace practices and to be asked for their opinion. Virtanen et al. ( 2014 ) claim that the more apprentices see themselves as active members of their work community, the more they learn. Workplaces also provide learners with guidance through supportive practices. First of all, workplaces provide support for learners by providing them opportunities to participate in a wide range of tasks, which helps apprentices to develop broad expertise. When apprentices are rotated through different departments at the workplace, they are able to build relationships with many workers and to acquire experience from a variety of work tasks (Fuller and Unwin 2004 ; Savoie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003 ;l Virtanen et al. 2014 ). The research shows that placing the learner in a marginal position in work communities and not seeing him/her as a legitimate member of the work team limits available learning affordances (Filliettaz 2010 ; Nielsen 2008 ; Savoie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003 ). The marginalized apprentice is offered only marginal tasks to work on and is continuously placed in situations that will not threaten company productivity or security (Savoie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003 ). This denies the apprentice the opportunity to work in important working situations and hinders the apprentice’s learning of more complex and demanding tasks relevant to the development of expertise (Nielsen 2008 ; Savoie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003 ). Apprentices in marginal positions at workplaces also experience little work autonomy. Not taking the apprentice’s viewpoints into account is another indicator of apprentice marginalization in the work community. Winters et al. ( 2009 ) note that students seldom receive treatment as equal partners in formal training conversations. In conversations with teachers and workplace trainers, student participation is too often limited and real dialogue seems to be lacking, as the teachers tend to dominate the themes and content of such conversations.

Communities of practice also support apprentices’ learning by allowing them autonomy and independent work. Giving apprentices freedom, trust and responsibility provides them with rich learning affordances. Allowing apprentices to work independently and then praising them for a job well done substantially enhances their self-esteem (Reegård 2015 ). The increase in responsibility should take place gradually, with apprentices receiving more responsibility and more demanding tasks commensurate with their skills development (Evanciew and Rojewski 1999 ; Filliettaz 2011 ; Gurtner et al. 2011 ; Nielsen 2008 ; Smith 2000 ). Giving learners too much independence and responsibility too soon could endanger workplace guidance. Gurtner et al. ( 2011 ) argue that training apprentices to work autonomously is an important objective in many occupational sectors. Unfortunately, this objective often leads to apprentices working alone without an expert by their side. Too much independence and responsibility leads to insufficient guidance and may hinder learning (Reegård 2015 ).

Connectivity

The training programs available to apprentices should be able to integrate formal and informal training, theory and practice (Onnismaa 2008 ; Savoie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003 ; Winters et al. 2009 ; Virtanen and Tynjälä 2008 ; Virtanen et al. 2014 ). Integrating different forms of knowledge is essential for the development of vocational competence and expertise. Students should be able to integrate theoretical information gained at school with practice at the workplace (Savoie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003 ; Virtanen and Tynjälä 2008 ; Virtanen et al. 2014 ). Discrepancies between learning environments might hinder the learning process (Evanciew and Rojewski 1999 ; Savoie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003 ). The integration of formal and informal learning requires close collaboration between various actors in vocational education. Moreover, guidance associated with training calls for collaboration between teachers, students and employers, which facilitates subsequent professional development. Guiding students must not be something that occurs exclusively at the workplace, though teachers often suffer from insufficient time and resources for guidance (Evanciew and Rojewski 1999 ; Tanggaard 2005 ). Teachers from vocational institutions should also be involved in helping students to set their learning goals and holding discussions with them (Virtanen et al. 2014 ).

The features of the training program itself have proved to be important factors of guidance affecting apprentice learning. Previous research emphasizes the importance of an explicit framework which defines clear roles and rules for the training program (Fuller and Unwin 2004 ; Onnismaa 2008 ; Smith 2000 ). Vocational training programs should also take into account personal needs for learning and guidance (Fuller and Unwin 2004 ; Onnismaa 2008 ; Smith 2000 ; Virtanen et al. 2014 ). Onnismaa ( 2008 ) states that the personalizing vocational studies is especially important for mature students. Having a designed apprenticeship program at the workplace that has mapped the range of tasks and skills to be covered will increase opportunities for apprentices to develop broad expertise when learning is not haphazard and productivity driven (Chan 2014 ; Fuller and Unwin 2004 ). In this way, apprentices benefit from a structured training program and clear goals (Evanciew and Rojewski 1999 ; Smith 2000 ).

Conclusions

The purpose of this review was to provide an overview of the empirical research concerning guidance and learning in the context of vocational education and training. The study has focused on identifying guidance practices, providers of guidance, and supporting and hindering factors related to guidance and learning at the workplace.

The 18 articles presented in this study illustrate different guidance practices manifested at the workplace. These practices represent both direct and indirect guidance described by Billett ( 2002 b). Especially observations of the work environment and more experienced workers, and the allowing of independent work and explorations can be seen as forms of indirect guidance. Direct guidance on the other hand is manifested as experts and novices work closely together and engage in scaffolding activities, as information and tacit knowledge is being shared and as experts and novices engage in conversations discussing, assessing and reflecting on learning. The guidance practices that fall into the category of direct guidance can further be divided into (1) strategies that focus on completing certain work-related tasks (such as working together on certain tasks, giving instructions and advice, explaining and providing information) and (2) strategies that focus more comprehensively on the learning process itself (such as reflection and discussions about the things being learnt).

