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Displacement in Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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How It Works

• What You Can Do

Displacement is a psychological defense mechanism in which a person redirects a negative emotion from its original source to a less threatening recipient. A classic example of the defense is displaced aggression. If a person is angry but cannot direct their anger toward the source without consequences, they might "take out" their anger on a person or thing that poses less of a risk.

Defense Mechanism

Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies people use to cope with unacceptable feelings. Unlike the conscious coping strategies that we use to manage daily stress, defense mechanisms operate on an entirely unconscious level.

Defense mechanisms are one way the mind unconsciously attempts to reduce anxiety and restore emotional balance. Psychological defenses operate without conscious awareness to help cope with threatening people, things, or environments. While people might not be aware of these feelings and urges, they still influence behavior and can cause anxiety.

When people use displacement, the mind senses that reacting to the original source of frustration might be unacceptable—even dangerous. Instead, it finds us a less threatening subject that can serve as a safer outlet for these negative feelings.

History of Displacement in Psychology

Sigmund Freud's daughter Anna Freud was one of the first psychologists to make a list of defense mechanisms (which she knew was incomplete). Displacement was not on her original list. Researchers later introduced the idea of displacement as an important ego defense mechanism.

Signs of Displacement

Defense mechanisms are very common and are usually a normal aspect of daily functioning. Displacement as a defense helps us channel emotions and urges that could be considered inappropriate or harmful to more healthy, safe, or productive outlets.

When used appropriately, defenses such as displacement protect us from negative feelings, help minimize disappointment, protect our self-esteem, and manage stress levels. Displacement can protect us from anxiety by hiding things that are stressful or unacceptable to us and helping to preserve our sense of self .

Defense mechanisms like displacement can be unhelpful if people rely on them too heavily, or when they lead to problematic behaviors and interactions with others. Overuse of these mechanisms may contribute to psychological distress and poor functioning.

Displacement serves as a way to redirect feelings, but it also has the potential to cause harm. There are several factors that influence how and when displacement occurs.

Young children are more direct about expressing their feelings. Therefore, they are more likely to express their negative emotions toward the original target (regardless of the appropriateness of the response).

For example, a 4-year-old child is likely to simply yell at a parent when they are upset. On the other hand, a 14-year-old might displace their frustration with a parent by fighting with a younger sibling.

Highly upsetting urges or feelings might result in greater displays of emotion toward the substitute target. For example, an inappropriate urge (such as the desire to hit someone) might be expressed as a highly charged emotional outburst (such as yelling at a spouse).

Most people have experienced taking out their negative emotions on a secondary target. While displacement can be a normal response, it can cross the line into maladaptive or even abusive behavior. If a person relies on displacement as a defense mechanism to deal with all of their emotional upset, it is less likely to be helpful and may cause harm.

Types of Displacement

Displacement can manifest in a couple of different forms. It can be displayed as anger toward a less threatening target, or it can occur in a more adaptive form known as sublimation.

Sigmund Freud believed that sublimation served as an important source of creativity and inspiration.

Sublimation involves displacing unacceptable sexual urges toward non-sexual activities that are productive and socially acceptable , like work and creativity. Sublimating provides a constructive outlet for unacceptable urges.

Imagine that you were reprimanded by your manager at work. Venting your anger or frustration directly to your boss would not only be unwise, but it might even cost you your job. Instead, you withhold (or suppress) your emotions until the end of the day.

As soon as you get home, you may unleash your anger on your unsuspecting roommate or find yourself overreacting to a triggering event like your children misbehaving. More often than not, the triggering event is relatively insignificant. It's your reaction that is out of proportion—even over the top.

The anger you were feeling at your boss is released, but in an indirect way. The consequences of yelling at your roommate or scolding your children are likely to be less severe than if you had taken out your frustration at your boss or coworkers.

The object or person that becomes the subject of displaced feelings can vary but is usually chosen because it is less threatening (or even powerless).

If you've ever taken out negative feelings on a friend, family member, or even a complete stranger when you were upset about something else, then you have used displacement as a defense mechanism (even if you weren't aware of it).

Examples of Displacement

Here are a few imagined scenarios (many of which might sound or feel familiar to you) that exemplify displacement.

• An employee is berated by their boss for their poor performance during a presentation. The employee leaves work to have lunch at a restaurant, where they yell at the wait staff over a small mistake with their order.
• You are frustrated with your spouse because they have not been helping you with household chores . When you ask your kids to start their chores, and they respond by whining, your anger explodes. You yell at them and accuse them of never helping around the house.
• A person is attracted to their spouse's best friend, but they know that acting on it would have catastrophic consequences. Instead, the desire they feel is unconsciously displaced, and they develop a preference for glasses similar to the ones worn by the spouse's best friend.
• You lose your job and have a hard time finding a new one. Fearing that you won't be able to pay your bills, you start taking your frustration and feelings of failure out on other people in your community, blaming them for your inability to find employment.

Displacement involves redirecting unwanted feelings onto something else that is less threatening. Unfortunately, this can sometimes involve directing negative feelings toward friends, family, or others.

Impact of Displacement

Displacement can lead to unintended consequences and even chain reactions.

• Inappropriate expressions of emotion : Displaced emotions are often extreme and out of proportion.
• Cycles of anger and negativity : Displaced aggression, for example, can become a cycle. Imagine an employee who is angry with their boss. They take out their anger on their spouse when they get home. Now angry themselves, the spouse might be irritable with their children. In turn, the kids might take their frustrations out on each other.
• Relationship problems : Because loved ones are often the targets of displacement, feelings of resentment and conflict can undermine the health and stability of the relationship.
• Prejudice : Displaced interpersonal aggression can also cause prejudice against specific social groups . For example, some scholars have argued that the Germans' animosity toward the Jewish people following World War I may have been an example of displaced feelings of anger over the economic ramifications of the war.
• Scapegoating : In the previous example, people redirected their rage toward a group of people they deemed to be less threatening targets rather than directing their collective anger toward their actions or their government. This phenomenon is also known as scapegoating.

Research on the validity of displacement has been mixed. For example, one older study suggested that empirical evidence poorly supports displacement. However, later research supported the theory that physical and emotional arousal states tend to carry over from one situation to the next.

