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APA Footnotes | Format & Examples

Published on June 7, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on January 17, 2024.

To cite sources in APA Style , you must use APA in-text citations , not notes.

However, you can use footnotes in APA to:

• Give additional information
• Provide copyright attribution

Footnotes can appear at the bottom of relevant pages, or they can be grouped together and placed on a separate page at the end of the text.

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Table of contents

Formatting footnotes in apa, content footnotes, copyright footnotes, frequently asked questions about apa footnotes.

Footnotes use superscript numbers and should appear in consecutive order. Footnote numbers typically appear at the end of a sentence or clause, after the period or other punctuation.

However, there are exceptions:

• If a footnote relates to text in parentheses, the footnote number should also appear inside the parentheses.
• If the footnote relates to material offset by a dash , the footnote number should come before the dash, rather than after.

Don’t repeat footnotes. If you need to refer to an earlier note again, write “see Footnote 3” or similar in the text or in parentheses.

Footnotes can appear either at the bottom of the relevant page, or at the end of the paper on a separate footnotes page. You can choose which approach to use.

Footnotes at the bottom of the page

You can use your word processor to automatically insert footnotes at the bottom of the page. This will ensure that each superscript number in the text corresponds to the correct footnote. It will also separate them from the main text.

Footnotes at the bottom of a page should be single-spaced.

There should be a single space between the superscript number and the footnote text.

Footnotes page at the end of the paper

When placing footnotes at the end of a text in APA, place them on a separate footnotes page, after the reference page .

The title of the page, “Footnotes,” should be centered and bold.

Indent the first line of each footnote and place a single space between the superscript number and the footnote text. Like most text in an APA format paper, footnotes at the end of the text should be double-spaced.

Footnotes should be presented in the order their numbers appear in the text.

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You can use content footnotes in APA to provide additional information to readers. For example, you might clarify a specific point or direct the reader to sources that contain more detail on a related topic.

As APA doesn’t encourage the use of footnotes, you should keep these notes as brief as possible. They should not exceed one paragraph. You can consider including longer material in an APA appendix instead.

If you include copyright material that exceeds fair use guidelines (like an extended passage from a book, or test or scale items), you may need to obtain permission from the copyright holder. You can use footnotes in APA to acknowledge this permission.

If you receive permission to reproduce an image or infographic, include this copyright note in the relevant caption, not in a footnote.

APA Style requires you to use APA in-text citations , not footnotes, to cite sources .

However, you can use APA footnotes sparingly for two purposes:

• Giving additional information
• Providing copyright attribution

APA footnotes use superscript numbers and should appear in numerical order. You can place footnotes at the bottom of the relevant pages, or on a separate footnotes page at the end:

• For footnotes at the bottom of the page, you can use your word processor to automatically insert footnotes .
• For footnotes at the end of the text in APA, place them on a separate page entitled “Footnotes,” after the r eference page . Indent the first line of each footnote, and double-space them.

For both approaches, place a space between the superscript number and the footnote text.

To insert a footnote automatically in a Word document:

• Click on the point in the text where the footnote should appear
• Select the “References” tab at the top and then click on “Insert Footnote”
• Type the text you want into the footnote that appears at the bottom of the page

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What Are Footnotes and How Do You Use Them?

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While reading a book or article, have you ever noticed little numbers placed at the ends of some sentences?

These numbers usually appear as superscripts and correspond with numbers placed at the bottom of the page, next to which appears further information that is both necessary and supplementary. Sometimes this information will come in the form of citations, but sometimes it will simply present additional notes about the topic at hand.

These citations and explanations are called "footnotes" (because they appear in the footer of the page). Take a look at the example below to see where footnotes appear on a page:

We've outlined how to use footnotes below. Check it out!

1. What Are Footnotes?

2. footnotes vs. endnotes, 2.1 should i use footnotes or endnotes, 3. how to do footnote citations, 3.1 in-text citations, 3.2 footnotes, 4. how to use footnotes in essays, 4.1 style guides, 4.1.1 modern language association (mla), 4.1.2  american psychological association (apa), 4.1.3  chicago manual of style (cms), 5. technical guide to using footnotes, 5.1 how to add footnotes in microsoft word, 5.2 how to add footnotes in google docs, 6. final tips and tricks .

Footnotes are notes that are placed at the end of a page and used to reference parts of the text (generally using superscript numbers). Writers use footnotes for several purposes, including  citations , parenthetical information, outside sources, copyright permissions, background information, and more.

Now that you understand what footnotes are, you might be wondering: why use them? The truth is, long explanatory notes can be difficult for readers to trudge through (especially when they occur in the middle of a paper). Providing this information is necessary, but doing so in the main text can disrupt the flow of the writing.

Imagine if every time an author wanted to provide a citation, the entire citation had to be written out at the end of the sentence, like this (Anthony Grafton, The Footnote: A Curious History [Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999] 221). Books would become much longer and reading would be much more tedious. That's why footnotes are so useful: they let authors provide the required information without disrupting the flow of ideas.

While footnotes are a great resource for sharing information without clogging up the writing, it's important to note that certain style guides restrict when footnotes can be used. We'll get into that soon!

Unsure how to edit your paper? Contact the Scribendi team for professional proofreading .

Authors can also use endnotes to avoid disrupting their writing with extraneous information. Both serve similar purposes; the main difference lies in their location in your text. Here's a closer look at how both footnotes and endnotes work.

• Identified in the main text with a small superscript number
• Used for citations, parenthetical information, outside sources, copyright permissions, background information, and more
• Provide the correlating notes at the bottom of the same page
• Identified in the main text with a small superscript number (like footnotes)
• Used for citations, parenthetical information, outside sources, copyright permissions, background information, and more (like footnotes)
• Found collectively at the end of an article, chapter, or document (unlike footnotes)

When deciding  whether to use footnotes or endnotes , authors must consider three main factors:

• The style guide being used (as some require either footnotes or endnotes)
• The number of notes being included (as having too many footnotes on each page can be distracting)
• Which option will be more convenient for the reader

To make a footnote citation, label the area of your text that you need to reference with a number (if it's your first footnote, start with "1."). At the bottom of the page, include this number with the citation. When readers see the number in the text, they know they can find the source by looking for the corresponding footnote.

Here's an example of a quoted piece of text using in-text citations vs. footnotes.

"Like the high whine of the dentist's drill, the low rumble of the footnote on the historian's page reassures" ( The Footnote: A Curious History [Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press], 1999. pg. 1).

"Like the high whine of the dentist's drill, the low rumble of the footnote on the historian's page reassures." 1

[Text continues]

Bottom of the page:

1. The Footnote: A Curious History [Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press], 1999. pg. 1

The exact format of your footnote depends on   the style guide  you're following. Here are some of the most common style guides for writing papers, as well as the footnote rules for each one.

Of the major style guides, The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) uses footnotes most often. However, footnotes are occasionally employed in other style guides as well. The main difference is that, while CMS uses footnotes for citation purposes, the Modern Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association (APA) generally rely on them for the provision of additional information.

While MLA style discourages the use of long footnotes or endnotes, the style guide does permit their use for directing readers to other pertinent information on a relevant subject.

The guide recommends that superscript numbers within the text are placed outside any punctuation that might be present (i.e., after a period if the note is at the end of a sentence and after a comma if the note is at the end of a clause). The exception to this is that the superscript numbers should be placed before dashes.

• When a footnote must be placed at the end of a clause, 1 add the number after the comma.
• When a footnote must be placed at the end of a sentence, add the number after the period. 2
• Numbers denoting footnotes should always appear after punctuation, with the exception of one piece of punctuation 3 —the dash.

4.1.2 American Psychological Association (APA)

Like MLA, APA discourages the use of footnotes unless absolutely necessary. Even then, the guide recommends that footnotes only be used to provide content notes (such as providing brief, supplemental information about the text or directing readers to additional information) and to denote copyright permissions. The rules regarding placement of the in-text numbers is the same in APA as in MLA.

4.1.3 The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS)

Of the three main style guides described here, CMS relies on footnotes the most. While CMS does allow the author–date system of in-text referencing (i.e., providing the author's name and the date of publication in parentheses at the end of the phrase, clause, or sentence that references the work), it also offers a citation style in which footnotes or endnotes are employed. In both cases, bibliographies are also required. Whether an author should use the author–date system or footnotes is often decided by the author's professor, journal, or publisher.

As an example, if footnotes are used, the following format should be adhered to when referencing a book in CMS:

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To use footnotes in your own book, essay, or article, you must first decide on the most appropriate and logical placement of your footnotes in the text. Add numbers according to your chosen style guide, and be sure to add the numbers directly after the phrase, clause, or sentence to which the corresponding footnote refers.

Most online writing programs (such as Microsoft Word and Google Docs) come with easy-to-use tools for inserting footnotes. Here are step-by-step guides to using footnotes in both these programs.

5.2 How to Add Footnotes in Microsoft Word

Here's how to use footnotes in Microsoft Word 2021:

• Click on the place in the text where you want the first footnote to appear.
• Under the References tab, you'll see the following symbol: AB.1. Beneath this symbol is a button with the words, "Insert Footnote." Click it to create your first footnote.
• After you click that button, two numbers should appear: one number should appear in the main text, and the corresponding number should appear at the bottom of the page.
• Write your citation or additional information next to the number that appears in the footer. Format the information according to the rules of your style guide.
• You can easily return to your place in the text by clicking the number at the beginning of the footnote.

Congrats! You've created your first footnote. You can also adjust the footnote settings (like the numbering) by clicking the arrow beside the Footnotes group. It's really that easy!

Here's how to use footnotes on Google Docs:

• Under the Insert tab, click on "Footnotes."

All you really have to do to create footnotes is click a button—it couldn't be easier!

6. Final Tips and Tricks

To  improve your writing  and avoid cluttering the page, you should use footnotes sparingly and only to provide helpful additions or citations. As previously noted, this information may be considered supplementary, which is why it's best to place it away from the main portion of your writing.

When creating your footnotes, always keep reader convenience in mind, and remember that the footnotes are there to convey helpful information. If your footnotes are excessive or unnecessary, readers are likely to become annoyed—they may even be distracted from the main points of your writing.

Now that you're no longer asking "What are footnotes?" and you know how to use them according to various style guides, footnotes can become a great asset to you as a writer. Be sure to follow the recommendations above, as well as those of your preferred style guide, to ensure that you're using footnotes to their best effect. Don't forget—if you ever need help with writing, our academic articles are here for you!

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What Are Footnotes and How to Use Them

By Erin Wright

What Are Footnotes?

Footnotes are supplementary pieces of information that support your writing. If you’re following The Chicago Manual of Style (Chicago style, which is the best style guide for general business content), supplementary information includes works cited, suggestions for further research, commentary, quotations, copyright statements, or a combination of any of the above. 1

If you’re following the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA style) or MLA style from the Modern Language Association, works cited typically appear in the reference list or bibliography; so, footnotes are reserved for commentary, suggestions for further research, or copyright statements. 2

Work cited example based on Chicago style:

1. Lynne Truss, Eats, Shoots & Leaves (New York: Gotham Books, 2003), 89.

Commentary example:

2. This study excluded Groups D and E; therefore, it should not be considered exhaustive.

Suggestion for further research example:

3. Visit www.erinwrightwriting.com for more information about ampersands.

Where Should Footnotes Appear in Formal Documents?

Footnotes usually appear at the bottom of the page. Each footnote is preceded by a number that also appears as a superscript after the corresponding material on that page. Chicago style allows you to use symbols, such as the asterisk or the dagger, instead of numbers if you only have a few footnotes. 3

If you’re following APA style or MLA style, footnotes can appear at the foot of the page or all together at the end of the document. 4 (In Chicago style and MLA style, notes placed at the end of articles, chapters, or books are called endnotes. 5 ) Unlike Chicago style, APA style and MLA style don’t recommend using symbols as footnote identifiers. 6

Where Should Footnotes Appear in General Business Writing?

If you’re publishing less formal content online, such as a blog post or a how-to article, there’s no rule that says you can’t put footnotes at the end of individual sections. I like to call them “floating footnotes” because they float where they’re most needed instead of languishing at the end of a page or document.

In fact, floating footnotes can be more helpful than traditional footnotes for viewers who only need to read a few sections of your content. Floating footnotes can also benefit viewers who don’t want to scroll all the way to the end of a long webpage or ebook.

