essay about social science disciplines

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2.1 Sociology as a Social Science

Learning objectives.

Explain what is meant by saying that sociology is a social science.
Describe the difference between a generalization and a law in scientific research.
List the sources of knowledge on which people rely for their understanding of social reality and explain why the knowledge gained from these sources may sometimes be faulty.
List the basic steps of the scientific method.

Like anthropology, economics, political science, and psychology, sociology is a social science. All these disciplines use research to try to understand various aspects of human thought and behavior. Although this chapter naturally focuses on sociological research methods, much of the discussion is also relevant for research in the other social and behavioral sciences.

When we say that sociology is a social science, we mean that it uses the scientific method to try to understand the many aspects of society that sociologists study. An important goal is to yield generalizations —general statements regarding trends among various dimensions of social life. We discussed many such generalizations in Chapter 1 “Sociology and the Sociological Perspective” : men are more likely than women to commit suicide, young people were more likely to vote for Obama than McCain in 2008, and so forth. A generalization is just that: a statement of a tendency, rather than a hard-and-fast law. For example, the statement that men are more likely than women to commit suicide does not mean that every man commits suicide and no woman commits suicide. It means only that men have a higher suicide rate, even though most men, of course, do not commit suicide. Similarly, the statement that young people were more likely to vote for Obama than for McCain in 2008 does not mean that all young people voted for Obama; it means only that they were more likely than not to do so.

A generalization regarding the 2008 election is that young people were more likely to vote for Barack Obama than for John McCain. This generalization does not mean that every young person voted for Obama and no young person voted for McCain; it means only that they were more likely than not to vote for Obama.

Wikimedia Commons – CC BY 2.0.

Many people will not fit the pattern of such a generalization, because people are shaped but not totally determined by their social environment. That is both the fascination and the frustration of sociology. Sociology is fascinating because no matter how much sociologists are able to predict people’s behavior, attitudes, and life chances, many people will not fit the predictions. But sociology is frustrating for the same reason. Because people can never be totally explained by their social environment, sociologists can never completely understand the sources of their behavior, attitudes, and life chances.

In this sense, sociology as a social science is very different from a discipline such as physics, in which known laws exist for which no exceptions are possible. For example, we call the law of gravity a law because it describes a physical force that exists on the earth at all times and in all places and that always has the same result. If you were to pick up the book you are now reading—or the computer or other device on which you are reading or listening to—and then let go, the object you were holding would definitely fall to the ground. If you did this a second time, it would fall a second time. If you did this a billion times, it would fall a billion times. In fact, if there were even one time out of a billion that your book or electronic device did not fall down, our understanding of the physical world would be totally revolutionized, the earth could be in danger, and you could go on television and make a lot of money.

People’s attitudes, behavior, and life chances are influenced but not totally determined by many aspects of their social environment.

redjar – Cheering – CC BY-SA 2.0.

For better or worse, people are less predictable than this object that keeps falling down. Sociology can help us understand the social forces that affect our behavior, beliefs, and life chances, but it can only go so far. That limitation conceded, sociological understanding can still go fairly far toward such an understanding, and it can help us comprehend who we are and what we are by helping us first understand the profound yet often subtle influence of our social backgrounds on so many things about us.

Although sociology as a discipline is very different from physics, it is not as different as one might think from this and the other “hard” sciences. Like these disciplines, sociology as a social science relies heavily on systematic research that follows the standard rules of the scientific method. We return to these rules and the nature of sociological research later in this chapter. Suffice it to say here that careful research is essential for a sociological understanding of people, social institutions, and society.

At this point a reader might be saying, “I already know a lot about people. I could have told you that young people voted for Obama. I already had heard that men have a higher suicide rate than women. Maybe our social backgrounds do influence us in ways I had not realized, but what beyond that does sociology have to tell me?”

Students often feel this way because sociology deals with matters already familiar to them. Just about everyone has grown up in a family, so we all know something about it. We read a lot in the media about topics like divorce and health care, so we all already know something about these, too. All this leads some students to wonder if they will learn anything in their introduction to sociology course that they do not already know.

How Do We Know What We Think We Know?

Let’s consider this issue a moment: how do we know what we think we know? Our usual knowledge and understanding of social reality come from at least five sources: (a) personal experience; (b) common sense; (c) the media (including the Internet); (d) “expert authorities,” such as teachers, parents, and government officials; and (e) tradition. These are all important sources of our understanding of how the world “works,” but at the same time their value can often be very limited.

Personal Experience

Let’s look at these sources separately by starting with personal experience. Although personal experiences are very important, not everyone has the same personal experience. This fact casts some doubt on the degree to which our personal experiences can help us understand everything about a topic and the degree to which we can draw conclusions from them that necessarily apply to other people. For example, say you grew up in Maine or Vermont, where more than 98% of the population is white. If you relied on your personal experience to calculate how many people of color live in the country, you would conclude that almost everyone in the United States is also white, which certainly is not true. As another example, say you grew up in a family where your parents had the proverbial perfect marriage, as they loved each other deeply and rarely argued. If you relied on your personal experience to understand the typical American marriage, you would conclude that most marriages were as good as your parents’ marriage, which, unfortunately, also is not true. Many other examples could be cited here, but the basic point should be clear: although personal experience is better than nothing, it often offers only a very limited understanding of social reality other than our own.

Common Sense

If personal experience does not help that much when it comes to making predictions, what about common sense? Although common sense can be very helpful, it can also contradict itself. For example, which makes more sense, haste makes waste or he or she who hesitates is lost ? How about birds of a feather flock together versus opposites attract ? Or two heads are better than one versus too many cooks spoil the broth ? Each of these common sayings makes sense, but if sayings that are opposite of each other both make sense, where does the truth lie? Can common sense always be counted on to help us understand social life? Slightly more than five centuries ago, everyone “knew” the earth was flat—it was just common sense that it had to be that way. Slightly more than a century ago, some of the leading physicians in the United States believed that women should not go to college because the stress of higher education would disrupt their menstrual cycles (Ehrenreich & English, 1979). If that bit of common sense(lessness) were still with us, many of the women reading this book would not be in college.

Two black female students in their graduation clothes

During the late 19th century, a common belief was that women should not go to college because the stress of higher education would disrupt their menstrual cycles. This example shows that common sense is often incorrect.

Steven Depolo – Female Black College Graduates Cap Gown – CC BY 2.0.

Still, perhaps there are some things that make so much sense they just have to be true; if sociology then tells us that they are true, what have we learned? Here is an example of such an argument. We all know that older people—those 65 or older—have many more problems than younger people. First, their health is generally worse. Second, physical infirmities make it difficult for many elders to walk or otherwise move around. Third, many have seen their spouses and close friends pass away and thus live lonelier lives than younger people. Finally, many are on fixed incomes and face financial difficulties. All of these problems indicate that older people should be less happy than younger people. If a sociologist did some research and then reported that older people are indeed less happy than younger people, what have we learned? The sociologist only confirmed the obvious.

The trouble with this confirmation of the obvious is that the “obvious” turns out not to be true after all. In the 2008 General Social Survey, which was given to a random sample of Americans, respondents were asked, “Taken all together, how would you say things are these days? Would you say that you are very happy, pretty happy, or not too happy?” Respondents aged 65 or older were actually slightly more likely than those younger than 65 to say they were very happy! About 40% of older respondents reported feeling this way, compared with only 30% of younger respondents (see Figure 2.1 “Age and Happiness” ). What we all “knew” was obvious from common sense turns out not to have been so obvious after all.

Figure 2.1 Age and Happiness

Source: Data from General Social Survey, 2008.

The news media often oversimplify complex topics and in other respects provide a misleading picture of social reality. As one example, news coverage sensationalizes violent crime and thus suggests that such crime is more common than it actually is.

Wikiemedia Commons – CC BY-SA 2.0.

If personal experience and common sense do not always help that much, how about the media? We learn a lot about current events and social and political issues from the Internet, television news, newspapers and magazines, and other media sources. It is certainly important to keep up with the news, but media coverage may oversimplify complex topics or even distort what the best evidence from systematic research seems to be telling us. A good example here is crime. Many studies show that the media sensationalize crime and suggest there is much more violent crime than there really is. For example, in the early 1990s, the evening newscasts on the major networks increased their coverage of murder and other violent crimes, painting a picture of a nation where crime was growing rapidly. The reality was very different, however, as crime was actually declining. The view that crime was growing was thus a myth generated by the media (Kurtz, 1997).

Expert Authorities

Expert authorities, such as teachers, parents, and government officials, are a fourth source that influences our understanding of social reality. We learn much from our teachers and parents and perhaps from government officials, but, for better or worse, not all of what we learn from these sources about social reality is completely accurate. Teachers and parents do not always have the latest research evidence at their fingertips, and various biases may color their interpretation of any evidence with which they are familiar. As many examples from U.S. history illustrate, government officials may simplify or even falsify the facts. We should perhaps always listen to our teachers and parents and maybe even to government officials, but that does not always mean they give us a true, complete picture of social reality.

A final source that influences our understanding of social reality is tradition, or long-standing ways of thinking about the workings of society. Tradition is generally valuable, because a society should always be aware of its roots. However, traditional ways of thinking about social reality often turn out to be inaccurate and incomplete. For example, traditional ways of thinking in the United States once assumed that women and people of color were biologically and culturally inferior to men and whites. Although some Americans continue to hold these beliefs, these traditional assumptions have given way to more egalitarian assumptions. As we shall also see in later chapters, most sociologists certainly do not believe that women and people of color are biologically and culturally inferior.

If we cannot always trust personal experience, common sense, the media, expert authorities, and tradition to help us understand social reality, then the importance of systematic research gathered by sociology and the other social sciences becomes apparent.

The Scientific Method

As noted earlier, because sociology is a social science, sociologists follow the rules of the scientific method in their research. Most readers probably learned these rules in science classes in high school, college, or both. The scientific method is followed in the natural, physical, and social sciences to help yield the most accurate and reliable conclusions possible, especially ones that are free of bias or methodological errors. An overriding principle of the scientific method is that research should be conducted as objectively as possible. Researchers are often passionate about their work, but they must take care not to let the findings they expect and even hope to uncover affect how they do their research. This in turn means that they must not conduct their research in a manner that “helps” achieve the results they expect to find. Such bias can happen unconsciously, and the scientific method helps reduce the potential for this bias as much as possible.

This potential is arguably greater in the social sciences than in the natural and physical sciences. The political views of chemists and physicists typically do not affect how an experiment is performed and how the outcome of the experiment is interpreted. In contrast, researchers in the social sciences, and perhaps particularly in sociology, often have strong feelings about the topics they are studying. Their social and political beliefs may thus influence how they perform their research on these topics and how they interpret the results of this research. Following the scientific method helps reduce this possible influence.

Figure 2.2 The Scientific Method

As you probably learned in a science class, the scientific method involves these basic steps: (a) formulating a hypothesis, (b) measuring and gathering data to test the hypothesis, (c) analyzing these data, and (d) drawing appropriate conclusions (see Figure 2.2 “The Scientific Method” ). In following the scientific method, sociologists are no different from their colleagues in the natural and physical sciences or the other social sciences, even though their research is very different in other respects. The next section discusses the stages of the sociological research process in more detail.

Key Takeaways

As a social science, sociology presents generalizations, or general statements regarding trends among various dimensions of social life. There are always many exceptions to any generalization, because people are not totally determined by their social environment.
Our knowledge and understanding of social reality usually comes from five sources: (a) personal experience, (b) common sense, (c) the media, (d) expert authorities, and (e) tradition. Sometimes and perhaps often, the knowledge gained from these sources is faulty.
Like research in other social sciences, sociological research follows the scientific method to ensure the most accurate and reliable results possible. The basic steps of the scientific method include (a) formulating a hypothesis, (b) measuring and gathering data to test the hypothesis, (c) analyzing these data, and (d) drawing appropriate conclusions.

For Your Review

Think of a personal experience you have had that might have some sociological relevance. Write a short essay in which you explain how this experience helped you understand some aspect of society. Your essay should also consider whether the understanding gained from your personal experience is generalizable to other people and situations.
Why do you think the media sometimes provide a false picture of social reality? Does this problem result from honest mistakes, or is the media’s desire to attract more viewers, listeners, and readers to blame?

Ehrenreich, B., & English, D. (1979). For her own good: 150 years of the experts’ advice to women . Garden City, NY: Anchor Books.

Kurtz, H. (1997, August 12). The crime spree on network news. The Washington Post , p. D1.

USC Libraries
Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

Academic Writing Style
Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Glossary of Research Terms
Reading Research Effectively
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Applying Critical Thinking
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Research Process Video Series
Executive Summary
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tiertiary Sources
Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Insiderness
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Writing Concisely
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Generative AI and Writing
USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
Bibliography

Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and specific areas of expertise. Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts within a community of scholarly experts and practitioners.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020.

Importance of Good Academic Writing

The accepted form of academic writing in the social sciences can vary considerable depending on the methodological framework and the intended audience. However, most college-level research papers require careful attention to the following stylistic elements:

I. The Big Picture Unlike creative or journalistic writing, the overall structure of academic writing is formal and logical. It must be cohesive and possess a logically organized flow of ideas; this means that the various parts are connected to form a unified whole. There should be narrative links between sentences and paragraphs so that the reader is able to follow your argument. The introduction should include a description of how the rest of the paper is organized and all sources are properly cited throughout the paper.

II. Tone The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing. Throughout your paper, it is important that you present the arguments of others fairly and with an appropriate narrative tone. When presenting a position or argument that you disagree with, describe this argument accurately and without loaded or biased language. In academic writing, the author is expected to investigate the research problem from an authoritative point of view. You should, therefore, state the strengths of your arguments confidently, using language that is neutral, not confrontational or dismissive.

III. Diction Diction refers to the choice of words you use. Awareness of the words you use is important because words that have almost the same denotation [dictionary definition] can have very different connotations [implied meanings]. This is particularly true in academic writing because words and terminology can evolve a nuanced meaning that describes a particular idea, concept, or phenomenon derived from the epistemological culture of that discipline [e.g., the concept of rational choice in political science]. Therefore, use concrete words [not general] that convey a specific meaning. If this cannot be done without confusing the reader, then you need to explain what you mean within the context of how that word or phrase is used within a discipline.

IV. Language The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is often complex and multi- dimensional . Therefore, it is important that you use unambiguous language. Well-structured paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without difficulty. Your language should be concise, formal, and express precisely what you want it to mean. Do not use vague expressions that are not specific or precise enough for the reader to derive exact meaning ["they," "we," "people," "the organization," etc.], abbreviations like 'i.e.' ["in other words"], 'e.g.' ["for example"], or 'a.k.a.' ["also known as"], and the use of unspecific determinate words ["super," "very," "incredible," "huge," etc.].

V. Punctuation Scholars rely on precise words and language to establish the narrative tone of their work and, therefore, punctuation marks are used very deliberately. For example, exclamation points are rarely used to express a heightened tone because it can come across as unsophisticated or over-excited. Dashes should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory comment in a sentence, while hyphens should be limited to connecting prefixes to words [e.g., multi-disciplinary] or when forming compound phrases [e.g., commander-in-chief]. Finally, understand that semi-colons represent a pause that is longer than a comma, but shorter than a period in a sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses of semi-colons: when a second clause expands or explains the first clause; to describe a sequence of actions or different aspects of the same topic; placed before clauses which begin with "nevertheless", "therefore", "even so," and "for instance”; and, to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which contain commas. If you are not confident about when to use semi-colons [and most of the time, they are not required for proper punctuation], rewrite using shorter sentences or revise the paragraph.

VI. Academic Conventions Among the most important rules and principles of academic engagement of a writing is citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of references as either footnotes or endnotes. The academic convention of citing sources facilitates processes of intellectual discovery, critical thinking, and applying a deliberate method of navigating through the scholarly landscape by tracking how cited works are propagated by scholars over time . Aside from citing sources, other academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of headings and subheadings, properly spelling out acronyms when first used in the text, avoiding slang or colloquial language, avoiding emotive language or unsupported declarative statements, avoiding contractions [e.g., isn't], and using first person and second person pronouns only when necessary.

VII. Evidence-Based Reasoning Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about the research problem. However, what is valued in academic writing is that statements are based on evidence-based reasoning. This refers to possessing a clear understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and academic debates that exist within, and often external to, your discipline concerning the topic. You need to support your arguments with evidence from scholarly [i.e., academic or peer-reviewed] sources. It should be an objective stance presented as a logical argument; the quality of the evidence you cite will determine the strength of your argument. The objective is to convince the reader of the validity of your thoughts through a well-documented, coherent, and logically structured piece of writing. This is particularly important when proposing solutions to problems or delineating recommended courses of action.

VIII. Thesis-Driven Academic writing is “thesis-driven,” meaning that the starting point is a particular perspective, idea, or position applied to the chosen topic of investigation, such as, establishing, proving, or disproving solutions to the questions applied to investigating the research problem. Note that a problem statement without the research questions does not qualify as academic writing because simply identifying the research problem does not establish for the reader how you will contribute to solving the problem, what aspects you believe are most critical, or suggest a method for gathering information or data to better understand the problem.

IX. Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking Academic writing addresses complex issues that require higher-order thinking skills applied to understanding the research problem [e.g., critical, reflective, logical, and creative thinking as opposed to, for example, descriptive or prescriptive thinking]. Higher-order thinking skills include cognitive processes that are used to comprehend, solve problems, and express concepts or that describe abstract ideas that cannot be easily acted out, pointed to, or shown with images. Think of your writing this way: One of the most important attributes of a good teacher is the ability to explain complexity in a way that is understandable and relatable to the topic being presented during class. This is also one of the main functions of academic writing--examining and explaining the significance of complex ideas as clearly as possible. As a writer, you must adopt the role of a good teacher by summarizing complex information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts, and recommendations that contribute to a better understanding of the research problem.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Murray, Rowena and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Roy. Improve Your Writing Skills . Manchester, UK: Clifton Press, 1995; Nygaard, Lynn P. Writing for Scholars: A Practical Guide to Making Sense and Being Heard . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2015; Silvia, Paul J. How to Write a Lot: A Practical Guide to Productive Academic Writing . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2007; Style, Diction, Tone, and Voice. Writing Center, Wheaton College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.

Strategies for...

Understanding Academic Writing and Its Jargon

The very definition of research jargon is language specific to a particular community of practitioner-researchers . Therefore, in modern university life, jargon represents the specific language and meaning assigned to words and phrases specific to a discipline or area of study. For example, the idea of being rational may hold the same general meaning in both political science and psychology, but its application to understanding and explaining phenomena within the research domain of a each discipline may have subtle differences based upon how scholars in that discipline apply the concept to the theories and practice of their work.

Given this, it is important that specialist terminology [i.e., jargon] must be used accurately and applied under the appropriate conditions . Subject-specific dictionaries are the best places to confirm the meaning of terms within the context of a specific discipline. These can be found by either searching in the USC Libraries catalog by entering the disciplinary and the word dictionary [e.g., sociology and dictionary] or using a database such as Credo Reference [a curated collection of subject encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, guides from highly regarded publishers] . It is appropriate for you to use specialist language within your field of study, but you should avoid using such language when writing for non-academic or general audiences.

Problems with Opaque Writing

A common criticism of scholars is that they can utilize needlessly complex syntax or overly expansive vocabulary that is impenetrable or not well-defined. When writing, avoid problems associated with opaque writing by keeping in mind the following:

1. Excessive use of specialized terminology . Yes, it is appropriate for you to use specialist language and a formal style of expression in academic writing, but it does not mean using "big words" just for the sake of doing so. Overuse of complex or obscure words or writing complicated sentence constructions gives readers the impression that your paper is more about style than substance; it leads the reader to question if you really know what you are talking about. Focus on creating clear, concise, and elegant prose that minimizes reliance on specialized terminology.

2. Inappropriate use of specialized terminology . Because you are dealing with concepts, research, and data within your discipline, you need to use the technical language appropriate to that area of study. However, nothing will undermine the validity of your study quicker than the inappropriate application of a term or concept. Avoid using terms whose meaning you are unsure of--do not just guess or assume! Consult the meaning of terms in specialized, discipline-specific dictionaries by searching the USC Libraries catalog or the Credo Reference database [see above].