For example, while you might restrain yourself in a social setting because reacting would be inappropriate, pushing your feelings down won't make them go away. Your emotional state will stay the same. Later on, you might find yourself in a setting where you can react with fewer consequences, at which time you will unleash the feelings you suppressed.

Other studies have also offered broad support for defense mechanisms, including displacement, as being important to human health and relationships. Looking at data from a 70-year longitudinal study, a group of researchers found that psychological defense mechanisms might influence the body as well as the mind.

Participants who used adaptive defense mechanisms (including displacement) at mid-life had better physical health later in life. Mature defenses (such as sublimation) may play a key role in creating solid and supportive social relationships, contributing to improved physical health.

How to Deal With Displacement

Overreliance on displacement or any other defense mechanism can be ineffective or even problematic. If you are concerned about your use of displacement as a defense mechanism, it's something you can address with a therapist or counselor as part of psychotherapy . It can be helpful to look at your own behavior to get a better sense of whether you use displacement in a helpful way.

One of the first steps is also one of the more difficult: observing your behavior and actions and determining whether displacement could be causing them. Displacement is not something that can be easily viewed. Often, it's only possible to make inferences based on what you can examine of your own behavior.

At this stage, it can be helpful to work with a therapist. They can look at your behavior from an "outside" point of view and help you see things from a more objective perspective.

A therapist is able to witness (and point out) contradictions between your behavior and your words, body language , or other signals.  

For example, you might tell your therapist that you do not mind that your spouse works late nights and weekends, but your body language and your speech might suggest otherwise. As you share more about your behavior, it might become clear that when you are short-tempered with your kids in the evening, it's really a sign of the frustration you feel with your spouse.

Reflection is a strategy therapists can use to help you recognize when you are using defense mechanisms like displacement. With this strategy, your therapist reflects your feelings back to you in a way that encourages you to consider what you have done or said.

The goal of using the reflection technique is to reveal concealed worries or concerns that played a role in your behavior.

For example, as you are telling your therapist about expressing anger at a coworker, you might reveal one of your underlying worries—that your new manager does not recognize your talents and efforts. Rather than expressing your emotions to your boss (a threatening target), you took your frustration out on your coworker (a less threatening target).

Once you start to recognize episodes of unhealthy displacement in your own life, the next step is to look for purposeful ways to alter your thinking and behavior . For example, if you are yelling at your spouse because you are displacing your frustrations from work, stop, step back, and take a moment to regain control .

When you find yourself engaging in maladaptive behaviors caused by displacement, try to reframe the situation and find a healthier outlet for your feelings.

Make a conscious effort to redirect your negative feelings toward an appropriate target. Alternative outlets could include writing about a situation and how you felt, participating in a sport or physical exercise, or engaging in a productive hobby .

A Word From Verywell

Like other psychological mechanisms of defense, displacement can be a normal and healthy way of coping with unconscious negative emotions. However, overly relying on displacement as a way to handle negative feelings can be unhelpful and even destructive—particularly if you take your frustrations out on defenseless people around you.

It can be hard to recognize our own displacement, if you are concerned about how you use this defense mechanism, therapy can help you see when your actions, words, or behaviors are really a defense mechanism. Once you learn to recognize displacement, you can take steps to challenge the defense mechanism and find more effective ways to cope.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Psychologily

Displacement Psychology: Why We Sometimes Take Our Emotions Out on Others

Displacement psychology is a fascinating topic that explores how people redirect their emotions from one source to another. This defense mechanism can positively and negatively affect a person’s mental health and well-being. At its core, displacement is a way for people to cope with difficult emotions by shifting them onto a less threatening target.

One typical example of displacement is when a person becomes angry with their boss but instead takes out that anger on their spouse or children. This can be harmful to relationships and can cause further stress and tension. However, displacement can also be a valuable tool for managing emotions in certain situations, such as when a person needs to express their anger in a safe and controlled manner.

In this article, we will explore the concept of displacement psychology in more detail, including its definition, causes, and effects. We will also provide real-world examples of displacement and discuss how it can be recognized and addressed in therapy and everyday life. We can better manage our emotions and improve our mental health by understanding the displacement mechanisms.

Displacement Psychology: Understanding the Concept

Displacement is a psychological defense mechanism that involves shifting an emotional response or impulse from one object to another, often a less threatening, one. This is a fundamental concept in psychology, particularly in psychoanalytic theory. It is a way of coping with complicated feelings to express or manage.

For example, if a person is angry with their boss but feels unable to express it, they may displace it onto a family member or friend. The person may become irritable and short-tempered with their loved one, who becomes the target of their displaced anger.

Displacement can also occur in situations where a person feels powerless or overwhelmed. For instance, students struggling with schoolwork may displace their frustration onto their peers, blaming them for their struggles.

It is important to note that displacement is often an unconscious process . People may not realize they are displacing their emotions onto another person or object. However, becoming aware of this defense mechanism can help individuals better understand their emotional responses and improve their relationships with others.

Displacement Theory in Freudian Psychology

Freud’s view on displacement.

According to Sigmund Freud , displacement is a defense mechanism when an individual redirects their negative emotions or impulses from their source onto a less threatening target. Freud believed this mechanism was an unconscious process allowing individuals to cope with anxiety and stress.

For example, if an individual is angry with their boss but cannot express it, they may displace their feelings onto a family member or friend. This displacement allows the individual to release their emotions without fearing consequences from their boss.

Role of the Ego in Displacement

Freud believed that the ego played a crucial role in displacement. The ego mediates between the id (our primitive desires) and the superego (our moral and ethical standards). When the id’s impulses conflict with the superego’s restrictions, the ego may use defense mechanisms such as displacement to manage the conflict.

The ego may use displacement to protect the individual from the anxiety arising from the id and superego conflict. By redirecting negative emotions onto a less threatening target, the individual can avoid the anxiety from expressing their emotions to the source.

Displacement Psychology: Examples in Everyday Life

As discussed earlier, displacement is a defense mechanism where we redirect negative emotions from their source to a less threatening recipient. Here are some common examples of displacement in everyday life.

Displacement in Relationships

Displacement often occurs in our relationships when we cannot express our negative emotions to the person who caused them. Instead, we may vent our frustration on someone not involved in the situation. For instance, when we are angry with our partner but cannot express it, we may snap at our children or pets.