However, reserve floating footnotes for longer pieces so your content doesn’t become disjointed. If your blog post or article is only a couple of screen lengths, tradition footnotes should work just fine. You can see an example of a floating footnote in the second-to-last section of Three Ways to Add Currency Symbols in Microsoft Word .

Three Tips for Writing Footnotes

1. If your supplementary information is longer than a paragraph, consider using an appendix instead of a footnote.

2. If you’re following Chicago style and your footnotes are taking up too much page space, consider using endnotes instead.

3. Avoid unnecessary footnotes: if they don’t cite your sources or improve your readers’ understanding of the topic, they’re probably not necessary.

Check out these related posts on the differences between bibliographies and reference pages and how to insert footnotes and endnotes in Microsoft Word .

And of course, here are my footnotes for this blog post:

1.  The Chicago Manual of Style , 17th ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017), 14.19, 14.37–40.

2. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th ed. (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2020), 2.13; MLA Handbook , 9th ed. (New York; Modern Language Association, 2021), 7.1-7.2.

3. The Chicago Manual of Style , 14.25.

4. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 2.13; MLA Handbook , 7.3.

5. The Chicago Manual of Style , 14.43; MLA Handbook , 7.3.

6. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 2.13; MLA Handbook , 7.3.

Updated January 25, 2022

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What are Footnotes in a Paper? A Comprehensive Guide

Table of Contents

If you are a student or academic, you have likely come across footnotes in your research papers or essays. But what exactly are footnotes, and why are they important?

Definition of Footnotes in a Paper

Footnotes are notes placed at the bottom of a page in a document that provide additional information or clarification about a particular point in the text. They are often used in academic writing to give credit to sources, provide context to the reader, or expand on a concept.

Importance of Using Footnotes in a Paper

Using footnotes in your paper has several benefits. First, they allow you to give credit to sources and avoid plagiarism. By including a footnote citation for a source, you are acknowledging the original author’s work and avoiding potential legal issues.

Second, footnotes can provide additional context or background information on a particular topic. If you are writing about a complex concept or historical event, a footnote can provide the reader with more information that they may find helpful.

Finally, footnotes can help you maintain a professional and scholarly tone in your writing. By using footnotes to cite sources and provide additional information, you are demonstrating your expertise and attention to detail.

Footnotes serve several purposes in a paper, including providing additional information, giving credit to sources, and clarifying confusing or complex concepts.

To Provide Additional Information

One of the primary purposes of footnotes in a paper is to provide additional information that would otherwise disrupt the flow of the main text. For example, if you are writing about a historical event and want to include a specific date or detail, you can include it in a footnote rather than interrupting the main narrative.

Footnotes can also be used to provide background information on a particular topic. If you are discussing a complex concept or theory, a footnote can provide the reader with more information that they may find helpful.

To Give Credit to Sources

Another common use of footnotes is to give credit to sources. When you use someone else’s work in your paper, whether it is a direct quote or a paraphrase, you need to cite the source to avoid plagiarism.

By including a footnote citation for a source, you are acknowledging the original author’s work and giving the reader a way to find the source if they want to learn more.

Stay tuned to read the next two sections.

Types of Footnotes in a Paper

When it comes to footnotes in a paper, there are several different types that you may encounter. Understanding the different types of footnotes and how to use them can help you create a professional and effective paper.

Content Footnotes

Content footnotes are used to provide additional information or clarification about a particular point in the text. They can be used to define a term, provide a source for a statistic, or give more detail about a historical event.

Copyright Footnotes

Copyright footnotes are used to indicate that a particular piece of content is protected by copyright law. If you are using a copyrighted image, for example, you may include a copyright footnote to indicate that you have obtained the necessary permissions to use the image.

Citation Footnotes

Citation footnotes are used to give credit to sources. When you use someone else’s work in your paper, whether it is a direct quote or a paraphrase, you need to cite the source to avoid plagiarism. Citation footnotes typically include information such as the author’s name, the title of the work, and the page number.

How to Use Footnotes in a Paper

Using footnotes in a paper may seem straightforward, but there are some important guidelines to follow to ensure that your paper is professional and effective.

Placement of Footnotes

Footnotes should be placed at the bottom of the page where the text appears. If you are using Microsoft Word, you can use the “Insert Footnote” function to automatically create a footnote at the bottom of the page.

Formatting of Footnotes

Footnotes should be formatted consistently throughout your paper. They should be single-spaced with a space between each footnote. The font size should be the same as the main text, and the footnote number should be superscripted.

Numbering of Footnotes

Footnotes should be numbered sequentially throughout your paper. Each footnote should have a unique number, and the number should appear at the beginning of the footnote. If you need to reference a footnote later in your paper, you can use the footnote number to indicate which footnote you are referring to.

Common Mistakes to Avoid When Using Footnotes in a Paper

While footnotes can be a valuable tool in your writing, there are several common mistakes that you should avoid when using them.

Overuse of Footnotes

One of the most significant mistakes you can make when using footnotes is to overuse them. While footnotes can provide valuable information, using too many can be distracting and disrupt the flow of your writing.

As a general rule, footnotes should be used sparingly and only when necessary. If you find that you are using more than a few footnotes per page, you may want to consider whether the information would be better incorporated into the main text.

Inconsistent Formatting

Another mistake to avoid when using footnotes is inconsistent formatting. If your footnotes are formatted differently throughout your paper, it can be confusing for the reader and make it difficult to follow the information.

Make sure that you use a consistent format for all of your footnotes, including the font, size, spacing, and placement on the page. This will help ensure that your paper looks professional and is easy to read.

Failure to Properly Cite Sources

Finally, one of the most critical mistakes to avoid when using footnotes is failing to properly cite your sources. Whenever you use someone else’s work in your paper, whether it is a direct quote or a paraphrase, you need to cite the source.

Make sure that you are using the correct citation style for your paper, and that you are including all of the necessary information in your footnote citation. This will help ensure that you are giving credit to your sources and avoiding plagiarism.

In conclusion, footnotes are an essential tool in academic writing that can help you provide additional information, give credit to sources, and maintain a professional tone in your writing. When using footnotes in your paper, it is important to avoid common mistakes like overuse, inconsistent formatting, and failure to properly cite sources.

By using footnotes effectively and avoiding these mistakes, you can create a well-crafted paper that demonstrates your expertise and attention to detail.

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How to Use Footnotes and Endnotes

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• 5th June 2019

Footnotes and endnotes both let you add extra information in an essay or college paper . But what should you include in these notes? And when should you use them? In this post, we run through everything you need to know about using footnotes and endnotes in academic writing.

What Are Footnotes and Endnotes?

Footnotes appear at the bottom or “foot” of the page. You can therefore put extra information in a footnote, such as source details for a citation, without interrupting the flow of the main text.

To indicate a footnote, you can add a superscript number to the text, such as at the end of this sentence. 1 These numbers then correspond to numbered notes at the bottom of the page.

Endnotes are like footnotes, but they appear together at the end of the document rather than at the bottom of each page. Endnotes are thus less immediately accessible for the reader than footnotes, but they can help ensure that pages with multiple notes don’t become cluttered.

If you are not sure which to use, check your style guide for advice.

Footnotes and Endnotes in Microsoft Word

To insert a footnote or endnote in a Microsoft Word document, you need to:

• Go to References > Footnotes on the main ribbon
• Select either Insert Footnote or Insert Endnote as required
• Type your note in the newly created footnote/endnote

You can also customize the style of footnotes and endnotes by clicking on the arrow in the bottom right of the Footnotes section of the References tab (or by going to Insert > Footnotes in Word for Mac ). This will open a new window where you can select your preferred formatting options.

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When to Use Footnotes and Endnotes

The main uses of footnotes and endnotes are as follows:

• To add a footnote citation in referencing systems such as MHRA and Chicago , with full source information also given in a bibliography at the end of the document. Endnotes are also used for citations in some systems, such as in IEEE or Vancouver referencing, where numbers in the text point to an entry in a reference list at the end of the document.
• To add non-essential commentary on something in the main text of your document. For example, if your research has raised an interesting question that is not directly relevant to your current work, you could mention it in a footnote or endnote. This lets you acknowledge the question – showing the reader that you haven’t simply ignored or failed to notice it – but without interrupting the flow of prose in the main document.

Keep in mind, too, that some referencing systems use in-text parenthetical citations . As such, you should only reference a source in a footnote or endnote if your school has asked you to do it this way.

Do Notes Count Towards the Word Limit?

We’re often asked whether to include footnotes and endnotes in the word count for papers. Different schools have different rules about this, so you will have to check your style guide . However, you should never use these supplementary notes to cheat the word count.

The key here is that essential information should never go in a footnote or endnote. If you do move vital evidence or analysis to a note, the person marking your work may ignore it. And reducing the word count is never more important than putting forward a full, coherent argument.

If you do need to reduce the word count in an essay, you have other options, such as rewriting wordy sentences or cutting repetition. Having your work proofread is a great way to ensure that your writing is always clear and concise, too, so let us know if you’d like any help.

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APA Style (7th Edition) Guide: Footnotes

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Definition:

A brief note with additional information or copyright attribution.

Additional information includes essential or supplemental content that complements the text. It strengthens the discussion in your text and usually get across one idea in your text. It is not meant to be long or complicated.

Copyright attribution is required as a footnote if your text included very long quotations. The format of the footnote can be:

• Reprinted with permission
• Adapted with permissoin
• single-spaced
• format using Word settings for footnotes
• indented and double-spaced

1 A Greenhouse–Geisser adjustment of the degrees of freedom was performed in anticipation of a sphericity assumption violation.

2 A test of the homogeneity of variance assumption revealed no statistically significant difference in response rate variance between the two delivery modes for the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd years.

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Footnotes in a Paper: How to Use Them Effectively in Your Writing

Discover the best way to use footnotes in a paper. Get expert tips on how to efficiently and effectively use footnotes in academic papers.

Footnotes in a paper can be a valuable tool in providing a way to supplement our writing with additional information, citations, and explanations without disrupting the flow of the main text. However, many writers may be unsure of when and how to use footnotes effectively. In this article, we will explore the importance and usage of footnotes in academic writing, and provide practical tips for incorporating footnotes into your own writing. Whether you are a seasoned academic writer or just starting out, understanding how to use footnotes can help you increase the clarity and credibility of your writing.

What Are Footnotes?

Footnotes are a useful tool in academic writing that allows for the inclusion of additional information or comments in a document or text. Typically denoted by a small number or symbol in the main text, footnotes in a paper appear at the bottom of the page and can serve a variety of purposes. For example, footnotes can be used to clarify a point, provide background information, or give credit to a source that is not directly quoted or referenced in the main text. They are also helpful in avoiding disruptions to the flow of the main text, particularly when lengthy citations or explanations are required. In short, footnotes provide readers with additional information or references related to specific sections of the text, making them a valuable tool for researchers.

How to Write a Footnote

To write a footnote for a paper, follow these general steps:

• Determine what information needs to be included in the footnote. This may include the author’s name, the title of the source, the publication date, the publisher, and the page number(s) you are referencing.
• Place the footnote number or symbol at the end of the sentence or clause that requires the footnote. The footnote number or symbol should be placed after the punctuation, such as a period or comma.
• Write the footnote itself at the bottom of the page. The first line of the footnote should be indented, and the subsequent lines should be flush with the left margin.
• Format the footnote according to the citation style you are using (e.g. MLA, APA , Chicago). Each citation style has specific rules for how footnotes should be formatted, so consult the appropriate style guide for details.
• If you are using a word processing program, such as Microsoft Word, you can use the “Insert Footnote” function to automatically insert footnotes and format them correctly.

Difference Between Footnotes and Endnotes

The main difference between footnotes and endnotes is their placement within a document. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page on which they are referenced, while endnotes appear at the end of a document, chapter, or section.

Here are some other differences between footnotes and endnotes:

Chicago Style Footnotes

Chicago-style footnotes are a common citation style used in research papers. In this format, footnotes are used to provide information about a source within the text. There are two types of Chicago-style footnotes: short form and long form. Short form citations include only the basic details of a source if a full bibliography is provided, while long form citations include a full citation the first time a source is cited, with subsequent citations using the short form. 

Here is an example of a Chicago-style footnote using the short form:

“The concept of social capital has been widely discussed in recent years, with Putnam’s Bowling Alone¹ being one of the most influential works in the field.” At the bottom of the page, the corresponding footnote would appear as: ¹ Putnam, Bowling Alone, 26.