Additional Problems to Avoid

In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are other aspects of academic writing in the social sciences that you should be aware of. These problems include:

Personal nouns . Excessive use of personal nouns [e.g., I, me, you, us] may lead the reader to believe the study was overly subjective. These words can be interpreted as being used only to avoid presenting empirical evidence about the research problem. Limit the use of personal nouns to descriptions of things you actually did [e.g., "I interviewed ten teachers about classroom management techniques..."]. Note that personal nouns are generally found in the discussion section of a paper because this is where you as the author/researcher interpret and describe your work.
Directives . Avoid directives that demand the reader to "do this" or "do that." Directives should be framed as evidence-based recommendations or goals leading to specific outcomes. Note that an exception to this can be found in various forms of action research that involve evidence-based advocacy for social justice or transformative change. Within this area of the social sciences, authors may offer directives for action in a declarative tone of urgency.
Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms . Academic writing relies on excellent grammar and precise word structure. Your narrative should not include regional dialects or slang terms because they can be open to interpretation. Your writing should be direct and concise using standard English.
Wordiness. Focus on being concise, straightforward, and developing a narrative that does not have confusing language . By doing so, you help eliminate the possibility of the reader misinterpreting the design and purpose of your study.
Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company," "that area," etc.). Being concise in your writing also includes avoiding vague references to persons, places, or things. While proofreading your paper, be sure to look for and edit any vague or imprecise statements that lack context or specificity.
Numbered lists and bulleted items . The use of bulleted items or lists should be used only if the narrative dictates a need for clarity. For example, it is fine to state, "The four main problems with hedge funds are:" and then list them as 1, 2, 3, 4. However, in academic writing, this must then be followed by detailed explanation and analysis of each item. Given this, the question you should ask yourself while proofreading is: why begin with a list in the first place rather than just starting with systematic analysis of each item arranged in separate paragraphs? Also, be careful using numbers because they can imply a ranked order of priority or importance. If none exists, use bullets and avoid checkmarks or other symbols.
Descriptive writing . Describing a research problem is an important means of contextualizing a study. In fact, some description or background information may be needed because you can not assume the reader knows the key aspects of the topic. However, the content of your paper should focus on methodology, the analysis and interpretation of findings, and their implications as they apply to the research problem rather than background information and descriptions of tangential issues.
Personal experience. Drawing upon personal experience [e.g., traveling abroad; caring for someone with Alzheimer's disease] can be an effective way of introducing the research problem or engaging your readers in understanding its significance. Use personal experience only as an example, though, because academic writing relies on evidence-based research. To do otherwise is simply story-telling.

NOTE: Rules concerning excellent grammar and precise word structure do not apply when quoting someone. A quote should be inserted in the text of your paper exactly as it was stated. If the quote is especially vague or hard to understand, consider paraphrasing it or using a different quote to convey the same meaning. Consider inserting the term "sic" in brackets after the quoted text to indicate that the quotation has been transcribed exactly as found in the original source, but the source had grammar, spelling, or other errors. The adverb sic informs the reader that the errors are not yours.

Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Murray, Rowena and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Eileen S. “Action Research.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education . Edited by George W. Noblit and Joseph R. Neikirk. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020); Oppenheimer, Daniel M. "Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words Needlessly." Applied Cognitive Psychology 20 (2006): 139-156; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020; Pernawan, Ari. Common Flaws in Students' Research Proposals. English Education Department. Yogyakarta State University; Style. College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Improving Academic Writing

To improve your academic writing skills, you should focus your efforts on three key areas: 1. Clear Writing . The act of thinking about precedes the process of writing about. Good writers spend sufficient time distilling information and reviewing major points from the literature they have reviewed before creating their work. Writing detailed outlines can help you clearly organize your thoughts. Effective academic writing begins with solid planning, so manage your time carefully. 2. Excellent Grammar . Needless to say, English grammar can be difficult and complex; even the best scholars take many years before they have a command of the major points of good grammar. Take the time to learn the major and minor points of good grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed feedback from professors. Take advantage of the Writing Center on campus if you need help. Proper punctuation and good proofreading skills can significantly improve academic writing [see sub-tab for proofreading you paper ].

Refer to these three basic resources to help your grammar and writing skills:

A good writing reference book, such as, Strunk and White’s book, The Elements of Style or the St. Martin's Handbook ;
A college-level dictionary, such as, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary ;
The latest edition of Roget's Thesaurus in Dictionary Form .

3. Consistent Stylistic Approach . Whether your professor expresses a preference to use MLA, APA or the Chicago Manual of Style or not, choose one style manual and stick to it. Each of these style manuals provide rules on how to write out numbers, references, citations, footnotes, and lists. Consistent adherence to a style of writing helps with the narrative flow of your paper and improves its readability. Note that some disciplines require a particular style [e.g., education uses APA] so as you write more papers within your major, your familiarity with it will improve.

II. Evaluating Quality of Writing

A useful approach for evaluating the quality of your academic writing is to consider the following issues from the perspective of the reader. While proofreading your final draft, critically assess the following elements in your writing.

It is shaped around one clear research problem, and it explains what that problem is from the outset.
Your paper tells the reader why the problem is important and why people should know about it.
You have accurately and thoroughly informed the reader what has already been published about this problem or others related to it and noted important gaps in the research.
You have provided evidence to support your argument that the reader finds convincing.
The paper includes a description of how and why particular evidence was collected and analyzed, and why specific theoretical arguments or concepts were used.
The paper is made up of paragraphs, each containing only one controlling idea.
You indicate how each section of the paper addresses the research problem.
You have considered counter-arguments or counter-examples where they are relevant.
Arguments, evidence, and their significance have been presented in the conclusion.
Limitations of your research have been explained as evidence of the potential need for further study.
The narrative flows in a clear, accurate, and well-organized way.

Boscoloa, Pietro, Barbara Arféb, and Mara Quarisaa. “Improving the Quality of Students' Academic Writing: An Intervention Study.” Studies in Higher Education 32 (August 2007): 419-438; Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; Candlin, Christopher. Academic Writing Step-By-Step: A Research-based Approach . Bristol, CT: Equinox Publishing Ltd., 2016; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Style . College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Considering the Passive Voice in Academic Writing

In the English language, we are able to construct sentences in the following way: 1. "The policies of Congress caused the economic crisis." 2. "The economic crisis was caused by the policies of Congress."

The decision about which sentence to use is governed by whether you want to focus on “Congress” and what they did, or on “the economic crisis” and what caused it. This choice in focus is achieved with the use of either the active or the passive voice. When you want your readers to focus on the "doer" of an action, you can make the "doer"' the subject of the sentence and use the active form of the verb. When you want readers to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself, you can make the effect or the action the subject of the sentence by using the passive form of the verb.

Often in academic writing, scholars don't want to focus on who is doing an action, but on who is receiving or experiencing the consequences of that action. The passive voice is useful in academic writing because it allows writers to highlight the most important participants or events within sentences by placing them at the beginning of the sentence.

Use the passive voice when:

You want to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself;
It is not important who or what did the action;
You want to be impersonal or more formal.

Form the passive voice by:

Turning the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive sentence.
Changing the verb to a passive form by adding the appropriate form of the verb "to be" and the past participle of the main verb.

NOTE: Consult with your professor about using the passive voice before submitting your research paper. Some strongly discourage its use!

Active and Passive Voice. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Diefenbach, Paul. Future of Digital Media Syllabus. Drexel University; Passive Voice. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

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Common Assignments: Writing in the Social Sciences

Although there may be some differences in writing expectations between disciplines, all writers of scholarly material are required to follow basic writing standards such as writing clear, concise, and grammatically correct sentences; using proper punctuation; and, in all Walden programs, using APA style. When writing in the social sciences, however, students must also be familiar with the goals of the discipline as these inform the discipline’s writing expectations. According to Ragin (1994), the primary goal of social science research is “identifying order in the complexity of social life” (para. 1). Serving the primary goal are the following secondary goals:

Identifying general patterns and relationships
Testing and refining theories
Making predictions
Interpreting culturally and historically significant phenomena
Exploring diversity
Giving voice
Advancing new theories (Ragin, 1994, para. 2)

To accomplish these goals, social scientists examine and explain the behavior of individuals, systems, cultures, communities, and so on (Dartmouth Writing Program, 2005), with the hope of adding to the world’s knowledge of a particular issue. Students in the social sciences should have these goals at the back of their minds when choosing a research topic or crafting an effective research question. Instead of simply restating what is already known, students must think in terms of how they can take a topic a step further. The elements that follow are meant to give students an idea of what is expected of social science writers.

If you have content-specific questions, be sure to ask your instructor. The Writing Center is available to help you present your ideas as effectively as possible.

Because one cannot say everything there is to say about a particular subject, writers in the social sciences present their work from a particular perspective. For instance, one might choose to examine the problem of childhood obesity from a psychological perspective versus a social or environmental perspective. One’s particular contribution, proposition, or argument is commonly referred to as the thesis and, according to Gerring et al. (2009), a good thesis is one that is “ new, true, and significant ” (p. 2). To strengthen their theses, social scientists might consider presenting an argument that goes against what is currently accepted within that field while carefully addressing counterarguments, and adequately explaining why the issue under consideration matters (Gerring et al., 2009). For instance, one might interpret a claim made by a classical theorist differently from the manner in which it is commonly interpreted and expound on the implications of the new interpretation. The thesis is particularly important because readers want to know whether the writer has something new or significant to say about a given topic. Thus, as you review the literature, before writing, it is important to find gaps and creative linkages between ideas with the goal of contributing something worthwhile to an ongoing discussion. In crafting an argument, you must remember that social scientists place a premium on ideas that are well reasoned and based on evidence. For a contribution to be worthwhile, you must read the literature carefully and without bias; doing this will enable you to identify some of the subtle differences in the viewpoints presented by different authors and help you to better identify the gaps in the literature. Because the thesis is essentially the heart of your discussion, it must be argued objectively and persuasively.

In examining a research question, social scientists may present a hypothesis and they may choose to use either qualitative or quantitative methods of inquiry or both. The methods most often used include interviews, case studies, observations, surveys, and so on. The nature of the study should dictate the chosen method. (Do keep in mind that not all your papers will require that you employ the various methods of social science research; many will simply require that you analyze an issue and present a well reasoned argument.) When you write your capstones, however, you will be required to come to terms with the reliability of the methods you choose, the validity of your research questions, and ethical considerations. You will also be required to defend each one of these components. The research process as a whole may include the following: formulation of research question, sampling and measurement, research design, and analysis and recommendations. Keep in mind that your method will have an impact on the credibility of your work, so it is important that your methods are rigorous. Walden offers a series of research methods courses to help students become familiar with research methods in the social sciences.

Organization

Most social science research manuscripts contain the same general organizational elements:

Title

Abstract

Introduction

Literature Review

Methods

Results

Discussion

References

Note that the presentation follows a certain logic: in the introduction one presents the issue under consideration; in the literature review, one presents what is already known about the topic (thus providing a context for the discussion), identifies gaps, and presents one’s approach; in the methods section, one identifies the method used to gather data; in the results and discussion sections, one then presents and explains the results in an objective manner, acknowledging the limitations of the study (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020). One may end with a presentation of the implications of the study and areas upon which other researchers might focus.

For a detailed explanation of typical research paper organization and content, be sure to review Table 3.1 (pp. 77-81) and Table 3.2 (pp. 95-99) of your 7th edition APA manual.

Objectivity

Although social scientists continue to debate whether objectivity is achievable in the social sciences and whether theories really represent objective scientific analyses, they agree that one’s work must be presented as objectively as possible. This does not mean that writers cannot be passionate about their subject; it simply means that social scientists are to think of themselves primarily as observers and they must try to present their findings in a neutral manner, avoiding biases, and acknowledging opposing viewpoints.

It is important to note that instructors expect social science students to master the content of the discipline and to be able to use discipline appropriate language in their writing. Successful writers of social science literature have cultivated the thinking skills that are useful in their discipline and are able to communicate professionally, integrating and incorporating the language of their field as appropriate (Colorado State University, 2011). For instance, if one were writing about how aid impacts the development of less developed countries, it would be important to know and understand the different ways in which aid is defined within the field of development studies.

Colorado State University. (2011). Why assign WID tasks? http://wac.colostate.edu/intro/com6a1.cfm

Gerring, J., Yesnowitz, J., & Bird, S. (2009). General advice on social science writing . https://www.bu.edu/polisci/files/people/faculty/gerring/documents/WritingAdvice.pdf

Ragin, C. (1994). Construction social research: The unity and diversity of method . http://poli.haifa.ac.il/~levi/res/mgsr1.htm

Trochim, W. (2006). Research methods knowledge base . http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/

Didn't find what you need? Email us at [email protected] .

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Once you've gotten comfortable with the basic elements of style and conventions of writing, you'll find that the craft of writing is not a one-size-fits-all pursuit: different disciplines employ different conventions and styles, which you'll need to be familiar with. Learn more about the discipline-specific styles for Creative Writing (including journalism, writing fiction, and creative non-fiction), writing in the Social Sciences (including psychology, gender & sexuality studies, sociology, social work, international relations, and politics), and crafting your essay in the Arts and Humanities (including history, literature, music, and the fine arts).

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How Social Science Got Better: Overcoming Bias with More Evidence, Diversity, and Self-Reflection

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6 Opportunities and Constraints of the Disciplines

Published: August 2021
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Our disciplinary structure places constraints on research, but interdisciplinarity also creates challenges. The basic social science disciplines—political science, economics, sociology, psychology, and anthropology—each tend toward a particular view of human nature and have disciplinary prejudices regarding topics and methods. Interdisciplinary work has identified these differences and worked toward integration, especially in common applied fields, such as education and public policy. Each discipline’s historical inheritance shapes contemporary practice. Rather than dismantling or reformulation of disciplines, strong and self-aware disciplines with scholarly exchange among them have advanced theory and empirical analysis.

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Communication

What is a Social Science Essay?

[Ed. – We present this article, adapted from a chapter of Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide , as a resource for Academic Writing Month.]

There are different types of social science essay, and essays of different lengths require slightly different approaches (these will be addressed later). However, all social science essays share a basic structure which is common to many academic subject areas. At its simplest, a social science essay looks something like this:

Title | Every essay should begin with the title written out in full. In some cases this will simply be the set question or statement for discussion.

Introduction | The introduction tells the reader what the essay is about.

Main section | The main section, or ‘body’, of the essay develops the key points of the argument in a ‘logical progression’. It uses evidence from research studies (empirical evidence) and theoretical arguments to support these points.

Conclusion | The conclusion reassesses the arguments presented in the main section in order to make a final statement in answer to the question.

List of references | This lists full details of the publications referred to in the text.

What is distinctive about a social science essay?

As you are no doubt aware, essay writing is a common feature of undergraduate study in many different subjects. What, then, is distinctive about essay writing in the social sciences? There are particular features that characterize social science essays and that relate to what is called the epistemological underpinning of work in this area (that is, to ideas about what constitutes valid social scientific knowledge and where this comes from). Among the most important of these characteristics are:

• the requirement that you support arguments with evidence, particularly evidence that is the product of systematic and rigorous research;

• the use of theory to build explanations about how the social world works.

Evidence is important in social scientific writing because it is used to support or query beliefs, propositions or hypotheses about the social world. Let’s take an example. A social scientist may ask: ‘Does prison work?’ This forms an initial question, but one that is too vague to explore as it stands. (This question might be about whether prison ‘works’ for offenders, in terms of providing rehabilitation, or re-education; or it might be about whether it ‘works’ for victims of crime who may wish to see retribution – or any number of other issues.) To answer the question in mind, the social scientist will need to formulate a more specific claim, one that can be systematically and rigorously explored. Such a claim could be formulated in the following terms:

‘Imprisonment reduces the likelihood of subsequent reoffending’. This claim can now be subjected to systematic research. In other words, the social scientist will gather evidence for and against this claim, evidence that she or he will seek to interpret or evaluate. This process of evaluation will tend to support or refute the original claim, but it may be inconclusive, and/or it may generate further questions. Together, these processes of enquiry can be described as forming a ‘circuit of social scientific knowledge’. This circuit can be represented as in this figure.

Undergraduates may sometimes be asked to conduct their own small-scale research, for instance a small number of interviews, or some content analysis. However, the focus of social science study at undergraduate level, and particularly in the first two years of study, will be largely on the research of others. Generally, in preparing for writing your essays, the expectation will be that you will identify and evaluate evidence from existing research findings. However, the principle holds good: in writing social science essays you will need to find evidence for and against any claim, and you will need to evaluate that evidence.

Theory is important in social scientific writing because the theoretical orientation of the social scientist will tend to inform the types of question she or he asks, the specific claims tested, the ways in which evidence is identified and gathered, and the manner in which this evidence is interpreted and evaluated. In other words, the theoretical orientation of the social scientist is liable to impact upon the forms of knowledge she or he will produce.

Take, for example, the research question we asked above: ‘Does prison work?’ A pragmatic, policy-oriented social scientist may seek to answer this question by formulating a specific claim of the sort we identified, ‘Imprisonment reduces the likelihood of reoffending’. She or he may then gather evidence of reoffending rates among matched groups of convicted criminals, comparing those who were imprisoned with those who were given an alternative punishment such as forms of community service. Evidence that imprisonment did not produce significantly lower rates of reoffending than punishment in the community may then be interpreted as suggesting that prison does not work, or that it works only up to a point. However, another social scientist might look at the same research findings and come to a different conclusion, perhaps that the apparent failure of prison to reduce reoffending demonstrates that its primary purpose lies elsewhere. Indeed, more ‘critically’ oriented social scientists (for example, those informed by Marxism or the work of Michel Foucault) have sought to argue that the growth of prisons in the nineteenth century was part of wider social attempts to ‘discipline’, in particular, the working class.

The issue here is not whether these more ‘critical’ arguments are right or wrong but that a social scientist’s theoretical orientation will inform how she or he evaluates the available evidence. In fact, it is likely that a ‘critical’ social scientist of this sort would even have formulated a different research ‘claim’. For example, rather than seeking to test the claim, ‘Imprisonment reduces the likelihood of reoffending’, the critical social scientist might have sought to test the proposition, ‘Prisons are part of wider social strategies that aim to produce “disciplined” subjects’. The point for you to take away from this discussion is, then, that the theories we use shape the forms of social scientific knowledge we produce (see Figure 2).

There is considerable debate within the social sciences about the exact relationship between theory and evidence. To simplify somewhat, some social scientists tend to argue that evidence can be used to support or invalidate the claims investigated by research and thereby produce theoretical accounts of the social world that are more or less accurate. Other social scientists will tend to argue that our theoretical orientations (and the value judgements and taken-for-granted assumptions that they contain) shape the processes of social scientific enquiry itself, such that we can never claim to produce a straightforwardly ‘accurate’ account of the social world. Instead, they suggest that social scientific knowledge is always produced from a particular standpoint and will inevitably reflect its assumptions.

What you need to grasp is that essay writing in the social sciences is distinguished by its emphasis on: the use of researched evidence to support arguments and on theory as central to the process by which we build accounts of social worlds. Your own writing will need to engage with both elements.

Common errors in essays

Having identified what distinguishes a social science essay we can return to the more practical task of how to write one. This process is elaborated in the chapters that follow, but before getting into the details of this, we should think about what commonly goes wrong in essay writing.

Perhaps the most common mistakes in essay writing, all of which can have an impact on your marks, are:

• failure to answer the question;

• failure to write using your own words;

• poor use of social scientific skills (such as handling theory and evidence);

• poor structure;

• poor grammar, punctuation and spelling; and

• failure to observe the word limit (where this is specified).

Failing to answer the question sounds easy enough to avoid, but you might be surprised how easy it is to write a good answer to the wrong question. Most obviously, there is always the risk of misreading the question. However, it is frequently the case that questions will ‘index’ a wider debate and will want you to review and engage with this. Thus, you need to avoid the danger of understanding the question but failing to connect it to the debate and the body of literature to which the question refers. Equally, particularly on more advanced undergraduate courses, you are likely to be asked to work from an increasing range of sources. The dangers here include failing to select the most relevant material and failing to organize the material you have selected in a way that best fits the question. Therefore, make sure that you take time to read the question properly to ensure that you understand what is being asked. Next, think carefully about whether there is a debate that ‘lies behind’ the question. Then be sure to identify the material that addresses the question most fully.

Writing in your own words is crucial because this is the best way in which you can come to understand a topic, and the only way of demonstrating this understanding to your tutor. The important point to remember is that if you do plagiarize, your essay risks receiving a fail grade, and if you plagiarize repeatedly you risk further sanctions. You must therefore always put arguments in your own words except when you are quoting someone directly (in which case you must use the appropriate referencing conventions). The positive side of what might seem like a draconian rule is that you will remember better what you have put in your own words. This ensures that you will have the fullest possible understanding of your course. If there is an end-of-course exam, such an understanding will be a real asset.