The articles presented in this study describe a variety of guidance practices utilized at the workplace, but also present some limitations in their use due to lack of resources or guidance awareness at workplaces. It seems that techniques that are more trainer-led and easily carried out in the everyday work flow are in more frequent use, whereas techniques that require more time, reciprocality and activity from the community and learner see less frequent use., Smith ( 2000 ) for example, states that workplaces do not encourage the use of exploration because of the risk it will interfere with the company’s production schedules and cause problems with workplace safety. Moreover, workplaces may already have established certain ways of doing things, and any experimenting outside these established methods may evoke an unfavorable response. When it comes to reflection, it has been proved hard for teachers to act upon the initiatives for reflection made by students at everyday work situations (Wegener 2013). Formal training for workplace trainers may also affect the chosen methods of guidance. Some studies (Evanciew and Rojewski 1999 ; Reegård 2015 ) suggest that trainers can provide guidance for learners efficiently without any formal training, whereas others (Filliettaz 2011 ; Smith 2000 ) find that structured training for workplace trainers improves the quality of workplace guidance. Nielsen ( 2008 ) and Reegård ( 2015 ) note that the independence given to learners may also sometimes result from insufficient resources for guidance rather than from intentional pedagogic strategies.

The literature shows strong evidence for the collective nature of workplace guidance, with the entire work community providing guidance and assistance for learners. Collective guidance can also come from fellow learners and be provided by other VET students at workplaces or teachers from vocational institutions. Guidance provided by members of the communities of practice invites opportunities for learners to participate in collective practices (Filliettaz 2011 ) by gradually taking on more responsibility and more demanding tasks as their skills develop. The learner’s self-regulative skills, such as responsibility and the ability to take the initiative and actively seek guidance, affect how guidance is afforded to him/her in the work community during training. Furthermore, these skills may also affect the learner’s prospects for developing expertise in future workplaces. The literature covered in this review focuses little attention on the supervisory relationship between the learner and the trainer. What seems important for learning is not the position of the person providing the learner with guidance, but a well-functioning personal relationship between the trainer and the learner as well as a commitment from both to the guidance process. Whether formally trained or not, the workplace trainer must be able to share his/her knowledge with the learner and to inspire the learner to actively participate in the learning process. The literature also discusses conditions related to the work environment, such as atmosphere, equality, legitimacy and autonomy that are considered important factors for learning.

The research presented in this study describes various ways through which guidance is manifested at the workplace. Students and apprentices receive close guidance in direct contact with more experienced workers, but also the more indirect forms of guidance, such as observations of more experienced workers and features of the learning context, are being described (see Billett 2002 ). What seems noteworthy is the rather high level of indirect guidance described in the literature (see Tables  4 , 5 ). The literature does present ways through which direct guidance is offered, but also brings forward many limitations and hindering factors for the guidance of VET students, such as lack of time and resources set aside for guidance. This raises a question about whether the indirect forms of guidance become more common in case workplaces fail at allocating adequate resources for guidance. Whether it is the resources, established ways of working and learning or the availability of pedagogical expertise that shapes guidance practices at workplaces, further research needs to evaluate the usefulness and value of these practices from a learner’s point of view while taking into account the wide variation in learning environments (see Fuller and Unwin 2003 ) and the realities of everyday work situations.

To improve learning at work, guidance at workplaces must be part of a legitimate and established process that the broad work community is committed to providing. More attention needs to be focused on what the learner has to offer to the supervisory relationship and the skills and knowledge he/she brings to it. Even if the master-novice relationship and, in some cases, the professional monopoly on expertise remains important, the school also needs to encourage its teachers and students to cross boundaries between the school and workplace (Tuomi-Gröhn et al. 2003 ). Students may act as crucial change agents who carry, translate and help to implement new ideas between the educational institution and the workplace (Engeström 2011 ). There is a need to challenge the role of factors such as age and status in defining the concept of expert (e.g.Fuller and Unwin 2004 ) in order to support reciprocal learning.

A company’s approach to the development of individual expertise is likely to be influenced by a range of factors, including the product market in which it is located, as well as the organization of the work and the distribution of skills (Fuller and Unwin 2004 ). If companies fail to map the range of skills to be covered, learning risks becoming haphazard and is more likely to be driven by the need to preserve company productivity (Chan 2014 ; Fuller and Unwin 2004 ; Smith 2000 ). Guidance should be recognized as an important task to be carried out at the workplace. When the processes of guidance in the work community become transparent, both learners and other members of the work community become more aware of the objectives of VET students’ workplace learning, thereby supporting the allocation of adequate resources for guidance. A structured training program makes the training objectives more transparent for both the learner and the work community.

From a methodological perspective, reviewed articles used in most cases basic qualitative (e.g., content analysis) and quantitative (descriptive statistics) analysis methods. Only 11 articles contained both explanation and justification of selected methodological approach and explicit description of data analysis. In practice this means that only these studies could be properly replicated in the future. Only eight articles had a section about critical examination of the method(s) and limitations of the study. This is quite surprising, as all the reviewed articles were published in peer-reviewed journals. Group level data collection was applied in eight articles, but we found very little discussion about rationale of choosing such approach and related validity issues (see, e.g., Chioncel et al. 2003 ). Although quantitative studies in this review were based on cross-sectional design, we were delighted to see that most of the qualitative articles included components of longitudinal design (data collection varied from 1 month to 4 years). Only one study contained intervention, but that was non-controlled (retrospective). To conclude, future studies should pay more attention to methodological issues (clear argumentation why a certain design and related analysis methods were chosen; detailed description of participants, procedure and analyses) in order to minimise bias in results and recommendations.