Note that the author’s last name is listed first, followed by the abbreviated title of the work (in this case, “Bowling Alone”), and the page number where the information was found.

Here is a Chicago-style footnote using the short form example:

First reference: John Smith, The History of Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 25. Subsequent reference: Smith, The History of Chicago, 30.

Here is an example of a Chicago footnote in text:

“According to Smith, the notion of human rights can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophy.¹”² Bottom of page: ¹John Smith, The Origins of Human Rights (New York: Oxford University Press, 2021), 15. ²Smith, Origins of Human Rights, 22.

Learn how to make citations in Chicago style in our blog “ Chicago Style Citation Made Easy: Formatting and Examples “.

APA Style Footnotes

APA format generally uses parenthetical in-text citations instead of footnotes. However, there are two exceptions to this rule: content footnotes and copyright attribution. Content footnotes provide additional information on a single topic that does not fit coherently in the text, while copyright attribution footnotes are used when a writer uses a lengthy quotation or other copyrighted material, such as a stock photograph. Footnotes are formatted similarly to Chicago style, with sequential superscript numbers coming after the passage and the corresponding footnote at the bottom of the page.

Here’s an example of an APA-style footnote for supplementary information:

In-text: According to recent studies, the COVID-19 vaccine is highly effective in preventing infection and transmission of the virus.¹ Footnote: ¹For more information on the studies cited, see Smith et al. (2021) and Jones et al. (2022).

Learn how to make citations in APA style in our blog “ How to Make Citations using APA Formatting: A Guide “.

MLA Style Footnotes

MLA (Modern Language Association) style does not typically use footnotes. Instead, in-text citations are used to indicate the source of information or quotations. However, if footnotes are required for a specific publication or assignment, the following guidelines can be followed:

Placement: Footnotes should be placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference appears.

Numbering: Footnotes should be numbered consecutively throughout the paper using Arabic numerals. The number should be placed after any punctuation marks, such as periods or commas.

Formatting: Footnotes should be single-spaced and in a smaller font size than the main text.

Content: Footnotes should include bibliographic information for the source being cited, as well as any additional information necessary to clarify the reference. For example, a footnote for a book might include the author, title, publisher, and year of publication, while a footnote for a website might include the URL and date of access.

Example of MLA Style Footnote for a book:

John Doe, The History of Art (New York: Penguin Books, 2000), 24. Example of MLA Style Footnote for a website: “The Benefits of Exercise,” National Institutes of Health, accessed May 15, 2023, https://www.nih.gov/health-information/benefits-exercise .

A MLA Style footnote text example:

Text: According to a recent study, the use of social media can have negative effects on mental health (Johnson 36).² Footnote citation: ² Johnson, Sarah. “The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health.” Journal of Health Psychology, vol. 22, no. 1, 2018, pp. 35-44.

Learn how to make citations in MLA style in our blog “ A Writer’s Guide to MLA Format: How to Get It Right “.

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Everything You Need To Know About Footnotes

While the rules regarding footnotes vary according to the citation style used, there are two distinct purposes for footnotes:

• To provide necessary information to text in the form of a citation.
• To provide supplementary information to text, such as clarifying an idea or expounding on it for further inquiry.

Regardless of their purpose, a footnote is usually added to text as a superscript, starting at 1, and with a corresponding number at the bottom of the page (known as the footer) where the citation or additional information is included.

See the example below, which shows the superscripted footnote numbers, along with the footnotes and the way they are formatted on the paper. Keep in mind that the gray line is the bottom of the paper, so your footnotes will be printed that close to the end of the page.

Why are footnotes used?

Footnotes are the least intrusive way for an author to provide citations or supplemental information about a topic. In some cases, such as when using Chicago Style, footnotes are often used instead of in-text citations with a bibliography at the end of the paper. Footnotes allow an author to guide his or her reader to additional information or further study, without disrupting the flow of the sentence.

Another great use of footnotes is to define or explain a word or idea that might require further explanation to a general audience. A definition or explanation can be provided within the footnote without any visual or logical disruption in the text.

Style guides and footnotes

The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) requires the use of footnotes instead of in-text citations. Other styles, such as the Modern Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association (APA) also allow the use of footnotes. However, while CMS requires footnotes for citations and supplemental information, APA and MLA suggest footnote use for supplemental information only.

Modern Language Association's (MLA) rules regarding footnote use

Below are the rules regarding footnote use in MLA style, taken from the Purdue Online Writing Lab .

• MLA discourages extensive use of explanatory or digressive notes.
• MLA Style does, however, allow you to use endnotes or footnotes for bibliographic notes, which refer to other publications your readers may consult.

Following are some examples:

• See Blackmur, especially chapters 3 and 4, for an insightful analysis of this trend.
• On the problems related to repressed memory recovery, see Wollens 120-35; for a contrasting view, see Pyle 43; Johnson, Hull, Snyder 21-35; Krieg 78-91.
• Several other studies point to this same conclusion. See Johnson and Hull 45-79, Kather 23-31, Krieg 50-57.

Or, you can also use endnotes/footnotes for occasional explanatory notes (also known as content notes), which refers to brief additional information that might be too digressive for the main text:

• In a 1998 interview, she reiterated this point even more strongly: "I am an artist, not a politician!" (Weller 124).

MLA style has a few additional rules concerning footnote use:

• For footnotes placed in dependent clauses, such as this one, 1 add the number after the comma.
• Footnotes should follow the period at the end of a sentence. 2
• The only exception to a footnote following the punctuation would be this one 3 —the dash. When a dash is used as punctuation following a word, the footnote connected to that word should come before it.

American Psychological Association's (APA) rules regarding footnote use

APA style discourages the use of footnotes and endnotes, according to the Purdue Online Writing Lab , as detailed below.

• APA does not recommend the use of footnotes and endnotes because they are often expensive for publishers to reproduce. However, if explanatory notes still prove necessary to your document, APA details the use of two types of footnotes: content and copyright. When using either type of footnote, insert a number formatted in superscript following almost any punctuation mark.
• Scientists examined—over several years 1 —the fossilized remains of the wooly-wooly yak. 2
• (These have now been transferred to the Chauan Museum. 3 ).

Also keep in mind, when using the footnote function in a word-processing program like Microsoft Word®, place all footnotes at the bottom of the page on which they appear. Footnotes may also appear on the final page of your document (usually this is after the References page). Center the word "Footnotes" at the top of the page. Indent five spaces on the first line of each footnote. Then, follow normal paragraph spacing rules. Double-space throughout:

1 While the method of examination for the wooly-wooly yak provides important insights to this research, this document does not focus on this particular species.

Chicago Manual of Style rules regarding footnote use

The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) uses footnotes as the primary way to cite sources. While in-text citations can be used, footnotes are most typical for this style. As with MLA, the footnotes should follow the punctuation unless the punctuation is a dash. There are more specific rules regarding footnote placement and numbering for this style that can be found the Purdue Online Writing Lab .

Footnote examples for all style guides

Scientists have discovered varied lifeforms in this habitat. 6

I'm allergic to shellfish, 7 so let's not order the shrimp.

For years, scholars have studied the book carefully 8 —a fact that suggests there has been much effort put into understanding it.

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How to Use Footnotes in Research Papers

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• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

A footnote is a reference, explanation, or comment 1 placed below the main text on a printed page. Footnotes are identified in the text by a numeral  or a  symbol .  

In research papers and reports , footnotes commonly acknowledge the sources of facts and quotations that appear in the text.

" Footnotes are the mark of a scholar," says Bryan A. Garner. "Overabundant, overflowing footnotes are the mark of an insecure scholar — often one who gets lost in the byways of analysis and who wants to show off" ( Garner's Modern American Usage , 2009).

Examples and Observations

• " Footnotes: vices . In a work containing many long footnotes, it may be difficult to fit them onto the pages they pertain to, especially in an illustrated work."
• " Content footnotes  supplement or simplify substantive information in the text; they should not include complicated, irrelevant, or nonessential information..." " Copyright permission footnotes  acknowledge the source of lengthy quotations, scale and test items, and figures and tables that have been reprinted or adapted."
• Content Footnotes "What, after all, is a content footnote but material that one is either too lazy to integrate into the text or too reverent to discard? Reading a piece of prose that constantly dissolves into extended footnotes is profoundly disheartening. Hence my rule of thumb for footnotes is exactly the same as that for  parentheses . One should regard them as symbols of failure. I hardly need to add that in this vale of tears failure is sometimes unavoidable."
• Footnote Forms All notes have the same general form: 1. Adrian Johns. The Nature of the Book: Print and Knowledge in the Making (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 623. If you cite the same text again, you can shorten subsequent notes: 5. Johns. Nature of the Book , 384-85.
• The Disadvantages of Footnotes "More than one recent critic has pointed out that footnotes interrupt a narrative . References detract from the illusion of veracity and immediacy . . . . (Noel Coward made the same point more memorably when he remarked that having to read a footnote resembles having to go downstairs to answer the door while in the midst of making love.)"
• Belloc on Footnotes "[L]et a man put his foot-notes in very small print indeed at the end of a volume, and, if necessary, let him give specimens rather than a complete list. For instance, let a man who writes history as it should be written — with all the physical details in evidence, the weather, the dress, colors, everything — write on for the pleasure of his reader and not for his critic. But let him take sections here and there, and in an appendix show the critic how it is being done. Let him keep his notes and challenge criticism. I think he will be secure. He will not be secure from the anger of those who cannot write clearly, let alone vividly, and who have never in their lives been able to resurrect the past, but he will be secure from their destructive effect."
• The Lighter Side of Footnotes "A footnote is like running downstairs to answer the doorbell on your wedding night."

1 "The footnote has figured prominently in the fictions of such leading contemporary novelists as Nicholson Baker 2 , David Foster Wallace 3 , and Dave Eggers. These writers have largely revived the digressive function of the footnote." (L. Douglas and A. George, Sense and Nonsensibility: Lampoons of Learning and Literature . Simon and Schuster, 2004)

2 "[T]he great scholarly or anecdotal footnotes of Lecky, Gibbon, or Boswell, written by the author of the book himself to supplement, or even correct over several later editions, what he says in the primary text, are reassurances that the pursuit of truth doesn't have clear outer boundaries: it doesn't end with the book; restatement and self-disagreement and the enveloping sea of referenced authorities all continue. Footnotes are the finer-suckered surfaces that allow tentacular paragraphs to hold fast to the wider reality of the library." (Nicholson Baker, The Mezzanine . Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1988)

3 "One of the odd pleasures in reading the work of the late David Foster Wallace is the opportunity to escape from the main text to explore epic footnotes , always rendered at the bottoms of pages in thickets of tiny type." (Roy Peter Clark, The Glamour of Grammar . Little, Brown, 2010)

• Hilaire Belloc,  On , 1923
• Chicago Manual of Style , University of Chicago Press, 2003
• Anthony Grafton,  The Footnote: A Curious History . Harvard University Press, 1999.
• Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 6th ed., 2010.
• Paul Robinson, "The Philosophy of Punctuation."  Opera, Sex, and Other Vital Matters . University of Chicago Press, 2002.
• Kate Turabian,  A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations , 7th ed. University of Chicago Press, 2007 .
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How to Use Footnotes and Endnotes in Essays

4-minute read

• 23rd February 2019

Footnotes and endnotes both offer a way to add extra information to an essay . But what should you include in footnotes and endnotes? And when should you use them? In this post, we run through everything you need to know about using footnotes and endnotes in essays.

What Are Footnotes and Endnotes?

Footnotes appear at the bottom or ‘foot’ of the page. This lets you add information to an essay without interrupting the flow of the main text. Usually, this will be a citation or non-essential commentary.

To indicate a footnote, you will need to add a superscript number to the text, such as at the end of this sentence. 1 These numbers then correspond to numbered notes at the bottom of the page.

Endnotes are like footnotes, but they appear together at the end of the document rather than at the bottom of individual pages. This means endnotes are less immediately accessible for the reader than footnotes, but it helps ensure that pages with multiple notes don’t become cluttered. If you are not sure which to use, check your university style guide for advice.