Another example of relationship displacement is when we transfer our feelings of rejection or disappointment from one person to another. For instance, if a love interest rejects us, we may take out our frustration on our friends or family members.

Displacement at Work

Displacement can also occur in the workplace, where we may be unable to express our negative emotions towards our boss or colleagues. For example, if we are frustrated with our boss but cannot express it, we may anger our coworkers or subordinates.

Another example of displacement at work is when we transfer our feelings of inadequacy or failure from one project to another. For instance, if we fail to complete a task successfully, we may transfer our feelings of failure to another project, even if it has nothing to do with the first one.

Displacement vs. Projection

When it comes to defense mechanisms in psychology, two terms that are often used interchangeably are Displacement and Projection . However, they are not the same thing.

Displacement is a defense mechanism in which a person redirects their emotions from the source to a less threatening recipient. For example, if you are angry with your boss but can’t express it because of fear of losing your job, you might go home and take your frustration out on your spouse or children. In this case, your anger has been displaced from your boss to your family.

On the other hand, Projection is a defense mechanism in which a person attributes their unwanted thoughts, feelings, or motives to another person. For instance, if someone feels jealous of their friend’s success, they might accuse their friend of being jealous of them instead. In this case, the person is projecting their jealousy onto their friend.

The critical difference between Displacement and Projection is that Displacement is about redirecting emotions, while Projection is about attributing emotions to someone else.

It is important to note that Displacement and Projection are unconscious defense mechanisms, and people may not even realize they are using them. However, becoming aware of these defense mechanisms can help individuals better understand their behavior and improve their relationships with others.

Displacement and Other Defense Mechanisms

When we experience negative emotions, it can be challenging to cope with them healthily. Defense mechanisms are psychological tools we use to protect ourselves from the discomfort of these emotions. Displacement is just one of many defense mechanisms that we can employ.

Displacement and Repression

Displacement is a defense mechanism that redirects negative emotions from their source to a less threatening recipient. For example, if someone is angry with their boss, they may take that anger on a family member or friend instead. On the other hand, repression involves pushing negative emotions down into our unconscious mind so that we don’t have to deal with them. Both displacement and repression can be helpful in certain situations, but they can also be harmful if used too frequently or inappropriately.

Displacement and Sublimation

Another defense mechanism that is related to displacement is sublimation . Sublimation involves channeling negative emotions into a more socially acceptable outlet, such as art, music, or sports. For example, an angry or frustrated person may channel those emotions into a painting or a piece of music. Sublimation can be a healthy way to deal with negative emotions, but it can also be challenging to achieve and may not always be possible.

Displacement Psychology: Coping with Displacement

When we use displacement as a defense mechanism, we must recognize it and find ways to cope. Here are some strategies we can use to manage displacement:

• Awareness : The first step in managing displacement is to be aware of it as a defense mechanism. We can start by paying attention to our thoughts and emotions and noticing when we displace our feelings onto others.
• Identify the source of the emotions : When we find ourselves displacing our emotions onto others, it can be helpful to identify the source of those emotions. Are we feeling stressed at work? Anxious about a relationship? Once we identify the source of our emotions, we can work on addressing those underlying issues.
• Find healthy outlets : Instead of displacing our emotions onto others, we can find healthy outlets to express those emotions. This can include talking to a therapist or trusted friend, engaging in physical activity, or practicing mindfulness and meditation.
• Practice empathy : When we find ourselves on the receiving end of someone else’s displacement, it can be helpful to practice empathy. Instead of reacting defensively, we can understand where the other person is coming from and offer support and compassion.

By being aware of displacement as a defense mechanism and finding healthy ways to cope with our emotions, we can avoid the negative consequences of relying too heavily on displacement.

Displacement in Children and Adolescents

Displacement is a psychological defense mechanism that is common in children and adolescents. It occurs when people redirect their negative emotions from their source to a less threatening recipient. Children and adolescents may use displacement to cope with difficult situations, such as conflict or displacement from their homes due to natural disasters or war.

Displacement can have a significant impact on children and adolescents. It can lead to feelings of anger, frustration, and anxiety. For example, a child bullied at school may come home and take their frustration out on a sibling or parent. In this case, the sibling or parent receives the displaced aggression.

Children and adolescents displaced from their homes due to natural disasters or war may also experience displacement. They may feel angry and frustrated about their situation and take their emotions out on others. Displacement can also lead to feelings of depression and anxiety, which can have long-term effects on a child’s mental health.

Parents, caregivers, and teachers must recognize the signs of displacement in children and adolescents. Some common symptoms include aggressive behavior, withdrawal from social activities, and difficulty sleeping. If you suspect a child or adolescent is experiencing displacement, it is essential to seek professional help.

Displacement in Clinical Psychology

Displacement is a defense mechanism commonly used by individuals to cope with negative emotions. In clinical psychology, this mechanism is often observed in patients struggling with anxiety or depression. When individuals cannot express their feelings towards the source of their distress, they tend to redirect their emotions towards another person or object.

This mechanism can be observed in patients who are struggling with substance abuse. For example, an individual struggling with addiction may displace their negative emotions towards their family members or friends, blaming them for their addiction. This displacement allows the individual to avoid confronting the source of their addiction and the emotions that come with it.

In addition to substance abuse, displacement can be observed in patients struggling with eating disorders. For example, an individual struggling with anorexia may displace negative emotions towards their body, blaming it for their lack of control. This displacement allows the individual to avoid confronting the actual source of their negative emotions and the emotions that come with it.

Clinicians need to be aware of the use of displacement in their patients. By identifying this mechanism, clinicians can help their patients confront the source of their negative emotions and work towards resolving them.

Future Directions in Displacement Research

As we continue to explore the complex nature of displacement psychology, it is essential to identify areas where future research can make valuable contributions to our understanding of this phenomenon. Here are some potential avenues for future research:

1 . Displacement in the Digital Age

With the rise of social media and other digital communication platforms, there is a growing need to understand how displacement manifests in these contexts. For example, does the anonymity and distance provided by online communication make individuals more likely to displace negative emotions onto others? Are there unique challenges associated with identifying and addressing displacement in digital contexts?

