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The Sport Management Case Studies Repository contains information on 1697 resources for using the case study method to teach sport management concepts. If you know precisely what you are looking for, you can use the keyword search feature in the left column. If you would like to browse the repository, the menu across the top allows for the specification of sources , industry segments , content areas , global contexts , and years .

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The McCormack Case Study Collection

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In 2017, the McCormack Center launched a custom case study collection designed to further enrich the educational experience of future sport leaders around the globe. 100+ institutions have adopted McCormack cases written by leading sport management faculty members and sport industry practitioners.

The McCormack Case Study Collection challenges students to think strategically across diverse industry segments. Case topics and industry collaborations include:

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Case Studies in Sport Management Latest Publications

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Leveraging Sports Events for LGBTQ2+ Inclusion: Supporting Innovation in Organizational Culture and Practices

In this case study, learners are introduced to Sloane, a diversity and inclusion officer who is working to create more inclusive sport and recreation opportunities in her community. A national-level sport event will be hosted in her community and provides an opportunity to elevate and accelerate the work she is already doing with sport and recreation organizations. Learners will develop an understanding of two key themes: LGBTQ2+ inclusion and event leveraging. Working through the case will require learners to think critically about sexuality and gender identity in the context of sport participation and organizations. Furthermore, learners will have the opportunity to think creatively about how they can support innovation in organizational cultures and practices with a view to fostering more inclusive, welcoming, and safe sport organizations.

When Hockey Won’t Sell in Minnesota: Using Design Thinking to Innovate the Ticket Service

This case study asks students to assume the role of a ticket sales strategist hired to work as a consultant for the University of Minnesota Golden Gopher athletic department. In this case, you will be asked to work with members of the Gopher Fan Advisory Board to develop service innovations in the area of ticket sales. As a sales and marketing consultant, you will examine existing data on spectator attendance trends and focus group interviews to determine the current issues facing the athletic department. Then, you will be asked to suggest the manners by which the athletic department should innovate the ticket service, using a design thinking approach to grow ticket sales and spectator attendance for the men’s hockey program.

Sport4Change: Adapting to COVID-19 Through Innovation

The case explores how Sport4Change will adapt its sport-for-development (SFD) programs in response to the current uncertainty presented by COVID-19. Being able to innovate program operations, implementation, and delivery is key to the success and long-term sustainability of Sport4Change, and changing program strategies needs to be done correctly given the organization’s varying locations around the world. Making such decisions requires consideration of the various contexts in which Sport4Change works, understanding diverse options to implement SFD through technological or remote means, and aligning remote delivery and operations with each SFD location and their in-person program focus and goals in order to come up with solutions to ensure SFD remains impactful during COVID-19.

An Innovative Approach to Increasing Youth Sport Participation: The Case of Baseball5™

Youth sport participation preferences are evolving and shifting toward unorganized, nontraditional types of sport participation. This trend has left more traditional sports with decreasing participation numbers. Baseball Canada noticed a similar trend and therefore implemented an innovative approach to increase interest and participation in baseball. This case study follows Alex, the Manager of Sport Development at Baseball Canada, as they develop and evaluate Baseball5™, an innovative street version of the traditional sport of baseball. This alternative form of baseball needs to be tested and evaluated in five pilot programs throughout Canada. Alex collects survey, interview, and focus group data following each of the pilot programs to determine whether the approach is viable for increasing interest in baseball long term. After reading the case, students are tasked with analyzing the collected data and designing the Baseball5™ program for long-term implementation. The case is ideal for upper year undergraduate students who have the skills and knowledge necessary to execute program evaluations and build holistic program implementation plans, and for undergraduate courses in research methods or data analysis.

Recruiting Women to a Male-Dominated Activity: A Case Study of Women’s Nonparticipation in Fantasy Sport

Fantasy Sports Collection, Inc. (FSC) is a fantasy sport organization offering fantasy play since 2005. Having plateaued in consumer growth, FSC is faced with difficult financial decisions. In a brainstorming session regarding new initiatives, Molly Brinkmeyer suggested an idea to purposefully market to and recruit more women to preestablished offerings. Molly’s reasons driving this idea were the fact that only 14% of their consumers were women and, after an evaluation of FSC’s marketing campaigns, employees of FSC quickly saw that advertisements were overtly produced for men. FSC’s management team felt that this was an idea worth pursuing. They charged Molly with acquiring information about women’s fantasy sport participation and gave her a 3-week window to learn more and report back. She found that women’s top perceptions of the activity were that: (a) the activity was time consuming; (b) the activity required research, surveillance, and information; (c) they had no interest or understanding of it; (d) they felt the activity was too competitive; (e) they thought it wasn’t real; and (f) they still had a positive opinion of fantasy sport. With this new information, marketing decisions could now be made to address existing concerns by women regarding fantasy sport participation.

One Nation, Two Teams: Repositioning the Toronto Blue Jays Among the Threat of a New Entrant

While many teams face difficult decisions regarding their branding, this case emphasizes how external factors can dictate marketing strategies. The Montreal Expos returning to Major League Baseball poses many threats and opportunities for the Toronto Blue Jays. As a result, the Blue Jays must reconsider their use of national identity in their branding—and whether it is appropriate to transition from being Canada’s only team to now sharing the market with the Expos. Nevertheless, the Expos’ return to Major League Baseball provides the Blue Jays with an opportunity to explore new marketing strategies. Case participants are tasked with repositioning the Blue Jays’ marketing strategy in response to the Expos’ return.

Developing a Cash Budget for the Savannah Squares

Like many sport organizations, the Savannah Squares Minor League Baseball franchise is a seasonal business. The team earns most of its revenue during the playing season and must manage its cash effectively throughout the fiscal year. Fixed costs and other cash expenditures often fall into a pattern that differs from the cash receipts schedule. Poor cash management, inaccurate budgets, and improper execution of annual budgets lead to costly cash shortfalls. For the Savannah Squares, annual pro forma budgets have predicted tight but positive earnings for the past few years; however, monthly shortages have led to penalties and late fees that ate into profits and caused financial strain on the organization. Using historical trends and other available data, Juan Hernandez has decided to create a cash budget to identify months with cash surpluses and shortfalls so that he can implement better cash management strategies.

Innovate Sports Officiating With Design Thinking

Youth sports is facing a crisis that threatens the ecosystem of youth sports. Innovation—the ability to generate and execute new ideas—is needed to stem the negative tide of a declining and aging officiating pool and improve the recruitment and retention of sports officials. Without creative problem solving and innovation by many different stakeholders in youth sports, the benefits that children receive from participating in sports are threatened by the lack of qualified officials to referee competitive games and matches. This case pushes students well past the news headlines of angry parents yelling at officials and deep into several problem spaces that emerge from the application of design thinking. Students are introduced to design thinking and prompted to innovate solutions to problems framed using the design thinking process. Students can select a preidentified problem space, then work through an ideation session facilitated by the instructor.

Hey Alexa, Launch Twitch: Using Sport Sponsorship to Drive Business Development

In this case study, students will explore how sport sponsorship can be used to drive business development. They will follow the fictitious story of Amazon, developing a plan to expand its operations into the Middle East through the eSports platform Twitch. Twitch, a video game livestreaming site has contributed to the rise popularity of eSports. Thanks to its appeal to the youth demographic, it is revealed Twitch offers a unique platform that can give Amazon a competitive advantage. This aligns with the Middle East’s increasing interest in becoming a global sport leader. After further exploring the Middle East market, the potential value of this sponsorship will be determined. In addition, business-to-consumer strategies will be consulted to justify the plan put forward by Amazon. Learning objectives include understanding the role of new media and being able to understand the early phases of a sponsorship plan.

Empty Stands and Empty Pockets: Revenue Generation in a Pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic changed not only the way professional sports were played in 2020, but also changed the way sport-related organizations had to operate. An example of this is a fictional sports app, FanStand, that primarily offered opportunities for sports teams to engage fans through team information, in-game trivia and contests, services at games, and the purchasing of tickets and merchandise. The primary use of the app was inside arenas and stadiums, meaning that when COVID-19 stopped all play, the app was not used. Even as professional sport returned to play, fans were not attending in-person games and were not using the app. The purpose of this case study is to consider how apps like FanStand can generate revenue during the COVID-19 outbreak and beyond, using strategic and operational planning, as well as stakeholder theory, to account for various groups and individuals who are impacted by the decisions FanStand makes during this time.

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Perspective article, the future is now: preparing sport management graduates in times of disruption and change.

• 1 School of Kinesiology, Western University, London, ON, Canada
• 2 Catapult Career Advantage, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada

COVID-19 disrupted the world, and the impacts have been experienced in many areas, including sport and higher education. Sport management academicians need to reflect on the past two years' experience, determine what worked and what did not work, and avoid the temptation of automatically returning to past practices. The authors of this manuscript applied the disruption literature and propose transformative changes in what sport management academicians teach (e.g., greater emphasis on innovation, entrepreneurship, automation, critical thinking skills to facilitate working in flexible environments and across areas), how colleagues teach (e.g., heightened integration of technology, blended learning models) and where colleagues teach (on-campus and distal delivery modes, asynchronous and synchronous delivery to students on campus and across regions/countries). Examples of start-up companies and entrepreneurial ventures are offered to help illustrate the changing sports landscape and the emerging opportunities for current and future students, graduates, and professors. Sport management professors are offered some suggestions to assist them in seizing this opportunity.