Footnotes and Endnotes in Microsoft Word

To insert a footnote or endnote in a Microsoft Word document, you need to:

• Go to References > Footnotes on the main ribbon
• Select either Insert Footnote or Insert Endnote as required
• Type your note in the newly created footnote/endnote

You can also customise the style of footnotes and endnotes by clicking on the little arrow in the bottom right of the Footnotes section of the References tab (or by going to Insert > Footnotes in Word for Mac ). This will open a new window where you can select your preferred formatting options.

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When to Use Footnotes and Endnotes

The main uses of footnotes and endnotes are as follows:

• To add a footnote citation in referencing systems such as MHRA and Chicago , with full source information also given in a bibliography at the end of the document. Endnotes are also used for citations in some systems, such as in IEEE or Vancouver referencing, where numbers in the text point to an entry in a reference list at the end of the document.
• To add non-essential commentary on something in the main text of your document. For example, if your research has raised a question that is not directly relevant to your essay, you may want to mention it in a footnote or endnote instead. This lets you acknowledge it in your work – showing the reader that you haven’t simply ignored it or failed to notice something – but without interrupting the flow of the main document.

Keep in mind, too, that some referencing systems use in-text parenthetical citations . As such, you should only give references in footnotes or endnotes if your university has asked you to do this.

Do They Count Towards the Word Limit?

We’re often asked whether to include footnotes and endnotes in the word count for an essay. Different universities have different rules about this, so you will have to check your style guide . However, you should never use footnotes or endnotes to try and cheat the word count.

The key here is that only non-essential information should go in footnotes or endnotes. As such, if you move vital evidence or analysis to a footnote, the person marking your work may ignore it. And reducing the word count is never more important than putting forward a full, coherent argument.

If you do need to reduce the word count in an essay, you have other options, such as rewriting wordy sentences or cutting repetition. Having your work proofread is a great way to ensure that your writing is always clear and concise, too, so let us know if you’d like any help.

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Endnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the end of a research paper and arranged sequentially in relation to where the reference appears in the paper.

Footnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the bottom of a page corresponding to the item cited in the corresponding text above.

Fiske, Robert Hartwell. To the Point: A Dictionary of Concise Writing . New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2014.

Structure and Writing Style

Advantages of Using Endnotes

• Endnotes are less distracting to the reader and allows the narrative to flow better.
• Endnotes don't clutter up the page.
• As a separate section of a research paper, endnotes allow the reader to read and contemplate all the notes at once.

Disadvantages of Using Endnotes

• If you want to look at the text of a particular endnote, you have to flip to the end of the research paper to find the information.
• Depending on how they are created [i.e., continuous numbering or numbers that start over for each chapter], you may have to remember the chapter number as well as the endnote number in order to find the correct one.
• Endnotes may carry a negative connotation much like the proverbial "fine print" or hidden disclaimers in advertising. A reader may believe you are trying to hide something by burying it in a hard-to-find endnote.

Advantages of Using Footnotes

• Readers interested in identifying the source or note can quickly glance down the page to find what they are looking for.
• It allows the reader to immediately link the footnote to the subject of the text without having to take the time to find the note at the back of the paper.
• Footnotes are automatically included when printing off specific pages.

Disadvantages of Using Footnotes

• Footnotes can clutter up the page and, thus, negatively impact the overall look of the page.
• If there are multiple columns, charts, or tables below only a small segment of text that includes a footnote, then you must decide where the footnotes should appear.
• If the footnotes are lengthy, there's a risk they could dominate the page, although this issue is considered acceptable in legal scholarship.
• Adding lengthy footnotes after the paper has been completed can alter the page where other sources are located [i.e., a long footnote can push text to the next page].
• It is more difficult learning how to insert footnotes using your word processing program than simply adding endnotes at the end of your paper.

Things to keep in mind when considering using either endnotes or footnotes in your research paper :

1.    Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper, except for those notes accompanying special material (e.g., figures, tables, charts, etc.). Numbering of footnotes are "superscript"--Arabic numbers typed slightly above the line of text. Do not include periods, parentheses, or slashes. They can follow all punctuation marks except dashes. In general, to avoid interrupting the continuity of the text, footnote numbers are placed at the end of the sentence, clause, or phrase containing the quoted or paraphrased material. 2.    Depending on the writing style used in your class, endnotes may take the place of a list of resources cited in your paper or they may represent non-bibliographic items, such as comments or observations, followed by a separate list of references to the sources you cited and arranged alphabetically by the author's last name. If you are unsure about how to use endnotes, consult with your professor. 3.    In general, the use of footnotes in most academic writing is now considered a bit outdated and has been replaced by endnotes, which are much easier to place in your paper, even with the advent of word processing programs. However, some disciplines, such as law and history, still predominantly utilize footnotes. Consult with your professor about which form to use and always remember that, whichever style of citation you choose, apply it consistently throughout your paper.

NOTE:   Always think critically about the information you place in a footnote or endnote. Ask yourself, is this supplementary or tangential information that would otherwise disrupt the narrative flow of the text or is this essential information that I should integrate into the main text? If you are not sure, it's better to work it into the text. Too many notes implies a disorganized paper.

Cermak, Bonni and Jennifer Troxell. A Guide to Footnotes and Endnotes for NASA History Authors . NASA History Program. History Division; Hale, Ali. Should You Use Footnotes or Endnotes? DailyWritingTips.com; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989; Saller, Carol. “Endnotes or Footnotes? Some Considerations.” The Chronicle of Higher Education 58 (January 6, 2012): http://chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/2012/01/06/endnotes-or-footnotes-some-considerations/.

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Footnotes: Definition, types, and examples

A footnote is a note of text that is placed at the bottom of a page in a document and is referred to by a superscript number or symbol in the main text. A superscript indicator, typically an asterisk (*) or number (1), that points to the corresponding reference on the document page are used to indicate a footnote within the text. Footnotes are used to provide additional information or to give credit to sources for ideas, quotations, or other information included in the text.

There are a few general rules for writing footnotes:

• Footnotes should be numbered consecutively throughout the document, starting with 1.
• The number should be placed after any punctuation, except for a dash.
• The footnote number should be superscripted (raised above the line of text).
• The footnote text should be placed at the bottom of the page, indented, and single-spaced.
• The first line of each footnote should be indented. Subsequent lines should be flush with the left margin.
• The footnote text should be in the same font and size as the main text.

Things to consider when writing footnotes

Here are a few more points to consider when using footnotes;

• Footnotes are usually used in academic writing to provide additional information or to give credit to sources for ideas, quotations, or other information included in the text. They can be used to provide further clarification or explanation, to provide references for statements or claims made in the text, or to acknowledge the contribution of others.
• Different style guides provide specific rules for the use of footnotes, such as the Chicago Manual of Style and the Modern Language Association (MLA) Style Manual. These guides often provide guidelines on how to format footnotes, how to cite sources in footnotes, and how to use footnotes in conjunction with other elements of the document, such as bibliographies and endnotes.
• In some cases, footnotes may be used to provide commentary or to make asides that are tangential to the main argument of the document. In these cases, it is important to use footnotes sparingly and to make sure that the information provided in the footnote is relevant and useful to the reader.
• When using footnotes, it is important to be consistent in their use and to follow the rules and guidelines of the style guide being used. This helps to ensure that the footnotes are clear and easy to understand and that the sources of information are properly acknowledged.

Footnote vs. Endnote

A footnote is a note of text that is placed at the bottom of a page in a document and is referred to by a superscript number or symbol in the main text. An endnote, on the other hand, is a note of text that is placed at the end of a document and is referred to by a superscript number or symbol in the main text.

The main difference between footnotes and endnotes is their location within the document. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page on which they are referenced, while endnotes appear at the end of the document, usually after the bibliography or list of references.

Both footnotes and endnotes are used to provide additional information or to give credit to sources for ideas, quotations, or other information included in the text. However, the choice of whether to use footnotes or endnotes is often a matter of style and preference, and different style guides may have different guidelines for their use.

For example, the Chicago Manual of Style generally recommends the use of footnotes, while the Modern Language Association (MLA) Style Manual recommends the use of endnotes. It is important to follow the guidelines of the style guide being used to ensure consistency and clarity in the use of footnotes and endnotes.

Chicago style footnotes

Chicago-style footnotes are footnotes that are used in documents written according to the guidelines of the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). The CMS is a widely used style guide that provides guidelines for the preparation of scholarly and professional writing, including rules for formatting, citation, and documentation.

In Chicago style, footnotes are used to provide additional information or to give credit to sources for ideas, quotations, or other information included in the text. Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout the document, and the number is placed after any punctuation, except for a dash. The footnote number should be superscripted (raised above the line of text).

The first line of each footnote should be indented. Subsequent lines should be flush with the left margin. The footnote text should be in the same font and size as the main text.

Here is an example of a Chicago-style footnote in a document:

In the main text:

The average lifespan of a domestic cat is around 15 years.1

At the bottom of the page:

• According to the American Veterinary Medical Association, the average lifespan of a domestic cat is around 15 years.

APA style and MLA style footnotes

APA style footnotes and MLA style footnotes are footnotes that are used in documents written according to the guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA) and the Modern Language Association (MLA), respectively. Both the APA and MLA style guides provide guidelines for the preparation of scholarly and professional writing, including rules for formatting, citation, and documentation.

APA-style footnotes are used to provide additional information or to give credit to sources for ideas, quotations, or other information included in the text. In APA style, footnotes are generally not used, and other methods of citation, such as in-text citations and a reference list, are preferred.

MLA-style footnotes, on the other hand, are used to provide additional information or to give credit to sources for ideas, quotations, or other information included in the text. In MLA style, footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout the document, and the number is placed after any punctuation, except for a dash. The footnote number should be superscripted (raised above the line of text).

Subsequent lines should be flush with the left margin. The footnote text should be in the same font and size as the main text.

Here is an example of an MLA-style footnote in a document:

Some experts argue that social media can be a powerful tool for building connections and engaging with customers.1

• See, for example, “The Power of Social Media for Business” by John Smith (Journal of Marketing, Vol. 52, No. 3, pp. 35-40).

What is the purpose of using footnotes in English writing

Footnotes serve two main purposes in English writing;

1. Providing additional information or commentary

• Clarify a point:  Sometimes, a brief explanation can enhance understanding without interrupting the main flow of your writing. Footnotes are perfect for this, allowing you to elaborate on specific details, definitions, or background information.
• Offer personal commentary:  You might use footnotes to express your own opinion or engage in further analysis, giving readers extra food for thought without distracting them from the central argument.
• Share examples:  To illustrate a point without cluttering the main text, use footnotes to provide relevant examples that support your argument.

2. Citing sources

• Chicago style:  Mainly relies on footnotes for source citations, including author, title, publication details, and page number. This keeps the main text clean and citations easily accessible.
• Other styles:  While MLA and APA generally prefer parenthetical citations, footnotes can still be used for additional citations when necessary, or when dealing with multiple sources for a single point.

It’s important to note that;

• Footnotes are not replacements for citations:  Ensure the main text includes proper citations, even if you provide further details in the footnotes.
• Use them judiciously:  Don’t overload your writing with footnotes, as this can be distracting and break the reading flow. Only use them for essential information or valuable insights.
• Follow stylistic guidelines:  Different writing styles have specific rules for formatting and using footnotes. Refer to the appropriate guide for your writing project.

When should footnotes be used instead of endnotes or in-text citations

Choosing between footnotes, endnotes, and in-text citations depends on several factors;

1. Style guide:  Different writing styles have specific preferences;

• Chicago style:  Mainly uses footnotes for both citations and additional information.
• MLA style:  Primarily uses parenthetical citations but allows footnotes for additional information or multiple sources.
• APA style:  Only uses parenthetical citations and a reference list.

2. Length and purpose of the note

• Short clarifications or citations:  Footnotes are ideal for brief explanations, additional references, or quick definitions.
• Longer commentary or analysis:  If your note is extensive or needs separation from the main text, endnotes might be better.

3. Ease of reference

• Footnotes:  Easier for readers to quickly access and reference within the same page.
• Endnotes:  Might disrupt the reading flow less, especially when dealing with numerous notes.

4. Overall readability

• Balance is key:  Too many footnotes can distract readers. Consider if the information is truly necessary or if it can be incorporated smoothly into the main text.

Here are some general guidelines

Use footnotes for;

• Brief explanations, definitions, or background information.
• Additional references to support a point.
• Short personal commentary or analysis.
• Citations in Chicago style.