2. Displacement and Cultural Differences

While displacement is a universal psychological phenomenon, cultural differences may exist in how it is experienced and expressed. Future research could explore how collectivism vs. individualism, power distance, and communication styles influence the prevalence and manifestation of displacement across cultures.

3. Displacement and Physical Health

Evidence suggests that displacement can have adverse effects on physical health, including increased risk of cardiovascular disease and other health issues. Further research is needed to understand better the mechanisms through which displacement impacts physical health and identify potential interventions to mitigate these effects.

4. Displacement in Group Settings

While much of the existing research on displacement focuses on individual experiences, it is also essential to consider how displacement manifests in group settings. For example, how do group power dynamics influence the likelihood of displacement? Are there certain types of groups (e.g., sports teams, work teams) where displacement is more common?

Frequently Asked Questions

How is displacement different from projection in psychology.

Displacement and projection are defense mechanisms in psychology, but they differ in their mechanisms. Displacement involves redirecting an emotion from its source to a less threatening recipient, while projection involves attributing one’s unacceptable thoughts or feelings to someone else. In other words, displacement is about shifting the target of emotion, while projection is about denying one’s feelings and projecting them onto others.

What is the definition of displacement in psychology?

Displacement is a psychological defense mechanism in which a person redirects a negative emotion from its source to a less threatening recipient. This can happen when the source of the emotion is too frightening or when the person cannot express the emotion directly. Displacement can be adaptive in some situations, but it can also be maladaptive if it leads to inappropriate or harmful behavior.

What is the displacement theory in psychology?

The psychological displacement theory refers to the idea that people tend to displace their aggression onto others when they cannot express it directly. According to this theory, aggression is a natural and necessary part of human behavior, but it needs to be expressed in a socially acceptable way. When people cannot express their aggression directly, they may displace it onto others who are less threatening or have nothing to do with the source of the emotion.

What are some examples of displacement as a defense mechanism?

There are many examples of displacement as a defense mechanism in psychology. For instance, a person angry with their boss may come home and yell at their spouse or kick the dog. A student frustrated with their teacher may take it out on their classmates or parents. A person afraid of their anger may become obsessed with cleaning or organizing their home instead of addressing the source of their anxiety.

Can you provide an example of displaced aggression in psychology?

Displaced aggression is a typical example of displacement in psychology. For instance, a person angry with their boss may replace their aggression with a coworker who had nothing to do with the source of the emotion. Or a person angry with their spouse may displace their aggression onto a stranger on the street. Displaced aggression can be harmful if it leads to physical or emotional harm to others.

How does displacement manifest in daily life?

Displacement can manifest in many ways in daily life. For instance, a person afraid of confrontation may displace their anger onto a friend or family member who had nothing to do with the source of the emotion. A person who is anxious about their job may displace their anxiety onto their partner or children. Displacement can avoid or minimize a threatening emotion, but it can also lead to inappropriate or harmful behavior if it is not managed effectively.

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Displacement Effect Theory

Introduction.

According to the Freudian psychology, the displacement theory coins the idea of the mind mechanism of keeping or disposing of information in human mind. This unconscious process happens within and the transference of emotions, ideas, and information happens to alleviate fretfulness.

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The concept were similar to dream distortion were the newer taught replaced the unimportant information and this transference of emotions that occur during various situations can be psychologically termed as displacement effect.

Displacement effects theory states that the human mind has a defense mechanism which involuntarily displaces the effects from an individual or anything which are felt unacceptable to another situation which the mind distinguished more acceptable. This unconscious activity which occurs in the mind finds a satisfying alternative to the basic objective and is basically done to relieve stress and other tensions.

The displacement effects acts like a cycle. The human mind unconsciously finds itself a solution for the problem which causes the stress and to alleviate the situation the displacement occurs to a situation or to an entity which can be of little or no relevance.

Displacement effects can be seen in the situations leading to anger and this can only be resolved through anger otherwise the effects can grow overtime. In most of the cases the effect of the emotion is let out to the target or to a safer alternative.

Displacement effects can be a common issue in many cases and the effects can be minor in most of the cases. But the extreme effects of displacement effects can be dangerous and is considered a psychotic problem that may need to be seriously evaluated and treated. Psychologists can treat with methods to control the emotions with more effective ways of dealing and to overcome this situation.

Scope and Application

Displacement effects can be applied while dealing with anger management . The target of a person’s anger is significant before reacting and the anger when displayed at certain situations can be harmful. Showing out the emotion to people prominent can cause hassles and thus to avoid that the situation anger can be properly channeled to avoid any disputes which can cause fretfulness.

Working in a real estate firm, Tina had tough time achieving targets. Apart of that she had to deal with a strict boss. She was confronted each day with fierce screaming from her boss which made her life weary. As she began to build up the anger towards her boss, she unknowingly let out her stress to the bartender later at night.

The bartender went home with a spoiled mood because his routine customer yelled at him without a reason. By seeing the pile of unwashed dishes he screamed at his girlfriend who was busy with her work.

For not able to prepare for the next day, the girlfriend went to school and yelled at a student who forgot to bring her assignment. The troubled child went home to her dad and let out her anger for not being home early.  And thus the cycle continues. It is likely for people to take out the anger to the person who is a safer substitute.

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who proposed the theory of displacement and what year?

His hands gestured to me they were never injested until his blood spills the drink….

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D ISPLACEMENT : Displacement is one of the methods by which the repressed returns in hidden ways . For example, in dreams the affect (emotions) associated with threatening impulses are often transferred elsewhere (displaced), so that, for example, apparently trivial elements in the manifest dream seem to cause extraordinary distress while "what was the essence of the dream-thoughts finds only passing and indistinct representation in the dream" ("New Introductory Lectures" 22.21 ). For Freud, "Displacement is the principle means used in the dream-distortion to which the dream-thoughts must submit under the influence of the censorship" ("New Introductory Lectures" 22.21 ). The same sort of displacement can occur in symptom -formation. The other method whereby the repressed hides itself is condensation .

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Theories of Forgetting in Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

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Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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On This Page:

The Psychology of Forgetting and Why Memory Fails

Why do we forget?  There are two simple answers to this question.

First, the memory has disappeared – it is no longer available.  Second, the memory is still stored in the memory system but, for some reason, it cannot be retrieved.