Introduction

The late Harvard professor Clayton Christensen introduced the concept of “disruptive innovation” to the business literature by describing how nimble and future-oriented organizations did things differently, and in doing so, effectively differentiated themselves from their competitors. These organizations accurately forecasted trends, precisely determined emerging consumer wants and needs, and effectively delivered new or adapted programs and services that heightened their competitive advantage and increased their market share ( Christensen and Eyring, 2011 ; Christensen et al., 2011 ). Less agile organizations led by leaders who refused to embrace strategic change were negatively impacted and put out of business in some cases. History has provided countless examples of companies and industries that have followed this course. Estrin (2015) chronicled one of the most poignant examples of a company not paying attention to the changing times in the example of Kodak. This company was once the industry leader in the field of photography. According to Estrin (2015) , Steve Sasson, a young engineer, pitched the futuristic idea of the digital camera to the firm in 1975. Leaders summarily dismissed the idea and quickly pointed to Kodak's leadership position in the film and image reproduction areas. Unfortunately, they missed the bigger picture, and when Fuji and Nikon developed their digital camera 10 years later, Kodak paid the price. Five years after this launch, Kodak was out of business ( Estrin, 2015 ).

Other examples of industries being disrupted can be observed in how Nike trumpeted Reebok in the athletic apparel and footwear fields or how Netflix transformed the video rental business with electronic delivery that quickly put Blockbuster out of business. Think of the impact that both Uber and Airbnb have had on the ride-sharing and hotel industries. Organizations must anticipate changes in their industry and adapt their strategies and practices. Failure to do so puts them at risk of being left behind. COVID-19 has accelerated the need for industries and their practices to adapt ( Huber and Sneader, 2021 ).

Industry leaders must also embrace technological advancements. Despite their recent entries into the marketplace, organizations that have embraced innovation and technology have redefined their industries and are thriving (e.g., Amazon, Shopify, Google, Uber, Airbnb, Skip the Dishes). Huber and Sneader (2021) suggested that some of the practices forced on providers and consumers during COVID-19 will remain long after the pandemic subsides. They offered examples like telehealth, e-commerce, and heightened use of automation as examples of the changes necessitated by the pandemic, but likely to become standard practice.

Furthermore, the start-up/venture capitalist culture has risen in the 21st century and has disrupted many markets ( Christensen, 2003 ). A start-up company is defined as a newly founded organization or entrepreneurial venture in the beginning phases of development ( Cannone and Ughetto, 2014 ). These organizations are nimble, meet a need, and are adaptable ( Robehmed, 2013 ). According to Lee (2016) , they have a different organizational culture than traditional organizations. They require less “bricks and mortar” infrastructure and rely more on spaces that facilitate idea generation, heightened synergy, and technology interfaces for remote collaborations ( Lee, 2016 ). These characteristics appeal to many recent graduates seeking an appropriate blend of challenge and freedom in their work experiences ( Gabrielson, 2019 ). Given the disruptive forces impacting sport, they may prove to be a growth area for sport management graduates.

Disruptive Impacts on Sport

Significant changes are taking place in how society engages in sport as participants and spectators. Attendance at some professional sporting events has been in decline in many markets over the past decade ( Stebbins, 2017 ; Damgaard, 2018 ; Suneson, 2019 ), and it typically comprised of older fans ( Bryne, 2020 ). COVID-19 significantly altered attendance patterns, and as some suggest, permanently ( Ratten, 2020 ; Wilson, 2021 ). Many sports leagues were shut down, and others were required to operate with limited numbers of spectators. Out of necessity, fans were forced to consume sport through television and social media vehicles ( Goldman and Hedlund, 2020 ; Hull and Romney, 2020 ). Mastromartino et al. (2020) suggested that broadcasting and social media advancements have enriched and transformed the fan experience. Will fans return to their previous ways of physically attending games once the pandemic subsides? Some ( Mastromartino et al., 2020 ; Ratten, 2020 ; Wilson, 2021 ) suggest that many will not.

Given the consumption pattern shifts and the economic consequences of COVID-19, it is reasonable to assume that the traditional size of the sports organizations that previously employed our graduates will be smaller, and those working in these organizations might be required to do more with less. Some graduates may need to assume new or expanded roles. Current and future graduates will need to be critical thinkers, flexible, adaptable, and confident working across disciplinary areas. Some may wish to strike out on their own and use their entrepreneurial backgrounds to create their own employment ( Escamilla-Fajardo et al., 2020 ). Some may find employment in alternative settings like start-up companies. These realities point to the undeniable fact that sport management students will need a new kind of education—one that prepares them to be highly adaptable, innovative, and progressive. They will need to be entrepreneurial. They will need to understand automation ( Johnson, 2020 ) and the impacts that technological advancements have on our field, and their employment prospects.

The Sport and Technology Connection

Technology and sport have become increasingly dependent on each other during the COVID-19 period. The authors of this manuscript and others (e.g., Readwrite., 2018 ; Pizzo et al., 2018 ; Proman, 2019 ; Reitman et al., 2019 ; Finch et al., 2020 ) predict that technology will exponentially increase in the coming years create boundless opportunities for progressive leaders in sport management. This scenario may be especially true for those who embrace start-up industries in sport (e.g., esport), which will use technology to keep fixed costs low and penetrate emerging markets ( Finch et al., 2020 ).

The start-up company concept originated in the Silicon Valley in the 1980s ( Larsen and Rogers, 1984 ). According to Fontinelle (2020) , start-up companies emerged to develop and deliver unique products or services that could more effectively meet the needs of the marketplace. These companies typically started small before expanding into larger enterprises. Some of today's leading companies (e.g., Amazon, Shopify, Microsoft, McDonald's, Apple) began as start-up companies.

However, according to Au (2017) , the sports marketplace is one of the more difficult sectors for new brands to integrate. In Canada, there are only a few incubators and sports laboratories to support start-up companies. Some, like Ryerson University's Future of Sport Lab , is a joint effort between the university and Maple Leaf Sport and Entertainment (MLSE) and is an incubation hub that supports research and innovation that often leads to partnerships with private or public funding groups ( Start-up Here Toronto, 2019 ). The University of Guelph proudly supports the International Institute for Sport Business and Leadership (n.d), a start-up that brings academic and industry leaders together to identify and pursue action research projects. These kinds of programs represent the new thinking that is required in sport management. The emergence of other start-up companies in sport highlights the explosive growth of this area.

Virtual Reality (VR) and, in particular, esports represent a rapidly growing segment in the sports industry ( Jonasson and Thiborg, 2010 ; Funk et al., 2018 ; Collis, 2020 ), and by extension, an area that sport management scholars should integrate into their teaching and research programs. While initially designed for children and youth, interest and participation have also spawned into older populations. According to Clement (2021) , there were 2B world-wide video gamers in 2015, and the number is expected to grow to 3B by 2023. The Canadian Sport Daily (2020) supported this growth prediction by reporting that there were 2.7B worldwide video gamers by the end of 2020. Alton (2019) noted similar growth in viewership of competitive gaming events. She noted that esports had a world-wide fan base in excess of 454M, up from 380M in 2018 ( Willingham, 2018 ) and was experiencing a growth rate of a 14% per year. In comparison, and prior to the onset of pre-COVID-19, the NCAA Men's “March Madness” Basketball Tournament had viewership that maximized at 28M ( Wilson, 2021 ). Imagine the advertising and branding opportunities esports provides corporations looking to reach a young and emerging market. Some speculate that esports games will soon be included in major international events, such as the Asian Games in 2022 and the Paris Olympics in 2024 ( Kocadag, 2019 ). The future for esport is bright ( Mulcahy, 2019 ). Advancements in, and access to technology will fuel future growth. The same could be said for another growth area in sport, namely, legalized gambling. Online sports gambling is proving to be a highly profitable and permanent fixture impacting sports spectatorship. Are sport management scholars also discussing these developments in their classrooms, and are they preparing graduates to compete in these types of emerging areas? Sport and sport management have been disrupted, and as noted below, so have the institutions traditionally preparing sport management graduates and leaders of the future.

Disruptive Impacts on Higher Education

Kak (2018) and Levin (2021) have called for significant change in higher education for some time. They argued that the 20th-century models need to be updated in terms of what is taught and how it is delivered. Automation, artificial intelligence, hologram technology, and advances in telecommunications offer unlimited opportunities for changing how academic programs can be constructed and delivered.