Limitations

We want to acknowledge that, like all studies, this study has certain limitations. First , the number of articles related to workplace guidance in the context of vocational education turned out to be surprisingly small. Studies focusing primarily on guidance were rare, and in many of the studies selected for this review, guidance was something observed alongside other things, but was not the main focus. However, the cumulative results nevertheless suggest, that we managed to capture the main themes related to workplace guidance in the literature. Second , because the number of original articles that fit the inclusion/exclusion criteria was so small, we included them all in order to obtain versatile information about our topic. Thus, it is worth noting that the original articles themselves have certain limitations. In most studies, the sample size was relatively small, which is not unusual for qualitative interviews and case studies, which many of these studies represent. Although articles investigated many interesting aspects of workplace guidance, methodological robustness was not in all cases clearly opened for a reader; we found lack of detail in participant information, methodological choices and also how the analyses were conducted. This clearly limited our ability to judge importance and validity of the results and practical recommendations. Third , most of the studies featured in this paper failed either to take into account the specific features of different vocational fields or to compare the guidance afforded to learners in the different learning environments of specific vocations. Given the differences noted between different fields of vocational education (e.g. social and health care vs. technology), generalizing the results from one field to another may be questionable (Virtanen et al. 2014 ). Consequently, we recommend devoting more research to compare how these different field-specific learning environments affect the guidance provided to learners.

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Mikkonen, S., Pylväs, L., Rintala, H. et al. Guiding workplace learning in vocational education and training: a literature review. Empirical Res Voc Ed Train 9 , 9 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40461-017-0053-4

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Analysing Dewey’s vocational aspects of education and Maslow’s theory of motivation in support of vocational education and training

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The aim of this article is to analyse Dewey’s writing on vocational aspects of education in his book Democracy and Education: An introduction to the philosophy of education to identify and to relate the main philosophical ideas to Maslow’s theory of motivation and to establish the key similarities between the two theories to support contemporary Vocational Education and Training.

The paper used content analysis to identify key themes from Dewey's vocational aspect of education and synthesised them with Maslow's theory of motivation. Based on both theories the article describes how motivation is critical in people’s pursuit of vocational career goals.

The study identified source of livelihood, sustainable livelihood, social recognition, social contributions, academic, and career progression from Dewey’s vocational aspect of education as key ideas that are like Maslow’s physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs that influence people’s choice in vocational career goals.

We argue that if contemporary vocational education and training can be attractive to the young generation, the ideas expressed in Dewey’s vocational aspect of education and Maslow’s hierarchy of motivation should be considered by vocational education and training stakeholders when making vocational education career choice or goals.

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“Education is not a preparation for life but life itself”—John Dewey.

“A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write. If He is to be happy” “What a man can be, He must be”—Abraham Maslow.

1 Introduction

Arguably John Dewey was one of the momentous philosophers, psychologist, educational thinker whose authoritative writing about educational philosophy is expressed in his 1916 book Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education [ 1 ]. In his book he dedicated chapter twenty-three to write about issues surrounding vocational education at that time due to societal changes that accompanied the industrial revolution. The focus of this paper is to analyse that aspect of the book that talks about vocational aspects of education, by relating the main philosophical ideas of the chapter to Maslow’s theory of motivation and to establish the key relationships between the two theories to support contemporary vocational education and training. The overarching goal of the paper is to illuminate stakeholders understanding of vocational education and training in a way that will positively influence their vocational choices. The remaining parts of the paper is structured in the following manner: Contemporary vocational education and training section gives a brief explanation concerning the various of forms of vocational education and training, characteristics, and the challenges. The section on Dewey’s vocational aspect of education provides a brief summary of  the key ideas from Dewey's vocational aspects of education. Themes were later formulated from the key ideas. The section on Maslow’s theory of motivation presents the main principles on which the theory of motivation operates and the main arguments and findings from earlier studies on the theory’s strengths and weaknesses. The section synthesising Dewey’s vocational aspects of education and Maslow’s theory of human motivation uses dialectical approach to synthesise the key ideas identified in Dewey and Maslow’s theories to underscore the relevance of both theories on understanding vocational education and training. The concluding section contains the summary of the key ideas and discussions from the previous section and recommendations to vocational education and training stakeholders.

It is noteworthy that the contributions of these two theories to academic literature are significant and there is no doubt the application of these theories to vocational education and training will further enhance our understanding of the concept of vocation in modern times. For instance, what are the benefits of pursuing a particular vocation? (Individual’s reward), and what can those who pursue a career in certain vocations give back to their community or society? It is imperative that questions like these deserves philosophical discourse that expand our knowledge about vocational education and training and the motivation behind a person’s career choice or goals. Again, it is also important that we examine these questions in the light of the individual members of society’s dreams and aspirations, thus, considering what individuals want to achieve in life? Since such individual achievements in the end reflects the collective achievements of society. The hard part is that sometimes people miss choosing the right vocation and others may not have the strong inclination to pursue their chosen vocation. French philosopher Simondon’s concept of individuation undergirds both Dewey’s vocational aspect of education and Maslow’s theory of motivation by pointing out the problems that can arise concerning the individual’s ability to make the right decisions regarding their choice of vocation. Individuation is about the individual forming a stable personality or becoming aware of their self-identity and been able to distinguish themselves from other people [ 2 , 3 ]. The process of individuation is a complex phenomenon that occurs throughout the individual’s lifetime. The individual must find their personal identity in distinct stages of life, and therefore it becomes difficult for the individual to truly gain self-awareness. Simondon writes that any substantial being that exists in reality has already undergone or is already undergoing a process of individuation through which the singular individual is formed [ 2 ]. In the context of vocation, the individual realising their true self-identity in various stages of life is an important part of been able to choose and pursue the right vocation. Poor individuation can result in low satisfaction with one’s life, low self-worth, problems with motivation and goal setting and even poor decision making which can affect a person’s choice of vocation [ 3 ]. Undoubtedly, everyone is unique in their own way and can contribute to society’s development but unless the individual is able to identify their interest, abilities, and talents, based on their personal characters such abilities and talents would be underused. So, for this paper, we argue that the ideas and concerns raised by Dewey on the meaning of vocational education, its place in society, its opportunities and challenges will be best understood when it is examined in the light of Maslow’s motivation theory which focuses on understanding human motivation.