Social science essays also need to demonstrate an effective use of social scientific skills. Perhaps the most obvious of these skills is the ability to deploy theory and evidence in an appropriate manner (as you saw in the previous section, this is what distinguishes social scientific essay writing). However, particularly as you move on to more advanced undergraduate courses, you should also keep in mind the need to demonstrate such things as confidence in handling social scientific concepts and vocabulary; an awareness of major debates, approaches and figures in your field; the ability to evaluate competing arguments; and an awareness of potential uncertainty, ambiguity and the limits of knowledge in your subject. These are important because they indicate your ability to work creatively with the tools of the social scientist’s trade.

An effective structure is important and pragmatic because it helps the person who marks your essay to understand what is going on. By contrast, a list of unconnected ideas and examples is likely to confuse, and will certainly fail to impress. The simplest way to avoid this is to follow the kind of essay writing conventions briefly outlined above and discussed in later chapters of this guide. Chapter 8, on the main body of the essay, is particularly relevant here, but you will also need to keep in mind the importance of a well-written introduction and conclusion to an effectively structured argument.

The ability to spell, punctuate and use grammar correctly is, generally speaking, something you are expected to have mastered prior to embarking on a degree-level course. This is really a matter of effective communication. While it is the content of your essay that will win you the most marks, you need to be able spell, punctuate and use grammar effectively in order to communicate what you have to say. Major problems in this area will inevitably hold down your marks, so if this is an issue in your work, it will be a good idea to seek further help.

Finally, observing the word limit is important – and, as you probably realize, more difficult than it sounds. The simplest advice is always to check whether there is a word limit and what this is, and then to be ruthless with yourself, focusing only on the material that is most pertinent to the question. If you find that you have written more words than is allowed, you will need to check for irrelevant discussions, examples, or even wordy sentence construction. Too few words may indicate that you haven’t provided the depth of discussion required, or that you have omitted essential points or evidence.

In the light of the above, we can identify four golden rules for effective social scientific essay writing.

Rule 1: Answer the question that is asked.

Rule 2: Write your answer in your own words.

Rule 3: Think about the content of your essay, being sure to demonstrate good social scientific skills.

Rule 4: Think about the structure of your essay, being sure to demonstrate good writing skills, and observing any word limit.

Why an essay is not a report, newspaper article or an exam answer

This section has mainly focused on what is distinctive about a social science essay, but there is something distinctive about essays in general that is worth keeping in mind. Many students come from professional backgrounds where report writing is a common form of communication. For other students a main source of information is newspapers or online websites. These are all legitimate forms of writing that serve useful purposes – but, apart from some of the content on academic websites, they just aren’t essays. There are exam conventions that make exam writing – even ‘essay style’ exams – different from essay writing.

In part, this is to do with ‘academic register’ or ‘voice’. Part of what you will develop as you become a stronger essay writer is a ‘voice’ that is your own, but that conforms to the conventions of academic practice. For social scientists, as we have noted above, this practice includes the use of evidence to support an argument and providing references that show where your ideas and evidence have come from. It also includes the ability to write with some confidence, using the vernacular – or language – of your subject area. Different forms of writing serve different purposes. The main purpose of academic writing is to develop and share knowledge and understanding. In some academic journals this can take the form of boisterous debate, with different academics fully and carefully defending, or arguing for, one position or another. For students of social science, however, there may be less at stake, but essays should nevertheless demonstrate knowledge and understanding of a particular issue or area. Conforming to some basic conventions around how to present ideas and arguments, helps us more easily to compare those ideas, just as conforming to the rules of a game makes it easier for one sports team to play against another: if one team is playing cricket and the other baseball, we will find there are similarities (both use bats, have innings, make runs), but there will also be lots of awkward differences. In the end, neither the players nor the spectators are likely to find it a very edifying experience. The following looks at other forms of serious writing that you may be familiar with, but that just aren’t cricket.

Report writing

Reports take a variety of forms, but typically involve: an up-front ‘executive summary’, a series of discussions, usually with numbered headings and subheadings. They are also likely to include ‘bullet points’ that capture an idea or argument in a succinct way. Professional reports may include evidence, arguments, recommendations and references. You may already have spotted some of the similarities with essays – and the crucial differences. Let’s begin with the similarities. Reports and essays both involve discussion, the use of evidence to support (or refute) a claim or argument, and a list of references. Both will have an introductory section, a main body and a conclusion. However, the differences are important. With the exception of very long essays (dissertations and the like), essays do not generally have numbered headings and subheadings. Nor do they have bullet points. They also don’t have executive summaries. And, with some notable exceptions (such as essays around areas of social policy perhaps), social science essays don’t usually require you to produce policy recommendations. The differences are significant, and are as much about style as they are about substance.

Journalistic writing

For many students, journalistic styles of writing are most familiar. Catchy headlines (or ‘titles’) are appealing, and newspapers’ to-the-point presentation may make for easier reading. News stories, however, follow a different set of requirements to essays – a different set of ‘golden rules’. In general, newspaper and website news articles foreground the ‘who, what, where, when and why’ of a story in the first paragraph. The most important information is despatched immediately, with the assumption that all readers will read the headline, most readers will read the first paragraph, and dwindling numbers will read the remainder of the article. Everyday newspaper articles often finish with a ‘whimper’ for this reason, and there may be no attempt to summarize findings or provide a conclusion at the end – that’s not the role of news journalists. (Though there is quite a different set of rules for ‘Op Ed’ or opinion pieces.) Student essays, by contrast, should be structured to be read from beginning to end. The introduction should serve to ‘outline’ or ‘signpost’ the main body of the essay, rather than cover everything in one fell swoop; the main body should proceed with a clear, coherent and logical argument that builds throughout; and the essay should end with a conclusion that ties the essay together.

Exam writing

Again, exam writing has similarities and differences with essay writing. Perhaps the main differences are these: under exam conditions, it is understood that you are writing at speed and that you may not communicate as effectively as in a planned essay; you will generally not be expected to provide references (though you may be expected to link clearly authors and ideas). Longer exam answers will need to include a short introduction and a conclusion, while short answers may omit these. Indeed, very short answers may not resemble essays at all as they may focus on factual knowledge or very brief points of comparison.

Peter Redman and Wendy Maples

Peter Redman is a senior lecturer in sociology at The Open University. With Stephen Frosh and Wendy Hollway, he edit the Palgrave book series, Studies in the Psychosocial and is a former editor of the journal, Psychoanalysis, Culture & Society . Academic consultant Wendy Maples is a research assistant in anthropology at the University of Sussex. Together they co-authored Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide (Sage, 2017) now in its fifth edition.

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The Public Value of the Social Sciences

An Interpretive Essay

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Can Social Science Matter?
From Our Archives

Social Science and Contemporary Social Problems

Published in March of 1969, this essay by then SSRC president Henry Riecken grapples with many of the same issues raised by Prewitt and his interlocutors in “ Can Social Science Matter? ” The major upheavals of that historical moment are not discussed in any detail in Riecken’s essay, but they clearly influenced the timing and the content, as Riecken discusses how social science can contribute to addressing public problems, the differences between the social sciences and the natural sciences and engineering in this regard, and the limits to the ways in which social science can contribute given how it is organized and incentivized. Riecken concludes with an extremely prescient analysis of the ethical dimensions of certain kinds of social science work, specifically social experimentation and the collection and use of what we now call “big data.”

The social sciences, like the physical or biological sciences, are intellectual subjects, directed primarily toward understanding, rather than action. It would of course be a curious kind of “understanding” that had no implications for action, and this is perhaps especially true for the social sciences. Nevertheless, there is a difference between enlarging one’s understanding of human behavior and society on the one hand and trying to solve a social problem on the other. The social sciences are distinct from social problem solving, but each can contribute to the other.

During the last few years there has been a significant change in popular attitudes and expectations in the United States regarding social change and social problems. A renewed determination to ameliorate certain long-standing, as well as recently developed, ills of the society has arisen along with a sense of power and confidence in its ability to do so.

In looking for ways in which to implement this desire for self-control, for directed rather than accidental improvement, a good many leaders of society have begun to turn, increasingly expectant, to the social sciences. Some have asked what the social sciences can contribute to the venture. Others have assumed that these sciences have a great deal to contribute to a better society and that they need only to be force-fed (the recommended diet varies from prescriber to prescriber) in order to grow faster and to make their contribution larger.

The social sciences do have a contribution to make to social practice, but not so large a contribution as they will make if helped to develop properly. At this point in history, the magnitude of major social problems exceeds the capacity of social scientists to solve them.

Such expectations have been entertained before. In the latter part of the nineteenth century and the first decade or so of the twentieth, social scientists of the day offered advice to the progressive political and social movements of the times. As David Truman has pointed out, these political scientists and sociologists operated not only from a weak position in the political structure, but also with an almost total lack of theoretical sophistication, quite nonrigorous methods, and few facts about the systems on which they were advising. 1 David B. Truman, “The Social Sciences and Public Policy: Maturity Brings Problems of Relevance and Training,” Science , 160: 508-512, May 8, 1968. They were intellectually premature and too ready to claim relevance. Their efforts fell far short of expectations, both their own and expectations of those who, from outside the disciplines, had called upon them.

Social scientists had another try during the early years of the New Deal when economists especially, but sociologists and political scientists too, were invited into government and other institutions to develop programs, plans, and social devices for dealing with the Great Depression. The novel thinking of agricultural economists and the resultant development of institutions for what was then known as “farm relief” were considerably more successful than the efforts of the social reformers of the early 1900s had been.

One reason for the relatively greater success of the applied economics of the New Deal was that there had been developing in the United States a considerable sophistication in economics as a discipline, together with a good empirical base of data that had been accumulated over the prior decades. In comparison with today’s data base, that of the 1930s was poor and small; but it was a vast improvement over the virtual data vacuum of 1900. Another reason for the relative success was probably the degree of desperation that gripped the country and led to a willingness to try the somewhat radical measures that were proposed by economists; partly because people were willing to try the measures, they were successful. Still another opportunity for the social sciences came during World War II when psychologists and anthropologists especially made significant contributions to the prosecution of the war and the government of occupied territories.

Social scientists are currently being offered a fourth opportunity to display what they have to offer toward the solution of what is now a fairly well-standardized, if incomplete, list of problems: poverty, racial segregation and discrimination, urban decay and the strangulation of transportation, human and mechanical pollution of the environment, and a perceived increase in the incidence of crimes of violence. Will social scientists succeed better this time in living up to the expectations that face them? What can and should be done to make possible greater success?

There are several purely scientific difficulties in applying social science successfully to the solution of social problems. Limitations of space prevent their adequate discussion here. 2 These issues are taken up in the longer article in Social Science Information cited below. Their importance is such that they must at least be mentioned, however, and they require persistent scientific effort in order to improve the capacity of the social science disciplines to cope with social problems. There are three major scientific issues: so-called “Hawthorne effects” or changes in behavior which result from the fact that individuals are subjects in an experimental study; the inadequacies of existing data about social problems and individual behavior and the defects of indirect data; and finally the manipulability of social factors that are variables in social scientific analyses of problems. These are difficult scientific problems, but not impossible of solution. Furthermore, much headway can be made in applying social science without fully solving them.

Over the decades in the social sciences, the tendency has been to develop internal concerns, to define their own problems and not to accept, as their subject matter, the social problems of the contemporary and surrounding society. This tendency is attributable to forces intrinsic to the disciplines themselves, especially to conceptual redefinition of problems and to methodological or technical developments. A social scientist who undertakes to work on a practical problem, not as a wise man or a clever consultant, but as a scientist, quickly finds that the popular, or commonsense, statement of the problem is either incomplete or misleading; that “the” problem is really many problems, only some of which fall within the disciplinary or scientific scope; and that there are severe inadequacies in the methodological or technical equipment that he has for dealing with “the” practical problem. Sometimes the scientist examines the “real world” because some part of it has solved a problem and the scientist wants to know how the solution works. After he understands how it works he can sometimes improve upon the solution, but the basic movement of his thought is always away from the practical and toward abstract knowledge.

The social scientist gets driven back to more fundamental questions that bear less and less resemblance to the practical problem until they appear to be irrelevant; furthermore, some of the more fundamental questions raised in this way take on a life of their own and become genuinely dissociated from practical problems. They form, instead, the central conceptual or methodological core of the science as such. Thus, over a period of time, a social science can grow more abstract and become increasingly concerned with questions that confront it as an intellectual enterprise per se and that require solutions whether or not they bear upon the social problems of the day.

If these intrinsic intellectual forces were the only ones at work, a discipline would gradually lose all relevance. However, exogenous factors also have some influence. For example, some people become social scientists who have a genuine interest in solving social problems and retain it despite the professionalizing experiences of graduate study. Market forces are also effective, especially grants from both private foundations and government agencies to support applied social research.

The opportunity for a career in an applied field of social science is a market factor of importance. The very existence of professional economic consulting firms as private, nonacademic enterprises holds out the possibility of a career outside the academic world, and may tempt a young man who finds practical affairs more challenging than the intellectual world. The development of clinical psychology was greatly aided by the demands of the Veterans Administration directly after World War II for diagnostic and therapeutic help at its hospitals and clinics.

Another factor of importance is prestige. The social sciences are primarily academic enterprises, more so than either the biological or physical sciences, and the academic portion of the discipline is not only overwhelmingly larger than other sectors but also overpoweringly more prestigious. The physical and the biological sciences, on the other hand, have substantial nonacademic sectors that are intellectually and scientifically influential, as well as of great and evident practical importance.

The prestige which most social scientists attach to academic social science may or may not be justified but it is a fact. The low status of applied work is probably undeserved, but it too is a fact, and one that may discourage some first-rate scholars who are status conscious from entering early upon a career in applied social science. The origins of this low status lie partly in the earlier relative failures of social scientists to deal adequately and successfully with social problems. Even where applied social research has developed and has attracted competent people, it still has been applied research rather than what is called “development” (in the Research and Development sense) or “engineering.”

Most applied social research has been concentrated on the analysis of situations explaining or accounting for a given state of affairs; or the measurement of outcomes—and the degree of success of some action in reaching a stated objective. There has been less attention to preparing new means for taking action or recommending how a user should proceed in order to achieve success.

The production of recommendations for action goes beyond research and indeed beyond science, into what is properly termed “development” rather than “research,” or “engineering” rather than “science.” The distinction is more than verbal—it is a whole complex: a state of mind, institutional auspices, cross-disciplinary relations, communication with nonscientists, and employment of nonscientific resources and nonscientific skills.

“Development” or “engineering” calls primarily for an inventive and constructive attitude, more than an analytic and differentiating one. The scientist is usually trying to unscramble a given complex situation to see how its components work. An engineer is usually trying to put together a device or a process to achieve a given purpose. The scientific process is analytic; the engineering process is synthetic. The scientist’s creativity is conceptual, in producing imaginative new principles or connections between concepts. An engineer’s creativity is in tangible inventions of things or processes that have a causative or productive relationship to a desired end.

Except in very limited and spotty areas, social development or social engineering does not exist. Examples of social engineering can be found in economics in the development of fiscal and monetary policies, and in psychology in new forms of psychotherapy (especially behavior therapy), programmed instruction, human relations training, the training of managers, and the social organization of production units in firms.

Organizational influences

The development of an applied social science or a social engineering may proceed faster through professional schools (especially business and medicine) than through disciplinary departments in universities. The academically based research and teaching unit in the social sciences is affected by forces that hinder this sort of development. Some are organizational, some scientific; some derive from the institutional arrangements for the conduct of research in the social sciences. Most research is done in academic settings by part-time or short-term workers, i.e., by professors and graduate students.

The former have teaching and administrative responsibilities that take up part of their time, the latter have a primary short-term interest in completing a dissertation and getting on in the world. The former work part time on a research problem, the latter leave it for other places or other problems after a relatively short time. Thus, many social science research problems are “thesis-sized” because they are selected for that reason.

This tendency is abetted by the current system of project grants which tends to emphasize short-term investigation of discrete problems rather than long-term, exploratory and persistent pursuit of a problem, a phenomenon, or a method. The absence of a tradition of long-term research careers on a full-time basis, the inflexibility of space that makes it hard to expand and contract the size of a long-term project as such changes become necessary, the varying requirements for skilled labor in interviewing and data processing (currently eased by computer applications), all contribute to sporadic interest, easy discouragement, and lack of persistence.

On the other hand, the real basic advances in social science seem more likely to occur in settings—such as disciplinary departments—that are relatively free of the pressures to devise immediate solutions, to work with client systems, and to attend to the range of extra-scientific considerations that are involved in solving social problems. A convincing argument can be made that the most pressing needs of social science are methodological and that the greatest opportunities for strengthening the social sciences lie in improving methods of research and developing more powerful theories. Indeed, a considerable amount of the advance in social science that has taken place in the last few decades has come about through basic research of this sort, conducted in disciplinary departments.

Thus conventional disciplinary departments and institutes that are genuinely embedded in universities can be counted on to provide the social scientific underpinning for solving social problems, but should not be counted on for the actual problem-oriented work itself.

The latter task should be the responsibility of institutions that have less formidable intellectual responsibilities, and are free of the primary educational obligation. Furthermore, applied social research institutions ought to have some closer firsthand contact with social problems and the agencies that can take effective action on the problems.

Requirements for social science contributions to social problems

Where then should the responsibility for social science contributions to the solution of social problems be located? The phrasing of the question suggests part of the answer for, in the first place, a social problem rarely bears a one-to-one correspondence to social science, and almost never bears such a correspondence to any single social science discipline. All social problems are interdisciplinary in the sense that they require, for adequate solution, the efforts of more than one kind of scientist and usually of more than just scientists or engineers. Hence, the first requirement of an applied social research agency is that its professional personnel be drawn from a variety of disciplines (both within and outside the social sciences).

A second requirement, much harder to achieve, is that the assembled members of these disciplines be able to work together productively and effectively. This requirement demands first-rate scholars, not only curious about the problem at hand but also inquisitive about each other’s fields and capable of learning from each other. Willingness to listen and curiosity are more important than anything else, since transfer of training among social scientists is entirely possible, and it may even help in the solution of, say, a psychological problem if an anthropologist without any particular training in psychology gets to thinking about it.

A third requirement is that the team has full opportunity to perform its functions of engineering and development. This requires certain kinds of facilities: buildings and computers—especially adequate “software” to go with the computing machinery and all the programming and other technical help that can be provided. One of the most useful techniques in social engineering is the simulation of the social processes that are believed to underlie the social problem. In many cases these simulations will have to substitute for experimentation because of the size or other intractable features of the problem.

A fourth requirement is long-term funding commensurate with the size of the social problem. It is a commonplace of American politics that social problems must be solved quickly. We are abjured to waste no more time in eliminating segregation, discrimination, poverty, crime, and unemployment. But while sense of crisis may impel movement, a lot of it is waste motion. We are too impetuous and not persistent enough in trying to solve social problems. Problems need sustained study, trials of many different kinds of solution rather than one-shot panaceas arranged overnight by agencies that are funded on an annual basis and publicly criticized for lack of instant success.

Problems in utilization of social science

One of the most interesting points about social science contributions to the solution of social problems is that the process of introducing the changes necessary to solve the problem is in itself a problem in social science.

Before introducing changes into a quasi-stationary situation, the decision maker must consider a number of factors that affect the chances of success. First, he must consider the acceptability of his proposals to all the people involved in the situation; and the harm, damage, or deprivation that some of them may experience. Next, he must assess the effectiveness of the methods he expects to use to attract the attention and arouse willingness to explore, and the capacity he has to teach people new ways of behaving. Finally, he must try to adjust the incentive and inhibitory factors in the situation so as to stabilize the new equilibrium and maintain the change he aims to bring about. Almost all of these problems exist in one form or another in utilization of the products of biological and physical sciences, too. But these sciences have not only an engineering or developmental branch that puts their ideas into usable form, but also a marketing mechanism—a set of activities and relationships that handles these problems or is so constituted that it can afford to ignore some of them.

On the whole, the marketing mechanisms for social inventions and devices do not parallel those for physical and biological technology. There are at least three reasons for this. In the first place, until recently, there have been few social inventions or devices that could not be marketed or disseminated either through existing political mechanisms in the public sector, or through publication, or through the establishment of a professional group such as clinical psychologists. It may be that marketing mechanisms will spring up in response to the appearance of new items to be marketed.

For example, there are profit-making companies which now seem to be interested in developing and selling, as well as installing, new curricular materials and instructional procedures in the schools; and industrial firms have contracted to operate schemes for the alleviation of poverty—usually through retraining of the unskilled or underskilled. This trend has yet to be evaluated, but it could alter profoundly the nature of the process of social change. Secondly, there is difficulty in protecting property rights in intangible social technology. If the product is an idea, an attitude, a routine, it is hard to copyright and generally impossible to patent. The absence of protection of exclusive rights makes the prospect of investing in a marketing organization less attractive to an entrepreneur. Thirdly, much of the technological product of the social sciences has to do with the public rather than with the private sector of the economy, and is valuable for its distributive effect on the total society rather than for its enhancement of the quality of life of one individual at a time. Add to this the fact that a good many social inventions cannot be assigned a unit value, and one can see that the marketing mechanism must be the state in some form, rather than private enterprise.