Govindarajan et al. (2021) suggested that COVID-19 has accelerated the change process. As a result of COVID-19, lecture theaters and campuses were abandoned, and professors were forced to integrate technology and implement remote teaching strategies for their students. Naturally, there were bumps along the way given this sudden shift. Professors and students both claimed to have missed the relationship-building aspects that in-person delivery offers to support and inspire learning. However, while many students and professors struggled with this adaptation and longed for pre-pandemic practices, some students and professors thrived in this new environment. Many would like some of these new practices to continue. Some students have reported that they liked the pace and flexibility of taking their classes remotely and in an asynchronous format. Many stayed at home and saved money previously spent on transportation, accommodations, and parking. Professors found that the heightened use of technology could enrich their courses. Small group discussions could be effectively facilitated through virtual chat rooms. Professors could integrate internationally-renowned experts into their courses who didn't need to travel to deliver guest lectures. In some sectors of our campuses, productivity increased. The pandemic proved that there were other ways of delivering higher education, and once again, necessity proved to be the “mother of invention.”

As a result, Levin (2021) and Govindarajan et al. (2021) encouraged professors and program leaders to reflect deeply on the needs of students, the content of courses, and be open to adopting some of the practices that had to be implemented during the pandemic. Perhaps programs, courses, or parts of each could be more effectively delivered in virtual or a hybrid of virtual and face-to-face formats. They made a case for progressively integrating more digital technologies (e.g., remote delivery, holograms) to enrich learning. Some students may prefer the benefits of remote delivery (or perhaps some combination of time on campus and time in remote delivery modes). If this delivery option exists, new cohorts of students might be drawn to the sector. Recognizing the benefits and cost savings of some remote learning, in whole or part, might prompt some institutions to reduce their infrastructure footprint. Some campuses could adopt a blended model where students in the first and final years have an on-campus experience, while those in the middle years consume their programs from a remote setting. Some of the more reputable institutions may take this opportunity to significantly expand their high-demand programs previously restricted by space realities.

Think of the cost savings for some students if they did not have to be on campus for their entire university experience. Think of program expansion opportunities if courses, programs, or parts of programs could be delivered through distance education. Consider the cost savings if universities could more discriminately rationalize program offering and efficiently share courses or parts of programs with other institutions. Incremental revenue could be generated from selling or renting some freed-up land or buildings. The high costs of constructing and operating facilities could be reduced. Program officials could offer more courses in asynchronous formats so students could consume their courses at a pace and time that is advantageous to them. Academic leaders and governing boards more effectively future-proof higher education by adopting some of these practices. Fiscal realities and societal pressure might demand such action.

It is a challenging time, and neither sport nor sport management educational programs are immune from the disruptive forces and seismic changes outlined above. Graduates are now entering employment opportunities that are less structured, more fluid, and less permanent ( Vedder et al., 2013 ). The situation has been exponentially accelerated by the economic and labor market disruptions of COVID-19 ( Gentilini et al., 2020 ). Bold questions must be addressed. Are colleagues delivering what sport management students need? Are they preparing graduates to be thought leaders who are entrepreneurial, independent, and confident to navigate careers in times of rapid societal change? Are graduates critical thinkers who can adapt and work across a number of areas given the anticipated smaller workforces? Is the content of sport management programs cutting-edge and progressive? Are the tuition and related educational cost structures for students realistic and affordable given the market forces, value propositions, and economic times (i.e., current and predicted)? Sport management colleagues must adapt to thrive given the changes taking place in sport, sport management, and higher education ( Christensen and Eyring, 2011 ; Christensen et al., 2011 ).

COVID-19 has been a devastating virus that has disrupted society in innumerable ways. It will also have far-reaching implications on institutions of higher learning and in the ways that society participates or consumes sport. Organizations that prevail will be nimble, progressive, and innovative. Implementing some or all of the suggestions outlined below could improve and modernize our academic programs. Colleagues can lead change by:

1. Developing and delivering a curriculum that covers the traditional areas like leadership, finance, economics, analytics, as well as the emerging areas in the field like innovation, entrepreneurship, automation, artificial intelligence, and start-up companies.

2. Expanding experiential learning opportunities for students beyond the traditional sport settings and include opportunities in emerging organizations like start-up companies. Students need to understand the rules of engagement in emerging technologies and the realities of working in agile, risk-taking ventures.

3. Implementing higher levels of technology into the curriculum to bring world experts into the digital classrooms. Industry leaders (from across the globe) can be beamed into digital classrooms with minimal expense via Zoom or hologram technologies. Technological advancements allow for virtual meeting rooms where smaller groups of students can have deeper discussions and reflection sessions.

4. Using technology to share courses and professors between campuses and expanding digital platforms to reach more students in synchronous and asynchronous formats. Many universities are facing fiscal challenges. Courses between campuses could be shared to enrich the experience and preparation of students at little or no cost to the host institutions. Sport management could be leaders in this synergistic approach.

5. Ensuring that guest speakers, case studies, and classroom examples are drawn for diverse fields (e.g., start-up companies, venture capitalists, e-sports, gaming, fantasy sports, sports gambling) in addition to those from traditional sports settings.

6. Expanding experiential learning opportunities for students by investing in case competitions that include examples from start-up companies and other emerging areas in the field. These rich learning opportunities allow students the opportunity to apply course content and, if also drawn from emerging industries, can help keep the program current. To increase application and underscore relevance, have practitioners pose the challenge question and involve them in evaluating the proposed solutions.

The impact of COVID-19 has accelerated the need for change in sport, sport management and in the institutions that house sport management educational programs. Sport management colleagues are encouraged to reflect on the suggestions outlined above and ensure that the programs delivered to students align with the current and emerging developments in the industry and in higher education.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author Contributions

JW took the lead in the preparation of this article. ME-K, GB, and ZW are former students and sport management leaders who have experience in the industry, recognize the disruption that has taken place in recent years, and have experience working with recent graduates of our sport management programs, and provided helpful insights and examples that have been integrated into this article. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

GB was employed by company Catapult Career Advantage.

The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: disruption, higher education, sport management, preparation, COVID-19

Citation: Weese WJ, El-Khoury M, Brown G and Weese WZ (2022) The Future Is Now: Preparing Sport Management Graduates in Times of Disruption and Change. Front. Sports Act. Living 4:813504. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2022.813504

Received: 11 November 2021; Accepted: 31 January 2022; Published: 10 March 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Weese, El-Khoury, Brown and Weese. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: W. James Weese, jweese1@uwo.ca

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Defining sport management case study research

This is an excerpt from research methods and design in sport management by damon andrew,paul m. pedersen & chad mcevoy..

Sport management scholars, students, and practitioners can turn to the case study as a research tool when they want to gain a deeper understanding of an actual (real-life) sport industry phenomenon or issue (e.g., decision-making processes used by athletic directors, the effects of team relocation, a sport merchandise company's approach to expanding globally). Investigators can use case study methodology to verify a theory in the real world (e.g., examining the validity of a theory in a particular sport organization or situation), to study the precise characteristics of a unique situation in order to make comparisons to other situations, or to research a phenomenon that has not been studied in order to discover new features (Ghauri & Gronhaug, 2005). Therefore, in addition to examining and solving practical issues in the sport industry, case study research in sport management can also involve testing existing theoretical concepts or even creating new theories (Maylor & Blackmon, 2005). In case study theory-testing work, the investigator can examine a case in order to evaluate, strengthen, or challenge a theoretical proposition (Edwards, 1998).

Case studies typically explore, describe, illustrate, or explain a selected phenomenon in sport management. Case study research comes in three types (i.e., serves three purposes) that often overlap in sport management: explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive (Maylor & Blackmon, 2005). As detailed by Yin (2003), exploratory and descriptive case studies often answer research questions that address who, what, when, and where. In explanatory case studies, however, the investigator seeks to answer questions about how and why. For example, you could use an explanatory study to gain understanding of how sport marketing professionals have used a particular promotion to sustain consistently high attendance regardless of their team's wins and losses. You could also use an explanatory case study if you wanted to understand why baseball ownership and management failed to adequately address the issue of steroids in the 1990s. Most case studies in sport management are focused on answering the how and why research questions.

Communication studies pioneer Wilbur Schramm (1971) illustrates the use of these questions in his definition of a case study: “The essence of a case study is that it tries to illuminate a decision or set of decisions: why they were taken, how they were implemented, and with what results” (p. 21). Denizen and Lincoln (1998b) explain that the term case study is used “because it draws attention to the question of what specifically can be learned from a single case” (p. 86). The most widely accepted definition is offered by Yin (2003): “A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (p. 13). Yin continues by noting that a case study “relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing to converge in a triangulating fashion, and . . . benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions to guide data collection and analysis” (p. 14). Thus, a sport management case study is a research strategy built on theory and involving multiple sources of data collection (e.g., interviews, observations, documents).

Moving forward from these general definitions, a researcher can find numerous ways to frame sport management research in relation to popular definitions of case study. For instance, in applying Zikmund's (1991) definition to sport management, we would define a case study as an exploratory research technique used in sport management to intensively investigate a situation. Kirk's (1995) definition is also excellent when applied to sport management: A case study is examining (e.g., observing, exploring) certain factors of a sport management subject (e.g., people, company, organization, system) for some period of time.