In chapter one of his book, Education as a Necessity of Life, Dewey defines education in its broadest sense as the means of social continuity of life. His definition points to the purpose of education, thus, the growth and survival of human beings in society. He further asserts that the primary ineluctable facts of the birth and death of each one of the constituent members in a social group determine the necessity of education [ 4 ]. On one hand, Dewey stated the sharp contrast that exists between the immature new-born members of the societal group who are “its sole future representatives” and the maturity of the adult members who have already acquired the knowledge and customs of the group. He stresses the necessity that these immature members be not merely physically preserved in adequate numbers, however must be initiated into the interests, purposes, information, skills, and practices of the mature members: otherwise, the group will cease its characteristic life [ 4 ]. The primary concern of Dewey in his definition and perspective of what education is supposed to achieve in a person’s life, is that society’s interests, purposes, information, skill, and practices are inculcated in the immature members to ensure social continuity.

The chapter on vocational aspects of education is written under three themes, the meaning of vocation which Dewey defines as nothing, but such a direction of life activities as renders them perceptibly significant to a person, because of the consequences they accomplish, and its usefulness to his associates. Secondly, he wrote about the place of vocational aims in education and cautions educators to not conceive vocational guidance as something which leads up to a definitive, retrievable, and complete choice which makes the education and the chosen vocation more rigid and hinder the individual's continuous growth and survival. Thirdly, he establishes the opportunities and challenges of vocational education, of which he refers to the increased esteem, in democratic communities, of whatever has to do with manual labour commercial occupations and the rendering of tangible services to society. He emphasises how vocations have become tremendously important because of industrialization at that time.

Dewey sort to establish that vocations must be something that can provide the basic needs of the person engaged in that vocation. which is to say it can provide certain significant benefits to the person engaged in such activities and the society such activities are undertaken. The key emphasis is that such activity must continue to grow and must require creativity and innovations to withstand the challenges of a changing society. Here, Dewey’s notion of what vocational education should offer draws parallels with the American Psychologist Abraham Maslow’s theory of human motivation. Maslow’s theory asserts that human beings are eager to engage in certain activities provided they can satisfy their hierarchy of needs. Individuals will be motivated to make a vocational choice if such vocation can help the person’s growth and survival. In 1943 and 1954 Maslow organized his theory of human motivation around five hierarchical levels which were later depicted in a pyramid shape with the pressing human need starting from the bottom to the top of the hierarchy [ 5 ]. He postulated that human beings are motivated to accomplish certain needs; however, some needs are of higher priority than others. According to Maslow, our first need is the basic needs such as food, drink, shelter, air, etc. which are important for our bodily function and survival as humans, second is our safety needs which is our desire to be safe and secure in our environment, third is our need for love, friendship, and company, our fourth need is our need for social recognition, status and respect from others and our final need he termed as self-actualization which is our need for growth and development [ 5 , 6 ]. For a person to reach the self-actualisation stage, the person’s vocation plays a critical role in reaching that stage. Therefore, we can argue that human motivation for survival and growth does influence our choice of vocational careers or engagements. Even though Maslow later in the 1960s and 1970s expanded his theory to include a seven-stage model (cognitive needs) and eight-stage model (aesthetics needs) the focus of this paper is on his initial five-stage model.

Dewey and Maslow both share ideologies that are useful for the development of vocational education and training. By relating both theories we can understand the nature of vocation, and how motivation plays critical roles in people’s pursuit of vocational career goals. For example, an individual’s understanding of the features, benefits of certain vocation are likely to influence his or her decision to choose and pursue such vocation with strong inclination. UNESCO defines contemporary vocational education and training as “those aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences, and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding, and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life” [ 7 ]. The definition vocational education and training covers a wide range of vocations and contributes to various sectors of a country’s economy and the social life of people through the acquisition of employability skills that helps students to transition from school to the workplace. Vocational education and training’s contribution to economic growth and societal development around the world is well acknowledged in its employment provisions, in the sense that it has helped reduce poverty, inequality, and social exclusion in many parts of the world [ 8 , 9 ].

2 Contemporary vocational education and training

Vocational education and training refer to a range of learning experiences that are intended to prepare its participants for the world of work and usually takes place in a myriad of learning contexts such as educational institutions and workplace learning, apprenticeship [ 10 ]. Vocational education and training provides learners with employability skills needed for a particular job and can also serve as a prerequisite for entering further education and training for a particular job [ 10 , 11 ]. Vocational education and training uses formal learning, non-formal learning, and informal learning, with formal learning being a set of organized learning for which the outcome results in certification [ 12 ]. The non-formal and the informal even though maybe well organised or less organized activities that take place within or outside the workplace does not lead to certification and usually encompass work-based training and on-the-job training and it is also the most common form of vocational education and training in most societies [ 12 ]. The nature of vocational education and training makes its curriculum very important especially since it is supposed to serve as a linkage between education, and employment [ 13 ].