These two answers summaries the main theories of forgetting developed by psychologists.  The first answer is more likely to be applied to forgetting in short-term memory, the second to forgetting in long term memory.

• Forgetting information from short term memory (STM) can be explained using the theories of trace decay and displacement.
• Forgetting from long term memory (LTM) can be explained using the theories of interference , retrieval failure and lack of consolidation.

Trace Decay Theory of Forgetting

This explanation of forgetting in short-term memory assumes that memories leave a trace in the brain . A trace is some form of physical and/or chemical change in the nervous system.

Trace decay theory states that forgetting occurs as a result of the automatic decay or fading of the memory trace. Trace decay theory focuses on time and the limited duration of short-term memory.

This theory suggests short-term memory can only hold information for between 15 and 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed.  After this time the information / trace decays and fades away.

No one disputes the fact that memory tends to get worse the longer the delay between learning and recall, but there is disagreement about the explanation for this effect.

According to the trace decay theory of forgetting, the events between learning and recall have no affect whatsoever on recall.  It is the length of time the information has to be retained that is important. The longer the time, the more the memory trace decays and as a consequence more information is forgotten.

There are a number of methodological problems confronting researchers trying to investigate the trace decay theory.  One of the major problems is controlling for the events that occur between learning and recall.

Clearly, in any real-life situation, the time between learning something and recalling it will be filled with all kinds of different events.  This makes it very difficult to be sure that any forgetting which takes place is the result of decay rather than a consequence of the intervening events.

Support for the idea that forgetting from short-term memory might be the result of decay over time came from research carried out by Brown (1958) in the United Kingdom, and Peterson and Peterson (1959) in the United States. The technique they developed has become known as the Brown-Peterson task.

There is very little direct support for decay theory as an explanation for the loss of information from short-term and long-term memory.  One of the problems with decay theory is that it is more or less impossible to test it.

In practice, it is not possible to create a situation in which there is a blank period of time between the presentation of material and recall.  Having presented information participants will rehearse it.  If you prevent rehearsal by introducing a distracter task, it results in interference.

Decay theory has difficulty explaining the observation that many people can remember events that happened several years previously with great clarity, even though they haven”t thought about them during the intervening period.

If our memories gradually decayed over time, then people should not have clear memories of distant events which have lain dormant for several years.  However, there is evidence to suggest that information is lost from sensory memory through the process of decay (Sperling, 1960).

Displacement from STM

Displacement seeks to explain forgetting in short-term memory, and suggests it’s due to a lack of availability.

Displacement theory provides a very simple explanation of forgetting.  Because of its limited capacity, suggested by Miller to be 7+/- 2 items, STM can only hold small amounts of information.

When STM is “full”, new information displaces or “pushes out’ old information and takes its place .  The old information which is displaced is forgotten in STM.

It was also assumed that the information that had been in the short-term store for the longest was the first to be displaced by new information, similar to the way in which boxes might fail off the end of a conveyor belt – as new boxes are put on one end, the boxes which have been on the conveyor belt the longest drop off the end.

Support for the view that displacement was responsible for the loss of information from short-term memory came from studies using the “free-recall” method.

A typical study would use the following procedure: participants listen to a list of words read out a steady rate, usually two seconds per word; they are then asked to recall as many of words as possible. They are free to recall the words in any order, hence the term “free recall”.

The findings from studies using free recall are fairly reliable and they produce similar results on each occasion.  If you take each item in the list and calculate the probability of participants recalling it (by averaging recall of the word over all participants) and plot this against the item’s position in the list, it results in the serial position curve (Figure 1).

Fig 1 . Simplified representation of the serial position curve for immediate recall

Good recall of items at the beginning of the list is referred to as the primacy effect and good recall if items at the end of the list are referred to as the recency effect . The displacement theory of forgetting from short-term memory can explain the recency effect quite easily. The last few words that were presented in the list have not yet been displaced from short-term memory and so are available for recall.

The primacy effect can be explained using Atkinson & Shiffrin’s (1968) multi-store model which proposes that information is transferred into long-term memory by means of rehearsal.

The first words in the list are rehearsed more frequently because at the time they are presented they do not have to compete with other words for the limited capacity of the short-term store.  This means that words early in the list are more likely to be transferred to long-term memory.

So the primacy effect reflects items that are available for recall from long-term memory. However, words in the middle of the list used to be in short term memory until they were pushed out – or displaced by the words at the end of the list.

Displacement theory provided a good account of how forgetting might take place in Atkinson & Shiffrin’s (1968) model of short-term memory.  However, it became clear that the short-term memory store is much more complex than proposed in Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model (re: working memory).

Murdock’s (1962) serial position experiment supports the idea of forgetting due to displacement from short-term memory, although it could be due to decay.  Forgetting from short-term memory can occur due to displacement or due to decay, but it is often very difficult to tell which one it is.

Interference Theory

If you had asked psychologists during the 1930s, 1940s, or 1950s what caused forgetting you would probably have received the answer “ Interference “.

It was assumed that memory can be disrupted or interfered with by what we have previously learned or by what we will learn in the future.  This idea suggests that information in long term memory may become confused or combined with other information during encoding thus distorting or disrupting memories.

Interference theory states that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with and disrupt one another, in other words forgetting occurs because of interference from other memories (Baddeley, 1999).  There are two ways in which interference can cause forgetting:

• Proactive interference (pro=forward) occurs when you cannot learn a new task because of an old task that had been learned.  When what we already know interferes with what we are currently learning – where old memories disrupt new memories.
• Retroactive interference (retro=backward) occurs when you forget a previously learned task due to the learning of a new task. In other words, later learning interferes with earlier learning – where new memories disrupt old memories.

Proactive and retroactive Interference is thought to be more likely to occur where the memories are similar, for example: confusing old and new telephone numbers.  Chandler (1989) stated that students who study similar subjects at the same time often experience interference.

Previous learning can sometimes interfere with new learning (e.g. difficulties we have with foreign currency when traveling abroad).  Also, new learning can sometimes cause confusion with previous learning. (Starting French may affect our memory of previously learned Spanish vocabulary).

In the short term memory interference can occur in the form of distractions so that we don’t get the chance to process the information properly in the first place. (e.g. someone using a loud drill just outside the door of the classroom.)