A sport management investigator using case study methodology focuses on a specific, actual phenomenon in a practical, natural, or real context. For example, Amis et al. (2004) examined radical change in organizations by looking at the influence of various factors (e.g., organizational capacity, power, interest) in six uniquely designed Canadian national sport organizations. The typical case study—which involves little (and usually no) intervention, manipulation of behavior, or control over the events being studied by the investigator (Velde et al., 2004)—is facilitated through the use of several research strategies—for example, content analysis, use of a survey instrument, and archival procedures. In the study by Amis et al. (2004), their two primary research strategies involved conducting interviews and performing documentary analyses of governmental reports and newspaper articles. Because a case study uses several research methodologies, it should not be viewed as synonymous with an observation study or a historical treatise. For instance, although a contemporary case study researcher in sport management functions in a fashion similar to that of a sport historian in examining documents, artifacts, and archives, he or she also tends to use other sources of evidence (e.g., observations) not typically used by historians.

A case study generally entails in-depth examination of a single case (e.g., a certain sport industry phenomenon, group, situation, team, event, organization, or process). Even though a case study involves only one unit (N=1), the research process engages many variables and requires data collection and integrative interpretation (Ghauri & Gronhaug, 2005) of information from multiple sources, such as interviews with sport management personnel, observations of fans, archival data from organizational files, historical information, surveys of sport event participants, and analyses of documents (e.g., sport marketing plans, team budget and financial reports, newspaper articles, advertisements). As explained by Velde et al. (2004), case study research addresses the “degree to which the results and conclusions of the various data collection methods point in the same direction” (p. 79). In addition to the single-case approach (e.g., examining one sport organization), case study research can also involve studying multiple cases (e.g., performing a comparative case study of several sport organizations). Therefore, in the next section we examine both the single-case and the multiple-case study designs associated with this qualitative methodological approach.

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Perceived Impact of Short Term Experiential Education Activities: The GolfWeek Amateur Tour Case Study

Authors: Dexter J. Davis, Ed.D. & Timothy J. Newman, Ed.D.

Corresponding Author: Dexter J. Davis Ed.D. 11O Business Administration Building University of Tennessee-Martin Martin, TN, 38237 731-881-7369 [email protected]

Dexter Davis is an Associate Professor of Sport Business and Program Coordinator at the University of Tennessee at Martin, where he oversees a robust Experiential Learning program. He is also a non-residential faculty member at the United States Sports Academy

Timothy Newman is Clinical Assistant Professor and Sport Management Program Coordinator at Georgia State University, the author of textbook Social Media in Sport Marketing, and a non-residential faculty member at the United States Sports Academy.

Perceived Impact of Short Term Experiential Education Activities: The Golfweek Amateur Tour Case Study

ABSTRACT The “big business” of sport has captured the attention of both students and administrators across the country and around the global, resulting in nearly 230 sport management programs across North America alone. The purpose of this article is to examine one approach to assisting students to create a competitive advantage for themselves in the job market, a short term experiential education activity at the GolfWeek Amateur Tour National Championships. Using a post-event survey, student perceptions of the impact of this event on their professional growth were examined. The results indicate that students felt that this experience had a positive impact on their professional growth and preparedness for a career in the highly competitive sport industry. Future research is needed to determine if short term experiential education activities have an impact on student learning outcomes.

Keywords: Experiential Education, Sport Management Education, Foster Five-Step Experiential Learning Model

INTRODUCTION The sport industry is often seen as a place of much glitz and glamour. Estimates are that globally, the sport industry generates close to $91 billion of revenue annually (A.T. Kearney, 2018). This “big business” has captured the attention of students and administrators across the country and around the globe. Students flock to sport business/sport management programs in hopes of gaining entry into this industry. While one can safely assume that ample “classroom activity” is present in the nearly 230 programs self-identified on the North American Society for Sport Management website (NASSM, 2016), most successful students engage in a wide range of experiential learning activities, often starting very early in their academic careers (Hayes-Sauder & Davis, 2017).

In the textbook, Experiential Learning in Sport Management: Internships and Beyond, Susan Foster sets forth an experiential learning model that engages students across the entire curriculum, encompassing everything from early career exploration and shadowing activities to culminating internships (Foster & Dollar, 2010). This model was developed from a large body of scholarly research, gleaned both from general research studies (Bridgstock, 2009; Dewey, 1938; Kolb, 1984; Thiel, & Hartley, 1997) and within the sport management discipline (Cunningham & Sagas, 2004; Schneider & Stier, 2006; Southall, Nagel, LaGrande, & Han, 2003).

In addition to this strong scholarly base, accrediting bodies such as the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC), the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB), and the Commission on Sport Management Accreditation (COSMA) have long touted experiential learning as an important piece of the educational process. A quick search of any of these organizations’ websites reveals a wide range of material regarding their positions on the importance of, the implementation of, and numerous other topics related to experiential education (AACSB, 2016; COSMA, 2016; SACSCOC, 2016).

As a result of both this scholarly support and the expectations of accrediting bodies, the University of Tennessee at Martin (UTM) has been very intentional in the development of experiential learning activities for its Sport Business Program. Using a slightly modified version of the Foster Model, the program has developed a sequence of experiences that have provided it with unprecedented exposure to both internal and external publics and has led to continued growth, even in a time of declining enrollments across the larger University.

Approximately five years ago, the Sport Business curriculum (then called Sport Management) was relocated from the Health and Human Performance Department (HHP) into the Management, Marketing, and Information Systems Department (MMIS), housed within the College of Business and Global Affairs (CBGA). During its time in HHP, the Sport Management program was basically a hybrid degree, with course-work in exercise science, education, and general business (D. Gibson, personal communication, 2016). This structure was “unworkable” and therefore the move to MMIS was made. At that time, an intentional decision was made to make experiential education the primary focus of the program, using the Foster Model as the framework for this approach.

The Foster Model Since its inception as an academic discipline, Sport Management (or Sport Business) has had an emphasis on practical applications of the unique nature of the implementation of general business principles to the sport industry (Masteralexis, Barr, & Hums, 1998). The first sport management program grew out of a proposed curriculum that was jointly developed by the owner of a professional baseball team, Walter O’Malley, Los Angeles Dodgers, and college physical education professor, Dr. James Mason, University of Miami (Parkhouse, 1991). Even that earliest curriculum was “hands-on” in which pronounced importance was given to the internship component, allowing for the application of skills examined in the classroom in a practical setting (Mason, Higgins, & Wilkinson, 1981). In one of the early professional conferences relating to the business of sport, Kelly, DeSensi, Beitel, and Blanton (1989) stated that “it should be noted that students need assistance in making the transition from theoretically based course work, and principles learned in the classroom, to the direct application of these theories in the sport management setting” (p. 4). Since that early proclamation of the need for applied activities, a steady stream of academic research has been published that examines the value of a variety of experiential learning activities, which led to the development of the Foster Five-Step Experiential Learning Model (the Foster Model) (Foster & Dollar, 2010).

The first element of the model serves to introduce students to the sport industry and provides them with opportunities to begin to explore what the industry has to offer. This step is extremely important in the very competitive arena that is the sport industry. With an ever-increasing number of sport management/sport business programs, generating ever-increasing numbers of graduates, all competing for a finite number of positions within the industry, students must understand the nature of the industry (Mathner & Martin, 2012). Students often are drawn to the sport industry because of a strong connection to sport, whether as an active participant or as a fan (Schwab, Dustin, Legg, Timmerman, Wells, & Arthur-Banning, 2013). However, Schwab, et. al (2013), also reveal that these students may have not given adequate thought to the realities of such an industry before choosing their academic major, making this decision based on their emotional attachment to, and a desire to remain involved in sport. Therefore, the goal of this portion of the Foster Model is to provide students with experiences that will increase their understanding of the complex nature of the sport industry.

Step two in the Foster Model entails student being exposed to “entry level” work experiences. Recently, increased attention has been paid to the preparedness of students as they enter the workforce (Grasgreen, 2013). In response to questions being raised about preparedness, the Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce (CEW) released a report outlining the value of work while pursuing postsecondary education. Key findings in this report are as follows: 1) work helps promote the development of skills necessary for workforce success, and 2) this work is very powerful as an educational tool when it complements what students are learning in the classroom. In a recent study, Hayes-Sauder and Davis (2017) examined the impact of having practical work experiences early in the curriculum on student development in subsequent capstone experiences. Results of this study indicate that these early experiential experiences have a positive impact on career development, seemingly validating the value of these experiences in preparing students for the workforce.