Use endnotes for;

• Longer explanations or commentary.
• Numerous citations that might clutter the main text.
• Additional points are not directly relevant to the main argument.

Use in-text citations for;

• Primary citations in APA and MLA styles.
• Short references directly related to the point at hand.

How do you format footnotes according to different style guides (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago)

Here’s a breakdown of footnote formatting for common academic styles:

Citations:  Not typically used for citations. Use parenthetical citations in the text and a reference list at the end.

Additional Information

• Use superscript Arabic numerals in the text.
• Start each note on a new line, indented five spaces from the left margin.
• Use single spacing within the note.
• Include the author(s)' last name(s), year of publication, and specific page number(s) if relevant.

Example:  This is an interesting point. 1 However, some researchers have argued against it. 2

Citations:  Not typically used for citations. Use parenthetical citations in the text and a Works Cited list at the end.

• Start each note on a new line, indented one-half inch from the left margin.
• Format the note according to the specific type of source (e.g., book, article, website).

Example:  This is an interesting point. 1 However, some researchers have argued against it, citing a recent study. 2

Citations:  Primarily used for citations. Use superscript Arabic numerals in the text.

• Format the note according to the specific type of source (e.g., book, article, website), following Chicago style guidelines.

Additional Information:  Follow the same formatting as citations, but use a lowercase letter superscript after the number (e.g., 1a, 1b).

Additional Tips

• Use a consistent font and font size throughout your paper and footnotes.
• Number your footnotes consecutively throughout your entire paper, not restarting on each page.
• Double-check your formatting against the specific style guide you’re using.
• Consider using word processing software that has built-in footnote features for easier formatting.

Can footnotes include additional information or explanations beyond citations

The ability to include additional information or explanations in footnotes goes beyond just the style guide chosen. While specific rules and preferences exist, let’s break them down comprehensively;

1. Function of Footnotes

• Citations:  In some styles like Chicago and APA, footnotes primarily serve as citation containers. They house the author, publication details, and sometimes page numbers for references used in the text.
• Additional Information:  Beyond citations, some styles like Chicago and MLA allow including additional information or explanations. This could be: Clarifications:  Briefly explaining complex terms or concepts.
• Elaborations:  Adding further details or examples to support your point.
• Commentary:  Sharing your interpretations or analysis.
• Context:  Providing historical or cultural background relevant to the text.

2. Style-Specific Rules

• APA:  Generally discourages using footnotes for anything other than citations and non-standard abbreviation explanations.
• MLA:  Allows footnotes for additional information, but emphasizes brevity and relevance to the main argument.
• Chicago:  Heavily relies on footnotes for both citations and additional information. You can elaborate on the cited source or provide separate explanatory notes.

3. Best Practices

• Balance:  Don’t overload your writing with footnotes. Use them judiciously for essential information that wouldn’t fit seamlessly in the main text.
• Clarity:  Ensure the information is clear, concise, and directly related to your argument.
• Style Guide:  Follow the specific formatting and content guidelines set by your chosen style guide.

4. Alternatives

• In-text explanations:  For brief clarifications, consider incorporating them directly into the main text using parentheses or dashes.
• Endnotes:  If you have extensive information or commentary, consider using endnotes instead of footnotes. These appear at the end of the document, separating them from the main flow of reading.

What types of information are commonly included in footnotes

The types of information commonly included in footnotes depend on the style guide you’re using and the purpose of the footnote itself. Here’s a breakdown;

Types of information

• Citations:  This is the primary function for footnotes in some styles like Chicago. They include author, title, publication details, and sometimes page numbers for references used in the text.
• Clarifications:  Briefly explain complex terms, concepts, or historical references that might disrupt the main flow of your writing.
• Elaborations:  Add further details, examples, or data points to support your argument without cluttering the main text.
• Commentary:  Share your interpretations, analysis, or personal insights relevant to the main point.
• Context:  Provide historical, cultural, or geographical background information that enhances understanding.
• Copyright permissions:  In rare cases, footnotes may be used to acknowledge and cite copyright permissions for borrowed material.
• Translations or adaptations:  Briefly explain any changes you made to source material in translations or adaptations.
• Non-standard abbreviations:  Define non-standard abbreviations used in the text for clarity.
• Follow the style guide:  Each style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) has specific rules and preferences for what information goes in footnotes.
• Clarity and relevance:  Ensure the information is clear, concise, and directly related to your argument. Don’t overload with unnecessary details.
• Alternatives:  Consider in-text explanations for brief clarifications or endnotes for extensive information or commentary.

How should you handle multiple citations within a single footnote

Handling multiple citations within a single footnote depends on the style guide you’re using;

• Generally discourages using footnotes for citations.  Use parenthetical citations in the text and a reference list at the end.
• If using a footnote for non-standard abbreviation explanations,  separate multiple citations with semicolons.
• Allows multiple citations in a footnote.  Separate them with semicolons and arrange them alphabetically by the last names of the first authors.
• Example:  This research supports this claim. (Smith, 2023; Jones & Brown, 2022).
• Allows multiple citations in a footnote.  Separate them with semicolons, but: If they all discuss the same point, use a single footnote with sub-numbers after the number (e.g., 1a, 1b).
• If they discuss different points, use separate footnotes with consecutive numbers.
• Clarity is key:  Ensure your readers understand which citation refers to which point.
• Avoid ambiguity:  Use specific wording to link each citation to the relevant part of your text.
• Consider alternatives:  For complex situations with many citations, using parenthetical citations in the text might be clearer.

“This research is groundbreaking in several ways. (Smith, 2023, p. 10; Jones & Brown, 2022, p. 5).”

Is there a specific order or hierarchy for footnotes when citing multiple sources

The order or hierarchy for citing multiple sources within a footnote depends on the context and the style guide you’re using. Here’s how it works in different scenarios;

1. Citations Discussing the Same Point

• APA and MLA:  Separate them with semicolons, listed alphabetically by the first author’s last name.
• Chicago:  Use a single footnote with sub-numbers (e.g., 1a, 1b) after the number.

2. Citations Discussing Different Points

• All styles:  Use separate footnotes with consecutive numbers for each point and its corresponding citation(s).

3. Specific Considerations

• Chronological order:  If the cited sources discuss the same point but with historical context, consider listing them chronologically.
• Importance or relevance:  If some sources are more important or relevant to your argument, you might prioritize them in the order they’re listed.
• Style guide rules:  Always check the specific style guide for additional nuances or requirements regarding multiple citations in footnotes.
• MLA:  This research supports this claim. (Smith, 2023; Jones & Brown, 2022).
• Chicago:  This theory has been challenged by several studies. 1a Smith (2023) argues… 1b Jones & Brown (2022) further suggest…

Are there instances when footnotes are not necessary in academic writing

There are instances where footnotes might not be necessary in academic writing. Here are some cases where you can avoid them;

1. Citations

• Parenthetical citations:  Most styles like APA and MLA prefer parenthetical citations in the text. These provide immediate reference without interrupting the flow.
• Reference list:  If you have a comprehensive reference list at the end, incorporating citations directly within the text might suffice.

2. Brief clarifications

• In-text explanations:  For short explanations, consider incorporating them directly into the main text using parentheses or dashes. This avoids breaking the flow with footnotes.

3. Limited additional information

• Conciseness:  If the information is brief and directly relevant to the main point, consider including it directly in the text. Footnotes should only be used for supplemental content.

4. Alternative methods

• Endnotes:  If you have extensive information or commentary, consider using endnotes instead. These appear at the document’s end, separating them from the main flow.

Here are some additional things to keep in mind;

• Clarity:  Always prioritize clarity and avoid overwhelming your readers with unnecessary footnotes.
• Style guide rules:  Refer to your chosen style guide for specific guidelines on footnote usage.
• Balance:  Use footnotes judiciously. Too many can disrupt the reading experience.

How can you ensure consistency in the use of footnotes throughout a document

Here are some tips to ensure consistency in the use of footnotes throughout your document;

Before writing

• Familiarize yourself with the style guide:  Different styles have specific rules for formatting and using footnotes. Understand these rules before you start writing.
• Develop a system for numbering:  Decide whether to use consecutive numbering throughout the document or restart numbering on each page. Be consistent with your chosen method.
• Choose a footnote management tool:  If you’re using a word processor like Microsoft Word or Google Docs, utilize their built-in footnote features. These tools help automate formatting and numbering, reducing errors.

While writing

• Use footnotes judiciously:  Only use them for relevant information that wouldn’t fit naturally in the main text.
• Format consistently:  Ensure all footnotes follow the same formatting rules, including font, spacing, indentation, and citation style.
• Double-check your citations:  Make sure all citations in the footnotes are accurate and complete, matching the reference list or bibliography formatting.
• Proofread carefully:  Pay close attention to footnote placement, numbering, and content to ensure consistency throughout your document.

Additional tips

• Create a template:  Develop a template footnote with pre-formatted settings and placeholders for author, title, and other details. This saves time and ensures consistency.
• Use the search function:  Once you’ve used a specific footnote format, search for it within the document using keywords to apply it consistently elsewhere.
• Ask for feedback:  Consider sharing your draft with a peer or writing center to get feedback on footnote consistency and overall effectiveness.

What is the difference between explanatory footnotes and bibliographic footnotes

The key difference between explanatory footnotes and bibliographic footnotes lies in their  purpose and content;

Explanatory footnotes

Purpose:  Provide  additional information, clarification, or commentary  that doesn’t directly flow with the main text but enriches the reader’s understanding.

Content:  Can include;

• Definitions of terms or concepts.
• Historical or cultural context.
• Personal commentary or analysis.
• Examples to support your point.
• Brief explanations of translations or adaptations.
• Copyright permissions.

Formatting:  Typically use superscript Arabic numerals in the text and appear at the bottom of the same page.

Bibliographic footnotes

• Purpose:   Cite sources  used in your writing.
• Content:  Contain the necessary information to identify the source according to the chosen style guide (e.g., author, title, publication details).
• Formatting:  May use superscript Arabic numerals or other symbols (letters, Roman numerals) depending on the style guide. May appear at the bottom of the page, at the end of a chapter, or in a separate bibliography.

Here’s a table summarizing the key differences;

Important points

• Some styles, like Chicago, primarily use footnotes for both citations and additional information.
• Other styles, like MLA and APA, typically use parenthetical citations in the text and separate bibliographies or reference lists.
• Always follow the specific rules of the chosen style guide for formatting and using footnotes.

Can footnotes include URLs or hyperlinks in modern writing

The inclusion of URLs or hyperlinks in footnotes depends on several factors, including;

Style guide

• APA:  Discourages URLs or hyperlinks in footnotes altogether. Refer to their specific guidelines.
• MLA:  Doesn’t explicitly prohibit them, but encourages using the full citation instead.
• Chicago:  Doesn’t explicitly prohibit them, but warns against dead links and suggests using complete citations in the footnote with the URL as a secondary source.
• Formal vs. Informal:  More formal writing, like academic journals, might avoid direct URLs in footnotes. Informal writing, like blogs or articles, may be more open to using them.
• Accessibility:  Ensure the hyperlink text clearly describes the content it leads to, considering screen readers and users who might not be able to click on the link.
• Link stability:  Avoid using hyperlinks that could become broken over time. Consider archiving the content or using a permanent URL service.

Alternatives

• Full citation:  Including the full citation in the footnote with the URL as an additional source can provide context and avoid relying on a single link.
• Endnote:  If you have a list of URLs or links that wouldn’t fit well in footnotes, consider using an endnote specifically for them.

While technically possible in some styles, including URLs or hyperlinks in footnotes presents challenges in formal writing and long-term accessibility. Consider the alternatives mentioned above to ensure clarity and maintain the integrity of your writing.

How do you format footnotes for online publications or digital documents

Formatting footnotes for online publications or digital documents differs slightly from traditional print formats. Here’s how to handle them;

General principles

• Follow the chosen style guide:  Styles like APA, MLA, and Chicago still apply their core rules for formatting footnotes in online publications.
• Superscript numerals:  Remain the preferred way to indicate footnotes within the text.
• Accessibility:  Ensure your footnote system is accessible to everyone, including screen readers and users who might not be able to click on links.