Key study: Postman (1960)

Aim : To investigate how retroactive interference affects learning.  In other words, to investigate whether information you have recently received interferes with the ability to recall something you learned earlier.

Method : A lab experiment was used. Participants were split into two groups.  Both groups had to remember a list of paired words – e.g. cat – tree, jelly – moss, book – tractor.  The experimental group also had to learn another list of words where the second paired word if different – e.g. cat – glass, jelly- time, book – revolver.  The control group were not given the second list. All participants were asked to recall the words on the first list.

Results : The recall of the control group was more accurate than that of the experimental group.

Conclusion : This suggests that learning items in the second list interfered with participants’ ability to recall the list.  This is an example of retroactive interference.

Although proactive and retroactive interference are reliable and robust effects, there are a number of problems with interference theory as an explanation of forgetting.

First, interference theory tells us little about the cognitive processes involved in forgetting.  Secondly, the majority of research into the role of interference in forgetting has been carried out in a laboratory using lists of words, a situation which is likely to occur fairly infrequently in everyday life (i.e. low ecological validity).  As a result, it may not be possible to generalize from the findings.

Baddeley (1990) states that the tasks given to subjects are too close to each other and, in real life; these kinds of events are more spaced out.  Nevertheless, recent research has attempted to address this by investigating “real-life” events and has provided support for interference theory.

However, there is no doubt that interference plays a role in forgetting, but how much forgetting can be attributed to interference remains unclear (Anderson, 2000).

Lack of Consolidation

The previous accounts of forgetting have focused primarily on psychological evidence, but memory also relies on biological processes.  For example, we can define a memory trace as:

Some permanent alteration of the brain substrate in order to represent some aspect of a past experience”.

When we take in new information, a certain amount of time is necessary for changes to the nervous system to take place – the consolidation process – so that it is properly recorded. During this period information is moved from short-term memory to the more permanent long-term memory.

The brain consists of a vast number of cells called neurons , connected to each other by synapses. Synapses enable chemicals to be passed from one neuron to another . These chemicals, called neurotransmitters , can either inhibit or stimulate the performance of neurons.

So if you can imagine a network of neurons all connected via synapses, there will be a pattern of stimulation and inhibition.  It has been suggested that this pattern of inhibition and stimulation can be used as a basis for storing information.  This process of modifying neurons in order form new permanent memories is referred to as consolidation (Parkin, 1993).

There is evidence that the consolidation process is impaired if there is damage to the hippocampus (a region of the brain). In 1953, HM had brain surgery to treat his epilepsy, which had become extremely severe.

The surgery removed parts of his brain and destroyed the hippocampus, and although it relieved his epilepsy, it left him with a range of memory problems.  Although his STM functioned well, he was unable to process information into LTM.

The main problem experienced by HM is his inability to remember and learn new things. This inability to form new memories is referred to as anterograde amnesia. However, of interest in our understanding of the duration of the process of consolidation is HM’s memory for events before his surgery.

In general, his memory for events before the surgery remains intact, but he does have some memory loss for events which occurred in the two years leading up to surgery.

Pinel (1993) suggests that this challenges Hebb’s (1949) idea that the process of consolidation takes approximately 30 minutes.  The fact that HM’s memory is disrupted for the two-year period leading up to the surgery indicates that the process of consolidation continues for a number of years.

Finally, aging can also impair our ability to consolidate information.

The research into the processes involved in consolidation reminds us that memory relies on biological processes, although the exact manner by which neurons are altered during the formation of new memories has not yet been fully explained.

However, there is no doubt that investigating the role of neurons and neurotransmitters will provide new and important insights into memory and forgetting.

Retrieval Failure Theory

Retrieval failure is where the information is in long-term memory, but cannot be accessed.  Such information is said to be available (i.e. it is still stored) but not accessible (i.e. it cannot be retrieved). It cannot be accessed because the retrieval cues are not present.

When we store a new memory we also store information about the situation and these are known as retrieval cues.  When we come into the same situation again, these retrieval cues can trigger the memory of the situation. Retrieval cues can be:

• External / Context – in the environment, e.g. smell, place etc.
• Internal / State – inside of us, e.g. physical, emotional, mood, drunk etc

There is considerable evidence that information is more likely to be retrieved from long-term memory if appropriate retrieval cues are present.  This evidence comes from both laboratory experiments and everyday experience.  A retrieval cue is a hint or clue that can help retrieval.

Tulving (1974) argued that information would be more readily retrieved if the cues present when the information was encoded were also present when its retrieval is required. For example, if you proposed to your partner when a certain song was playing on the radio, you will be more likely to remember the details of the proposal when you hear the same song again.  The song is a retrieval cue – it was present when the information was encoded and retrieved.

Tulving suggested that information about the physical surroundings ( external context ) and about the physical or psychological state of the learner ( internal context ) is stored at the same time as information is learned.

Reinstating the state or context makes recall easier by providing relevant information, while retrieval failure occurs when appropriate cues are not present. For example, when we are in a different context (i.e. situation) or state.

Context (external) Cues

Retrieval cues may be based on context-the setting or situation in which information is encoded and retrieved. Examples include a particular room, driving along a motorway, a certain group of people, a rainy day and so on.

Context also refers to the way information is presented.  For example, words may be printed, spoken or sung, they may be presented in meaningful groups – in categories such as lists of animals or furniture – or as a random collection without any link between them. Evidence indicates that retrieval is more likely when the context at encoding matches the context at retrieval.

You may have experienced the effect of context on memory if you have ever visited a place where you once lived (or an old school).  Often such as visit helps people recall lots of experiences about the time they spent there which they did not realize were stored in their memory.

A number of experiments have indicated the importance of context-based cues for retrieval. An experiment conducted by Tulving and Pearlstone (1966) asked participants to learn lists of words belonging to different categories, for example names of animals, clothing and sports.

Participants were then asked to recall the words. Those who were given the category names recalled substantially more words than those who were not. The categories provided a context, and naming the categories provided retrieval cues.

Tulving and Pearlstone argued that cue-dependent forgetting explains the difference between the two groups of participants. Those who recalled fewer words lacked appropriate retrieval cues.

An interesting experiment conducted by Baddeley (1975) indicates the importance of setting for retrieval. Baddeley (1975 ) asked deep-sea divers to memorize a list of words.  One group did this on the beach and the other group underwater. When they were asked to remember the words half of the beach learners remained on the beach, the rest had to recall underwater.