The third piece of the model involves the use of experiential learning activities within the classroom. In her outline of the model, Foster (2010) relates a wide variety of experiential learning to the classroom, from case studies involving sport organizations to practical projects undertaken for the benefit of an outside entity. Solving case studies provide students with an opportunity to develop real solutions to real problems within the context of the classroom (Forman, 2016). Project Based Learning (PBL) has been a part of educational practice for many years and continues to grow in popularity as employers stress the need for students developing critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Larmer, Mergendoller, and Boss, 2015). Southall and colleagues (2003) put forward a model in which students and faculty interact in “quasi-corporate” structure and faculty “serve as mentors, advisors, and managers for student-employee.” (p. 34). In this model, students work with clients to solve actual problems, from market research to event management (Southall, et. al, 2003). The opportunities afforded in this element of the model are only limited by the imagination and creativity of the faculty member and the willingness of students to engage in the opportunities afforded them.

Foster’s (2010) fourth element is an optional component: an opportunity to gain additional experience within the sport industry. This piece of the model is used as a means for students to continue to develop the skills that they will need to successfully complete their culminating internships. Some institutions have required practicum or pre-internship experiences, while others simply provide opportunities for students to continue to gain experience and hone both the technical and soft skills needed for success in the highly competitive sport industry. While looking at employment in general, Soule and Warrick (2015) identify communication, collaboration, critical thinking and problem-solving, and creativity and innovation as skills that managers and other executives see as vital for employment success. In another study, specific to the sport industry, Porreca (2015) found that human resources representatives working in the sport industry concur with those findings, identifying communication, interpersonal skills, and creativity as the most valued competencies when selecting a new employee. While this element of the model is not set up to specifically develop these skills, the intention is that students will use this opportunity to gain more experience and sharpen their skills, both those identified here, and other, more technical skills needed for sport industry success.

The final component of Foster’s (2010) model is a capstone internship in which students work full-time, making the transition from academia to industry. Numerous studies have described the internship as vital for career success. As early as 1987 (NASPE, as cited in Sutton, 1989), internships have been considered a core component of the sport management curriculum. More recently, McNiff (2013) and Harris (2015) have identified full-time internships as having significant impact on the employability of students. Looking specifically at graduates of sport management programs, McNiff’s (2013) research indicates that both “experiences” in sport management and industry internships were identified as having a significant impact on success in obtaining “first positions” within the sport industry. Harris (2016) expanded this idea to examine the impact of internships on employment adequacy. This research indicates that undergraduate students who completed full-time internships were much more likely to be adequately employed than their peers whose internship was a part-time positon (Harris, 2016). From this historical perspective, one can assume that this piece of the model is very important for student success in making that academic-career transition.

The University of Tennessee at Martin Approach. As mentioned in the introduction, UTM has been very intentional in its approach to developing an experiential learning-based Sport Business curriculum. The first class in the program, Introduction to Sport Business, is not only the starting point for the academic curriculum, but also serves as the starting point of the Foster Model of Experiential Education. In this class students are given the opportunity to explore the career field of Sport Business through an observation assignment and an interview assignment. The observation assignment requires students to take a critical look at three different sporting events of their choosing and analyze them, looking at very specific aspects of the industry, including marketing and sponsorships, and safety and legal liabilities. The interview assignment requires students to find someone within the sport industry and ask that individual a series of predetermined questions to gain insight into that individual’s path into the sport industry. Both assignments are designed to provide students with an early glimpse at the complexities of the sport industry.

After successful completion of the Introduction to Sport Business class students are admitted into the major and the remaining upper division classes require students to gain practical experience, most frequently with the UTM Athletic Department. These experiences provide an opportunity to explore various aspects of the enterprise, giving students real experience in concession management, game operations, and marketing and sponsorship fulfillment. Each of these experiences is designed to give the students the opportunity to not only explore these areas of Sport Business, but also provide them with managerial experience in a controlled environment. As with many smaller athletic departments, these experiences also help fill staffing gaps and provide the department with a cadre of “middle managers” who are motivated to succeed because of their interest in pursuing a career in the sport industry.

In addition to the practical experiences, these upper division classes are taught through an extensive use of case studies and practical projects for real “clients.” Case studies, widely available through a variety of sources such as Human Kinetics’ Case Studies in Sport Management, provide students the opportunity to hone their critical thinking and problem- solving skills, as well as learning how to function as part of a team. The use of case studies is supplemented with practical projects, designed to provide a real product or service for a client. Past projects have included assisting with the planning and execution of a golf tournament for a charitable organization and providing an intercollegiate athletic department with an Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) compliance audit. Again, in addition to academic preparation, team work, critical thinking, and problem solving are the focus of these activities.

The differentiating factor for the UTM program is the “extra” opportunities offered to its students. Every year students are provided the opportunity to gain additional experience through a week-long experience at the Golfweek Amateur Tour (GWAT) National Championships, a week-long experience with the On-Location Experiences at the Super Bowl, and a week at Roger Dean Stadium, assisting with St. Louis Cardinals/Miami Marlins spring training. Each of these experiences provides students with a unique look at different pieces of the business of sport. From grassroots sport, such as GWAT, to the largest single-day sport event in the world (Super Bowl), to the intimate setting of spring training, UTM students have the opportunity to be involved at the “front lines” of these events. This additional experience has proven to be a differentiating factor when the students are being considered for both capstone internship opportunities and entry level.

The GolfWeek Amateur Tour National Championship Experience Every October, approximately 950 golfers arrive on the island of Hilton Head to participate in the final event of GWAT season, the National Championship. Throughout the year, members of individual tours compete in regularly scheduled tournaments to qualify for this 54-hole event in which champions are crowned in five different flights (Champ, A, B, C, & D, determined by each golfer’s USGA handicap.) Over the past ten years this event has grown to the point that the tournament directors have needed assistance to ensure that the participants continued to have quality experiences. This assistance has come in the form of a group of sport management students selected from a small number of institutions in which experiential learning is a cornerstone of the curriculum.

Early in the fall semester, a cadre of 15 – 20 students are selected to take part in this experience. The selection process is part of the experience as well. An announcement is made at the institutions involved in the event. This announcement includes a brief overview of the experience and job description for the tournament “interns.” Students are then required to submit a cover letter and resume to their individual faculty member, addressing the skills and qualities outlined in the job description. An interview process is used to narrow the candidates down to the 15 – 20 total students needed for the event, with each institution providing 5 – 7 students selected by the faculty of that program. The goal of this portion of the process is to give students real experiences with preparing resumes, writing cover letters, and interviewing as a means of assisting in the development of the skills needed for success in that part of their professional growth.

Once the selection process is completed, the “real” work begins. Using Skype as a platform, the selected students are introduced to each other and to the faculty who will be accompanying them to Hilton Head. They are also introduced to the scoring programming and the event staff that they will be interacting with during the tournament. While the system is not particularly complicated, given the need for both speed and accuracy, the students spend a significant amount of time practicing transferring scores from the official scorecard to the scoring program. Although nothing can duplicate the actual process during the tournament, the goal with is exercise here is make sure that the students are comfortable with the way the system works. Should errors occur, students will know the steps to take to correct those problems on location. Arrival on Hilton Head takes the students’ experience to another level. The tour directors secure condominiums for the students and faculty taking part in the experience. This event hosts students from a small, private Catholic institution, students from a large, urban state institution, and students from a medium-sized rural unit of a larger state university system, each with its own unique approach to instruction and selection of participants. Because these students represent very different universities, the goal is to use that diversity as a teaching tool as well. While this element may seem minor, ideally the goal is to have no more than four students from each university is each condo. As referenced previously, the soft skill of being able to work with a diverse population is something employers are looking for in employees and housing students from different condos is one method of helping students acquire that skill.

The early part of tournament week is focused on the logistics of preparing for the arrival of 950 golfers. Swag bags need to be stuffed, registration forms need to be checked against the pre-registration lists, pairings need to be finalized, and numerous other pre-event tasks must be completed. In many ways, these tasks become team-building exercises, as students work together to determine how to most effectively and efficiently complete these tasks.

Simultaneously, preparations for the “unofficial” start of tournament, the Director’s Dinner, are also taking place. This event is part celebration, part pep rally, as Directors of individual tours gather to reflect on the golf season that is coming to an end with the National Championship. The students are both employees and invited guests at this event. Prior to the dinner, they help set up, moving tables and chairs, setting tables, arranging flowers, and any additional prep work before the dinner. As the dinner unfolds, students serve as parking attendants, greeters, bartenders, and wait staff. During the formal portion of the dinner, the students are recognized by the tournament staff for the assistance they have provided and the skills they will bring to the event going forward.

“0 dark thirty” Friday, as the day is referred to by tournament staff, is the official start of the National Championship. The goal is to have each pair of students on their assigned golf course by 6:30 a.m. that morning, arriving before tournament participants. This day is the busiest and most stressful day of the tournament for everyone involved. Golfers are anxious to get started, tournament staff are holding their breath as they hope for a smooth start to the Championship, and the students are ready to put all of their training and pre-event preparation to the test.