Vocational education and training has suffered many challenges in the past and in this present time [ 14 ]. Despite the enormous benefits vocational education and training offers to the public around the world, vocational education and training still faces several challenges globally, especially in developing countries [ 15 ]. Some of the well-known challenges facing vocational education and training today are inadequate infrastructure, inadequate human resources, difficulty in career progression, gender inequality, stigmatization from the public which makes it unattractive and often leads to weak participation from stakeholders, and the phenomenon of mismatch between acquired skills and labour market needs also results in graduate unemployment [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ] However, it must be emphasized that these challenges depend on the country or region as different countries and regions face their peculiar challenges. Young and Horden contend that the educational element of vocational education should be given greater priority through the vocational curriculum and employers must recognise that their future profitability is dependent on human resource investment otherwise vocational education will continue to suffer the fate of low esteem as in the past [ 14 ]. The challenges vocational education and training faces today will even get worse in the future if proper measures are not implemented to mitigate these challenges. The issues of globalization, rapid technological change, demographic changes and climate change continue to shape the world of work [ 18 ]. New skills are required for work every day and the consequence for vocational education and training graduates is unemployment when they failed to meet these new job requirements. In the same vein, vocational education and training's already existing workers who fail to be re-educated or upskilled and equipped with the new skills required for their jobs become redundant or experience job displacement [ 19 ]. Considering the challenges facing vocational education and training, it is likely to disengage people from pursuing a career in vocational education. This is especially true if people perceive vocational education and training to be something they cannot depend on for their career survival and growth in society. These were some of the concerns that Dewey raised in his writing on the vocational aspects of education.

3 Dewey’s vocational aspects of education

This section of the paper presents the salient points of Dewey’s perspectives on vocational aspects of education in his book Democracy and Education, An Introduction to the philosophy of education. Much like today, during the time Dewey wrote about the vocational aspect of education, the world was experiencing the great industrial revolution. The changes that were occurring because of industrialization at that time influenced his writing on the subject. The world today is once again experiencing a new form of industrialization (industrial 4.0).

The vocational aspects of education  consist of three themes: the meaning of vocation, the place of vocational aims in education, and present opportunity and dangers. On the meaning of vocation, Dewey acknowledged the conflict of philosophic theories that focuses on the debate of the proper place and function of vocational factors in education. He stated there is a great gap between the remote and general terms in which philosophic ideas are formulated and the practical and details of vocational education. The philosophic dualisms surrounding the whole subject of vocational education led to his definition of vocation. He defined vocation “as nothing but such a direction of life activities as renders them perceptibly significant to a person, because of the consequences they accomplish and also usefulness to his associates” [ 20 ]. In simple terms, life activities are of significance to a person when a benefit is received or achieved and of significance to others. Dewey’s definition not only focuses on one’s career but one’s whole life activities since for Dewey, limiting vocation to an individual career amounts to aimlessness, capriciousness, the absence of cumulative achievement, inexperience on the personal side, idle display, parasitic dependence on others on the social side. He emphasized that the term occupation is a concrete term for continuity which includes the development of a person's artistic capacity of any kind, a person’s special scientific ability, and a person being an effective citizen as well as professional in business occupation. In his view, we must not limit the idea of vocation to the occupations for which physical commodities are produced and the perception that vocations are distributed exclusively and limited to only a person. To make his point clear, he posits that people have a variety of callings, therefore a person must be effective in all his or her callings. Occupation over time loses its meaning and becomes a routine to keep busy with something that might not be of interest to others. Nobody is just an artist and nothing else and if such a notion prevails such a person is a less developed human being. He expounds his argument by saying a person must at some point become a member of a family, he must have friends and companions. Again, he argues that a person’s vocation as an artist is only a specialised phase of his diverse and variegated vocational activities, therefore the individual must be efficient in it and be associated with his or her other callings. For instance, a person must have experience, he must live, if his or her artistry is to be more than a technical accomplishment. This implies an individual’s vocation must continue to emphasize skills or technical methods at the expense of meaning [ 20 ].

Secondly in his position of the place of vocational aims in education, Dewey sort to establish the role of vocational education in achieving vocational objectives by considering vocational education for the distinctive activity of an individual. Dewey considers occupation to be the only thing that balances the distinctive capacity of an individual with his social service. He argues that knowing what one is fitted to do and pursuing such a calling is the key to happiness and if an individual fails to discover his or her true calling in life or is not able to fulfil his or her true calling because of being forced by a circumstance into an uncongenial calling would be tragic. For Dewey, a right occupation simply means that person's aptitudes are adequate to play and work with minimum friction and maximum satisfaction and by this, a person is useful to the community because of the service they render to the community. Therefore, it is the role of education to discover the abilities of a person and to train him or her to excel because such development will harmoniously benefit society [ 20 ]. Furthermore, Dewey argues that occupation is a continuous activity having a purpose. The point here is that education through the occupation method provides the conditions necessary for conducive learning because it engages a person in learning by doing. He stresses the fact that a career must continue to progress and requires observation and ingenuity because it is through these that obstacles can be overcome, and discoveries can be made. A career is important because it helps us in organizing information and ideas for knowledge and intellectual growth. Again, Dewey contended that the only adequate training for occupations is training through training. Also, Dewey stresses that the educative process is at its end and that the only sufficient preparation for later responsibilities comes by making the most of immediately present life, which applies in full force to the vocational phases of education. Dewey was saying that vocational education is like all other forms of education which must continue the path of progress. For Dewey, if education is aimed at a particular occupation and becomes a strict preparation for future employment then the chances of the person's present development are eliminated [ 20 ].