Half of the underwater group remained there and the others had to recall on the beach.  The results show that those who had recalled in the same environment (i.e. context) which that had learned recalled 40% more words than those recalling in a different environment. This suggests that the retrieval of information is improved if it occurs in the context in which it was learned.

State (internal) Dependent Cues

The basic idea behind state-dependent retrieval is that memory will be best when a person’s physical or psychological state is similar at encoding and retrieval.

For example, if someone tells you a joke on Saturday night after a few drinks, you”ll be more likely to remember it when you”re in a similar state – at a later date after a few more drinks.  Stone cold sober on Monday morning, you”ll be more likely to forget the joke.

State retrieval clues may be based on state-the physical or psychological state of the person when information is encoded and retrieved.  For example, a person may be alert, tired, happy, sad, drunk or sober when the information was encoded.  They will be more likely to retrieve the information when they are in a similar state.

Tulving and Pearlstone’s (1966) study involved external cues (e.g. presenting category names). However, cue-dependent forgetting has also been shown with internal cues (e.g. mood state). Information about current mood state is often stored in the memory trace, and there is more forgetting if the mood state at the time of retrieval is different. The notion that there should be less forgetting when the mood state at learning and at retrieval is the same is generally known as mood-state-dependent memory .

A study by Goodwin et al. (1969) investigated the effect of alcohol on state-dependent retrieval. They found that when people encoded information when drunk, they were more likely to recall it in the same state. For example, when they hid money and alcohol when drunk, they were unlikely to find them when sober.

However, when they were drunk again, they often discovered the hiding place. Other studies found similar state-dependent effects when participants were given drugs such as marijuana.

People tend to remember material better when there is a match between their mood at learning and at retrieval. The effects are stronger when the participants are in a positive mood than a negative mood. They are also greater when people try to remember events having personal relevance.

According to retrieval-failure theory, forgetting occurs when information is available in LTM but is not accessible.  Accessibility depends in large part on retrieval cues.  Forgetting is greatest when context and state are very different at encoding and retrieval.  In this situation, retrieval cues are absent and the likely result is cue-dependent forgetting.

There is considerable evidence to support this theory of forgetting from laboratory experiments. The ecological validity of these experiments can be questioned, but their findings are supported by evidence from outside the laboratory.

For example, many people say they can”t remember much about their childhood or their school days.  But returning to the house in which they spent their childhood or attending a school reunion often provides retrieval cues which trigger a flood of memories.

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Understanding Global Change

Discover why the climate and environment changes, your place in the Earth system, and paths to a resilient future.

Displacement of human populations

The displacement of human populations refers to the relocation of large numbers of people from their homes. On this website, we focus on human displacement driven directly or indirectly by non-human or human-caused changes in the physical environment, which create shortages of essential resources. For example, climate change can reduce regional precipitation and convert farmland into desert. Unfortunately, the displacement of human populations is not only caused by environmental changes, but often occurs because of inequitable social and political systems that do not provide people with protection, food, clean water, and healthcare.

Either sudden or long-term changes in Earth’s environment can force or motivate people to leave their homes to preserve their health and well-being. These changes are caused by a variety of factors related to human use of Earth’s resources, climate change, and non-human processes. Some of the reasons for the displacement of human populations include:

Residents walk on a road littered with debris after Super Typhoon Haiyan battered Tacloban city in central Philippines November 10, 2013. Credit: Daria Devyatkina

• Decreases in the availability of freshwater for both drinking and agriculture.
• Decreases in quality, availability, and nutritional value of food .
• Extreme weather events, including droughts when precipitation decreases, and hurricanes that bring high winds and flooding.
• Flooding due to sea level rise .
• Habitat loss from activities such as deforestation .
• Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions , or fires that alter landscapes.

Can you think of additional cause and effect relationships between the displacement of human populations and other parts of the Earth system?

Visit the freshwater quality and availability , food availability and nutrition , and health a nd diseases pages to explore more connections between the displacement of human populations and global changes.

Links to Learn More

• UNHCR: Climate change and disaster displacement
• NOAA, Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters: Events

Introduction to Displacement Studies: Knowledges, Concepts, Practices

• First Online: 12 December 2020

Cite this chapter

• Peter Adey 3 ,
• Janet C. Bowstead 3 ,
• Katherine Brickell 3 ,
• Vandana Desai 3 ,
• Mike Dolton 3 ,
• Alasdair Pinkerton 3 &
• Ayesha Siddiqi 4  

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The Handbook of Displacement introduction traces knowledges, concepts, and practices in the interdisciplinary study of displacement. It sets out its cardinal reference points in its approach to displacement, provides information on the organisational logic of the handbook, and offers introductory discussions of each section on technologies, journeys, traces, governing, the more-than-human, representing, and resisting of displacement.

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Adey, P. et al. (2020). Introduction to Displacement Studies: Knowledges, Concepts, Practices. In: Adey, P., et al. The Handbook of Displacement. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47178-1_1

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Displacement

Displacement is the change in an object’s position relative to a reference frame. For example, when a player strikes a billiards ball, the ball moves from one position to another. It is said to be displaced. Displacement is a vector quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

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How to Calculate Displacement

To determine displacement, one must know the object’s position in a frame of reference or coordinate system. We use the distance from a reference point to represent the position. In a coordinate system, that reference point is called the origin.

Consider a one-dimensional coordinate system. The variable x is often used to indicate position. Suppose a person is at position A, at a distance x i from the origin. Here, the subscript i refers to the initial position. After some time, he moves to position B at a distance x f from the origin, where f refers to the final position. Then, the displacement ( Δx ) of the person is

Δx = x f – x i

SI Unit : Meter or m

Can Displacement be Negative

From the above equation, it is clear that if x f > x i , Δx > 0. In other words, the displacement is positive. However, if x f < x i , Δx < 0, the displacement is negative. Therefore, the displacement can be negative depending upon the person’s initial and final positions, which in turn, depends on the direction in which he moves. In this case, he moves right in the positive x-direction. So, his displacement is positive. Had he moved left in the negative x-direction, the displacement would have been negative.