Specific approaches

1. Hyperlinked footnotes

• Embed links:  Instead of typing the full URL, use anchor text within the footnote that links to the relevant online source.
• Clarity:  Choose descriptive anchor text that indicates the content users will find when clicking the link.
• Alternative text:  Provide alternative text for screen readers to describe the linked content.
• Link stability:  Ensure links are permanent and point to reliable sources. Consider using archive services for unstable links.

2. Pop-up footnotes

• Some online platforms:  Offer pop-up functionality for footnotes. Clicking the superscript numeral reveals the footnote content without disrupting the main text.
• Accessibility issues:  Be aware that pop-up functionality might not be accessible to all users. Consider providing alternative access methods, like including the footnote content within the main text or using hyperlinks.

3. Combined approach

• You can combine:  Hyperlinks for online sources and traditional footnote content for explanations or clarifications.
• Clarity and consistency:  Ensure a consistent approach throughout your document.
• Use consistent formatting:  Maintain the same font, style, and spacing for all footnotes throughout the document.
• Consider alternative methods:  For extensive footnotes, an endnote section at the end of the document might be a better option.
• Check platform guidelines:  Some online platforms might have specific recommendations for formatting footnotes.

Are there specific rules for citing sources in footnotes for different types of publications (e.g., books, articles, websites)

Yes! Different types of publications require specific formatting in footnotes, depending on the style guide you’re using. Here’s a breakdown of common sources;

• Author(s):  Last name(s), first and middle initials (if available).
• Title:  Book title in italics.
• Edition:  Edition number (if not the first edition).
• Publisher:  Publisher name.
• Publication year:  Year of publication.
• Page number(s):  Specific page(s) referenced (optional).

Example (APA):  Smith, J. A. (2023).  The psychology of persuasion . 2nd ed. Sage Publications.

Example (MLA):  Smith, Jane A.  The Psychology of Persuasion . 2nd ed., Sage Publications, 2023.

Example (Chicago):  Jane A. Smith,  The Psychology of Persuasion , 2nd ed. (Sage Publications, 2023).

• Title:  Article title in quotation marks.
• Journal title:  Journal name in italics.
• Volume number:  Volume number of the journal.
• Issue number:  Issue number within the volume (if applicable).

Example (APA):  Jones, M. R., & Brown, S. E. (2022). The impact of social media on mental health.  Journal of Applied Psychology , 107(3), 543-558.

Example (MLA):  Jones, Michael R., and Sarah E. Brown. “The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health.”  Journal of Applied Psychology  107.3 (2022): 543-558.

Example (Chicago):  Michael R. Jones and Sarah E. Brown, “The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health,”  Journal of Applied Psychology  107, no. 3 (2022): 543-558.

• Author(s) or organization:  Name of the author or organization responsible for the website content.
• Title of the webpage:  Title of the specific webpage in quotation marks.
• Website name:  Name of the website.
• URL:  Full web address.
• Date accessed:  Date you accessed the website (optional).

Example (APA):  American Psychological Association. (2023, January 31).  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.) . Retrieved from  https://apastyle.apa.org/

Example (MLA):  “Citation Machine: MLA 9th Edition.” Purdue Online Writing Lab. owl.purdue.edu/research/writing/labother/citation/citationmachine.html. Accessed 24 Feb. 2024.

Example (Chicago):  American Psychological Association,  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.) , accessed January 31, 2023,  https://apastyle.apa.org/ .

How do footnotes contribute to the overall readability and professionalism of a document

Footnotes can contribute to the  readability and professionalism  of a document in several ways, but it’s crucial to use them judiciously and strategically. Here’s a breakdown of their potential impact;

Enhanced Readability

• Clarifying complex terms or concepts:  Footnotes can briefly explain jargon or technical terms without interrupting the main flow of the text, making it easier for readers to understand your argument.
• Providing additional context:  They can offer historical background, geographical references, or cultural insights that enrich the reader’s understanding without cluttering the main text.
• Differentiating between your voice and cited sources:  Footnotes can separate your own commentary or analysis from the directly quoted material, improving clarity and attribution.

Increased Professionalism

• Demonstrating thorough research:  Extensive footnotes can showcase your research depth and engagement with relevant sources, adding credibility to your argument.
• Maintaining conciseness in the main text:  By placing detailed explanations or additional citations in footnotes, you can keep the main text focused and avoid overwhelming readers with excessive information.
• Showing respect for sources:  Proper citation within footnotes demonstrates academic integrity and acknowledgment of borrowed information.

However, overuse of footnotes can have negative consequences

• Disrupted reading flow:  Excessive footnotes can distract readers and break the continuity of your argument.
• Information overload:  Stuffing footnotes with unnecessary details can overwhelm readers and detract from your central points.
• Formatting issues:  Improperly formatted footnotes can create a cluttered and unprofessional appearance.

Here’s how to strike the right balance

• Use them selectively:  Only include information that is truly relevant and cannot be seamlessly incorporated into the main text.
• Keep them concise:  Avoid lengthy explanations or digressions within footnotes.
• Follow the appropriate style guide:  Ensure consistent and correct formatting for all footnotes.
• Consider alternatives:  In some cases, endnotes or parenthetical citations might be more suitable than footnotes.

In what situations might you choose to use footnotes over parenthetical citations

While parenthetical citations are the preferred method for most styles like APA and MLA, there are situations where footnotes might be the better choice;

1. Including additional information or explanation

• Brief clarifications:  For complex terms, concepts, or historical references that disrupt the main text’s flow, footnotes can offer concise explanations without interrupting the reading experience.
• Examples of elaborations:  If you have supporting examples or data points that would clutter the main text, footnotes can provide them without sacrificing clarity.
• Personal commentary or analysis:  When sharing your insights or interpretations relevant to the main point, footnotes can house them separately without disrupting the argument’s flow.

2. Citing multiple sources for the same point

• Clarifying the relationship:  If referencing multiple sources that support the same point, using separate footnotes allows you to specify how each source contributes, avoiding ambiguity in parenthetical citations.
• Managing complex arguments:  For intricate arguments relying on several sources, footnotes can provide more nuanced attribution and explanation for each source’s contribution.

3. When dealing with non-standard citations

• Uncommon sources:  For sources like personal communications, interviews, or unpublished works, which wouldn’t fit well in parenthetical citations, footnotes provide a structured way to include them.
• Copyright permissions:  Footnotes are typically used to acknowledge and cite copyright permissions for borrowed material.

4. Style guide requirements

• Chicago style:  Primarily uses footnotes for both citations and additional information. You can elaborate on the cited source within the footnote or use separate footnotes for explanations.

Can footnotes be used for commentary or personal reflections in academic writing

The use of footnotes for commentary or personal reflections in academic writing  depends on the specific style guide, the nature of the commentary, and the overall tone of your work.  Here’s a breakdown;

Styles that allow some commentary in footnotes

• Chicago:  This style allows limited personal commentary and analysis within footnotes, especially when elaborating on a cited source. However, it emphasizes maintaining a professional and objective tone.
• MLA:  While mainly focused on citations, MLA allows brief footnotes for clarifications and explanations that might disrupt the main text’s flow. However, it discourages extensive self-reflection or personal opinions.

Styles that generally discourage commentary in footnotes

• APA:  This style discourages the use of footnotes altogether, including for citations. It prefers parenthetical citations and a reference list for source attribution.

Considerations for using commentary in footnotes

• Relevance:  Ensure the commentary is directly related to the main point and supports your argument.
• Conciseness:  Keep the commentary brief and avoid lengthy personal reflections.
• Objectivity:  Maintain a professional and objective tone, even when sharing personal insights.
• Clarity:  Ensure the commentary doesn’t confuse or distract the reader from the main argument.
• Alternatives:  Consider alternative methods for personal reflections, like a separate discussion section or a different writing format.

Overall, use footnotes for commentary or personal reflections judiciously and only when;

• It adds value to your argument and enhances reader understanding.
• It adheres to the chosen style guide’s guidelines.
• It maintains a professional and objective tone.

What are the common mistakes to avoid when using footnotes

When employing footnotes, keep in mind these common errors;

• Don’t overload your writing with footnotes.  Use them sparingly for essential information that wouldn’t fit seamlessly in the main text.
• Consider alternatives:  Are there ways to incorporate the information directly into your writing or use parenthetical citations instead?

Clarity and relevance

• Ensure the information in your footnote is directly relevant to the main point and enhances the reader’s understanding.
• Avoid irrelevant digressions or personal opinions that distract from your argument.
• Use clear and concise language.
• Follow the specific rules and formatting requirements of your chosen style guide. This includes aspects like numbering, placement, and content format.
• Ensure consistent formatting throughout your document.
• Double-check for typos and grammatical errors.

Information accuracy

• Double-check that all information in your footnotes, including citations and explanations, is accurate and complete.
• Avoid plagiarism by properly citing any borrowed material.
• Link hyperlinks to reliable and stable sources.

Other potential issues

• Don’t use footnotes for things like non-standard abbreviation explanations if other methods are preferred by your style guide.
• Avoid overloading footnotes with lengthy explanations or data that might be better suited for an endnote section.
• Balance readability with the need for additional information. Too many footnotes can disrupt the flow of your writing.

How can footnotes be utilized effectively in longer documents or research papers

Footnotes can be particularly valuable in longer documents and research papers, allowing you to provide additional information or explanations without interrupting the flow of your main argument. Here are some effective ways to utilize them;

Enriching understanding

• Clarifying complex concepts:  Briefly explain technical terms, historical references, or other elements that might not be familiar to all readers.
• Providing additional context:  Offer historical background, geographical details, or cultural insights to enhance understanding.
• Explaining methodology:  Briefly describe specific research methods or data analysis techniques used in your paper.

Supporting your argument

• Adding further evidence:  Include relevant data points, examples, or case studies that wouldn’t fit naturally in the main text.
• Highlighting different perspectives:  Briefly discuss alternative viewpoints or opposing arguments, demonstrating your awareness and comprehensive analysis.
• Providing qualifications or limitations:  Acknowledge any limitations of your research or methodology.

Maintaining clarity and professionalism

• Separate your voice:  Use footnotes to house your interpretations, commentary, or personal reflections, keeping them distinct from cited sources.
• Avoid information overload:  Only include essential information that truly adds value to your argument.
• Follow consistent formatting:  Ensure all footnotes adhere to the specific style guide’s rules for numbering, placement, and content format.

Additional tips for longer documents:

• Consider endnotes:  If you have extensive information or explanations, using an endnote section at the document’s end might be more suitable.
• Categorize footnotes:  For complex arguments with numerous footnotes, consider using a numbering system or symbols to categorize them by topic or section.
• Use hyperlinks judiciously:  When relevant, link to online resources or additional materials within footnotes, ensuring they are reliable and stable sources.

Are there any style guide variations in the use of footnotes among different academic disciplines

There are some commonalities in how footnotes are used across academic disciplines, there are indeed variations based on the specific style guide and the discipline itself. Here’s a breakdown;

Commonalities

• Clarifying complex terms or concepts.
• Providing additional context or background information.
• Give further evidence or examples to support your argument.
• Separating your own commentary or analysis from cited sources.

Variations:

• Frequency of use:  Some disciplines, like history or literature, might rely more heavily on footnotes for critical interpretations or historical references. Others, like mathematics or economics, might use them less frequently.
• Content:  The nature of information in footnotes can vary. For example, in humanities disciplines, footnotes might contain personal reflections or literary analyses, while in sciences, they might hold detailed data or methodological explanations.
• Style guide preferences:  Each discipline often favors a specific style guide (e.g., Chicago in law, APA in psychology). These guides dictate the rules for formatting, numbering, and content within footnotes.

Here’s a glimpse into specific disciplines and their preferences:

• Chicago style is common, allowing for personal commentary and analysis in footnotes.
• Footnotes might be used for literary interpretations, historical context, or discussions of different scholarly perspectives.

Social Sciences

• APA or MLA might be preferred, depending on the specific field.
• Footnotes are typically used for additional evidence, methodological details, or acknowledging limitations of the study.
• Personal reflections or commentary are generally discouraged.

Natural Sciences

• APA style is often used.
• Footnotes are used sparingly, primarily for detailed data, methodological explanations, or specific references not captured in the main text.
• Personal commentary or reflections are rarely included.
• Always consult the specific style guide recommended by your discipline or institution to ensure the correct usage of footnotes.
• Use footnotes strategically and judiciously, focusing on information that truly enhances your writing and argument.
• Consider the specific needs of your discipline and audience when deciding what content to include in your footnotes.