The final part of Dewey’s vocational aspects of education elaborated on the present opportunities and dangers of vocational education at that time. According to Dewey, the education of the past was purely vocational in the sense that it was distinctly utilitarian. It was purely learning from experience, what can be called an apprenticeship and from school to work was normal. He further noted that the dominant classes in society at that time education was vocational in the sense that vocations or employments involved manual labour, labouring for a reward or money, or rendering a service to a specific person. But for Dewey all other activities that a person engages in are vocational. Therefore, he argues that the “business of directing social concerns, be it political or economic and whether such act is done in a period of war or peace is as much a calling as anything else.” Secondly, vocations that are specifically industrial have gained tremendously in importance in the last century and a half. Manufacturing and commerce were no longer domestic and local but were beyond borders. Manufacturing and commerce employed or gave many people their vocations. Industrialization brought about the problem of social readjustment that occurred through capital and labour. The changes that industrialization brought about affected the relationship between schooling to industrial life [ 20 ]. Thirdly, Dewey realized that industry has ceased to be an empirical rule of thumb procedure handed down by custom but has become technological which is purely based upon machinery resulting from discoveries in mathematics, physics, chemistry, bacteriology, etc. This influenced the demand for education in these areas to acquaint workers with the scientific and social bases and bearings of their pursuits become imperative because those who are unable to acquire the new knowledge and skills eventually sink to the role of appendages to the machine they operate. Fourthly, the pursuit of knowledge has become, in science, more experimental, less dependent upon literary tradition, and less associated with the dialectical method of reasoning, and with symbols. Dewey expressed how the subject matter of industrial occupation has become more of science than it used to and now poses a challenge for greater opportunity for a person to familiarize himself or herself with the method by which knowledge is made [ 20 ]. Finally, Dewey wrote that the advances which have been made in the psychology of learning in general and of childhood all fall into line with the increased importance of industry in life. Dewey concluded that based on the five points the solution to education at that time lies in a gradual reconstruction of school materials and methods to utilize various forms of occupation typifying social callings and to bring out their intellectual and moral content. The reconstruction must relegate purely literary methods including textbooks and dialectical methods to the position of necessary auxiliary tools in the intelligent development of consecutive and cumulative activities [ 20 ].

4 Maslow’s theory of human motivation

As rational human beings, we are motivated by certain needs according to Abraham Maslow’s theory of motivation. These needs help us to engage in certain activities that benefit the individual and society. In 1943, Maslow authored his book on the theory of human motivation by psychologically observing the behaviours of individuals to understand what motivates us as human beings. This is popularly known in the field of psychology as the hierarchy of needs. Evidence from different fields of research points to the contribution of Maslow’s theory of needs in management, psychology, education, etc. Therefore, the application of the theory to vocational education and training will benefit the development of vocational education and training in ways that contributes to workers' and students’ growth and survival.

The main concept of Maslow’s theory of need is that human needs are hierarchical and are characterized by the domination of one need over another. Simply put, the first need must be satisfied before the second, third, fourth, and fifth, respectively. Taormina and Gao [ 21 ], found that the satisfaction of each higher-level need is dependent on the satisfaction of the need that preceded it in the hierarchy, supporting the theory’s concept of dominance. In the same vein, Yuewei and Xi [ 22 ], study on a test of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs concept by a correlational among adult learners’ result reveals that lower-level needs can predict the next higher-level need and recommended Maslow’s theory of needs should follow the low–high to test human needs. Some studies, however, have opposed this idea of dominance. For instance, Mathes [ 23 ], study on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as a guide for living results indicated partial support for the hypothesis that people unknowingly go through life using Maslow’s hierarchy as a guide for living. Mathes, based on the partial results for the hypothesis suggested a revision of Maslow’s hierarchy to be three levels; physiological needs, belongingness, and self-actualization since security needs and esteem needs on the hierarchy were considered superfluous.

Nonetheless, other studies on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs reveal the significance of the theory in certain fields of vocation. Benson and Dundis [ 24 ], argue that to motivate health care employees to do more with fewer resources due to the ever-changing technology, leaders should make employees feel secure, needed, and appreciated. Because for health care employees, Maslow’s model provides a better understanding of individual employees’ needs and that notwithstanding the ever-present and growing technology, meeting the needs, and giving employees training makes the worker more secure, enhances their feeling of belongingness, and self-esteem whiles providing the opportunity for self-actualization. Lussier [ 25 ], also stated that Maslow’s theory of motivation provided a practical theory of management and a broad psychological and social theory that explains the changing social values and needs based on perceived post-war affluence and social movements.

The focus of this paper’s discussion, however, is not particularly on the dominance that each level follows but it is to analyse and synthesize Maslow’s theory of needs significance with Dewey’s vocational aspects of education to understand how these needs influence and motivate individuals’ decision making in terms of their choice of education, training, and career. As mentioned from the beginning, Maslow’s theory of needs is depicted in a hierarchical pyramid order with the less pressing needs starting from the bottom of the pyramid and the most pressing needs at the top of the pyramid. It is expected the lower needs at the bottom of the hierarchy must be satisfied before the individual can proceed to satisfy the next level of needs.

At the bottom of the hierarchy is the physiological needs that relate to human needs that are vital for a human being’s survival. It is the precondition for moving on to the next need on the hierarchy. Such needs include food, water, shelter, sufficient rest, clothing, sex, etc. Human beings will do anything to satisfy this need because their very existence depends on it. Therefore, it is reasonable to say an individual will be motivated to pursue the kind of education and career that can satisfy their physiological needs [ 26 ]. Safety needs are the second need, and it relates to a person's desire to be safe in their living environment. These needs include the need to be safe from violence, fear, theft, have job security, safe from diseases and sickness, etc. The satisfaction of these needs obviously will influence a person’s choice of education and career because human beings desire the kind of job that provides financial security, safer work environment and even to live in a safer home [ 26 ].

The third need on the hierarchy is love and belongingness needs which relate to human interactions or communications. Love and belonging needs cover a person’s social life such as friendship, intimacy, and social affiliations in the workplace. The individual has the desire to satisfy these needs because such needs are about their social recognition in the society. Therefore, such needs affect their choice of education and career [ 26 ]. The fourth need is what Maslow classifies as esteem needs. It relates to the individual’s desire to be self-confident, independent, be respected by fellow human beings in society. The belief is that one is valuable and deserving of dignity and a person is confident in his or her ability to grow and have accomplishments, such accomplishments become the person’s contribution to society [ 26 ].