Public policy issues in the application of social science

Some questions of public policy are raised by research and development activities in the social sciences. For example, what should be the public policy toward deliberate social experimentation, especially toward concealed experiments, in which the subjects are not aware that they are involved in an experiment? There are scientific reasons for concealment but the public policy problem is whether the probable gains from conducting such an experiment outweigh the ethical undesirability of acting in a less than open fashion. There is something repugnant about concealment of purpose, even when the motives for it are disinterested and no one is harmed. There is something upsetting about discovering that what one thought was a real and natural flow of events was instead a carefully contrived sequence of moves deliberately planned to accomplish a preconceived purpose.

The benefits to the general public welfare have to be balanced against these possible disadvantages. If experimental purpose must be concealed in order to obtain valid knowledge that will lead to improved social policies at a relatively low cost, not only in money but in mistakes and discomforts visited upon citizens, then the undesirable features of a concealed experiment may be outweighed by its advantages. The judgment cannot be made a priori for all cases; it must depend in each instance on the estimated costs and the anticipated benefits. Perhaps the more significant public policy question is: Who shall make the judgment?

On a more general level, one may raise questions in terms of a conflict between two values: the advancement of knowledge, and the personal integrity and convenience of the individual citizen. Nowhere does this conflict become more explicit than in questions concerning invasion of individual privacy, especially in regard to the collection of detailed data about individuals and their maintenance in files that are presumably to be used for research purposes.

The issues here turn around safeguards as to how the data will be used, and in how much detail the data will be kept. Briefly summarized, what has been proposed is that certain kinds of data which are now regularly collected by various agencies (central and local authorities and perhaps private agencies, too), but kept in separate files and published only in aggregated forms be made available for research purposes on a disaggregated basis.

More specifically it is proposed that data about individuals such as employment, income, savings, or expenditures be collected and stored in such a way that it would be possible to match the information from these separate series, by individuals. The anonymity of the individual and the confidentiality of the information would presumably be maintained as they are now. The data system would be used for research purposes, not for administrative ones.

Whether the very existence of a national data system would tempt those with legitimate access to make illegitimate use of the data is a much more serious question, going well beyond the data system per se. The question really turns around one’s estimate of the likelihood of “big brotherism”—of a controlling government and a controlled society, and of the role the social sciences might play in bringing about such a situation or maintaining it. As our society grows in density of population, in interdependence, in complexity and technological sophistication, the need for rational planning and for the thoughtful and foresighted management of our affairs grows apace. And so does the need for vigilance in the defense of individual liberty, since there is always, as there always has been, the tempting possibility for those in power to “simplify” their problems by wielding their power in ways that constrict freedom and constrain the less powerful.

There is no reason, however, to see the social sciences as more culpable or more threatening than other kinds of science and technological development. The power of the state is increased by the development of sophisticated weapons for its police, more efficient communication among them, and by devices that enable eavesdropping at a distance and through a wall. There are dangers in pharmacological control of behavior. Individual freedom can be abridged by the architecture of our dwellings and the design of our transportation, as well as by the laws which govern minimum wages, welfare payments, and income tax exemptions.

In fact, the social sciences can help to make us aware of threats to our freedom while giving us greater power to control our own behavior in constructive ways, helping us to be more tolerant of diversity, to learn to live together in greater harmony, less violently and more satisfyingly. If we are to reap these benefits, however, we must work at understanding ourselves and our society, at perfecting a social science that is capable of meeting the challenges of our future.

Henry W. Riecken (1917–2012) was an eminent social scientist who served as president of the Social Science Research Council between 1966 and 1971. He was also the first director of the National Science Foundation’s social science division. He also served on the faculties of Harvard University, University of Minnesota, and University of Pennsylvania.

This essay originally appeared in Items Vol. 23, Issue 1 in the spring of 1969. Visit our archives to view the original as it first appeared in the print editions of Items .

What Is Social Science?

How It Works

Social Science in Schools

The bottom line, social science: what it is and the 5 major branches.

Daniel Liberto is a journalist with over 10 years of experience working with publications such as the Financial Times, The Independent, and Investors Chronicle.

Erika Rasure is globally-recognized as a leading consumer economics subject matter expert, researcher, and educator. She is a financial therapist and transformational coach, with a special interest in helping women learn how to invest.

Investopedia / Mira Norian

Social science is the study of how people interact with one another. The branches of social science include anthropology, economics, political science, psychology, and sociology.

Social scientists study how societies work, exploring everything from the triggers of economic growth and the causes of unemployment to what makes people happy. Their findings inform public policies, education programs, urban design, marketing strategies, and many other endeavors.

Key Takeaways

Social science involves academic disciplines that focus on how individuals behave within society.
It attempts to explain how society works, exploring everything from the triggers of economic growth and causes of unemployment to what makes people happy.
Social science is a relatively new field of scientific study that rose to prominence in the 20th century.
Typical careers in social science include working as an advertiser, economist, psychologist, teacher, manager, and social worker.
Social scientists generally rely more heavily on interpretation and qualitative research methodologies than those in the natural sciences do.

Understanding Social Science

Social science as a field of study is separate from the natural sciences, which covers topics such as physics, biology, and chemistry.

Social science examines the relationships between individuals and societies as well as the development and operation of societies, rather than focusing on the physical world. The academic disciplines involved in the social sciences rely more heavily on interpretation and qualitative research methodologies than do the natural sciences.

There are many fields within social science. The five main ones are anthropology, economics, political science, psychology, and sociology, although some people also include history, criminology, and geography.

Branches of Social Science

Some say there are seven social sciences, while others claim there are four, five, six, or something else. Opinions vary on what should be included, yet most observers agree that the following five fields fall into the social sciences category:

Anthropology
Political science
Social psychology

History is also sometimes regarded as a branch of social science, although many historians often consider the subject to share closer links to the humanities. Both humanities and social science study human beings. What separates them is the technique applied: Humanities are viewed as more philosophical and less scientific.

Law, too, has some ties to social science, as does geography.

Here's more about the five major branches

Anthropology, the study of the origin and development of human societies and cultures, has been a focal point for centuries but it really got off the ground and gained importance in Europe's Age of Enlightenment, which flourished in the 17th and 18th centuries. During that period, there was a big focus on advancing society and knowledge, and the key to achieving that goal was understanding human behavior.

The history of economic thought goes back all the way to ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and Xenophon. Their works laid the foundation of nearly all social science, economics included.

As travel became easier in the 15th to 18th centuries, and more nations were able to partake in international trade, the economic system of mercantilism grew. The economic actions of many nations were suddenly motivated by the belief that a country should maximize exports and minimize imports.

This predominating school of thought was challenged by writers such as Adam Smith , commonly known as the father of modern economics. Smith’s ideas, along with those of Rousseau and John Locke , promoted the idea of a self-regulating economy and introduced the concept of what is known as classical economics . Smith’s book The Wealth of Nations is still studied today and admired by many politicians.

Two other important economists who have shaped the way we think of economics are Karl Marx and John Maynard Keynes . Marx famously challenged capitalism as an appropriate economic model by placing an emphasis on the labor theory of value . While Marx’s ideas are by no means widely endorsed by most of today’s politicians, his critique of capitalism has had a huge impact on many thinkers.

The Keynesian school of economics , meanwhile, is very popular among today’s economists. Keynesian economics is considered a demand-side macroeconomic theory that focuses on changes in the economy over the short run. It was the first to separate the study of economic behavior and markets based on individual incentives from the study of broad national economic aggregate variables and constructs.

Political Science

The origins of political science can be traced back to ancient Greece. Back then, the philosopher Plato wrote various dialogues about politics, justice, and what constitutes good government.

Plato’s early contributions would gradually take on a more scientific approach, led by thinkers including Aristotle, Thomas Hobbes, Marx, and Max Weber. Centuries of research into politics helped to boost democracy and assist politicians in making popular policy choices and get voted into power.

Psychology is one of the fastest growing fields of social science. It began as a medical field of study in the late 1800s and grew popular in the Western world throughout the 20th century, thanks in part to the work of Sigmund Freud.

According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 20.3% of adults had received some form of mental health treatment in 2020. Although many still use psychiatric medicine to treat their mental health issues, more people in recent years are seeking alternative treatments, such as mindfulness training and yoga in addition to traditional talk therapy.

Neuroscience, drug treatments, and a growing variety of approaches to psychotherapy are adding to the options for psychological treatment. Research on animal learning, social psychology, and economic psychology are other branches of the field.

Sociology as a science developed in Europe in the mid-1800s, a period of rapid social change. Political revolutions and the Industrial Revolution drastically altered how many people lived, which wasn't always for the better. This prompted early sociologists to wonder how to maintain stability when so much in life was shifting so fast.

The first sociology course in the U.S. was taught at Yale University by 1875. In the years that followed, other colleges added sociology to the curriculum and the subject arrived in high schools in 1911.

In the United States, education in the social sciences begins in elementary school and progresses throughout middle and high school. There is an emphasis on aspects of core social sciences such as economics and political science. At the collegiate level, more specialized disciplines are offered.

Nowadays, colleges and universities offer numerous social science programs. For example, the University of California, Berkeley has 15 academic departments categorized as social sciences. They are:

African American studies
Cognitive science
Ethnic studies
Gender and women’s studies
Global studies
Linguistics
Political economy

Master’s degree and Ph.D. programs at colleges and universities offer opportunities for deeper specialization.

Economists and social workers are among the most sought-after employees in the U.S., according to the BLS.

Social Science Careers

Typical careers in social science include working as an advertiser, psychologist, teacher, lawyer, manager, social worker, and economist .

The subject matter of social science—human behavior, relationships, attitudes, and how these things have changed over time—is useful information for any successful business to possess. The concepts of social science, such as demography, political science, and sociology, are frequently applied in many different business contexts.

For example, advertising and marketing professionals often use theories of human behavior from these fields to more efficiently market their products to consumers.

Economists and Social Workers

Naturally, the field of economics is key to the business sector. Many industries use economic analysis and quantitative methods to study and forecast business, sales, and other market trends.

In fact, economists are some of the most sought-after workers in the U.S., especially behavioral economists , who use psychology to analyze and predict the economic decision-making processes of individuals and institutions.

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) , the projected change in employment for economists from 2021 to 2031 is 6%, about the same as the average 8% projection for all occupations. Social workers, too, are expected to see a similar level of demand, with the BLS predicting employment in this particular field to grow by 9% from 2021 to 2031.

Social Science Wages

The BLS also reports that those with a social science degree generally command higher salaries than their peers with other types of degrees but it can depend heavily on the field of employment they enter into.

According to BLS research, the median wage for a social worker was $58,380 in May 2023 while the median pay for an economist was $115,730 at that time. The median wage for those with a social science degree overall was $68,000 in 2021, about $9,600 more than that of a social worker two years later.

History of Social Science

The origins of social science can be traced back to the ancient Greeks. The lives they led, as well as their early studies of human nature, the state, and mortality, helped to shape Western civilization.

Social science as an academic field of study developed out of the aforementioned Age of Enlightenment (or Age of Reason). Smith, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot, Immanuel Kant, and David Hume were among the major intellectuals at the time who laid the foundation for the study of social science in the Western world.

Individuals began to take a more disciplined approach to quantifying their observations of society. Over time, similar aspects of society, such as linguistics and psychology, were separated into unique fields of study.

Why Is Social Science Important?

The social sciences are important because they help people understand how to analyze not only their own behavior but also the behavior and motivations of their peers. The social sciences also give us a better understanding of how to create more inclusive and effective societal institutions.

How Do You Become a Social Scientist?

Typically, the path to obtaining a career in the social sciences begins by getting a four-year university degree in one of the social science subjects. If you’re interested in pursuing a career in social work or psychology, these careers often require additional schooling, certificates, and licenses.

Which Jobs Can You Get With a Social Science Degree?

A degree in the social sciences can help land you a job as an economist, psychologist, or survey researcher, as well as open up opportunities in sectors such as law, government, politics, and academia.

Social science helps us to gain knowledge of ourselves, our peers, and the society in which we live. Human behavior is important, and having a decent grasp of it should, in theory, lead to greater efficiencies and quality of life for everyone.

University of South Florida, Digital Commons. “ Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices ,” Pages 10-11.

University of South Florida, Digital Commons. “ Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices ,” Page 14.

Thomas Hylland Eriksen and Finn Sivert Nielsen, via Google Books. “ A History of Anthropology ,” Pages 11–19. Pluto Press, 2013.

International Monetary Fund. “ What Is Keynesian Economics? ”

Washington State University, Open Text WSU. “ History of Psychology .”

U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “ Mental Health Treatment Among Adults: United States, 2020 .”

OpenStax. “ Introduction to Sociology 3e: 1.2 The History of Sociology .”

Yale University. “ Welcome to the Yale Sociology Department .”

Michael DeCesare, via JSTOR. “ The High School Sociology Teacher .” Teaching Sociology, vol. 33, no. 4, October 2005, pp. 345–354.

UC Berkeley. " Berkeley Letters & Science: Berkeley Social Sciences .”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. “ Occupational Outlook Handbook: Economists: Job Outlook .”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. “ Occupational Outlook Handbook: Social Workers: Job Outlook .”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. " Economists ."

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. " Social Workers ."

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. “ Occupational Outlook Handbook: Field of Degree: Social Science .”

Lynn McDonald, via Google Books. “ The Early Origins of the Social Sciences ,” Chapter 2. McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1993.

Encyclopædia Britannica. “ Social Science .”

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101 Social Science Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on social science, ✍️ social science essay topics for college, 🎓 most interesting social science research titles, 💡 simple social science essay ideas, ❓ social science research questions.

Interdisciplinary Approach in Social Science
Humanities, Social Science, and Natural Sciences
Social Sciences: A World Without Leadership
What Is Meant By Social Science Paradigms?
Saputo Inc. Cage Analysis: Humanities and Social Sciences
Social Sciences and Organizational Behavior
Advertisements in Terms of the Social Science
Application of Research in Social Sciences Reflection Paper The purpose of this reflective paper is to explore the roles of research and its relevant applications in the disciplines of social science.
Social Sciences: Current Realities, and Future Trends Review aims at discussing whether the social sciences can help to evaluate the history, current realities, and future trends.
Social Sciences: Postdevelopment Literature and Theories The paper is on Post-development literature where the fundamentals of development are evaluated from the perspective of Rostow’s development theory and Wolfgang Sachs’ approach.
Action Research and Its Types in Social Sciences To assess action research, one should describe different types of it and identify the differences between it and more conventional kinds of social science research.
Rational Choice Theories in Social Sciences Rational choice theories (RCT) are examined in terms of the economic, political, criminal, and religious aspects, as well as the everyday application of RCT.
Research Methods for Business and Social Science Students When conducting rigorous research into a topical issue, it is natural to expect serious challenges at each stage.
The Meaning and the Purpose of Social Science Social sciences are essential for exploring the relationships and interconnections of human beings, including the conditions that limit their lives.
Philosophy of Social Science and Education Research This paper will be aimed at examining various issues such as the concept of falsifiability and the use of various research paradigms.
Plastic Pollution Through the Lens of Social Sciences When analyzing the problem through the lens of social sciences, it becomes clear that the problem of plastic pollution is complicated.
Ethics as a Social Science Field The paper aims to highlight some of the primary conceptualizations integrated into the study of morality, including natural law, human rights, ethics of care, and virtue ethics.
Cultural Artifacts Through History and Social Science Lenses Cultural artifacts tell different stories based on the lens being viewed. This paper aims to explore the interaction between history and social science perspectives.
The Problems and the Future of Social Sciences it is difficult to predict the future of social sciences, but I believe that the efficiency of political and economic scientists will depend on the mindset of elected leaders.
Social Sciences: African American Stereotypes Dating back to the colonial years of settlement, stereotypes have been part of America, especially after inheriting slavery.
Social Science and Sexuality: Aspects of Feminism The life of human beings on this Earth has always been a very complicated matter. This has been so due to some factors – natural, physical, psychological, and others.
Sexual Health Through Natural and Social Sciences Lens The paper aims to analyze the issue from a scientific perspective and recognize the way it can help to address and resolve the sexual health and identity problem.
Theories of Aging in Social Sciences By studying sociological theories of aging, one can discover many important aspects of personality and society, taking into account each person’s many years of experience.
Social Science Perspectives on the Autism Spectrum This report will discuss autism, its characteristics, causes, diagnosis, and management. Autism refers to developmental disorder that impedes a person’s ability to communicate and relate to people.
The Definition of Social Sciences This paper explains the definition of social sciences. It is the study of human beings in a society that explains the choices they make and their consequences.
Predicting the Replicability of Social Science Lab Experiments The quality of work is the most significant factor for any academic organization. A research process for any scientific project requires careful evaluation of information sources.
Course Social Sciences of Sport Soccer is a popular sport known to promote the sustainable existence of community members. Plays have a special place in human culture.
Art Therapy in Social Sciences Mood and emotional reactions to various art during therapy are crucial pointers to the psychological aspects of a person.
Social Sciences: Religious Individualization Seneca does not object to slavery in and of itself, and there are several reasons for it. The author sees the reality as slavery.
Philosophy and Social Sciences The paper describes the theory of knowledge skepticism and considers the skeptic’s charge that we can never be confident about the reliability of our usual sources of knowledge.
Analyzing Tests and Scales in Social Science The paper at hand provides a brief review of the tests and scales applied to data measurement in social science.
Development of Meaning: Social Science Value The paper argues that social science is an instrumental lens through which the development of meaning occurs, and new ideas are created to address social ills and injustices.
Theory and Methodology in Social Science Research It is vital to provide research on the methodology applied to work out mass media influence on perceptions of gender.
Natural & Social Science Grade 3 Classroom Library One of the professional tasks of a teacher is to compile a methodologically adequate list of literature-references, which can be organically incorporated into the learning process.
Sampling Strategies for Social Sciences Study In simple random sampling techniques, each component of the population is given an equal opportunity or probability of being selected into the sample.
Sociologists as Heroes of Social Sciences The paper presents short biographies of outstanding sociologists. The historical significance of their activities is rather difficult to overestimate.
Social Science Loosely Defined Critique Commonsense Commonsense Word Refers
Evolutionary Social Science and Universal Darwinism
Bibliometric and Altmetric Analysis of Three Social Science Disciplines
American Social Science Fraternity and Gover
Sociology and the Disciplines of Social Science
Analytical Sociology and Computational Social Science
Social Science and Neuroscience: How Can They Inform Each Other
Way of Social Science and History Teaching in Hitler’s Germany
Human Behavior Paradox and a Social Science Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics
Conversion and Departure Between Science and Social Science
Biblical Religion and Social Science in the Modern World
Naturalist and Interpretations Social Science
Cumulative Inequality Theory and Social Science
Social Science and the Philosophy of Science
Correlation Between Sociology and Other Social Science Streams
Can Social Science Help Us to Understand Society
Geographically Referenced Data for Social Science
The Difference Between Natural Science and Social Science
Best Practices for Social Science Writing
Social Science and Its Impact on the Development of a Child
Darwinism and the Standard Social Science Model
Elementary Quantum Mechanical Principles and Social Science: Is There a Connection
Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices
The European Corporation: Strategy, Structure, and Social Science
Indigenous Social Science and Economic Development in Kenya
Global and Sociology and Social Science to Students
Anti-semitism and Progressive Era Social Science: The Case of John R. Commons
The Contributions of Social Science to Family Policy
How Important Are Prison Officer’s Social Science, Penology
Nursing — A Discipline between Social and Medical Sciences
Gendered Citation Patterns Across Political Science and Social Science Methodology Fields
Family Structure, Children’s Well-Being, and Social Science
Social Science and Remedies for Social Engineering
The Financial Crisis and the Failure of Modern Social Science
Epistemology of Social Science: The Scientific Status, Values and Institutionalization
Social Science and the Middle of the Two Inside Social Order
Social Science Knowledge and Economic Development: An Institutional Design Perspective
Christopher Freeman: Social Science Entrepreneur
Reflexivity, Complexity, and the Nature of Social Science
Social Science Theory and Methodology Overview
What Is the Importance of Social Science in Real Life?
How Can Social Science Perspectives Be Used to Process Information?
What Are the Distinctive Emphases and Approaches of a Multicultural Philosophy of Social Science?
Why Is Social Science Important in Society?
How Can Social Science Theory Help Reduce Crime?
What Is Social Science and How Can It Be Used to Study and Understand Society?
How Do Applied Social Sciences Help Understanding Individual or Group and Organizational Issues and Concerns?
What Are the Benefits of Social Science Research?
How Does Social Science Focus on and Interpret Sociology?
What Are the Fields of Study in the Social Sciences and What Does Each Field Study About?
How Can Studying Social Sciences Help Us to Understanding Ourselves More?
What Is Interpretation in Social Science?
How Does Social Science Help to Understand the Past and Present Problems?
What Is the Branch of Social Science That Deals With the Study of the Past?
How Can We Apply Social Science in Our Daily Life?
What Is Global Social Science?
How Can the Social Sciences Help Understand and Solve Social Problems?
In What Way Do Social Science Disciplines Play an Important Role in Our Society?
How Can the Disciplines of Applied Social Sciences Be Used in the Development of the Students?
What Is the Main Purpose of the Social Science Approach?
How Does Social Science Help in Improving Our Educational System?
What Is the Role of Social Science in the ‘Urban Age’?
Does Social Science Study Human Behavior?
How Can the Social Sciences Help in Addressing and Resolving Present-Day Social Problems?
What Is the Best Way to Study Social Science?