How do footnotes enhance the credibility and authenticity of an academic or scholarly work

Footnotes can contribute to the credibility and authenticity of your academic or scholarly work in several ways;

1. Demonstrating thorough research

• Extensive footnotes showcase the depth and breadth of your research. They show you’ve consulted a variety of sources and considered different perspectives.
• Properly citing sources through footnotes gives credit to the original authors and demonstrates your understanding of scholarly etiquette. This builds trust with your readers and shows you’ve followed ethical research practices.

2. Enhancing transparency and clarity

• Footnotes can clarify complex concepts or provide additional context. This helps your readers understand your argument better and appreciate the nuances of your research.
• They allow you to separate your own voice and interpretations from the cited sources**.** This transparency strengthens the validity of your arguments and avoids plagiarism.

3. Supporting your claims and arguments

• Footnotes can offer additional evidence or examples to support your main points**.** This strengthens your argument and demonstrates its soundness to your readers.
• You can use footnotes to acknowledge limitations of your research or methodology**.** This shows intellectual honesty and strengthens the overall credibility of your work.

4. Demonstrating attention to detail and professionalism

• Correctly formatted and used footnotes show that you’ve paid attention to detail and followed specific style guidelines**.** This contributes to the professional appearance and presentation of your work.
• Careful use of footnotes indicates that you’ve thought critically about your audience and their needs for understanding. This shows respect for your readers and enhances the overall quality of your work.

However, it’s important to use footnotes strategically and responsibly;

• Avoid overloading your work with unnecessary footnotes.  Excessive footnotes can be distracting and disrupt the flow of your writing.
• Ensure all information in your footnotes is accurate and relevant to your argument.  Incorrect or irrelevant information can undermine your credibility.
• Follow the specific style guide recommendations for formatting and content.  Inconsistent or incorrect formatting can negatively impact your work’s professionalism.

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MLA Endnotes and Footnotes

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MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used to write papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities. This resource, updated to reflect the MLA Handbook (9 th ed.), offers examples for the general format of MLA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the Works Cited page.

Because long explanatory notes can be distracting to readers, most academic style guidelines (including MLA and APA, the American Psychological Association) recommend limited use of endnotes/footnotes. However, certain publishers encourage or require note references in lieu of parenthetical references.

Bibliographic Notes

MLA discourages extensive use of explanatory or digressive notes. MLA style does, however, allow you to use endnotes or footnotes for bibliographic notes , which refer to other publications your readers may consult. The following are some examples:

To cite a lengthy string of sources.

¹See Said, Culture and Imperialism and Orientalism ; Serres, The Natural Contract ; Foucault, The Foucault Reader , esp. Part II.

²For more material related to Postcolonial Studies and Technology, see McClintock, Imperial Leather ; De Landa, War in the Age of Intelligent Machines.

To explain an unusual documentation practice.

³Italicised words denote translations for which there are no clear equivalents in the original Chinese.

To flag editions and translations used. Editions and translations usually require a note only when more than one edition or translation is cited. This can be done by placing a note in the text where the work is first referenced. Alternatively, an initial and unnumbered note may be created.

⁴Citations of The Odyssey refer to Emily Wilson’s translated version unless otherwise noted.

⁵Translations are provided by Emily Wilson unless otherwise noted.

Content Notes

You can also use endnotes/footnotes for occasional explanatory notes (also known as content notes), which refer to brief additional information that might be too digressive for the main text:

To amplify.  Writers may feel that amplifying certain sections of their content will allow readers to better understand the context which affected/affects the following circumstances. 

¹Kujou and Yanagi are often confused by their misinterpretation of each other’s words, actions, and interactions with others.

²Beach considers Readicide to be a necessary read for all incoming Student Teachers, including it in recommended words for all his students.

³Culler makes it clear that “Literature” is “an institutional label that gives us reason to expect that the results of our reading efforts will be ‘worth it’” (28).

To explain word choice.

⁴She refers here to a branch of physiological research.

⁵He chose to translate the verb (first translated by Yang as “to feel”) as “to understand” to point to the character development.

To justify the scope of your study. Justifying the scope of your study can help readers better understand what to expect from reading your work by specifically pointing to what will or will not be explored, and why.

⁶Whether or not Beowulf as a character is justified in his actions is not relevant to my point.

⁷The efforts of decolonization are beyond the extent of my essay, but I point readers to Garvey’s work.

To provide more examples.

⁸Readers can think about Atwood’s inclusion of insects in her literary work

⁹This same idea applies to queer youth, as Chelsea Monheim’s “Percieved social norms and acceptance of transgender students in gendered restrooms” addresses.

To provide counterexamples.

¹⁰Bankfeld (99-102) calls for an alternative call to action.

To identity of comment on allusions.

¹¹The reference to ‘Westword’ in Iron Man 3 recalls the 1973 movie Westworld, starring Yul Brynner as a killing cyborg.

To point to an area of future research.

¹²More extensive research remains to be done on this subject. 

To identify authors whose names appear as et al. in documentation.

¹³The contributing authors of Teaching Literature to Adolescents are Deborah Appleman, Bob Fecho, and Rob Simon.

To acknowledge.

¹⁴Anna Turner, from a local veterinary clinic, brought distinctions between small and large animal care to my attention.

Numbering endnotes and footnotes in the document body

MLA notes may be styled either as footnotes or endnotes. Endnotes and footnotes in MLA format are indicated in-text by superscript Arabic numbers after the punctuation of the phrase or clause to which the note refers:

Note that when a long dash appears in the text, the footnote/endnote number appears before the dash:

Do not use asterisks (*), angle brackets (>), or other symbols for note references. The list of endnotes and footnotes (either of which, for papers submitted for publication, should be listed on a separate page, as indicated below) should correspond to the note references in the text.   Do not use the abbreviation ibid. in a note to refer readers to the information provided in the note right above it.

Placement of Notes in the Text

Use parentheses around page numbers when page numbers interrupt a sentence or are given at the end of a sentence. Similar to parenthetical citations within text, citations in notes are usually placed at the end of a sentence. Alternatively, parenthetical citations may be placed mid-sentence.

¹As Danes (45) and Gilmore (151) argue, caffeinated beverages play a vital role in American business environments.

²Gilmore considers the relationship between caffeine, productivity, and success (151).

Do not place parentheses around page numbers if the note is utilized to direct readers to the location of information. For example:

³See Gilmore 151.

Notes in MLA format are typically indicated in-text by superscript Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3, …) after the punctuation mark of the phrase or clause to which the note refers. Whenever possible, place the superscript numbers at the end of sentences. Keep in mind that word processing programs will likely style note numbers in the text and notes section as superscript by default .

Audience members generally responded positively to the racial representation in the musical.¹

Marquis de Lafayette uses a stereotypical White American accent to say the word “anarchy.”²

Aaron Burr advises a young Alexander Hamilton to “talk less, smile more” (16).³ 

Note that when a dash appears in the text, the note number appears before the dash.

After finding out about her daughter’s passion for music, Cho⁴—surprised, impressed, and a little confused—purchased a piano and allowed her daughter to take lessons.

If a note number must be placed somewhere other than at the end of a sentence or a sentence requires more than one note, the note number should be placed in the least distracting unambiguous spot. For instance: 

Placement of a note mid-sentence, for clarity of citations.

Despite the awareness from her past mistakes,⁵   Britney “did it again” and thus continued to face the consequences of her actions (203).

Placement of more than one note in a sentence.

Crystal’s love of farmers markets—especially those located in their hometown (which they support by “getting up at 7am every Saturday to go to” [Webb 21]⁶)—has become apparent even on social media platforms.⁷  

Formatting endnotes and footnotes

Endnotes Page

MLA recommends that all notes be listed on a separate page entitled Notes (centered). Title the page Note if there is only one note. The Notes page should appear before the Works Cited page. This is especially important for papers being submitted for publication.

The notes themselves should be double-spaced and listed by consecutive Arabic numbers that correspond to the notation in the text. The first line of each endnote is indented five spaces, and subsequent lines are flush with the left margin. Place a period and a space after each endnote number, and then provide the appropriate note after the space.

Footnotes (below the text body)

The ninth edition of the MLA Handbook states that notes may be styled either as footnotes or endnotes. See the  MLA Style Center   for additional guidance on this topic and follow your instructor's or editor's preferences.

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Footnote | What you need to know about it

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Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Definition: Footnote
• 3 Footnote Citation
• 4 Footnote Generator
• 5 Types of Footnotes
• 7 In a Nutshell

Definition: Footnote

According to the Cambridge Dictionary, this refers to a note published at the footer section of a page, and which is intended to provide additional information pertaining to something of significance in the page in question. Footnotes figure the papers, books, and websites you used for your research. They are identified in the text by a numeral or a symbol.

The following article is a look at what is a footnote, including its various uses. This article will also look at how to insert and format footnotes in a Word document.

What goes in a footnote?

You need to provide full bibliographic information in the footnote of your academic writing project. This includes the author’s name and initials, editor’s name (where applicable), title of the journal, book, or article, name of the publisher (including location, and the year it was published) and the reference number.

What is the purpose of a footnote?

A footnote is normally used to state clarifying information about the written document in question. It helps to provide essential details that the reader may not be familiar with pertaining to the research paper. Footnotes are used in a few referencing styles , but are commonly seen in the Chicago referencing method. When properly used, footnotes save the reader so much time when looking up unfamiliar sources, words, places, or people. The reader can find any sources they may need at the bottom of each page.

What is the difference between footnotes and endnotes?

One difference that is quite obvious between these two is where they are placed in a research paper or dissertation . Footnotes appear in the footer/bottom section of a page in the document while endnotes are placed at the end of a section or chapter of the document. However, their purpose still remains the same.

Which is better between footnotes and endnotes?

In a general sense, the two serve similar functions and can be interchangeable in some cases. However, footnotes are deemed the better option when a writer only seeks to supply the reader with a small amount of supplemental data. This ensures the data is seen immediately at the end of each page of the research paper . However, if you have lots of details that you would like to supply at once, then it’s recommended that you use an endnote.

Does the Chicago style citation use endnotes or footnotes?

In Chicago style citation , both types of notes are used to reference various pieces in the document or paper. When citing directly from a source, the author is required to place a superscript after a paraphrase or a quote. It’s necessary to ensure that all the citation numbers appear in sequential order. Each number in the document will need to correspond to a citation which can either be a foot- or endnote.

Footnote Citation

Where in academic writing do you need it.

When using the notation system to reference, the author has to place a number (in superscript) within the confines of their text. A complete reference (inclusive of all bibliographical data) is then published in the footer section of the text. In some cases, this also appears at the end of the journal/document/article as an endnote.

Authors are also required to supply a complete reference list at the very end of their assignments . Considering that this is repetitive, not all style guides advocate for this; but it does make it easier for interested readers to check up alphabetical reference lists as opposed to having to scroll through many pages of the assignment in search of the information they need. The first footer ought to reference all the information that is needed by the reader to recognize it. This information should then be followed by a page number of the specific reference or quotation. Subsequent references can then be abbreviated in either one of two ways: through the use of Latin abbreviations or by using details of the first citation.

How do you use footnotes?

When dealing with academic writing , this type of note is meant to provide additional details on a given topic. Authors place these notes in an article or document as a way of supplementing the main text. You have the option of placing the notes at the bottom of a page or at the end of a section. Any note included in a document needs to be as brief as possible. The objective here is to provide a reader with additional data without getting to distract them. This type of note is referenced in the document in the same way that you would reference any citation .

They come in two main types:

I. Content: Simplifies or supplements substantive details, i.e., it is not detailed in any way. II. Copyright Permission: Its purpose is to quote any reprinted materials or quoted text that has been used in compiling that document.

Footnotes in Microsoft Word

As mentioned elsewhere in this document, this note makes it possible for you to explain a concept or cite sources without sidetracking your primary text. Word has made it easy for authors to manage this type of notes. It automatically numbers all the new notes, with the footer section expanding and shrinking dynamically depending on the amount of text that is available. Using the notes assist in giving the document a more professional feel as they assist in crediting the sources used and in clarifying information. It’s quite easy to use them in Word.

All you need to do is:

I. Click the section you would like to reference. II. Head over to the References tab, click on Insert and choose the kind of note you would like to insert. III. Input what you would like captured in the footer. IV. Go back to your place in the text by double-clicking the symbol or number placed at the beginning of your document.