Prior to play beginning, students must check-in all the golfers, confirming their playing partners, assigning their cart, and directing golfers to the correct starting hole. Adding to the workload is the collection of “skins” entry fees. The “skins” game is a game within the tournament, in which participants have the opportunity to win a cash prizes within each round of the tournament. This activity requires the students work as a team, one team member collecting and handling the cash, the other handling the confirmation of entry into the game on the scoring system. As with all the other elements of this event, this team approach is intentional, as “cash handling” is often a skill that sales positions within the sport industry are looking for in new applicants. Additionally, as mentioned previously, teamwork and the ability to work as part of a team is other highly sought-after skill for applicants in nearly any position.

Saturday is the most “relaxed” day of the entire event, with the only major responsibility being making sure the golfers are checked in, in the correct pairing, and starting on the correct hole. Frequently golfers have voluntarily removed themselves from the tournament, so the students must engage in critical thinking and problem-solving, adjusting pairings or starting positions as needed due to these withdrawals. Once the round starts, the students are free to either work as a team or individually marshal the course to ensure that play is moving at an appropriate pace and that no other problems arise as the round progresses.

The final round brings its own level of excitement and pressure. Developing professionalism is one of the goals of this experience, and the final round is when this component is essential. As with the other rounds, Sunday finds the students back on their assigned courses, checking in golfers, ensuring pairings and start positions are correct. However, this all takes place with the pressure of the “championship” round. Players in contention for a championship are on edge, tournament staff are on edge, the students are on edge, all of this adding to the need for speed and accuracy as the round comes to an end. This culminating event is also where all the practice with and understanding of the scoring system comes into play, as everyone from golfers to event staff want to determine the results are and who will be crowned “National Champion” as early as possible.

Throughout the week the students have built-in time for reflection on the experience, a hallmark of experiential education. This time has jokingly become known as “family dinner” because it usually occurs during the group meal that takes place at the end of the day. During each of these gatherings students are asked to share their thoughts on the events of the day. This reflection can be guided with a question such as, “Share one thing that happened today that your classroom experiences helped you be prepared to deal with.” Other times the reflection is merely “What did you learn today and how will you use that information to be better tomorrow?” In addition to these rather informal reflections, at the end of the experience students are asked to complete a survey that gathers both qualitative and quantitative data on their experiences. These survey results provide insight into the student perception of the event and gives them the opportunity to provide reflective feedback on the impact of this experience.

Survey Results Yield Students’ Perceptions At the conclusion of the 2017 event, students (N=16) were asked to complete a short survey to gauge their perceptions of the “value” and impact this experience has had on their professional growth. The survey included both quantitative and qualitative responses and was designed to give participants the opportunity to reflect on how their experiences at the GWAT National Championship are related to their academic experiences as well as their professional growth and employability. Additional responses were gathered regarding the “value” of experiential education for all those involved: organizers, educational institutions, and the students.

The first series of questions dealt with student perceptions of the application of theory learned in the classroom. The responses to these questions were overwhelmingly positive, with 100% of the responses being either “strongly agree” (62.5%) or “somewhat agree” (37.5%) that the experience reinforced or enhanced classroom learning. Students also felt that this experience would increase their ability to contribute to classroom discussions, with 93.8% responding to either “strongly agree” (43.8%) or “somewhat agree” (50.0%). These responses seem to indicate that this specific experience is beneficial in assisting students as they apply theory to practice.

One of the benefits often touted for experiential education is its positive impact on “employability” and the students’ networking ability. The responses to the series of questions that examined this aspect of experiential education seem to indicate that this cohort of students perceived their involvement in this activity as being positive. Students overwhelming perceived this experience as having a positive impact on their professional networks and their resume. Responses regarding network development indicated that 100% of the students felt that this activity enhances their networks; with 68.8% responding “strongly agree” and 31.2% responding “strongly agree.” When asked about the positive impact on their professional resume, the responses were nearly identical with 68.8% responding “strongly agree” and 25.0% responding “somewhat agree.” These results give some credence to the anecdotal evidence, where students reported being offered other internship and employment opportunities subsequent to their involvement with this event.

A final area of interest was the students’ perceptions of the “value” their involvement in this experience brought to both the event organizers and the educational institutions represented at the event. Again, positive perceptions of the experience were relayed by the students. When responding to their impact on success of the event, 56.3% of the respondents “strongly agreed” that their involvement was beneficial, not only to themselves, but to the event organizers as well. The students felt very strongly (68.8% “strongly agreed”) that their institution’s image as a provider of effective experiential education activities was enhanced by their involvement in this experience. These responses seem to indicate that students perceive their activities as providing benefits to the event organizers and to their colleges and universities as well. These results are another indicator of the level of impact that these activities have on the three major stakeholders involved: the event organizers, the academic institutions, and the students.

In addition to the quantitative data, students were also asked to respond to open ended questions regarding their experiences. These responses were examined to determine if a theme emerged. When responding to the questions about the positive aspects of the event, the two major themes that were note were: 1) the opportunity to learn in a “hands on” manner and 2) the networking that occurred. A common response was as follows: “The best thing about this activity was getting hands-on experience, dealing with customer service, dealing with real people in real time.” Another student said: “The best thing about this activity was learning the ins and outs of running a tournament and gaining a lot of connections for my career in the future.” These two comments are representative of a majority of comments received from students regarding the positive impact of this event on their personal and professional development.

Another area of interest the survey assessed was how students felt the experience fell short and could have been better. As with the other responses, a theme emerged that touted the need for better organization from the event management. A representative response was as follows: “event management was a bit unorganized, they gave us a lot of information all at once and when I asked for clarification I was given different information by different directors.” Another comment echoed these thoughts: “I was told different things by different people and then was told I did it wrong because they had different ideas on how to do things; it was very confusing and frustrating.” As a result of these comments, plans are underway to change the communication channels, with the goal being establishing a clearer chain of command and thereby helping the students to have a better experience at the event.

Conclusion In a recent article Coker, Heiser, Taylor, and Book (2017) reference the trend on college campuses toward shorter experiential activities as the result of numerous internal and external factors. Also included in this conversation is the feeling that these shorter programs may be given less credence by employers and less credibility by educators (Coker, et. al., 2017). However, Gaia (2015), when examining study-abroad programs, concluded that, when long-term programs are not viable, short-term activities “may serve certain student populations well” and “could include applied experiences that will benefit graduates as they apply for graduate school or employment” (p. 29).

One population that might be served well by such programs are students interested in pursuing a career in the sport industry. This industry is unique in many ways, but one of the most pronounced unique factors is the fact that many sport “events” are short-term in nature, much like the GWAT National Championship. Research revealed that the students who were engaged in this experience perceived that it was beneficial to their personal and professional development. These students had the opportunity to apply the theories they are learning in their classes to a real experience; they had the opportunity to develop their personal networks, and they saw the benefits that accrued to all the parties involved in the event. As a result of this experience, students have been afforded the opportunity to develop nearly all the skills needed for professional success. Given that outcome, one can conclude that, at least based on student perceptions, short-term experiential activities are an important part of the overall educational experience for students enrolled in sport management/business curriculums.

REFERENCES 1. A.T. Kearney. (n.d.). Global sports market – total revenue from 2005 to 2017 (in billion U.S. dollars). In Statista – The Statistics Portal. Retrieved April 6, 2018, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/370560/worldwide-sports-market-revenue/.

2. Braunstein-Minkove, J. R., & DeLuca, J. R. (2015). Effectively adapting the sport industry-specific needs. Schole: A Journal of Leisure Studies and Recreation Education, (2), 12-30.

3. Bridgstock, R. (2009). The graduate attributes we have overlooked: Enhancing graduate employability through career management skills. Higher Education Research & Development, 28(1), 31-44.

4. Carnevale, A. P., Smith, N., Melton, M., & Price, E. W. (2015). Learning while earning: The new normal. Retrieved June 13, 2016, from https://cew.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/Working-Learners-Report.pdf.

5. Coker, J.S., Heiser, E., Taylor, L., & Book, C. (2017). Impacts of experiential learning depth and breadth on student outcomes. Journal of Experiential Education, 40(1), 5-23.

6. Forman, H. (2006). Participative case studies: Integrating case writing and a traditional case study approach in a marketing context. Journal of Marketing Education, 28(2), 106-113.

7. Foster Brown, S., & Dollar, J. E. (2010). Experiential Learning in Sport Management: Internships and Beyond. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.

8. Gaia, A.C. (2015). Short-term faculty-led study abroad programs enhance cultural exchange and self-awareness. The International Education Journal: Comparative Perspectives 14(1), 21-31.

9. Harris, D.M. (2016). Learning through experience: Examining the influence of baccalaureate internships in college graduate employment outcome adequacy. (Doctoral dissertation, Drexel,University). ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

10. Larmer, J., Mergendoller, J., & Boss, S (2015) Gold standard PBL: Essential project design elements. Retrieved September 12, 2016 from http://www.bie.org/object/document/gold_standard_pbl_essential_project_design_elements.

11. Masteralexis, L., Barr, C. A., & Hums, M. A. (1998). Principles and Practices of Sport Management. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.

12. Mathner, R. P., & Martin, C. L. (2012). Sport management graduate and undergraduate students’ perceptions of career expectations in sport management. Sport Management Education Journal, (6), 21-31.