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Article contents

Interdisciplinarity: its meaning and consequences.

Raymond C. Miller Raymond C. Miller Department of International Relations, San Francisco State University
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.92
Published in print: 01 March 2010
Published online: 20 November 2017
This version: 27 August 2020
Previous version

Interdisciplinarity is an analytically reflective study of the methodological, theoretical, and institutional implications of implementing interdisciplinary approaches to teaching and research. Interdisciplinary approaches in the social sciences began in the 1920s. At a minimum, they involve the application of insights and perspectives from more than one conventional discipline to the understanding of social phenomena. The formal concept of interdisciplinarity entered the literature in the early 1970s. The scholars responsible all shared the thought that the scientific enterprise had become less effective due to disciplinary fragmentation and that a countermovement for the unification of knowledge was the proper response. However, not all interdisciplinarians believe that the unification of existing knowledge is the answer.

There are many ways of differentiating between types of interdisciplinary approaches. One classification distinguishes between multidisciplinary, crossdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary approaches. Multidisciplinary approaches involve the simple act of juxtaposing parts of several conventional disciplines in an effort to get a broader understanding of some common theme or problem. Crossdisciplinary approaches involve real interaction across the conventional disciplines, though the extent of communication; thus, combination, synthesis, or integration of concepts and/or methods vary considerably. Transdisciplinary approaches, meanwhile, involve articulated conceptual frameworks that seek to transcend the more limited world views of the specialized conventional disciplines. Even though many believe that interdisciplinary efforts can create innovative knowledge, the power structure of the disciplinary academy resists interdisciplinary inroads on its authority and resources.

academic discipline
area studies
interdisciplinary approaches
interdisciplinarity
interdiscipline
multidisciplinary
cross-disciplinary
transdisciplinary

Updated in this version

Updated references; major revisions throughout.

Introduction

As early as the 1920s, the US Social Science Research Council (SSRC) recognized that, in only several decades after its invention, the departmental/disciplinary structure of the university was becoming an obstacle to effectively addressing comprehensive social problems. Especially in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, the Rockefeller Foundation and then the Ford Foundation worked with the SSRC to fund interdisciplinary research and teaching in US higher education. In the early Cold War era, area studies programs were major recipients of that funding. As a consequence, international studies during this period were often conceptualized as interdisciplinary (Calhoun, 2017 ). At the founding of the International Studies Association (ISA) in 1959 , its mission statement explicitly states that the ISA “promotes interdisciplinary approaches to problems that cannot fruitfully be examined from the confines of a single discipline” ( International Studies Perspectives , May, 2007 , back cover).

The first section of this essay is a historical survey of selected professional literature on interdisciplinary studies, beginning with the classic 1972 OECD Report on its Paris conference (Apostel, 1972 ). It was the first major book entitled Interdisciplinarity . To achieve some conceptual clarity on the many varieties of interdisciplinary activity in the academy, basic terms were defined and a typology proposed. The second major part of this essay is structured by that typology of multidisciplinary, crossdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary approaches. Since all of these categories rely on disciplines as the core ingredient, discipline is also defined.

In recent years, the concept interdisciplinarity has become popular among scholars. Many books and articles have it in their titles. Books on interdisciplinary approaches vary from those promoting interdisciplinarity (Farrell, Lusatia, & Vanden Hove, 2013 ) to those denigrating it and praising the superior qualities of the disciplines (Jacobs, 2014 ). Furthermore, the widespread discussion of interdisciplinarity does not mean that it has politically succeeded in the academy. By and large the conventional disciplines have maintained their power over the university and funding bureaucracies. The last section of this essay discusses the varying fortunes of interdisciplinary approaches in the academy, especially in reference to international relations.

Historical Survey of Select Literature

The noun interdisciplinarity made its professional debut in a 1972 publication from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The report, entitled Interdisciplinarity: Problems of Teaching and Research in Universities (Apostel, 1972 ), was sponsored by OECD’s Parisian-based Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. The Report had chapters written by scholars from six different European countries: Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Though there were many differences between them, they all shared the thought that the scientific enterprise had become less effective due to disciplinary fragmentation, and that a counter movement for the unification of knowledge was the proper response. The problem was “how to unify knowledge and what the many implications of such unity are for teaching and research in the universities …” (Apostel, 1972 , p. 11). Unification “means the integration of concepts and methods in these disciplines” (pp. 11–12). A number of unifying schemas were proposed, including mathematics, linguistic structuralism, Marxism and general systems. Although the authors had different “transdisciplinary” proposals, they all agreed that “interdisciplinarity is a way of life. It is basically a mental outlook which combines curiosity with open mindedness and a spirit of adventure and discovery. . . .” It is practiced collectively. . . . It teaches that there can be no discontinuity between education and research” (Apostel, p. 285).

In addition to a number of important theoretical articles, the OECD report had a major emphasis on the design and implementation of interdisciplinary universities. The authors of that section, Asa Briggs of Sussex University and Guy Michaud of the University of Paris, gave as their sample model an interdisciplinary university with a special emphasis on international relations. They believed that because the field of international relations had the most complex connections, it necessarily involved the study of many methods, disciplines, issues, languages, and geographical areas. All students of their proposed university were expected to be familiar with the basic approaches and concepts of anthropology, politics, economics, international law, ecology, geography, history, sociology, and ethno-psychology (Apostel, 1972 , pp. 253–257).

Chronologically, the next major book that addressed the general issue of interdisciplinarity in the university setting was entitled Interdisciplinarity and Higher Education . It was published in 1979 , and its editor was Joseph Kockelmans, the Director of the Interdisciplinary Humanities Program at Pennsylvania State University. Possibly because he was European-educated, his orientation was similar to the authors of the OECD Report. He argued that only through “philosophical reflection” can the society’s intellectuals approach the “totality of meaning.” To overcome the fragmented worlds that they have created, they need to reach agreement not only on the position of the sciences, but also on “religion, morality, the arts and our sociopolitical praxis” (Kockelmans, 1979 , pp. 153–158). However, Kockelmans was opposed to using a pre-existing framework, such as the ones listed above in the OECD Report, or the logical positivism of the Unification of Science movement spearheaded by the Vienna Circle in the 1930s. None of them fulfilled the comprehensive vision that Kockelmans advocated.

In October of 1984 , OECD, in collaboration with the Swedish National Board of Universities and Colleges, decided to hold a conference to revisit the concept and experience of interdisciplinarity. More than half of the participants were from Sweden, and almost half of them were from one university, Linköping. Linköping University was especially interested in the topic because it had instituted a doctoral program based on four interdisciplinary themes (technology and social change, water in environment and society, health and society, and communication). The proceedings of the conference were published under the title Interdisciplinarity Revisited: Re-Assessing the Concept in the Light of Institutional Experience (Levin & Lind, 1985 ). Essentially the conferees agreed that the early enthusiasm for an interdisciplinary revolution was dampened by the realities of societal and institutional politics. Interdisciplinary research and teaching were still happening, but they were easier to accomplish if the participants did not boldly label them as such. The advisability of keeping a low profile was due to the fact that the “magical slot” from the mid 1960s to the early 1970s, in which interdisciplinary innovation had flourished, was replaced by a more conservative period in which disciplines reasserted their authority. George Papadopoulos of the OECD concluded that, “interdisciplinarity, even when it succeeds in unscrambling existing curricula, remains a hostage to the disciplines” (Levin & Lind, 1985 , p. 208).

The first major work on interdisciplinarity by an American-educated scholar was published in 1990 by Julie Thompson Klein, professor of humanities at Wayne State University. Her book is entitled Interdisciplinarity: History, Theory and Practice . Rather than making an argument for a particular approach, Klein provided a compilation of all the existing literature across all fields of knowledge. She concluded her extensive survey by observing:

Interdisciplinarity has been variously defined in this century: as a methodology, a concept, a process, a way of thinking, a philosophy, and a reflexive ideology. It has been linked with attempts to expose the dangers of fragmentation, to reestablish old connections, to explore emerging relationships, and to create new subjects adequate to handle our practical and conceptual needs. Cutting across all these theories is one recurring idea. Interdisciplinarity is a means of solving problems and answering questions that cannot be satisfactorily addressed using single methods or approaches. Whether the context is a short-range instrumentality or a long-range reconceptualization of epistemology, the concept represents an important attempt to define and establish common ground. (Klein, 1990 , p. 196)

Nowhere in Julie Klein’s extensive bibliography (97 pages long) is there mention of the term international relations or international studies , although she does have a section on area studies.

In 1997 , the Academia Europaea and the European Commission organized a conference in Cambridge, England around the topic “Interdisciplinarity and the Organisation of Knowledge in Europe.” The conference proceedings were published in 1999 under the same title (Cunningham, ed.). There were 24 contributors from 11 countries with most (9) coming from the United Kingdom. Several contributors referred back to the seminal article by Erich Jantsch in the 1972 OECD pioneering publication. Collectively they agreed that modern disciplines were a product of the scientific revolution of the 19th century . The specialized research entities of the University of Berlin seem to have been the origin of the disciplinary structure of knowledge. “Focusing scholarly attention on the essence or nucleus of the individual subject led inevitably to the putting-up of barriers” (Rüegg, 1999 , pp. 34–35). The division into insular, specialized disciplines was seen by sociologists as an almost inevitable outcome of the differentiation associated with the process of industrialization. John Ziman argued that the impetus toward greater and greater specialization had to do with the scholarly requirement for originality. It’s easier to be a “big frog in a small pond” (Ziman, 1999 , pp. 74–75). He concluded his essay by contending that “disciplines stand for stability and uniformity,” whereas “interdisciplinarity is a code word for diversity and adaptability” (pp. 81–82).

In the United States, some of the young scholars in international relations observed the disciplinary narrowing of the field and decided to publish a book in 2000 entitled Beyond Boundaries: Disciplines, Paradigms, and Theoretical Integration in International Studies (Sil & Doherty, 2000 ). A review (Miller, 2001 ) appearing in the newsletter of the Association for Interdisciplinary Studies observed that the book does not deliver on its promise to meaningfully discuss disciplines, paradigms, and theoretical integration; however, it does juxtapose different theoretical positions while calling for international relations scholars to be tolerant and willing to cross boundaries between disciplines and schools of thought.

In 2002 , an English academic, Joe Moran, published a book that he simply entitled Interdisciplinarity . Though broad in comprehension, it focuses on English and cultural studies. He argued that the institutional implications of openly pursuing interdisciplinary approaches are inevitably political, both in the hierarchy of knowledge and in the allocation of material resources (Moran, 2002 ). Oxford University Press decided to enter this academic realm by publishing the Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity (Froderman, Klein, & Mitcham, 2010 ). None of the 37 chapters are primarily on international studies, though one of the chapters uses area studies as an example (Calhoun & Rhoten, 2010 ). In 2017 , the Handbook came out in a second edition (Froderman). Its 46 chapters address many issues, ranging from funding to pedagogy. However, there is still no chapter dedicated to international studies. The philosopher and editor Robert Froderman argued that “interdisciplinarity is the bridge between academic sophists (disciplinarians) and the rest of society” (p. 7).

In 2009 , Pami Aalto of Tampere University in Finland embarked on a major project to discuss and showcase interdisciplinary approaches in international studies. Two books emerged from the project. The first was International Studies: Interdisciplinary Approaches (Aalto, Harle & Moisio, 2011 ), and the second, Global and Regional Problems: Towards an Interdisciplinary Study (Aalto, Harle, & Moisio, 2012 ). Aalto and his fellow editors argue, “We want to assert that International Studies—as a wider field of studies than International Relations—must necessarily be more interdisciplinary than International Relations ever was during its golden era from the 1950s onwards” (Aalto et al., 2011 , p. 3). They observed that, in the inter-war period, international studies was an interdisciplinary field with materials and perspectives drawn from many fields and disciplines. They noted that this sense of the field was spelled out in the 1939 League of Nations publication University Teaching of International Relations (Zimmern) as well as Quincy Wright’s magnum opus The Study of International Relations ( 1955 ). Despite Wright’s extraordinary effort to synthesize over 20 fields into the study of international relations, his influence over the subsequent development of the field has been minimal. International relations, especially in the United States from the 1950s on, has become more and more embedded in political science. A key reason for this evolution was the focus on the cold war power conflict. Ironically, a major intellectual force in this development was Quincy Wright’s colleague at the University of Chicago, Hans Morgenthau. However, with the end of the Cold War era, Aalto and his fellow editors were hoping for the emergence of a broader, more diverse, interdisciplinary approach to international studies (Aalto et al., 2011 , pp. 11–19).

In 2013 , two European-based scholars, Andrew Barry and Georgina Born, published a book in which they claimed to rethink what is meant by interdisciplinarity, entitled Interdisciplinarity: Reconfigurations of the Social and Natural Sciences . For instance, the authors challenge the conventional statement that interdisciplinary activity is about combining and integrating knowledge from existing disciplines. They believe that interdisciplinarity is about gathering knowledge from all available sources, not just disciplines. They point to community-based knowledge, local experience, and indigenous knowledge, among other sources. Also, they start with the premise that neither disciplinary nor interdisciplinary activities are monolithic or unchanging. Disciplines do have the political advantage in the academy because they usually control the curriculum and the budgets that include faculty hiring. Thus, the disciplines have considerable control over the conditions that determine the degree of receptivity to interdisciplinary research and teaching in any particular university setting. In Barry and Born’s opinion, truly interdisciplinary activities have qualities that differentiate them positively from the disciplines. These three qualities are accountability, innovation, and ontology. Accountability means being more responsive to societal needs. Innovation means being more practical about the problems that are addressed. And ontology means that interdisciplinary activities are more likely to be relational, holistic, and to view humans as being embedded in nature. Also, they respect the participation of the public in the discovery and application of knowledge. But interdisciplinary programs come and go. Some have staying power and become established interdisciplines, even new disciplines. Some get absorbed, whereas others disappear altogether. “The chapters in this book attest to the heterogeneity that characterises both disciplines and interdisciplines and the necessity of probing the genealogies of particular interdisciplinary problematics” (Barry & Born, 2013 , p. 41).

The American Political Science Association noted the increasing popularity of interdisciplinary rhetoric and practice, and in 2007 , they established a Task Force to study it. The report of the Task Force was published under the title Interdisciplinarity: Its Role in a Discipline-Based Academy (Aldrich, 2014 ). The report is interesting because of the obvious tension that permeates the document between proponents of disciplinarity and interdisciplinarity. The first chapter reiterates the value of disciplines. The Task Force Chair, John Aldrich, argued that disciplines are the foundation of knowledge and the academy. In his view, interdisciplinary efforts often lack valid and reliable measures for judging scholarship and teaching, and thus are inherently inferior. Nevertheless, in a subsequent chapter, four pioneers of interdisciplinary scholarship argued for the superior merits of interdisciplinary approaches. The four are David Easton (systems), R. Duncan Luce (cognitive science), and Susanne and Lloyd Rudolph (area studies). In fact, Easton stated, “I don’t see anything that can possibly be exciting and not be interdisciplinary. I think the disciplines have sort of exhausted their contributions to our understanding of politics” (Aldrich, 2014 , p. 55). Lloyd Rudolph concluded his interview by offering this reflection: “I realize that it is not only that I value interdisciplinarity but also that I value being allowed to think out of the box of disciplinary methods. New concepts reveal new realities” (Aldrich, 2014 , p. 72).

In 2013 and 2015 , two books were published that had both “interdisciplinary” and “international relations” in their titles. The first was Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Law and International Relations: The State of the Art , edited by Jeffrey Dunoff and Mark Pollack ( 2013 ). A more accurate title would have been “interdisciplinary perspectives on the historical relationship between international law and international relations.” The authors noted that during the inter-war period, scholars in the two fields worked very closely together. However, with the advent of World War II and the rise of realism as the dominant theory in international relations, the study of law was considered irrelevant, as unenforceable international law does not affect the behavior of nation-states. Furthermore, normative law was considered too non-scientific for the post-World War II behavioralists/positivists political scientists. It’s worth noting that the editors consider international relations a discipline and that they seem to use it interchangeably with political science. With the rise of other theories in international relations that challenged the dominance of realism, international law became a more acceptable ingredient of international relations scholarship in the 1990s and thereafter. However, instead of a more equal relationship between two disciplines, international law was often considered a subject rather than a discipline. Or as the editors put it, “the intellectual terms of trade were asymmetrical” (Dunoff & Pollack, 2013 , p. 649). The interdisciplinary perspective of the editors and their fellow authors is reflected in their call for more pragmatic, eclectic theoretical approaches drawn from both international relations and international law. “Our call therefore is not for token inclusion of international law approaches, but rather for an interdisciplinary version of the pragmatic, analytically eclectic, tool-kit approach” (p. 653).

The second book, edited by Patrick James and Steve Yetiv, was Advancing Interdisciplinary Approaches to International Relations (Yetiv & James, 2015 ). Their advancement illustration is the application of many perspectives from different disciplines and interdisciplines to the topic of conflict studies. These include history, political science, psychology, neuroscience, anthropology, gender studies, technology studies, demography, and systems analysis (p. 324).

In 2016 , the British Academy published a report on its investigation of interdisciplinary research and teaching in higher education in the United Kingdom. It is entitled Crossing Paths: Interdisciplinary Institutions, Careers, Education and Applications . The working group was chaired by David Soskice of the London School of Economics. In his preface, he recognized the need to promote interdisciplinarity. According to him, this was necessary because the universities, the research councils, the journals and publishers were organized along disciplinary lines. “The incentive structures set up by the interplay of these institutions militates against interdisciplinarity” (p. 5). Then, paradoxically, Soskice went on to argue, as did the group report, that the best way to promote interdisciplinarity is the support of “strong disciplines” (Soskice, 2016 , p. 6). This seems like a strategy that would perpetuate the problem they have identified. The group recommended that junior faculty should first make their reputations in a home discipline. Only then would it be safe to venture into interdisciplinary territory (p. 9). However, once socialized in the discipline’s world view, it’s less likely that faculty will venture into interdisciplinary territory.

The British Academy report recognizes that getting a credible and fair evaluation of interdisciplinary research is very difficult in a discipline-controlled environment. Nevertheless, the working group recommended “evaluating the whole and not just disciplinary parts of any interdisciplinary output. The quality of interdisciplinary work lies in the way that it brings disciplines together” (Soskice, 2016 , p. 10). The evaluation chapter provides a set of guidance questions for research-review panels for evaluating interdisciplinary research proposals. One of the questions asks whether the proposal shows “an understanding of the challenges of interdisciplinary integration, including methodological integration, and the human side of fostering interactions and communication.” Therefore, it is not surprising that the chapter ends with the statement, “a focus on interdisciplinarity revives a sense of the academy as a holistic intellectual and social organism, integrated into the wider community, in which multiple flows and exchanges between all of its parts ensure its vitality” (Soskice, 2016 , p. 70).

In 2019 , Issues in Interdisciplinary Studies dedicated an entire issue to the work of the most prolific American scholar of interdisciplinarity, Julie Thompson-Klein (Augsburg, 2019 ). Her newest book is scheduled to be published in 2021 with the title Beyond Interdisciplinarity: Boundary Work, Communication, and Collaboration in the 21st Century . The book focuses on a full range of sector-crossing, including not only academic disciplines, but also occupational professions, interdisciplinary fields, public and private spheres, local communities, project stakeholders, and countries and cultures across the globe, wherever knowledge production is occurring. This new book is an update and extension of her earlier work, Crossing Boundaries: Knowledge, Disciplinarities, and Interdisciplinarities (1996) .