Self-actualization is the final need and at the top of the hierarchy. It relates to an individual’s ability to fulfil his or her full potential and to become what he or she wants to be. Such needs include continuous education and training, the development and the improvement of skills or talents such as cooking, arts, learning a new language, music, etc. For Maslow, if we can satisfy these needs, we continue to (if not always) feel discontent and restless in our pursuit for more satisfaction unless a person discovers what he or she is fit to do. “A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be happy. What a man can be, he must be” [ 26 ].

McLeod [ 5 ], argues that Maslow’s five-stage model can be categorized as deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four needs from the bottom of the pyramid he labelled deficiency needs and the last need at the top of the pyramid he labelled growth needs. The underlying principle of Maslow’s theory of needs is that everyone has the ability and the desire to climb up the hierarchy to the top of the pyramid (self-actualization) but unfortunately progress or growth is often affected by the failure to achieve the satisfaction of the lower-level need. For example, the loss of the job of an individual is likely to hinder the person’s ability to progress to the next level of the hierarchy. Figure 1 represents Maslow's five staged hierarchy of needs.

Represents Maslow's five staged hierarchy of needs. Source: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. From Maslow, A. H (1970). Motivation and Personality (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row. Reprinted by permission of Harper Collins Publishers

5 Synthesizing Dewey’s vocational aspects of education and Maslow’s theory of human motivation in support of vocational education and training

This section of the paper discusses the main philosophical ideas that have been identified from Dewey’s writing on vocational aspects of education together with Maslow’s theory of motivation. Both writers’ ideas are useful for vocational education and training in the sense that Dewey express what vocational education should offer the individual and society and that is growth and survival. Maslow however helps us to understand this survival and growth since his theory explains what motivates human beings’ vocational career choice which is also survival and growth. From Dewey’s writing on vocational aspects of education, five themes: source of livelihood, sustainable livelihood, soicial recognition, social contribution, academic and career progression are identified and these themes are analysed through the lens of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in support of vocational education and training.

The first is, vocation is a source of livelihood. Livelihood here refers to the means an individual can attain the necessities of life such as food, clothing, shelter, water, etc. Dewey’s definition of vocation “as nothing but such a direction of life activities as renders them perceptibly significant to a person, because of the consequences they accomplish and also usefulness to his associates,” gives us a clear understanding of what vocation is supposed to accomplish in a person’s life. That vocation should be able to provide the individual with some benefits that will be of significance to the individual and the community as well. The idea of vocation as a source of livelihood also highlights the basic most pressing needs of Maslow’s theory of needs, the physiological needs. These are the human needs that are essential for survival, and it includes all forms of livelihood. One of the primary features of vocational education and training is the transition from school or training to the workplace where the individual gains immediate employment after school or training. Individuals who pursue a career in vocational education and training are expected to gain employment after graduation with that employment serving as a source of livelihood or survival [ 27 ]. If a career in vocational education and training fails to employ graduates, and to provide them their livelihoods, then it is likely to demotivate people from pursuing a career in vocational education and training.

Second is livelihood sustainability, that vocation as a source of livelihood must be sustainable. Since vocation is seen as a person’s calling it must be useful to the person in diversified ways that are sustainable. Dewey established that vocation should not be limited to an individual’s career alone because such limitations lead to aimlessness, capriciousness, and the absence of additional experience on the personal level and idle display, parasitic dependence on others on the social level. He, therefore, considers vocation to be a whole life activity and not just a single career. That means a person’s variegated vocation should sustain the individual in terms of job security, financial security, and other social security. For example, a chef can cook while at the same time writing about his creative delicacies for publication and earning additional income from it as a part-time job. These statements can be related to Maslow’s safety needs in the hierarchy as a person’s desire to have the kind of job that can sustain their existence. von Kotze [ 28 ], proposed that planners and providers of vocational education and training should follow three new approaches. The first is that vocational education and training should focus more on the informal economy rather than the formal, secondly, work should be defined as livelihood activities rather than work being defined as employment and thirdly, vocational education and training should be for sustainable livelihood rather than sustainable development.

The third point to consider from Dewey’s vocational aspects of education is social recognition. His assertion that a person must at some point become a member of a family and have friends and companions can be attributed to social recognition. Maslow wrote that human beings desire to be loved and appreciated by family, friends, colleagues, and companions. This can be  related to Maslow’s love and belonging needs on his pyramid of human motivation which involves interpersonal communication in our home, workplace, and community. People desire to be loved and to belong to the right association for social recognition. These desires can influence a person's choice of career goals and life aspirations. Vocational education and training career in this respect should provide the kind of social recognition that will attract people to it. Vocational education and training’s history indicates that such social recognition is limited and needs improvement. As Young and Hordern [ 14 ], pointed out vocational education has endured low esteem and poor quality due to the influence of social class inequalities that stems from the cultural structures in our society. Gericke [ 29 ], also stated for example in Germany occupations are an indicator of social identity and that even if the nature of work matches the interest of young people, the decision to pursue an occupation with unfavourable affiliation will lead to social cost (lack of recognition) so much so that it strongly influences vocational decision-making. To buttress Gericke’s point, vocational psychologist over the years have tried to substantiate the psychological impacts of social class on an individual’s career decision-making processes and outcomes [ 30 ]. For example, research shows that social status was predictive of career decision making self-efficacy and that students choice of career was based on greater economic resources, social power and social prestige [ 31 ].