13. McNiff, J.L. (2013). An examination of the early career experiences among graduates of sport management degree programs. (Doctoral dissertation, Boston University). ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

14. NASSM. (n.d.). retrieved 5/27/16 from http://nassm.org/

15. Parkhouse, B. L. (Ed.). (1991). The Management of Sport: Its Foundations and Applications. St. Louis, MO: Mosby-Year Book.

16. Sauder, M.H. & Davis, D.J. (2017). Exploring the relationship between early experiential learning and capstone internship outcomes in sport management education. International Journal of Sport Management, 18(2), 210-239.

17. Schneider, R.C., & Stier Jr., W.F. (2006). Sport management field experiences as experiential learning: Ensuring beneficial outcomes and preventing exploitation. The Sport Management and Related Topics Journal 2(2), 36-43.

18. Schwab, K. A., Dustin, D., Legg, E., Timmerman, D., Wells, M. S., & Arthur-Banning, S. G. (2013). Choosing sport management as a college major. Schole: A Journal of Leisure Studies and Recreation Education, (2), 16-27.

19. Soule, H. & Warrick, T. (2015). Defining 21st century readiness for all students: What we know and how to get there. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 9(2), 178-186.

20. Southall, R.M., Nagel, M.S., LeGrande, D., & Han, P. (2003). Sport management practica: A metadiscrete experiential learning model. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 12(1), 27-36.

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Volume 9 (2020): Issue 1 (Jan 2020)

Case studies in sport management.

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Harvard Business Publishing case studies cover all areas of management, business planning, marketing, accounting, finance, organizational behavior, entrepreneurship and more. The case studies range from 10 to 30 pages in length and often include an author provided guide, called a “teaching note,” on how to teach the case in the classroom.

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The Future Is Now: Preparing Sport Management Graduates in Times of Disruption and Change

W. james weese.

1 School of Kinesiology, Western University, London, ON, Canada

Michael El-Khoury

Graham brown.

2 Catapult Career Advantage, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada

W. Zachary Weese

Associated data.

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

COVID-19 disrupted the world, and the impacts have been experienced in many areas, including sport and higher education. Sport management academicians need to reflect on the past two years' experience, determine what worked and what did not work, and avoid the temptation of automatically returning to past practices. The authors of this manuscript applied the disruption literature and propose transformative changes in what sport management academicians teach (e.g., greater emphasis on innovation, entrepreneurship, automation, critical thinking skills to facilitate working in flexible environments and across areas), how colleagues teach (e.g., heightened integration of technology, blended learning models) and where colleagues teach (on-campus and distal delivery modes, asynchronous and synchronous delivery to students on campus and across regions/countries). Examples of start-up companies and entrepreneurial ventures are offered to help illustrate the changing sports landscape and the emerging opportunities for current and future students, graduates, and professors. Sport management professors are offered some suggestions to assist them in seizing this opportunity.

Introduction

The late Harvard professor Clayton Christensen introduced the concept of “disruptive innovation” to the business literature by describing how nimble and future-oriented organizations did things differently, and in doing so, effectively differentiated themselves from their competitors. These organizations accurately forecasted trends, precisely determined emerging consumer wants and needs, and effectively delivered new or adapted programs and services that heightened their competitive advantage and increased their market share (Christensen and Eyring, 2011 ; Christensen et al., 2011 ). Less agile organizations led by leaders who refused to embrace strategic change were negatively impacted and put out of business in some cases. History has provided countless examples of companies and industries that have followed this course. Estrin ( 2015 ) chronicled one of the most poignant examples of a company not paying attention to the changing times in the example of Kodak. This company was once the industry leader in the field of photography. According to Estrin ( 2015 ), Steve Sasson, a young engineer, pitched the futuristic idea of the digital camera to the firm in 1975. Leaders summarily dismissed the idea and quickly pointed to Kodak's leadership position in the film and image reproduction areas. Unfortunately, they missed the bigger picture, and when Fuji and Nikon developed their digital camera 10 years later, Kodak paid the price. Five years after this launch, Kodak was out of business (Estrin, 2015 ).

Other examples of industries being disrupted can be observed in how Nike trumpeted Reebok in the athletic apparel and footwear fields or how Netflix transformed the video rental business with electronic delivery that quickly put Blockbuster out of business. Think of the impact that both Uber and Airbnb have had on the ride-sharing and hotel industries. Organizations must anticipate changes in their industry and adapt their strategies and practices. Failure to do so puts them at risk of being left behind. COVID-19 has accelerated the need for industries and their practices to adapt (Huber and Sneader, 2021 ).

Industry leaders must also embrace technological advancements. Despite their recent entries into the marketplace, organizations that have embraced innovation and technology have redefined their industries and are thriving (e.g., Amazon, Shopify, Google, Uber, Airbnb, Skip the Dishes). Huber and Sneader ( 2021 ) suggested that some of the practices forced on providers and consumers during COVID-19 will remain long after the pandemic subsides. They offered examples like telehealth, e-commerce, and heightened use of automation as examples of the changes necessitated by the pandemic, but likely to become standard practice.

Furthermore, the start-up/venture capitalist culture has risen in the 21st century and has disrupted many markets (Christensen, 2003 ). A start-up company is defined as a newly founded organization or entrepreneurial venture in the beginning phases of development (Cannone and Ughetto, 2014 ). These organizations are nimble, meet a need, and are adaptable (Robehmed, 2013 ). According to Lee ( 2016 ), they have a different organizational culture than traditional organizations. They require less “bricks and mortar” infrastructure and rely more on spaces that facilitate idea generation, heightened synergy, and technology interfaces for remote collaborations (Lee, 2016 ). These characteristics appeal to many recent graduates seeking an appropriate blend of challenge and freedom in their work experiences (Gabrielson, 2019 ). Given the disruptive forces impacting sport, they may prove to be a growth area for sport management graduates.

Disruptive Impacts on Sport

Significant changes are taking place in how society engages in sport as participants and spectators. Attendance at some professional sporting events has been in decline in many markets over the past decade (Stebbins, 2017 ; Damgaard, 2018 ; Suneson, 2019 ), and it typically comprised of older fans (Bryne, 2020 ). COVID-19 significantly altered attendance patterns, and as some suggest, permanently (Ratten, 2020 ; Wilson, 2021 ). Many sports leagues were shut down, and others were required to operate with limited numbers of spectators. Out of necessity, fans were forced to consume sport through television and social media vehicles (Goldman and Hedlund, 2020 ; Hull and Romney, 2020 ). Mastromartino et al. ( 2020 ) suggested that broadcasting and social media advancements have enriched and transformed the fan experience. Will fans return to their previous ways of physically attending games once the pandemic subsides? Some (Mastromartino et al., 2020 ; Ratten, 2020 ; Wilson, 2021 ) suggest that many will not.

Given the consumption pattern shifts and the economic consequences of COVID-19, it is reasonable to assume that the traditional size of the sports organizations that previously employed our graduates will be smaller, and those working in these organizations might be required to do more with less. Some graduates may need to assume new or expanded roles. Current and future graduates will need to be critical thinkers, flexible, adaptable, and confident working across disciplinary areas. Some may wish to strike out on their own and use their entrepreneurial backgrounds to create their own employment (Escamilla-Fajardo et al., 2020 ). Some may find employment in alternative settings like start-up companies. These realities point to the undeniable fact that sport management students will need a new kind of education—one that prepares them to be highly adaptable, innovative, and progressive. They will need to be entrepreneurial. They will need to understand automation (Johnson, 2020 ) and the impacts that technological advancements have on our field, and their employment prospects.

The Sport and Technology Connection

Technology and sport have become increasingly dependent on each other during the COVID-19 period. The authors of this manuscript and others (e.g., Readwrite., 2018 ; Pizzo et al., 2018 ; Proman, 2019 ; Reitman et al., 2019 ; Finch et al., 2020 ) predict that technology will exponentially increase in the coming years create boundless opportunities for progressive leaders in sport management. This scenario may be especially true for those who embrace start-up industries in sport (e.g., esport), which will use technology to keep fixed costs low and penetrate emerging markets (Finch et al., 2020 ).

The start-up company concept originated in the Silicon Valley in the 1980s (Larsen and Rogers, 1984 ). According to Fontinelle ( 2020 ), start-up companies emerged to develop and deliver unique products or services that could more effectively meet the needs of the marketplace. These companies typically started small before expanding into larger enterprises. Some of today's leading companies (e.g., Amazon, Shopify, Microsoft, McDonald's, Apple) began as start-up companies.

However, according to Au ( 2017 ), the sports marketplace is one of the more difficult sectors for new brands to integrate. In Canada, there are only a few incubators and sports laboratories to support start-up companies. Some, like Ryerson University's Future of Sport Lab , is a joint effort between the university and Maple Leaf Sport and Entertainment (MLSE) and is an incubation hub that supports research and innovation that often leads to partnerships with private or public funding groups (Start-up Here Toronto, 2019 ). The University of Guelph proudly supports the International Institute for Sport Business and Leadership (n.d), a start-up that brings academic and industry leaders together to identify and pursue action research projects. These kinds of programs represent the new thinking that is required in sport management. The emergence of other start-up companies in sport highlights the explosive growth of this area.