Academic Discipline

Disciplines are the basic units in the structure of knowledge that have been “historically delineated by departmentalization. Within each discipline there are rational, accidental, and arbitrary factors responsible for the peculiar combination of subject matter, techniques of investigation, orienting thought models, principles of analysis, methods of explanation and aesthetic standards” (Miller, 1982 , p. 4). They constitute the bureaucratic subcultures of the modern university. The modern disciplinary system was established at the turn of the 19th into the 20th century .

Many scholars have tried their hand at the task of explicating the characteristics of an academic discipline, but the list provided by Arthur King and John Brownell ( 1966 ) in The Curriculum and the Disciplines of Knowledge still seems among the clearest and most comprehensive. Below is this author’s version of their original list:

Field of demarcated study (subject matter boundaries, inclusions and exclusions).

Shared set of underlying premises (basic assumptions about how the world works).

Shared set of concepts (jargon).

Shared set of organizing theories/models (explanatory frameworks).

Shared set of truth-determining methods (what counts as data—how to make sense of them—i.e. research protocols).

Shared set of values and norms (preferred approaches to the material field that is studied by the discipline—e.g. economists prefer the approach of the free market; also preferred conduct by the practitioners of the discipline).

These six qualities cumulatively come together as a unique perspective—a coherent world view—a disciplinary paradigm or matrix.

Community of scholars who share this world view (professional identity—academic tribes ).

Shared set of literature and great scholars in the discipline.

Agreement on what to teach (structure and content of the basic texts and curriculum from the introductory course to the advanced graduate seminars).

Means of reinforcing the professional standards (graduate training, hiring and tenure control, associations, conferences, peer-reviewed journals, and grant-making processes).

Departmental home in a college/university (bureaucratic recognition, resource allocation and territorial ownership).

Ideal-type conceptualizations of this nature have great heuristic value, but applying them in the “real world” becomes problematic. After all, every group of faculty organized around a defined academic interest that has aspirations for permanence, wish to be known, at least eventually, as a discipline. Recognition as a discipline means more prestige and the prospect of more dependable institutional support. A working solution to this definitional problem is to limit the designation of discipline to those departmental groupings that appeared at the beginning of the 20th century and have institutionally solidified their presence in the academy over the past 100 plus years. John Ziman called them the “Grand Old Disciplines” ( 1999 , p. 73). Thus, in the social sciences, the conventional and building-block disciplines would be Anthropology, Economics, Geography, History, Political Science, Psychology and Sociology. Without some kind of limitation on the use of the designation discipline, even the distinction between discipline and interdisciplinary can become meaningless. Nevertheless, the solution proposed is admittedly an arbitrary one, but the historical process that created these disciplinary conglomerates in the first place was also a relatively arbitrary process. Eric Wolf argued that the field of classical political economy was divided into the specialized disciplines of economics, political science, sociology and anthropology in a process that lost touch with the real world.

Ostensibly engaged in the study of human behavior, the various disciplines parcel out the subject among themselves. Each then proceeds to set up a model, seemingly a means to explain “hard,” observable facts, yet actually an ideologically loaded scheme geared to a narrow definition of subject matter. (Wolf, 1982 , p. 10)

The establishment of these specialized disciplines at the beginning of the 20th century has been called the “academic enclosure” process (Becher, 1989 ). In a few decades, these disciplines had enclosed themselves in departmental organizations that gave them long-term bureaucratic protection. Yet these disciplines, according to Weingart and Stehr, are “the eyes through which modern society sees and forms its images about the world, frames its experience, and learns, thus shaping its own future or reconstituting the past” (Weingart & Stehr, 1999 , p. xi). Stephen Turner argued that “disciplines are shotgun marriages . . . and are kept together by the reality of the market and the value of the protection of the market that has been created by employment requirements and expectations (Turner, 1999 , p. 55). Turner believed that the disciplines’ animosity toward interdisciplinary initiatives was primarily driven by protectionism (p. 50).

The seventh disciplinary characteristic notes that the first six qualities come together in a world view that is unique to each discipline. Comparing world view components is a useful method for both disciplinary and interdisciplinary scholars. The concept has German origins and has been productively utilized in many academic and non-academic venues for 150 years. This author was introduced into the way anthropologists use the world view method by Robert Redfield ( 1956 ). According to Redfield, every culture or sub-culture has a world view, its embedded “mental map.” It provides guidance on the nature of the world, how we know the truth about it, what is right and wrong behavior, and what emotionally matters the most. Cognitive linguist George Lakoff contended that “World views are complex neural circuits fixed in the brain. People can only understand what fits the neural circuitry in their brains. Real facts can be filtered out by world views” (Lakoff, 2017 ). Critical psychologist Michael Mascolo noted “the concept of world view is founded on the epistemological principle that observation of the physical and social world is a mediated rather than a direct process” (Mascolo, 2014 , p. 2086). He reaffirmed Redfield’s point that a complete world view has an ontology, an epistemology, and a normative belief system.

Table 1. Post-World War II Macro Social Sciences: Comparative Attributes

Source : Miller, R. C. ( 2018 ). International political economy: Contrasting world views (2nd ed., p. 17). London, UK: Routledge.

This author has used world view as the comparative method in understanding the different schools of thought in international political economy (Miller, 2018 ). One step in this process was identifying the comparative attributes of the basic contributing disciplines. A summary of that analysis is in Table 1 : Post World War II Macro Social Sciences: Comparative Attributes. Economics, political science, and sociology are compared in six fundamental dimensions: core subject matter, central concepts, explanatory strategies, normative orientation, data collection, and data analysis.

Interdisciplinary Approaches

Interdisciplinary approaches in the social sciences involve, at a minimum, the application of insights and perspectives from more than one conventional discipline to the understanding of social phenomena. Interdisciplinarity , on the other hand, is an analytically reflective study of the methodological, theoretical, and institutional implications of implementing interdisciplinary approaches to teaching and research. Strictly speaking, interdisciplinarians are those who engage in the scholarly field of interdisciplinarity, though there are many faculty and others who participate effectively in interdisciplinary projects without being reflexive about its methods, theories, and institutional arrangements. On the other hand, interdisciplinary participants are more likely to be aware of their underlying world views than disciplinarians.

There are many ways of differentiating between types of interdisciplinary approaches, and in fact, of defining the basic term, interdisciplinary. For instance, the National Academies of Science propose that:

“Interdisciplinary research is a mode of research by teams or individuals that integrates information, data, techniques, tools, perspectives, concepts, and/or theories from two or more disciplines or bodies of specialized knowledge to advance fundamental understanding or to solve problems whose solutions are beyond the scope of a single discipline or area of research practice.” (National Academy of Sciences, 2005 , p. 39)

This definition privileges the process of “integration” as well as identifying “disciplines” as the primary source of the ingredients to be integrated. Lisa Lattuca, in her faculty-interview study Creating Interdisciplinarity ( 2001 ) argued that post-structuralists, like herself and all the humanities professors and most of the social science professors in her study, reject both of these privileging assumptions. They argue that integration presumes harmonious order, whereas reality may be full of oppositions and contradictions, and that using disciplines as the basic raw material legitimizes their monopoly over knowledge. However, all of the natural scientists in her study were comfortable with the type of definition proposed by the National Academies (Lattuca, 2001 , p. 104). The Political Science Task Force Report also accepted it. Nevertheless, interdisciplinary approaches could be broadened to include the processes of juxtaposition, application, synthesis, and transcendence as well as integration.

By utilizing this broader definition of interdisciplinary approaches that includes processes other than integration, the logic of the original OECD typology retains its efficacy. That typology divided interdisciplinary approaches into multidisciplinary, crossdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary. What follows is this author’s version of that typology.

Multidisciplinary Approaches

Multidisciplinary approaches involve the simple act of juxtaposing parts of several conventional disciplines in an effort to get a broader understanding of some common theme or problem. No systematic effort is made to combine or integrate across these disciplines. This is the weakest interdisciplinary approach, and it actually enhances the stature of the participating disciplines because their identities and practices are not threatened. They do not need to change any of their protocols, yet they can claim their openness to interdisciplinary cooperation. Cafeteria-style curricula, team-taught courses, ad hoc research teams, and conference panels could be examples of this approach.

Crossdisciplinary Approaches

Crossdisciplinary approaches involve real interaction across the conventional disciplines, though the extent of communication and thus combination, synthesis or integration of concepts and/or methods varies considerably. Since the variety of crossdisciplinary approaches is so great, this author has created a further six-fold typology. The six sub-categories of crossdisciplinary approaches are: (a) topics of social interest, (b) professional preparation, (c) shared analytical methods, (d) shared concepts, (e) hybrids, and (f) shared life experiences (Miller, 1982 ). Hundreds of crossdisciplinary combinations have been created over the course of the last 100 years. Some of these combinations have been ephemeral, some long lasting, but poorly articulated, and some have developed an institutionalized coherence that rivals the conventional disciplines. The latter in this author’s taxonomy are the interdisciplines . David Long, one of the authors in Aalto’s first book called them “neodisciplines” (Long, 2011 , pp. 52–59).

Transdisciplinary Approaches

Transdisciplinary approaches, according to Jantsch’s classic essay ( 1972 ), involve articulated conceptual frameworks that seek to transcend the more limited world views of the specialized disciplines. These frameworks are holistic in intent. In the 1972 OECD volume, the transdisciplinary approaches mentioned were general systems, structuralism, Marxism, and mathematics. The 21st century transdisciplinary movement in Europe believes that the broader public should be involved in providing, testing, evaluating, and implementing knowledge across all fields. Academic disciplines, therefore, are only a part of the picture.

Social Topics

Important social topics frequently attract members from several disciplines. They start out as multidisciplinary groupings, but over time continuous communication creates a new crossdisciplinary field of study. Examples would include environmental studies, cognitive science, gerontology, labor studies, peace studies, and urban studies. The study of geographical regions, area studies, is an interesting topical example because of its close relationship to international relations.

Professional Preparation

Another organizing principle for crossdisciplinary combinations is relevant knowledge for professional preparation . Examples include business management, diplomatic studies, education, public administration, health services, and policy studies. There are undoubtedly more students, faculty, and practitioners in this professional category than in any of the other categories, but the self-conscious attention to their interdisciplinary nature is very limited. Nevertheless, there are exceptions; for instance, Donald Schön ( 1983 ) in his book The Reflective Practitioner observed that the professions are split between the rational technocratic view of the more theoretical and conventional perspective vs. the more particularistic uncertainty of the actual field situations. He tried to find a middle ground between these extremes by proposing a reflexive approach that combines theory and practice. He argued that professionals should be aware of the frames within which they operate so that they are open to critiquing the one they are using and even shift to another if the situation requires it. Schon’s proposed approach is similar to the interdisciplinary method of comparative world views or multi-perspective analysis (Miller, 1982 ).

Policy studies, a growing field in recent years, manifest this internal tension rather dramatically. In the early 1950s, Harold Lasswell expressed his belief that through a rational and scientific process the best policy options could be identified and implemented toward the betterment of democratic objectives. Some of the analytical methods he advocated, such as benefit/cost analysis, are still being applied today. However, his approach has been criticized as being undemocratic, that is, “scientists know better,” and incredibly unrealistic as the political decision-making process is anything but rational. Studying the “different perspectives that underlie conflict in public policy arenas . . . is more illuminating and ultimately more practical than quixotically tilting at scientific windmills” (Smith & Larimer, 2009 , p. 18).

Shared Analytical Methods

Similar research methods, especially the quantitative ones, are often shared across the disciplines. They provide a basis for bringing methods-oriented faculty members together in more permanent crossdisciplinary associations. These groups have conferences, journals, and even academic programs. Examples of these shared analytical methods include statistics, computer modeling, game theory, and information theory (Miller, 1982 ). However, despite the potential cost savings, conventional disciplinary departments are usually unwilling to replace their own methods courses with the more generic ones from these crossdisciplinary programs.

Shared Concepts

There are some major concepts that appear in many disciplines that have the potential for crossdisciplinary integration. Classic examples of shared concepts include energy, value, flows, role, evolution, development, and cycles (Abbey, 1976 ). George Homans, a sociologist in Harvard’s crossdisciplinary Social Relations Department in the 1960s and 70s used exchange as his main integrating concept. The source of his inspiration was rational exchange theory from the discipline of economics (today it would be called rational choice theory). He made an explicit effort to use benefit/cost exchange as the basis of a theory of human behavior that could integrate across disciplines. Homans argued that although the specifics of exchange relationships may vary across different types of human experience, their overall interactive form may be quite similar (Homans, 1974 ).

The concept of development was dominant in the social sciences in the 1950s and 1960s under the crossdisciplinary umbrella of modernization theory. Modernization theory grew out of the need to achieve some degree of coherent coordination between the different and sometimes contradictory development strategies proposed by the separate social science disciplines. Economists argued that development would occur if sufficient amounts of capital investment are made and markets are developed. Political scientists argued that development requires modern bureaucracies, effective governance, and political participation. Sociologists argued that modern social institutions such as factories, schools, and mass media are key components in any development plan. Anthropologists argued that the residents of poor countries had to change their traditional cultural values into modern ones if development were to occur. Psychologists argued that individual personality development is the key, shifting the orientation from ascription to achievement. Modernization theory tried to bring all of these diverse perspectives together. It was the central organizing theory of the crossdisciplinary field of development studies.

The most widely recognized type of crossdisciplinary approach is undoubtedly the hybrids . Hybrids combine parts of two existing, related disciplines to form interstitial new crossdisciplines that attempt to bridge perceived gaps between disciplines (Miller, 1982 ). Well-known examples include social psychology, political economy, biogeography, and historical sociology. Sometimes the hybrid crossdisciplinary fields generate new theories whose promise is so great that they are borrowed back into their constituent disciplines. Social psychology’s symbolic interaction theory is a case in point. In fact, Dogan and Pahre ( 1990 ) argue that hybrid activity is the most likely source of innovative advances.

One of the most important hybrids in the interdisciplinary realm of international relations is political economy, especially in the form of international political economy (IPE). IPE uses the multi-perspective approach mentioned above. It juxtaposes the competing explanatory perspectives of the market model from economics, institutionalism from political science and sociology, and historical materialism from classical Marxist political economy (Miller, 2018 ). The differing perspectives provide a rich treasury of insights, understandings, critiques, and research strategies.

Shared Life Experiences

The basic premise in crossdisciplinary programs based on shared life experiences is that certain groups have shared a common experience of oppression that gives them a shared identity, a shared rejection of mainstream knowledge that reinforces this oppression, and a shared political agenda to replace the unjust social conditions with an egalitarian society. Three major examples of this category are women’s studies, ethnic studies, and post-colonial studies. These crossdisciplinary fields entered the academy as outgrowths of the social movements of the late 1960s and early 1970s. They started out as multidisciplinary challengers to the disciplinary/departmental power structure of the university, yet over the past four decades women’s studies and ethnic studies have evolved increasingly into discipline-like programs, in other words, interdisciplines. According to some observers, one of the costs of this institutional acceptance was the loss of one of the early objectives of these movements, social change activism in the community (Messer-Davidow, 2002 ).

Virtually all of the over 700 women’s studies programs in the United States teach feminist theory, an integrating perspective that focuses on socially constructed gender systems and standpoint analysis. Standpoint theory contends that how one perceives any human condition depends on the position that one occupies in the society. Those who are being oppressed are going to see things very differently than those who are doing the oppressing.

According to Ann Tickner, feminism challenges the neo-positivist and state-centric orientation of international relations in the United States. The unequal relationships that pervade the world are socially constructed and vary from place to place, with women suffering universally from male-dominated exercises of power. Furthermore, dichotomies such as those that “separate the mind (rationality) from the body (nature) diminish the legitimacy of women as ‘knowers’” (Tickner, 2014 , p. 86). Knowledge should not be pursued for its own sake or for the benefit of the state but in order to facilitate the emancipation of the oppressed (Tickner, 2014 , pp. 176–77).

Theorists in African-American or Africana studies have made a deliberate effort to incorporate the perspective of women in their key concept, Afrocentricity . The meaning of Afrocentricity is somewhat contested within the interdiscipline, but there is no doubt about what it opposes, namely Eurocentrism. Among the specified features of Eurocentrism are reductionism, individualism, and domination over nature, whereas Afrocentricity is associated with holism, community, and harmony with nature (Azibo, 2001 , p. 424). Karanja Keita Carroll ( 2008 ) contended that the “Afrikan worldview” has embedded within it an African culture-specific axiology, epistemology, logic, cosmology, ontology, teleology, and ideology that necessitate a research methodology that is consistent with these components. Instead of the Eurocentric approach that emphasizes objective detachment, separation between the knower and the known, material reality as primary, either/or logic, and knowledge for knowledge’s sake, the Afrikan worldview emphasizes full engagement, the blending of knower and known, the spiritual essence of reality as primary, both/and logic, and knowledge for the betterment of African peoples. Africana research is about participation, relationships, interdependence, and the liberation of Africana people (Carroll, 2008 , pp. 4–27).

Advocates for transdisciplinary approaches often directly challenge the efficacy of conventional disciplines, claiming that they are part of the problem rather than the solution, especially when the objective is the mitigation of complex social problems. Proponents of transdisciplinary approaches frequently accuse the hegemonic conventional disciplines of protecting the status quo rather than promoting progressive change. The framers of some transdisciplinary approaches see them as providing alternatives to the world views of the conventional disciplines that they would replace. Examples of discipline-replacement transdisciplinary approaches would be general systems theory, Marxism, cultural studies and sustainability studies. Examples of transdisciplinary approaches that could supplement rather than replace conventional disciplines would be symbolic interactionism, rational choice theory, and gender theory (Miller, 1982 ).

General systems theory, the transdisciplinary approach that Jantsch favored, contends that nature is a hierarchy of similar structures up through the whole succession of physical, biological, and social systems. There are similar developmental patterns throughout nature, but there are different paths that can lead to the same destination. Through the organization of energy from the environment (negative entropy) and communication with the environment (negative feedback), systems seek to maintain dynamic equilibria. This theory conceives of nature as a holistic set of relationships that thrives on diversity.

David Easton introduced systems thinking to political science in the 1950s and 1960s because he felt the discipline was too narrow. “I am not a political scientist but rather a social scientist interested in political problems” (Aldrich, 2014 , pp. 52–53). Currently, Carolyn and Patrick James continue Easton’s systems approach with their application of “systemism” to foreign policy analysis. However, in their view, systemism moves away from Easton’s bias toward homeostatic proclivities and emphasis on the macro level. Systemism includes both the macro and the micro and all forms of interaction between them (James & James, 2015 ).

Since the 1960s, general systems theory has been the main transdisciplinary approach of environmental or ecological studies (Costanza, 1990 ). Today, this field is most likely to be called sustainability studies. In a major conference on transdisciplinarity held in Switzerland in 2000 , sustainability was put forward not only as the major reason for the necessity of transdisciplinarity, but also as a transdisciplinary approach in itself (Klein et al., 2001 ). However, Egon Becker argues that sustainability studies is a “transdisciplinary field” that is more of a “conceptual and heuristic framework” than a general theory ( 1999 , pp. 284–285).

The lack of an agreed-upon general theory for engaging in the intellectual process of integrating across disciplines led William Newell to search for the most comprehensive and functionally effective transdisciplinary theory. He decided on general systems. But the first difficulty that Newell faced was deciding on which version of general systems theory to embrace. He identified eight possibilities: chaos, complex systems, fractal geometry, nonlinear dynamics, second-order cybernetics, self-organizing criticality, neo-evolutionary biology, and quantum mechanics (Newell, 2001 ). After studying them all, he chose complex systems as the preferred approach. Newell ( 2001 , p. 7) explains: “Specifically, the theory of interdisciplinarity studies that I am advocating focuses on the form of complexity that is a feature of the structure as well as the behavior of a complex system, on complexity generated by nonlinear relationships among a large number of components, and on the influence of the components and relationships of the system on its overall pattern of behavior.” Newell presented his preferred theory to a panel of well-known interdisciplinarians for their reactions. None of the six respondents agreed with his suggestion, primarily because they did not believe that the range and diversity of interdisciplinary possibilities could be captured within one theoretical framework (Issues in Integrative Studies 19, 2001 , pp, 1–148)

One of the respondents to Newell’s proposal, Richard Carp ( 2001 ), took issue with his basic premise, namely that the knowledge to be integrated via complex systems theory comes exclusively from existing disciplines. Carp insisted on widening the knowledge sources. He stated that we should stop thinking of “the disciplines as unique sources or resources for knowledge and thought” (Carp, 2001 , p. 74). Carp argued that we should “learn from multiple knowledge formations” (p. 75). Disciplines should not be the “gatekeepers.” The universities are just one of the many institutions in society that not only possess knowledge but can also create it. We should not be talking about interdisciplinary studies but “knowledge formations” (p. 75).