The fourth point to consider from Dewey’s vocational aspects of education is social contribution. For Dewey, a person’s vocation is the only thing that balances the distinctive capacity of the individual with his or her social service. In other words, a person’s social service represents his or her social contribution to society and it is based on his social contribution that he or she will feel self-respected or self-valued. The idea of social contribution can be  related to the first of Maslow’s higher needs, the esteem needs on the pyramid. According to Maslow's fourth need on the hierarchy, human beings desire self-respect or self-value and for this purpose, a person’s career or vocation must have the distinctive capacity to balance his personality and his social service. A key emphasis that Dewey makes concerning vocational education is the individual ability to discover their capabilities and pursue such capabilities in a way that leads to self-value and self-respect in society. Individual’s ability to individuate and to form a stable personality is vital to his or her social contribution. However, the failure of an individual to discover their true vocation would be tragic because such circumstances will limit their self-esteem. Poor self-esteem will demotivate and affect the person’s career goal setting. Vocational education and training's ability to provide decent livelihoods plays a significant role in fulfilling a person’s esteem needs especially when the individual can discover and pursue their true calling in a manner that leads to continued growth.

The last point to consider in Dewey’s writing on vocational aspects of education is career and academic progression. Dewey stated emphatically that occupation is a continuous activity having a purpose. His assertion was because a career must continue to progress, and it requires observation, and ingenuity to overcome obstacles and make discoveries. To buttress his point, he further explained that the only adequate training for occupation is training through training. This part of Dewey’s writing can be related to Maslow’s higher need on the pyramid which is self-actualization. Self-actualization relates to an individual’s desire to fulfil his or her potential and to become what he or she desires to be. Such needs according to Maslow include having access to continuous education, and the ability to develop and improve upon existing skills or talents. For vocational education and training to be attractive to people, the opportunity for career and academic progress must be considered paramount in vocational education and training programs.

Vocational educational and training's ability to offer its pursuers a reliable source of livelihood and not just livelihoods but a sustainable livelihood and to make social contributions to society has the potential to reduce the challenges humans face in meeting their basic needs. Again, vocational education and training providing the platform for social recognition, career, and academic progression has the potential to erode some of the perceptions of low esteem attached to vocational education and training. Human needs motivate their choices in life; therefore, vocational education and training programs or careers end goals must prioritize human needs. Table 1 shows the relatedness between the identified themes from Dewey's vocational aspect of education and Maslow's theory of motivation.

6 Conclusion and recommendations

This paper sort to analyse Dewey’s writing on vocational aspects of education to identify and relate the main ideas from the book to Abraham Maslow’s theory of needs in support of Vocational Education and Training. Upon the critical content analysis of Dewey’s vocational aspects of education, five themes; sources of livelihood, sustainable livelihood, social recognition, social contributions, academic and career progression were identified as key ideas that are similar Maslow’s physiological needs, safety needs, love, and belonging needs, esteem needs and self-actualization which serves as motivation for people’s vocational career goals. Dewey argues that vocation is a calling, and it covers a person’s entire life activities, Maslow however, argues that his theory of needs explains human motivation for engagement in life activities. The findings from this study demonstrates how a person choice of vocation is paramount to his/her survival and growth. However, choosing the right vocation is a complex task, one that requires the individual’s self-realisation to be able to determine his or her competences. To borrow Dewey’s words, the term vocation is a concrete term for continuity which includes the development of a person’s artistic capacity of any kind, a person’s special scientific ability and a person’s being an effective citizen as well as professional in business [ 20 ]. In this regard, it is important that a person carefully consider their choice of vocation in terms of economic and social sustainability. Societal and economic changes have redefined the concept of work in today’s economy, one that is different from the industrial revolution, but it has not change what vocation is expected to offer to the individual and society. A key factor that influenced Dewey’s writing on the vocational aspects of education in his book at that time was the advent of the industrial revolution where machines were gradually replacing workforce in the production of goods and services. Dewey rightly emphasized in his book how Industrialization brought about the problem of social readjustment in a way that affected capital and labour at that time. The changes that industrialization brought about affected the relationship between schooling to industrial life. Today, factors such as globalization, technology, demographic change, and digitalization demand social readjustment because the changes these factors bring have a profound impact on capital and labour. These factors require a new set of skills and training if vocational education and training can successfully provide its pursuers decent and sustainable livelihoods, help them make contributions to society, receive recognition for their achievements, and to progress both in academics and careers.

According to UNESCO, [ 32 ] vocational education and training encompasses education, training, and skills development that covers a wide variety of occupational fields, production services, and livelihood. This implies that vocational education and training employs a greater number of people in different sectors of a country’s economy. Therefore, if vocational education and training is to excel in its role in modern society, then vocational educational stakeholders must consider the following measures. Firstly, the planning, design, and implementation of vocational education and training programs in various levels of institutions should focus on the factors shaping the world of work such as demographic change, climate change, technology, globalization, to reduce the occurrence of skills mismatch in the labour market. The focus of vocational education and training programs offered by various institutions should not only be an acquisition of operational skills but also transferrable skills. Skills such as analytical and critical thinking skills, people skills, teamwork, oral and written communication, time management, and leadership are essential to personal development and career success. Additionally, there should be a strong vocational education and training campaign in especially developing countries that promotes and encourage the youth to participate in vocational education and training programs, especially in areas that are of interest to their national economy. Finally, for contemporary vocational education and training to be attractive and to be pursued by the young generation, the ideas expressed in Dewey’s vocational aspect of education and Maslow’s hierarchy of motivation should be considered by vocational education and training stakeholders when making vocational education career choice.

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Takyi Mensah, E., Chen, M., Ntim, S.Y. et al. Analysing Dewey’s vocational aspects of education and Maslow’s theory of motivation in support of vocational education and training. Discov Educ 2 , 18 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-023-00042-1

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Received : 31 January 2023

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