Magnitude and Direction

The magnitude of displacement is given by

|Δx| = |x f – x i |

The red arrow in the above images indicates the direction of displacement.

Displacement and Distance

Distance refers to the total ground covered by an object while moving from one point to another. It is a scalar quantity that is also measured in meters.

Suppose a person walks from point A to B, not in a straight line but through a curved path. The blue curve illustrates his movement in the image below. In other words, the person has changed his direction multiple times while traversing from A to B. The blue path indicates the distance he covered, and the straight red arrow indicates his displacement.

The following table highlights the difference between the two.

Displacement Graphs

A displacement graph usually shows the displacement as a function of time. Here, displacement is the dependent variable and is represented on the y-axis. On the other hand, time is the independent variable and is represented on the x-axis. The ratio of displacement over time gives the velocity . There are three different plots for the displacement vs. time graph, which are shown in the image below.

Plot (1) shows that the object remains stationary for a while. In other words, the displacement is constant, and the slope is zero. The velocity of the object is zero.

Plot (2) shows that the displacement varies linearly with time. The slope of the graph, and hence the velocity, remains constant and positive.

Plot (3) shows that the displacement increases nonuniformly with time. It means that the slope and velocity increase with time. Since the velocity is increasing, the object is displaying acceleration .

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Article was last reviewed on Friday, November 18, 2022

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Displacement

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Displacement is a defense mechanism in which a person redirects an emotional reaction from the rightful recipient onto another person or object.

For example, if a manager screams at an employee, the employee doesn't scream back—but he may yell at his spouse later that night. Displacement often involves deflected anger or aggression , but it can include other feelings and impulses as well.

The concept of defense mechanisms was originally developed by Sigmund Freud and his daughter Anna Freud; they function to unconsciously protect the ego from discomfort or distress. Although many Freudian theories have been disproven over time, defense mechanisms like displacement have endured.

• Displacement in Therapy and Mental Health
• Displacement in Everyday Life

Defense mechanisms crop up for everyone from time to time; displacement only interferes with mental health when it becomes habitual or interferes with daily life, such as a job or relationship.

Displacement may relieve distress or preserve self-esteem in the moment but damage well-being over time. The reaction can exacerbate personal problems or relationship conflict while failing to address the underlying problem.

It can be difficult to recognize displacement, so a therapist can be a helpful guide. The therapist may observe patterns in which a patient seems to overreact or redirect frustration onto a seemingly unrelated person. The pair can then explore the root cause so the patient can move forward.

Displacement takes place because it’s sometimes safer or easier to focus on a less threatening person. In the case of the employee who is reprimanded by her boss, responding in anger could cost her her job. Responding differently would require skills of confrontation and conflict resolution. Displacing her anger onto her spouse or child provides a less powerful, lower stakes, and more controllable target.

Displacement may arise in therapy for patients who struggle with anger problems. Anger may be often related to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), such as physical, emotional or sexual abuse , neglect, witnessing violence, parental divorce , and parental alcohol or substance abuse .

These individuals may not have been able to acknowledge or fully process their emotions as children. It can be overwhelming to endure pain and not be able to seek comfort from a caretaker who perpetrates this suffering, so anger may be displaced onto someone else. This pattern can continue throughout adulthood: Problems with authority, law enforcement, bullying , or relationships can lead someone to seek therapy. These emotions and experiences can then be explored.

One way to prevent displacement is to challenge distorted or irrational beliefs. People can change their view of a situation from one of anger to one of frustration, sadness, or disappointment; acknowledge the unfairness of the situation, and the fact that people are not always treated fairly. These mental shifts can help confront and process stress and anger, rather than unconsciously pushing it onto others.

Projection is another defense mechanism, in which people attribute their feelings or desires to someone else. For example, if a bully constantly ridicules a peer about his insecurities, the bully might be projecting his own struggle with self-esteem onto the other person. Projection and displacement are similar, but projection involves misinterpreting the target’s motivations, while displacement involves misattributing one’s own response.

Displacement can be a difficult dynamic to encounter, or even recognize, yet it can occur in many domains, from relationships to politics . It’s also important to acknowledge that not everyone who expresses frustration or anger is displacing—sometimes a person can be genuinely upset without the other person realizing why.

Displacing emotions onto a friend or romantic partner  can drive conflict in relationships. Intense reactions may hurt the other person and fail to resolve the distressing situation. Displaced anger or aggression is a common example of this. Another is someone who lacks a fulfilling relationship and devotes lots of time and attention to another person, as a sort of “placeholder” partner.

Addiction can be fueled by feelings of helplessness and powerlessness. Those emotions produce a sense of anger that can overwhelm people’s judgment. When that anger is not expressed to the person or situation that caused it, the decision to drink or do drugs functions as an act of control, an act to regain autonomy and power. If this behavior becomes a pattern, it can fuel addiction to alcohol, drugs, or compulsive behaviors .

Displacement is one of many factors that contribute to bullying. Sometimes a bully may be the victim of abuse or violence at home, and he feels powerless to address his pain and anger. He then redirects that anger toward targets at school who are less threatening and powerful. This can lead to a cycle of aggression.

This pattern is not limited to childhood , and it can occur in adolescence and adulthood as well. For example, research suggests that displaced anger may be a contributing factor in gang violence.

Targets of displacement are often less powerful or threatening than the original source of anger. Political leaders may recognize and exploit this tendency. For example, a politician may gin up anger and frustration about people’s economic status and redirect that anger onto a scapegoat with less power, such as a racial minority.

This tactic allows leaders to divide the population and divert anger that may have been directed at government leadership towards the group of their choosing, which can strengthen and maintain authority.

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When it hardly matters to a depressive whether they live or die, they’re at increased risk for behaving recklessly, for at least it distracts them from intolerable emotional pain.

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Chasing the good and not the bad seems to be a more productive pathway to mental and physical health.

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displacement

Definition of displacement

called also displacement activity , displacement behavior

• deportation
• expatriation

Examples of displacement in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'displacement.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

see displace

1611, in the meaning defined at sense 1

Dictionary Entries Near displacement

displaced speech

displacement angle

Cite this Entry

“Displacement.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/displacement. Accessed 6 Apr. 2024.

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Kids definition of displacement, medical definition, medical definition of displacement, more from merriam-webster on displacement.

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