In Europe, the transdisciplinary movement has taken several different directions. The Swiss Academies of Arts and Sciences conference in 2000 promoted a process form of transdisciplinarity that transcended not only disciplinary boundaries, but also the boundary between the scientific establishment on the one hand and the users of the results of scientific research on the other hand. Users include government agencies, businesses, non-profit organizations, and members of the general public. Since all of these groups are stakeholders in the solution of the societal problems that science has an obligation to address, they should all be present at the table in the research process. In fact, the more stakeholders involved, the more “robust” the research. “We take the contributions to the informing and the rationalizing of actions in their societal context to be the main performance of problem-oriented research, and by implication, also of transdisciplinary research” (Zierhofer & Burger, 2007 , p. 57). In other words, according to the Swiss school, the purpose of transdisciplinary research is to seek and facilitate the implementation of solutions for societal problems, such as violence, poverty, and global warming, that serve the common good (Pohl & Hadorn, 2008 ). Norwegian professor Willy Ostreng, in his major book on interdisciplinary research, agrees and adds that as transdisciplinarity traverses the boundaries between science and stakeholder expertise it creates a new science, a “post-normal” science (Ostreng, 2010 , pp. 29–33).

Another European school of transdisciplinarity is centered around Basarab Nicolescu, a French academic. His group is organized around the International Center for Transdisciplinary Research. The movement’s objective is the achievement of the totality of meaning across all the sciences, art, religion, and cultural perspectives. That endeavor involves the search for relations and isomorphisms across all realms. The French school’s epistemology is explicitly non-Aristotelian in that it wishes to go beyond lineal and binary logic. They recognize different levels of reality in which different modes of understanding prevail. They start with the differences between classical physics and quantum physics, between reason and intuition, between information and consciousness, and between linear and non-linear logics. Non-linear logic is explained as the unity of oppositions, the inclusion of the excluded middle, and the evolutionary process of ever more comprehensive syntheses. Manfred Max-Neef calls this epistemology “strong transdisciplinarity.” He sees some of it in the natural sciences, especially in quantum physics and complexity theories. However, he does not see any of it in the social sciences. He sees economics as the most retrogressive and therefore one of the biggest obstacles to a unified, spiritually evolved, sustainable future (Max-Neef, 2005 , pp. 5–16).

There are some interesting analogies between “strong transdisciplinarity” and the field of cultural studies, for which many claim transdisciplinary status. Both approaches are strongly critical of the excessive reliance on rationality and analytic reductionism, as well as of the fragmented specialization of the structure of knowledge. The location of cultural studies at the interface of the humanities and the social sciences enables its practitioners to bring together their different concepts of culture and then to add the additional dimension of everyday meanings and practices present among the broader population (Moran, 2002 ).

It is generally agreed that the institutional origin of cultural studies was at Birmingham University in 1964 . The founders had an anti-establishment orientation informed by Italian neo-Marxist Antonio Gramsci and French post-structuralist Michel Foucault. The Birmingham group wished to understand and challenge the power over the general population that the cultural elites exercised through the mass media and the power that the intellectual elites exercised through their control of the structure of knowledge, that is, the departmental/disciplinary structure of the academy. When cultural studies diffused to the United States, the field lost some of its political agenda; however, it retained its emphasis on popular culture. Numerous academic fields are identified as contributing to cultural studies, including cultural anthropology, textual criticism, art and social history, linguistics, sociology, aural and visual culture, philosophy of science, political economy, communication studies, psychology, and feminism. These multiple sources led Joe Moran ( 2002 , p. 50) to comment, “Cultural studies could be said to be synonymous with interdisciplinarity itself.” It is both ironic and instructive then that the founding enclave of cultural studies, the Birmingham Centre, was shut down by the higher education authorities of the United Kingdom in 2002 , presumably because of the “low quality of its research production” (Klein, 2005 , pp. 52–53).

Consequences

Advocating explicitly for interdisciplinary approaches in a discipline-controlled environment can be risky. It can be politically risky for administrative units and personally risky for faculty, especially for junior faculty. Interdisciplinary approaches do have implications for the structure and politics of knowledge. They have implications for International Relations, especially if the study of international relations is considered an interdisciplinary field. A 2002 publication assessing the field came to this conclusion:

While there seems to be little problem in designating international relations as a “field,” the symposium left unclear whether this field is most properly a subfield of political science, a subfield of several disciplines, an amalgam of the subfields of multiple disciplines or an academic discipline in its own right. (Puchala, 2002 , pp. xvi–xvii)

The dominant location for International Relations in the United States is as a subfield of Political Science (Aldrich, 2014 , p. 5). In the United Kingdom, however, the field of International Relations is more often treated as a separate discipline (Waever, 1998 ). How the field is conceptualized and institutionalized does have implications for its intellectual strategies, the identities of its practitioners, and its access to resources, both on and off-campus. David Long has argued that “it matters whether IR is considered a discipline in its own right or not. It matters in teaching and research not only by what is cut off, but what is encouraged” (Long, 2011 , pp. 59–60). Rudra Sil warned that “inflexible disciplinary structures may very well come to constitute a hindrance to whatever ‘progress’ is possible in our collective efforts to understand aspects of international life” (Sil & Doherty, 2000 , p. 6). Nevertheless, American political scientists are firmly committed to keeping international relations within their fold. A 2002 doctoral dissertation tells the tale of how, in 1986 , the Political Science Department at the University of Pennsylvania (Penn) successfully absorbed the multidisciplinary graduate program in International Relations. It is an interesting tale of money and powerful personalities, and it would probably be more accurately described as a hostile takeover (Plantan, 2002 ).

Even though the author of the dissertation, Frank Plantan, used the language of interdisciplinarity, he did not employ the conceptual distinctions presented above. That is partly because the graduate program of International Relations at Penn was just a multidisciplinary collection of volunteer faculty members from 10 different departments with no separate, dedicated financial support. By centering his analysis on the Penn case study, Plantan limited the operational meaning of interdisciplinary to this loose arrangement of multidisciplinary specialists, an unstable and vulnerable setup. Yet in his discussion of the intellectual development of the field he mentioned several integrating strategies that have crossdisciplinary and even transdisciplinary qualities. His examples included realism, functionalism, behavioralism, neoliberal institutionalism, rational choice, and constructivism. However, in his historical analysis Plantan saw these theoretical perspectives as ideas to fight over rather than as integrating strategies. In his experience, the competitive departmental environment triumphed over interdisciplinary cooperation. Plantan ( 2002 , pp. 374–375) concluded, “The hefty sunk costs of an existing tenured faculty and staff, and a historic mission (however dubious) in the colleges or university’s broader curriculum, accords them a staying power, an inertia, that no interdisciplinary program can hope to achieve whatever its intellectual merit.”

When Robert Axelrod, the President of the American Political Science Association, established a Task Force in 2007 on Interdisciplinarity, he argued that interdisciplinary research is borrowing across disciplinary boundaries, both importing and exporting, but especially exporting (Axelrod, 2008 ). The Task Force Report (Aldrich, 2014 ) argued that interdisciplinary work begins with faculty who are prepared with accumulated deep knowledge in a discipline. To insure that interdisciplinary teaching and research do not endanger the institutional power of the conventional disciplines, the Report placed a major emphasis on discipline-based peer review. They contended that peer review is the preeminent means by which “the value of scientific knowledge can be established,” and peer review is only credible if it comes from an established discipline (Aldrich, 2014 , pp. 13–23). They continued, “Disciplinarity has not yet been successfully transcended as a means to address key values of scholarship—particularly to resolve contested claims about knowledge, to anchor peer review and the authority it carries with it to protect academic freedom, or to manage the labor market” (p. 23).

Interdisciplinarians would find this reasoning self-serving at the very least. After all, one of the main reasons for engaging in truly innovative interdisciplinary activity is to break free of the narrow, restrictive and presumably inadequate contexts of the established disciplines. The National Academies Report ( 2005 ) argues that there are four “drivers” for interdisciplinary research: inherent complexity of nature and society, need to explore areas that are not confined to a single discipline, need to solve societal problems, and the power of new technologies (p. 40). This Report gives several examples, but the most comprehensive is the case of climate change. Research on this complex and vital issue involves 10,000 scientists in 80 countries from more than 20 disciplines, including agricultural scientists, archeologists, atmospheric chemists, biologists, climatologists, ecologists, economists, environmental historians, geographers, geologists, hydrologists, mathematicians, meteorologists, plant physiologists, political scientists, oceanographers, remote sensing scientists, and sociologists (p. 31).

The established disciplines have been attacked by the post-structuralists for being Eurocentric, sexist, racist, pseudo-objective, status quo-protective and structured in a way that is disconnected from reality. To this group of critics both the ontologies and epistemologies of the conventional structure of knowledge are unacceptable (Moran, 2002 ). Paradoxically, some of the academics who espouse these views have managed to find an institutionalized niche in the university in departments or centers of cultural studies, ethnic studies, post-colonial studies, and women’s studies. However, in the process of institutionalization, they seem to have followed the advice of the Political Science Task Force Report: if interdisciplinary projects want to be successful—that is, achieve bureaucratic recognition with regular budgets and assigned faculty positions—you need to behave like an established discipline (Messer-Davidow, 2002 ). Besides those interdisciplines that have successfully entered the university structure since the 1960s, there were many generic interdisciplinary programs that also evolved into departments even though they were founded as challengers to the disciplinary/departmental system. Evidently, the generic-interdisciplinary departments were perceived by the established departments as the most threatening as well as the most vulnerable. As a consequence, whenever conventional departments found sympathetic administrators they embarked on a campaign for their abolition. In the Politics of Interdisciplinary Studies the stories of several of these program eliminations are told. They include programs at Wayne State, Miami of Ohio, Appalachian State, and San Francisco State, among others. (Augsburg & Henry, 2009 ).

The Political Science Task Force Report also describes how the discipline-based peer-review process works in the federal grant-making process, the largest source of extramural funding in the United States. The National Science Foundation (NSF) is probably organized the most pervasively around the conventional or established disciplines. Therefore, disciplinary criteria are used to evaluate most grant proposals submitted to the NSF. There are small programs within NSF that seem to facilitate interdisciplinary projects: The Measurement, Methodology and Statistics Program and the Human and Social Dynamics Program.

Although the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) is organized functionally, its reviewing process also relies largely on disciplinary faculty and their criteria for quality. Federal funding agencies reflect and respect disciplinary boundaries, though they do seek ways to attack new problems through interdisciplinary efforts (Aldrich, 2014 , pp. 101–111). However, the ostensibly integrative interdisciplinary projects they fund frequently end up as merely multidisciplinary.

A group that studied the grant-making experience of the Academy of Finland from 1997–2004 discovered, to their surprise, that almost half of the grants (42%) had some degree of interdisciplinarity despite the disciplinary orientations of the review boards. The solution of the study authors to the disciplinary/interdisciplinary divide is to consider all research interdisciplinary. They reason that since disciplinary boundaries are so amorphous and so frequently permeated that maintaining these distinctions is artificial and inhibitive of creativity in research (Bruun, Hukkinen, Huutoniemi, & Klein, 2005 , p. 169). However, ignoring disciplinary boundaries and their associated departmental bureaucracy seems not only unrealistic about the confining power of the disciplinary structure of knowledge, but also politically naive as well.

A further interesting dimension of the International Studies Association (ISA) is the relationship between its many crossdisciplinary sections and the dominant Political Science discipline. Of the 29 sections ( 2019 ), 22 seem crossdisciplinary in nature. Examples include interdisciplinary studies, human rights studies, environmental studies, peace studies, feminist theory and gender studies, and global development studies. For years the leadership of the ISA seemed merely to presume, despite the organization’s claim to interdisciplinarity, that all the section program chairs could gather at the annual Political Science Convention to review the draft program of the upcoming ISA Convention. The implicit assumption in this past ISA practice was that the section program chairs were most likely political scientists who would be attending the annual Political Science Convention. This assumption always struck this author as problematic, especially in light of the organization’s mission statement and its interdisciplinary membership. The greater efficiency of the Internet facilitated the discontinuance of this practice.

The history of the relationship of area studies to International Relations is a fascinating one in itself. The ISA section sponsoring this contribution, the Interdisciplinary Studies Section, was originally established by area studies scholars according to Fred Riggs, one of its founders. In the 1970s, area studies scholars were contemplating founding a separate umbrella organization for all area studies programs, but they were persuaded to stay within the ISA as an independent section. Area studies centers were established in elite universities after WWII as part of a national Cold War strategy. They were “among the most far-reaching interdisciplinary projects in American higher education” (Aldrich, 2014 , p. 89). Their responsibility was to provide information on the geographic regions of the world in support of the national interests of the United States. Participating faculty came mostly from language, literature, anthropology, history, and political science (international relations) departments. The centers, despite their holistic aspirations, were multidisciplinary in form and particularistic in methodology. Money and guidance ostensibly came from private sources, such as the Ford Foundation and the Social Science Research Council (SSRC), but they actually came from the Department of Defense and the Central Intelligence Agency (Cumings, 2002 ).

In the first few decades after World War II, the study of international relations was significantly oriented to area studies because the money flowing into the universities supported area studies type of knowledge. The legacy of that emphasis is reflected in a 2006 Teagle Foundation survey that found in the responses of 109 Liberal Arts Colleges, half of the top ten interdisciplinary majors were in area and international studies. Since the end of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, extramural teaching and research support has dwindled significantly for area and international studies. Lloyd Rudolph comments, “after the close of the Cold War, the disciplines and the ‘methodists’ succeeded in attacking and defeating the area studies orientation of Ford and via Ford the SSRC” (Aldrich, 2014 , p. 70). Area studies programs have had to endure criticism from those who see them as a “colonial enterprise” (faculty in post-colonial and ethnic studies programs), while many in the disciplines see them as lacking any theoretical coherence and methodological rigor. From the perspective of conventional disciplinarians, their region-centric particularism and their multidisciplinary structures make them the poster examples of what ails interdisciplinary programs (Miyoshi & Harootunian, 2002 ; Szanton, 2004 ).

Nevertheless, despite the continuing identity crises in area studies, they have managed to survive. Their latest restoration positions them as part of the internationalization of the academy, presumably made necessary by the knowledge demands of globalization and regional hot spots such as the Middle East. However, the continuing viability of area studies remains uncertain. As one observer noted, the different area studies faculties are as separated from each other as the members of disciplines are from each other. “By and large, the world area studies tribes inhabit relatively watertight intellectual domains” (Lambert, 1991 , p. 184). This observation is consistent with the author’s experience. As an administrator in charge of curriculum development, he suggested that the area studies programs could share a core course in which the common methodological principles of area studies could be explored. The area studies faculty, however, were not interested. Nevertheless, David Szanton hopes that participation in area studies programs have helped to “deparochialize” disciplinary faculty, though it does not seem to have lowered the heights of the disciplinary walls. Maybe by being one of the first interdisciplinary programs to use identity as one of its key concepts, area studies may have prepared the way for ethnic studies, women’s studies and post-colonial studies (Szanton, 2004 ).

The case of international political economy (IPE) also raises a number of interesting interdisciplinary issues. In its reincarnation over the last four decades or so, it fits in the category of crossdisciplinary hybrids. IPE’s location in the structure of knowledge is as confused as International Relations. The disciplines of Economics, Political Science and Sociology all claim IPE as a subfield. However, Marxists, in the tradition of classical political economy, see political economy as an overarching, holistic frame in which cultural, economic, political, and social dimensions are inter-related subsets. According to Marxists, the establishment of the specialized disciplines around these dimensions is a part of the hegemonic strategy of capitalism to obfuscate the oppressive nature of the capitalist system.

The late British political economist Susan Strange, a non-Marxist, complained about the lack of knowledge sharing across disciplinary boundaries. She was especially critical of the way in which economists and political scientists ignored each other and their respective knowledge domains. She accused American scholars of International Relations of being too narrowly connected to state-centric political models that did not include serious economic analysis. In fact, she argued, “Far from being a subdiscipline of international relations, IPE should claim that international relations are a subdiscipline of IPE” (see Strange, in Lawton, Rosenau, & Verdun, 2000 , p. 412). Susan Strange is among the “Magnificent Seven” that Benjamin Cohen singled out in his intellectual history of international political economy (Cohen, 2008 , p. 8). She was the leader of the “British School,” which is more holistic, interdisciplinary, and explicitly normative in contrast to the “American School,” which is more positivistic in orientation. Cohen continued his geographic schools of thought analysis of IPE in a 2014 publication, Advanced Introduction to International Political Economy . In response to criticism of the limitations of his original dichotomy, he added schools of thought based in continental Europe, Latin America, and China. He also recognized “leftist” or “heterodox” schools in the United States and the British Commonwealth. However, his geographic schools of thought approach focused primarily on national/regional and cultural differences, rather than theoretical.

Members of all schools of international political economy would probably be comfortable having their field identified as an “interdiscipline” (Underhill, 2000 ). An interdiscipline is a crossdisciplinary field that approximates the characteristics of an academic discipline, but it does not qualify as a 20th century conventional discipline. In fact, maybe International Relations would also best be characterized as an “interdiscipline.” However, that identification still leaves unanswered where International Relations fits in the power hierarchy of knowledge.

According to Barry Buzan and Richard Little, members of the English or British School of International Relations, the widespread placement of International Relations in the United States as a subfield of Political Science has significantly limited its theoretical potential. Buzan and Little ( 2001 ) argued that American International Relations is dominated by an ahistorical, Eurocentric, Westphalian, political/military model. One of the consequences of this approach is the preference for “fragmentation into the anarchy of self-governing and paradigm-warring islands of theory rather than integration into the imperial or federative archipelago of theoretically pluralist grand theory” (Buzan & Little, 2001 , p. 31). Margaret Hermann, in her 1998 ISA presidential address, expressed seemingly similar sentiments about fragmentation: “The field has become an administrative holding company rather than an intellectually coherent area of inquiry or a community of scholars” (Hermann, 2002 , p. 16). However, her solution is a respectful dialogue that builds a “mosaic of multiple perspectives” around problems that are issues of “world politics” (pp. 31–33). She does not seem to be recommending “grand theory” nor going beyond Political Science. Thus, hers is an intra-disciplinary rather than an inter-disciplinary solution. On the other hand, Hermann does seem to embrace the “interdisciplinary mental outlook” advocated by the authors of the pioneering OECD Report (Apostel, 1972 ).

Understanding the different types of interdisciplinary approaches and their differentiation from disciplinary approaches gives one deeper insight into the knowledge production and transmission process. If International Relations is to be a truly independent, interdisciplinary field that can take full advantage of multiple perspectives and methodologies in order to deal more effectively with global problems, it needs to liberate itself from the embrace of confining disciplines, especially Political Science.

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to thank the following for helping to improve this article: Stanley Bailis, Felicia Krishna-Hensel, Renee Marlin-Bennett, Tina Mavrikos-Adamou, Anja K. Miller, and Julie Thompson-Klein.

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Is There a Discipline of IR? A Heterodox Perspective
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25 Social Sciences Examples

social sciences examples and definition, explained below

The social sciences are academic disciplines concerned with the study of human society and social relationships (Stone, 2018).

Social sciences disciplines span sociology, psychology, political science, anthropology , geography, and economics, among others.

Throughout history, the social sciences have given us significant understandings of various aspects of human existence, stretching from individual behavior to societal structures (Architecture et al., 2012).

The products of social sciences research provide an extensive understanding of societal dynamics. Here is where the relevance of social sciences grows evident.

For instance, the insights derived from the social sciences disciplines can help policymakers to make well-calibrated policy decisions (King & Pardo-Cuellar, 2016).

Social Sciences Examples

1. sociology.

Sociology is the systematic study of societies, social interactions, and patterns of social behavior .

It attempts to understand how personal human interaction impacts and is affected by collective group behaviors , societal institutions, and broad social trends (Berger & Weisner, 2014).

Topics in sociology can range from family structures to global poverty, reflecting a wide scope.

By analyzing both the micro- and macro-level components of societies, sociology provides a multifaceted lens into the complex societies in which we live (Davis & Halpern, 2012).

Potential Career Paths 1. Social worker 2. Policy Analyst 3. Market Research Analyst 4. Public Relations Specialist 5. College Professor

2. Anthropology

Anthropology focuses on understanding humans and their cultures across time and space (Henrich & Gil-White, 2001).

Anthropology tries to understand humanity throughout the ages by investigating human life from various perspectives: biological, historical, cultural, and archaeological (Reyes-García et al., 2016).

Potential Career Paths 1. Cultural Resource Manager 2. Market Researcher 3. User Experience Researcher 4. Human Rights Advocate 5. Museum Curator

3. Psychology

Psychology centers on understanding the complexities of mind and behavior (Owen et al., 2016).

The field aims to investigate everything related to human experience: mental processes, emotions, behaviors, cognition, etc. – both normal and ‘abnormal’ (Cabrera et al., 2018).