Virtual Reality (VR) and, in particular, esports represent a rapidly growing segment in the sports industry (Jonasson and Thiborg, 2010 ; Funk et al., 2018 ; Collis, 2020 ), and by extension, an area that sport management scholars should integrate into their teaching and research programs. While initially designed for children and youth, interest and participation have also spawned into older populations. According to Clement ( 2021 ), there were 2B world-wide video gamers in 2015, and the number is expected to grow to 3B by 2023. The Canadian Sport Daily ( 2020 ) supported this growth prediction by reporting that there were 2.7B worldwide video gamers by the end of 2020. Alton ( 2019 ) noted similar growth in viewership of competitive gaming events. She noted that esports had a world-wide fan base in excess of 454M, up from 380M in 2018 (Willingham, 2018 ) and was experiencing a growth rate of a 14% per year. In comparison, and prior to the onset of pre-COVID-19, the NCAA Men's “March Madness” Basketball Tournament had viewership that maximized at 28M (Wilson, 2021 ). Imagine the advertising and branding opportunities esports provides corporations looking to reach a young and emerging market. Some speculate that esports games will soon be included in major international events, such as the Asian Games in 2022 and the Paris Olympics in 2024 (Kocadag, 2019 ). The future for esport is bright (Mulcahy, 2019 ). Advancements in, and access to technology will fuel future growth. The same could be said for another growth area in sport, namely, legalized gambling. Online sports gambling is proving to be a highly profitable and permanent fixture impacting sports spectatorship. Are sport management scholars also discussing these developments in their classrooms, and are they preparing graduates to compete in these types of emerging areas? Sport and sport management have been disrupted, and as noted below, so have the institutions traditionally preparing sport management graduates and leaders of the future.

Disruptive Impacts on Higher Education

Kak ( 2018 ) and Levin ( 2021 ) have called for significant change in higher education for some time. They argued that the 20th-century models need to be updated in terms of what is taught and how it is delivered. Automation, artificial intelligence, hologram technology, and advances in telecommunications offer unlimited opportunities for changing how academic programs can be constructed and delivered.

Govindarajan et al. ( 2021 ) suggested that COVID-19 has accelerated the change process. As a result of COVID-19, lecture theaters and campuses were abandoned, and professors were forced to integrate technology and implement remote teaching strategies for their students. Naturally, there were bumps along the way given this sudden shift. Professors and students both claimed to have missed the relationship-building aspects that in-person delivery offers to support and inspire learning. However, while many students and professors struggled with this adaptation and longed for pre-pandemic practices, some students and professors thrived in this new environment. Many would like some of these new practices to continue. Some students have reported that they liked the pace and flexibility of taking their classes remotely and in an asynchronous format. Many stayed at home and saved money previously spent on transportation, accommodations, and parking. Professors found that the heightened use of technology could enrich their courses. Small group discussions could be effectively facilitated through virtual chat rooms. Professors could integrate internationally-renowned experts into their courses who didn't need to travel to deliver guest lectures. In some sectors of our campuses, productivity increased. The pandemic proved that there were other ways of delivering higher education, and once again, necessity proved to be the “mother of invention.”

As a result, Levin ( 2021 ) and Govindarajan et al. ( 2021 ) encouraged professors and program leaders to reflect deeply on the needs of students, the content of courses, and be open to adopting some of the practices that had to be implemented during the pandemic. Perhaps programs, courses, or parts of each could be more effectively delivered in virtual or a hybrid of virtual and face-to-face formats. They made a case for progressively integrating more digital technologies (e.g., remote delivery, holograms) to enrich learning. Some students may prefer the benefits of remote delivery (or perhaps some combination of time on campus and time in remote delivery modes). If this delivery option exists, new cohorts of students might be drawn to the sector. Recognizing the benefits and cost savings of some remote learning, in whole or part, might prompt some institutions to reduce their infrastructure footprint. Some campuses could adopt a blended model where students in the first and final years have an on-campus experience, while those in the middle years consume their programs from a remote setting. Some of the more reputable institutions may take this opportunity to significantly expand their high-demand programs previously restricted by space realities.

Think of the cost savings for some students if they did not have to be on campus for their entire university experience. Think of program expansion opportunities if courses, programs, or parts of programs could be delivered through distance education. Consider the cost savings if universities could more discriminately rationalize program offering and efficiently share courses or parts of programs with other institutions. Incremental revenue could be generated from selling or renting some freed-up land or buildings. The high costs of constructing and operating facilities could be reduced. Program officials could offer more courses in asynchronous formats so students could consume their courses at a pace and time that is advantageous to them. Academic leaders and governing boards more effectively future-proof higher education by adopting some of these practices. Fiscal realities and societal pressure might demand such action.

It is a challenging time, and neither sport nor sport management educational programs are immune from the disruptive forces and seismic changes outlined above. Graduates are now entering employment opportunities that are less structured, more fluid, and less permanent (Vedder et al., 2013 ). The situation has been exponentially accelerated by the economic and labor market disruptions of COVID-19 (Gentilini et al., 2020 ). Bold questions must be addressed. Are colleagues delivering what sport management students need? Are they preparing graduates to be thought leaders who are entrepreneurial, independent, and confident to navigate careers in times of rapid societal change? Are graduates critical thinkers who can adapt and work across a number of areas given the anticipated smaller workforces? Is the content of sport management programs cutting-edge and progressive? Are the tuition and related educational cost structures for students realistic and affordable given the market forces, value propositions, and economic times (i.e., current and predicted)? Sport management colleagues must adapt to thrive given the changes taking place in sport, sport management, and higher education (Christensen and Eyring, 2011 ; Christensen et al., 2011 ).

COVID-19 has been a devastating virus that has disrupted society in innumerable ways. It will also have far-reaching implications on institutions of higher learning and in the ways that society participates or consumes sport. Organizations that prevail will be nimble, progressive, and innovative. Implementing some or all of the suggestions outlined below could improve and modernize our academic programs. Colleagues can lead change by:

• Developing and delivering a curriculum that covers the traditional areas like leadership, finance, economics, analytics, as well as the emerging areas in the field like innovation, entrepreneurship, automation, artificial intelligence, and start-up companies.
• Expanding experiential learning opportunities for students beyond the traditional sport settings and include opportunities in emerging organizations like start-up companies. Students need to understand the rules of engagement in emerging technologies and the realities of working in agile, risk-taking ventures.
• Implementing higher levels of technology into the curriculum to bring world experts into the digital classrooms. Industry leaders (from across the globe) can be beamed into digital classrooms with minimal expense via Zoom or hologram technologies. Technological advancements allow for virtual meeting rooms where smaller groups of students can have deeper discussions and reflection sessions.
• Using technology to share courses and professors between campuses and expanding digital platforms to reach more students in synchronous and asynchronous formats. Many universities are facing fiscal challenges. Courses between campuses could be shared to enrich the experience and preparation of students at little or no cost to the host institutions. Sport management could be leaders in this synergistic approach.
• Ensuring that guest speakers, case studies, and classroom examples are drawn for diverse fields (e.g., start-up companies, venture capitalists, e-sports, gaming, fantasy sports, sports gambling) in addition to those from traditional sports settings.
• Expanding experiential learning opportunities for students by investing in case competitions that include examples from start-up companies and other emerging areas in the field. These rich learning opportunities allow students the opportunity to apply course content and, if also drawn from emerging industries, can help keep the program current. To increase application and underscore relevance, have practitioners pose the challenge question and involve them in evaluating the proposed solutions.

The impact of COVID-19 has accelerated the need for change in sport, sport management and in the institutions that house sport management educational programs. Sport management colleagues are encouraged to reflect on the suggestions outlined above and ensure that the programs delivered to students align with the current and emerging developments in the industry and in higher education.

Data Availability Statement

Author contributions.

JW took the lead in the preparation of this article. ME-K, GB, and ZW are former students and sport management leaders who have experience in the industry, recognize the disruption that has taken place in recent years, and have experience working with recent graduates of our sport management programs, and provided helpful insights and examples that have been integrated into this article. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

GB was employed by company Catapult Career Advantage. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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• Topic: Artificial Intelligence,Big Data and Analytics,High Performance Computing

Putting finance, applied economics, and information management research on the fast track.

Shanghai University of Finance and Economics (SUFE) is a finance- and economics-oriented research university located in Shanghai, China. Founded in 1917, SUFE is the oldest finance university, and has long-standing rankings amongst the country’s top finance and economics universities.

Today, the university is made up of 20 academic schools and departments. Among these is the School of Information Management & Engineering, with three departments and four research centers. Its faculty and students conduct learning and research in a wide array of areas, including artificial intelligence, big data analytics, knowledge engineering, e-commerce, computer science, and quantitative finance.

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