Psychology is a multifaceted discipline that encompasses various sub-disciplines like clinical psychology , cognitive psychology , developmental psychology, and more.

Potential Career Paths 1. Clinical Psychologist 2. Counselor 3. Human Resources Personality Assessor 4. Forensic Psychologist 5. Neuropsychologist

4. Political Science

Political science involves detailed examination of political systems, theories of government organization, and the conduct of public policy (Reitsma et al., 2016).

It investigates the roles of individuals and groups within political systems, exploring how they operate in various context. Political scientists also explore issues like political power dynamics, international relations, geopolitics, and political-legal frameworks (Kellner & Hepp, 2019).

Overall, political science seeks to decipher how political systems and their subsequent policies impact everyday life on both micro and macro levels.

Potential Career Paths 1. Political Consultant 2. Public Policy Analyst 3. Diplomat 4. Politician 5. Journalist

5. Economics

Economics is a social science that examines how people, organizations, and societies produce, distribute, and consume resources (Mankiw, 2014).

It spans over two main streams – macroeconomics, which analyzes entire economies and their various segments; and microeconomics, which seeks to understand individual decisions within an economic framework (Gruber et al., 2016).

The discipline applies scientific methodologies to study economic phenomena, yielding objective insights into complex economic systems.

Perhaps its most important aim is to inform fiscal policies that enhance society’s overall well-being. To this end, economics offers tools and frameworks that individuals, companies, and governments can use to sustain a healthy and productive economy.

Potential Career Paths 1. Economist 2. Financial Analyst 3. Management Consultant 4. Market Research Analyst 5. Policy Analyst

6. Human Geography

Human Geography focuses on the study of people’s relationships with their environments (Hubbard et al., 2010).

The discipline seeks to understand spatial aspects of human existence – how cultures and societies adapt to their environments and transform them.

It may explore concepts such as the dynamics of population migration, urbanization, regional development, and global integration (Trudeau & McMorran, 2011).

By bridging the natural world with human society, human geography offers unique insights into sustainable practices for societal development.

Potential Career Paths 1. Urban Planner 2. Environmental Consultant 3. Geospatial Analyst 4. Transportation Management 5. Economic Developer

7. Archaeology

Archaeology is a subdiscipline of anthropology concerned with the systematic recovery and scientific investigation of material remains of past human life and culture (Scarre & Scarre, 2016).

The branch explores human history starting from prehistoric times up to contemporary periods through excavation and analysis of artifacts like tools, pottery, architecture – all evidence of past human civilizations (Wynn & Coolidge, 2011).

Archaeology can offer a comprehensive picture of important historical developments in human cultures.

Potential Career Paths 1. Archaeologist 2. Historic Preservation Officer 3. Museum Curator or Archivist 4. Cultural Resource Manager 5. Post-secondary Teacher

8. Social Work

Social work is a branch of the social sciences dedicated to promoting the well-being of individuals, families, groups, and societies (Johnson et al., 2014).

It often involves addressing social issues like poverty, discrimination, and abuse through therapeutic interventions or policy advocacy (Dominelli & Campling, 2012).

Social workers often focus on engaging with diverse and marginalized individuals in distress, helping to provide them with suitable interventions or support in order to empower them and help them achieve upward mobility.

By directly aiding vulnerable individuals or groups in society and influencing social policies for their benefits, social work plays an instrumental role in fostering equity in societies.

Potential Career Paths 1. School Social Worker 2. Clinical Social Worker 3. Child Welfare Social Worker 4. Mental Health Therapist 5. Substance Abuse Counselor

9. Criminology

Criminology is a branch of sociology that studies the nature, causes, control, and prevention of criminal behavior both in the individual and in society (Siegel & Welsh, 2015).

It emphasizes the social and psychological impacts of crimes, including the effects of crime on its victims, and causes of criminal behavior.

Criminology uses scientific methodologies to observe criminal behavior and how it influences societal patterns (Durrant & Ward, 2012). It also plays a crucial role in informing crime legislation and correctional practices.

Potential Career Paths 1. Criminologist 2. Forensic Psychologist 3. Corrections Officer 4. Police Officer 5. Probation Officer

10. International Relations

International relations (IR) is a field emphasizing the relationships between countries, the roles of sovereign nations, intergovernmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, and multi-national corporations (Mingst & Arreguin-Toft, 2013).

It explores the complexities of international politics, international law, and international economics, to understand global problems such as human rights concerns, international conflict, financial crises, trade disputes, etc.

International relations also has an important role in interpreting processes of globalization and their implications for international power dynamics (Sayers & Tomlinson, 2018).

Fusing historical understanding with geopolitical analysis, IR aids decision-makers in formulating informed international policies.

Potential Career Paths 1. Diplomat 2. International Consultant 3. Political Analyst 4. Non-profit/NGO Organizer 5. Intelligence Specialist

11. Education Studies

Education studies investigate processes of teaching and learning within various settings like schools, universities or informal education institutions (Petrina et al., 2014).

Research in this discipline spans domains such as pedagogical theories, instructional design, curriculum development, educational psychology, and learning assessment techniques (Cobanoglu et al., 2018).

Education studies aim to refine educational practices by integrating scientific evidence into teaching methodologies to improve student’s learning experiences and outcomes. In essence, its focus is fostering effective educational environments that uphold equal opportunities for all learners.

Potential Career Paths 1. Teacher or Professor 2. Instructional Designer 3. Education Policy Analyst 4. School Principal or Administrator 5. Special Education Specialist

12. Communication Studies

Communication studies deal with the processes of human communication and its effective use across various contexts – from interpersonal communication to mass media outlets (Miller et al., 2014).

The discipline explores various facets of communication – verbal/non-verbal communication, group dynamics in communication processes or influences of culture/media on communication (Carey & Hannan 2014).

Critical research in this domain assists in developing strategies for effective communications that enhance decisions making processes or conflict resolution techniques across fields like business or politics.

Potential Career Paths 1. Public Relations Specialist 2. Corporate Communications Manager 3. Media Analyst 4. Political Campaign Coordinator 5. Health Communication Specialist

13. Linguistics

Linguistics is the study of language, exploring its structure, sound systems, meaning, and the social and cultural contexts in which it exists (Chomsky, 2012).

It explores aspects of language such as phonetics and phonology (sound systems), morphology (words), syntax (sentence formation), semantics and pragmatics (meaning). Through this work, it attempts to understand patterns of speech and text in various languages.

Linguistics also involves sociolinguistics – the relationships between language and society, and psycholinguistics – the processes happening in brain during communication (Friederici, 2012).

By providing fundamental insights into the human capacity for language acquisition and use, linguistics allows for effective study of and improvement in communication both within and across cultural boundaries.

Potential Career Paths 1. Linguist 2. Language Educator 3. Speech-Language Pathologist 4. Interpreter or Translator 5. Computational Linguist

14. Gender Studies

Gender Studies is an interdisciplinary field that examines how sex and gender influence our lives (Butler, 2011).

It explores gender identities , roles, biases, interactions, and gendered institutions from sociological, feminist, marxist, psychological, historical, economic, and literary vantage points.

Gender Studies seeks to understand how our social structures are influenced by gender constructs and how these constructs impact individual attitudes and experiences (Lorber & Farrell, 2010).

This discipline fosters equality by exposing biases in societal norms related to gender that often go unnoticed or unchallenged.

Potential Career Paths 1. Human Rights Advocate 2. Gender Equality Officer 3. Social Worker 4. Journalist 5. Public Policy Analyst

15. Cultural Studies

Cultural studies focuses on understanding and interpreting the ways in which individuals make sense of societal norms, beliefs, artifacts, and institutions and how they form their identities accordingly (Hall et al., 2013).

It analyzes multiple aspects shaping social life – such as media, technology, and ideologies, using theoretical perspectives from sociology, anthropology, and literary theory.

Cultural studies serves as a critical tool for interrogating socio-cultural phenomena – including social inequalities or cultural transformations – thereby fostering a comprehensive understanding of contemporary culture (Grossberg et al., 2017).

Potential Career Paths 1. Communication Strategist 2. Diversity Coordinator 3. Arts Administrator 4. Media Analyst 5. University Professor

16. Ethnology

Ethnology is a branch under anthropology concerned with comparative studies of different cultures (Franz & Boas, 2018).

It involves analyzing cultural phenomena based on field study data gathered from living cultures or historical records, with a focus on uncovering intersocietal similarities or differences.

Ethnologists study topics like religion, economic practices or political structures across various cultures in order to offer cross-cultural insights into the human experience (Erikson & Murphy 2017).

As such, ethnology plays a pivotal role in fostering cross-cultural understanding in an increasingly globalized world.

17. Social Psychology

Social Psychology is a discipline that investigates how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others (Fiske, 2014).

It explores how social influences shape individual’s attitudes, beliefs, decision-making processes, and behaviors.

Central themes include social perception, social influence, interpersonal attraction, and group behavior.

Furthermore, it seeks to understand the impact of social disparities on an individual’s mental health and behavior (Card, 2020).

Overall, social psychology provides practical solutions for improving social relationships and managing conflicts within societal settings.

Potential Career Paths 1. Social Psychologist 2. Human Resources Manager 3. Behavioral Analyst 4. Crisis Intervention Counselor 5. Market Research Analyst

18. Public Health Studies

Public Health focuses on protecting and improving the health of communities through education, promotion of healthy lifestyles, and research for disease and injury prevention (Marmot, 2020).

It analyses the impact of genetic, environmental and social factors on human health and aims to prevent health issues from occurring or re-occurring through implementing educational programs and advocating policies (Novignon & Nonvignon, 2020).

Public health also plays a crucial role in disease surveillance and response during health emergencies. A core objective is to reduce health disparities among different segments of the population.

Potential Career Paths 1. Public Health Officer 2. Disease Investigator 3. Environmental Health Specialist 4. Health Educator 5. Biostatistician

19. Urban Studies

Urban Studies is an interdisciplinary field centered around cities and urban areas, their formation, function, and their impact on society and nature (Knox & Pinch, 2014).

It explores issues of city planning, urbanization, and urban sustainability from a socio-economic, environmental and political perspective (Glaeser, 2011).

Urban Studies seeks to understand how urban environments shape and are shaped by various factors, including social, economic, and cultural practices, thus making city living more sustainable, equitable, and vibrant.

Potential Career Paths 1. Urban Planner 2. Urban Policy Analyst 3. Transportation Planner 4. Urban Sociologist 5. Community Development Coordinator

20. Demography

Demography studies statistical patterns of human populations including size, composition, density and distribution (Poston & Bouvier, 2017).

It explores phenomena such as fertility, mortality, migration and how these dynamics affect the size and structure of a population over time (Riley, 2011).

Demography provides insights into societal problems like overpopulation, aging, and social mobility , influencing social policies related to health, education, and economic development.

In essence, demography plays a pivotal role in planning and policymaking processes.

Potential Career Paths 1. Demographer 2. Population Analyst 3. Market Research Analyst 4. Public Policy Analyst 5. Health Demographer

21. Human Rights Studies

Human Rights Studies is an interdisciplinary field examining the historical, philosophical, legal, and social underpinnings of human rights movements and concepts (Morsink, 2017).

It focuses on understanding, analyzing, and addressing human rights issues globally, ranging from civil liberties to economic and social rights.

Human Rights Studies also explore the mechanisms in place to protect human rights and the reasons these rights are violated in various societal contexts (Donnelly, 2013).

Moreover, it emphasizes the application of human rights principles to address societal inequities, shaping policy and advocacy efforts to promote human rights in diverse settings.

Potential Career Paths 1. Human Rights Lawyer 2. Policy Advisor 3. International Development Worker 4. Human Rights Educator 5. Activist and Non-Profit Organizer

22. Development Studies

Development Studies is an interdisciplinary branch zooming into the economic, social, and political dynamics shaping the developing world (Hettne, 2016).

It focuses on issues including poverty reduction, gender equity, sustainable development , and governance.

Development studies investigates the strategies, policies, and practices involved in national and international development efforts (Sumner & Tribe, 2014).

By integrating theory and practice, this discipline aims to promote social justice and economic advancement in less developed regions.

Potential Career Paths 1. Development Worker 2. Policy Analyst 3. International Consultant 4. Foreign Service Officer 5. Sustainable Development Advisor

23. Environmental Sociology

Environmental Sociology studies the reciprocal relationship between societies and their natural environments (Dunlap & Brulle, 2015).

It assesses the environmental implication of societal practices and the effect of environmental changes on societies.

Central themes include how social structures and activities contribute to or can help mitigate environmental problems, and how these environmental changes affect societal dynamics (Bell, 2018).

Ultimately, environmental sociology informs policy that needs to reconcile the tensions between sustaining ecological systems and fulfilling societal needs.

Potential Career Paths 1. Environmental Consultant 2. Conservation Strategist 3. Urban Planner 4. Policy Developer 5. Environmental Advocate

24. Peace and Conflict Studies

Peace and Conflict Studies delves into the causes of conflict and the processes through which peace can be achieved (Galtung & Fischer, 2013).

It probes into dynamics of peace, conflict, violence, and resolution using interdisciplinary approaches.

The exploration of social conflicts, intergroup relations, and peace strategies provides valuable insights to conflict-resolution strategies and peacebuilding efforts (Lederach, 2015).

With an aim to promote harmony, this discipline offers pathways toward conflict resolution and peaceful social structures.

Potential Career Paths 1. Diplomat 2. Mediator/ Conflict Resolution Specialist 3. Humanitarian Worker 4. Non-profit Organization Director 5. International Relations Consultant

25. Behavioral Economics

Behavioral Economics integrates psychological and sociological insights into economic analysis to better predict human decision-making behaviors (Dhami, 2016).

It examines how cognitive biases, emotions, and social factors can deviate individuals away from the rational choices predicted by traditional economics.

Behavioral economics provides critical insights into understanding and predicting human behavior in both negative (harmful biases or inconsistencies) and positive (pro-social behavior, altruism) contexts (Ariely, 2010).

This discipline’s approach can assist in designing effective policies and interventions for a broad range of societal issues.

Potential Career Paths 1. Behavioral Economist 2. Policy Advisor 3. Market Research Analyst 4. Financial Planner 5. User Experience Researcher

The study of social sciences can help students to develop deep and nuanced understandings of social phenomena and learn to approach social issues with intellectual rigor, critical insights, and academic skepticism (Brownstein-Evans et al., 2015). Overall, the social sciences can be considerably transformative both for individuals and society.

Architecture, A., Oliveira, M.J., Correia, P., & Ribeiro, C. (2012). An overview of the literature on architectural theories. Journal of Architecture and Urbanism, 36 (2), 167-178.

Ariely D. (2008). Predictably Irrational: The Hidden Forces That Shape Our Decisions. Harper Collins.

Bell, M. (2022). An Invitation To Environmental Sociology . Sage Publications.

Berger, P.L., & Weisner Thomas S. (2014). Sociology Reinterpreted: An Essay on Method and Vocation. Parity Democracy Publications.

Brownstein-Evans, C., Shenk, D., & Erisman, S. K. C. (2015). The Individual and Social Impact of Gender Inequality. Race, Gender & Class, 22 (3-4), 91–110.

Butler, J. (2011). Gender Trouble: Feminism And The Subversion Of Identity . Routledge.

Cabrera D., Colosi L., & Lobdell, D. (2018). Environmental Science Basis: Contribution Of Working Group To The Fifth Assessment Report Of The Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change .Thomas Press.

Card N.A. (2017) Methodological Issues In Social Psychology.Sage Publication Ltd.

Carey C., Hannan M. (2014). Historical Network Analysis Of The Web Of Correspondence Surrounding Martin Luther King’s “Letter From Birmingham Jail”. Taylor & Francis.

Chomsky N. (2020) Syntactic Structures . Pearson Education.

Cobanoglu E., Bahali K. (2018). The Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence And Social Skill: An Investigation On The Students Of Sport Sciences.Nova Science Publishers.

Davis M., & Halpern C.T. (2012). Social Sciences And The Evolving Concept Of Race. Momentum Press.

Dhami S.(2016). The Foundations Of Behavioral Economic Analysis. Oxford University Press.

Dominelli L., & Campling J. (2012). Green Social Work From Environmental Crises To Environmental Justice.Polity Press.

Donnelly J.(2013). Universal Human Rights In Theory And Practice. Cornell University Press.

Dumner A.,& Tribe M.(2014). International Development Studies.Taylor & Francis.

Dunlap R.P., Brulle R.J.(2017)Climate Change And Society:Sociological Perspectives.Oxford University Press.

Durrant R., & Ward T.(2011).Rehabilitation.Outdoor Power Equipment.Dekker.

Erikson P., & Murphy L.D.(2022) A History Of Anthropological Theory.University Of Toronto Press.

Fiske S.T.(2014)Social Beings:Core Motives In Social Psychology.Wiley.

Franz B.,& Boas A.(2020) Race: Science And Politics.Routledge.

Friederici A.D.(2020).Language In Our Brain: The Origins Of A Uniquely Human Capacity.The Mit Press.

Galtung J.,& Fischer D.(2013).Johan Galtung:Pioneer Of Peace Research.Springer.

Glaeser E. (2011). Triumph Of The City: How Our Greatest Invention Makes Us Richer, Smarter, Greener, Healthier, and Happier.Penguin Press.

Grossberg L., Nelson C.,Treichler P. (2020) Cultural Studies. Routledge.

Gruber J., Hoe C., Alley R.B.(2016). Human Choice And Climate Change.Volu.Ii Resources And Technology.The Batelle Press.

Hall S., Evans J.,& Nixon S.(2020) Representation.Cultural Representations And Signifying Practices.Sage Publications Inc.

Henrich J., & Gil-White F.J.(2001). The Evolution Of Prestige : Freely Conferred Deference As A Mechanism For Enhancing The Benefits Of Cultural Transmission.Taylor & Francis .

Hettne B.(2016). Development Theories. Routledge.

Hubbard P., Kitchin R. (2010). Key Thinkers On Space And Place.Sage.

Johnson P.V., James A. (2014). Introductory Medical Surgical Nursing.Wolters Kluwer Health.

Kellner D., Hepp A. (2019). Transnationalizing The Public Sphere: A Critique.Linköping University Electronic Press.

King, R., & Pardo-Cuellar, R. (2016). The policy relevance of the social sciences. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(2), 228-235.

Knox P.L, Pinch S. (2020) Urban Social Geography: An Introduction.Pearson Education Limited.

Lederach J. (2015).Building Peace:Sustainable Reconciliation In Divided Societies.US Institute Of Peace Press.

Lorber J., Farrell S. (2011). The Social Construction Of Gender . Sage Publications.

Mankiw G.N., Reis R.(2018) Principles Of Economics.Cengage Learning.

Marmot M.(2020) Health Equity In England: The Marmot Review 10 Years On. British Medical Journal.

Miller K., Choy S.P. (2017).Directions In Religious Education.Wiley-Blackwell.

Mingst K.A., Arreguin-Toft I.M.(2021)Essentials Of International Relations . W.W.Norton & Company.

Morsink J. (2017). Universal Declaration Of Human Rights Origins Drafting And Intent.University Of Pennsylvania Press.

Novignon J., Nonvignon J.(2020) Health And Economic Growth: Evidence From Dynamic Panel Data.Palgrave Macmillan.

Owen DRJ., Villar M.G.(2020).The Absorption And Metabolism Of A Therapeutic Agent.Taylor & Francis.

Petrina S., Feng F. (2010) Advanced Teaching Methods For The Technology Classroom.Information Science Reference.

Poston D.L., Bouvier L.F. (2017). Population And Society: An Introduction To Demography.Cambridge University Press.

Reitsma H.P., Jesse,Fahlenbrach Katrin (2016). Low Risk And High Return.American Psychological Association.

Reyes-García V., Pyhälä A. (2016) Changing Indigenous And Scientific Knowledge In Amazonian Anthropology.Wiley-Blackwell.

Riley M. (2011). Demography Of Ageing. Oxford University Press.

Sayers T., Tomlinson J., and Baulkman J. (2020) R ace And Resistance: Literature And Politics In Asian America . Oxford University Press.

Scarre C., Scarre G. (2016). The Ethics Of Archaeology : Philosophical Perspectives On Archaeological Practice .Cambridge University Press.

Siegel L.J., Welsh B.C. (2020). Criminology. Theories, Patterns, and Typologies. Cengage Learning.

Stone, A. (2018). The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Social Science. Journal of Social Philosophy, 49 (4), 687-691.

Trudeau D., McMorran R.T. (2011). Spatializing Difference Beyond Cosmopolitanism. Wiley-Blackwell.

Wynn T., Coolidge F.L. (2017). How To Think Like A Neandertal . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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