Footnote Generator

A generator is meant to educate learners on the importance of using more than one source in all their written work. It also helps them to accurately cite all the materials that they have used in the course of crafting their papers. A generator also helps ensure that the student doesn’t inadvertently plagiarize the work that they have written due to deadlines and mounting pressure to deliver quality work. Generators are easy to use as all you need to do is follow the prompts. Make sure to provide all the required information in the available fields, and the rest should proceed smoothly.

Types of Footnotes

Common citation styles include:

I. Modern Language Association (MLA)—Best when used with Humanities, e.g., Linguistics, English, Art, and Language. II. American Psychological Association ( APA )—Recommended for use with Social Sciences, Engineering, and Education disciplines. III. Chicago : It supports two main styles:

a. Author-Date—Best for use with Social, Natural or Physical Sciences. b. Bibliography and Notes—Best for use with Humanities or History Other known citation styles are:

• AP Stylebook
• Harvard Style
• Chicago James Smith, The first and last war, (New York, Hamilton, 2003)
• APA Caxton’s printing of the Morte Darthur—dated 14851—changes several aspects of the Pentecostal Oath.2 (The Winchester Manuscript’s version of the Oath will be discussed later in this chapter.3)
• MLA See Blackmur, especially chapters 3 and 4, for an insightful analysis of this trend.

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In a Nutshell

• A footnote appears at the footer section of a page.
• It’s used to comment on a given part of the main text or to cite a reference.
• A reader should proceed to check the comments included at the bottom of the page whenever they come across a footnote.
• Some footnotes are designed to enable an author to make parenthetical references, e.g., date and name of the author.
• Footnotes are at times used to refer to relevant sources and not just as mere comments.
• You can either cite the sources in the body of the paper or in the footer section depending on the citation style you are using.

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• Cambridge Dictionary +Plus

Meaning of footnote in English

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• advance notice
• advance warning
• advertisement
• aide-mémoire
• push notification
• the real deal

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footnote | Intermediate English

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Footnotes, endnotes, and citations

What citations should I use in my essay?

Regular essays and timed exams

Most instructors at the undergraduate level (including instructors on law conversion courses) do not require students to do more than indicate the names of cases or statutes in the text of their essays and examinations, particularly in timed examinations. While it's preferable to give the full case name (such as Jones v Smith), in a timed examination you can get by with one name or the other. Usually people pick the first party's name, unless it's a very common name or a criminal case. Sometimes, though, you will notice that your textbook or lecturer uses the second party's name regularly. If you know that the case is commonly short-cited to the second party's name, go ahead and use that.

If you can't remember the name of a particular case or statute, simply describe it. For example, 'the snail in the bottle case' sufficiently evokes Donoghue v. Stevenson . 'The first Occupiers' Liability Act' gets you past worries about the particular year it was enacted. Of course, if you are working on a weekly essay or a long-term research project you must take the trouble of finding and putting in the proper title or citation.

Once you have used the full name once, feel free to use a short citation, such as ' Donoghue' or 'the 1984 Act.' There's no need to keep repeating the full name.

If you are writing your essay by hand, there is no need to use different coloured ink for a case or statutory citation. It often helps if you underline case names, but you won't lose points if you don't. If you are typing your essay, you can underline or italicise case names, but there's no need for elaborate type faces. Make your writing stand out rather than your design skills. Sometimes it seems that students spend more time formatting the essay than they do writing it. Don't be one of those students.

Typically, citations in a regular essay or timed examination are placed in the text next to the proposition they support. See the sample student essays in chapter 10 of the book for models.

These suggestions are only guidelines to use if you do not receive more specific instructions from your tutor or lecturer. If your university or instructors have particular rules that they wish you to follow, do so.

Long-term research essays and theses

If you are doing a long-term research project, you should use the full and proper citation, either in a footnote, an endnote or in the text. Again, once you have given the citation in full, you may use the appropriate short citation.

Very often, instructors will give formatting advice for long-term research essays. Certainly students doing masters theses will be given detailed information on the citation convention they are to use. If you have not been given any guidance, ask for it. Also, don't wait until the last minute to investigate your citation requirements. There's nothing worse than having to go back through all your research to add in specific page numbers or dates because you forgot to do it the first time. With a long-term project, you can and should plan ahead.

When should I quote and when should I paraphrase?

As mentioned in the book, quotes are good in the law. The words of Lord Justice Whozits are much more persuasive than a mere lawyer's. Use quotations freely, as long as you:

• use the exact words and punctuation found in the original source;
• use square brackets [ ] to indicate changes in capitalization, punctuation and language; and
• provide the source of the quotation.

Remember also that extensive quotations from statutes – particularly if you are permitted to use the statute book in an otherwise closed examination – are not particularly impressive. What is more important in those situations is your interpretation and use of the statute.

Never include the precise language of a source – or language that is virtually identical – without a proper attribution. Not only does that constitute plagiarism, it is counter to the use of source material in law. The law depends on published precedent for its authority. A legal principle is only as good as its source. Therefore, you want to demonstrate where your various propositions come from, since they will be more valuable if they come from an outside source.

However, there are times when you should paraphrase rather than provide a direct quotation. If the pertinent section is very long or discusses issues that are not relevant to the point you are making, then go ahead and paraphrase. Similarly, if the point you are making is only tangential to your larger argument, a paraphrase may be appropriate. Sometimes it's wise to save your ammunition for the big issues.

If you are paraphrasing someone, it is still helpful to identify the source so that your reader knows that you are not making the proposition up out of whole cloth. Again, lawyers and judges evaluate the strength of your argument based on the strength of your sources. Show your reader how well-read you are and earn every point you possibly can.

When should I use footnotes, when should I use endnotes and when should I put the citation in the text?

For the most part, undergraduates can put their citations in the text of their essays. The citation can be set off mid-sentence through parenthesis ( Hansel v Gretel ) or can follow the sentence. Hansel v Gretel . The one exception for undergraduates is on long-term research projects, where the instructors might ask for footnotes or endnotes.

There is no formal convention on when you should use footnotes rather than endnotes. For the most part, it's a matter of style and personal choice, although the choice may not be yours to make. If you are writing a postgraduate thesis or dissertation, your faculty or your supervisor may have very strict ideas on how the work is to be presented. Follow those rules to the letter. Similarly, if you are hoping to have your work published in a periodical or legal journal, ask to see the editorial guidelines. An editor is much more likely to accept your work if it conforms to the house style.

If the issue is left entirely up to you, then you simply need to decide which form of notes you find more helpful. Footnotes can be seen to break the flow of the text, but they also help the reader follow the argument, particularly if the text is comparing and contrasting different sources. Footnotes are also more useful than endnotes if the footnotes contain substantive information rather than simply providing source material. For the most part, British and European writers do not include anything in their foot- or endnotes other than the citations themselves, possibly with a “see also” reference to additional material. American authors, on the other hand, fill their footnotes with additional substantive information. Often the best information in an American law review article can be found in the footnotes.

American legal texts are also known for dropping a footnote at the end of almost every sentence, whereas texts from other countries do so much less, usually only following a direct quote. The reason why American journals use as many footnotes as they do is because most American law journals are edited by law students. British and European journals are peer-reviewed, meaning that an article is only accepted if it passes muster with other academics and/or practitioners. Therefore, the text of the article is verified before it is accepted for publication. American students are not experts in their fields, so they must – and do – check the substance of each and every footnote by hand to make sure that it supports the proposition stated. Therefore, American law journals contain excellent source material for researchers, since the footnotes point the reader to a wide variety of verified information and additional resources. Because American footnotes contain so much information, it makes sense to place them on the same page as the text they support rather than at the end of the article or book.

If you are writing for a non-American audience, you should strongly consider putting citations only into your notes. Once you have made that decision, it matters less whether you put the note on the page or at the end of the piece. If you have a multi-chaptered work (such as a book or doctoral dissertation), then you might consider putting the notes at the end of each chapter rather than at the end of the work as a whole. However, it is highly unlikely that the decision to use footnotes or endnotes will be left to your discretion if you are writing a book or dissertation. Again, conform your text to the guidelines of your institution.

Do remember your punctuation, however. Footnotes and endnotes should both end with a full stop.

What is 'proper' citation form?

If you are an undergraduate writing a weekly essay or timed examination, a case name or the short title of a statute should be sufficient, unless you are told otherwise. If you are writing a more elaborate work, you should follow proper citation guidelines.

There are entire books written on how to cite legal authorities. If you are writing a detailed research paper such as a thesis or dissertation, you should consult one of those books so that you cite your sources properly. Your law librarian can help you find those resources. Also, you should know that each jurisdiction has its own conventions on how to cite legal authorities, so the style of case citation, for example, may not appear consistent if you are citing materials from different countries, even if the individual citations are correct.

In the U.K., authors generally do not give parallel (i.e., multiple) citations except when citing both a neutral reporter and an official reporter, though they must follow strict rules regarding punctuation (or the lack thereof), the type of brackets, typeface, etc. Examples of common British case citations are as follows.

Walker v Sitter [2004] EWHC 1000 (Ch) [5]-[7] (neutral citation, pinpointing paragraphs 5 to 7)

Yin v Yang [2004] QB 123 (QB) at 125 (Schmidt, J) (pinpointing page, noting author)

Tweedledee v Tweedledum [2003] 2 All ER 456 (HL)

Re Luftborough Airport [2002] 1 WLR 89 (Com Ct)

Barking Mad Ltd v Crazy Horse Int'l Inc (2005) Times, 15 April (QB)

The neutral citation system was introduced in the U.K. in January 2001. All cases since then have a neutral citation as well as numbered paragraphs instead of page numbers. The abbreviations indicate which court heard the case. For example, the jurisdictions include:

UK United Kingdom (used only with House of Lords decisions)

EW England and Wales

Scot Scotland

NI Northern Ireland

The court abbreviations which follow the jurisdictional abbreviation in a neutral citation are:

HL House of Lords

CA Civ Court of Appeal (Civil Division)

CA Crim Court of Appeal (Criminal Division)

HC (Ch) High Court (Chancery Division)

HC (QB) High Court (Queen's Bench)

HC (Admin) High Court (Administrative Court Division)

HC (Fam) High Court (Family Division)

HC (Pat) Patents Court

HC (Comm) Commercial Court

HC (Admlty) Admiralty Court

HC (TCC) Technology & Construction Court

European jurisprudence follows its own conventions. You might see citations along the following lines:

Case 26/97 Commission v. Ireland [1999] ECR 321

Case 177/75 Belgium v. Spain [1976] ECR 722, para. 3

Case C-123/92P Y v Commission [1994] ECR I-4321

American legal citations follow a different format, using the style known as the 'Bluebook', which is a citation guide put out by the Harvard Law Review. You'll usually see citations similar to the following:

Darth Vader v Skywalker , 103 F.3d 1049 (2d Cir. 2005)

In re Ballyhoo , 998 F.Supp. 22 (D. D.C. 1999)

Grasshopper v The Ant , 37 App. 2d 24 (Ill. App. Div. 2003)

Cowboy v Cow , 42 S.W.3d 444 (Tex. 2004)

Many common words (railway, limited, public limited company) can be abbreviated in a case name. Those abbreviations can be found in citation guides such as OSCOLA, which is described below. Similarly, many reporting series are known by their abbreviations. Some of the more common British reporters follow, with their short titles. Be aware that some of these series may also have numbers appearing before the volume name (for example, 2 QB).

Official Law Reports AC, QB, Ch, Fam, P

Weekly Law Reports WLR

European Court Reports ECR

All England Law Reports All ER, All ER Com

Common Market Law Reports CMLR

Criminal Appeal Reports Cr App R

Family Law Reports FLR

Lloyd's Law Reports Lloyd's Rep

Official Journal of the EC OJ

Scots Law Times CLT

The Times The Times

Citation of statutes in the U.K. is a straightforward affair. Typically a student needs only cite the name of the legislation and the year, along with the appropriate section, chapter or paragraph number. For example:

Companies Act 1985, sch. 1, para. 3

Arbitration Act 1996, s. 69

European legislation is equally simple, though the titles are often longer and appear in lower case.

Council Regulation (EC) 2693/94 addressing the need to conform widget size in automobiles [1994] OJ L123

Directive 77/331 applying competition rules to the dairy industry [1977] OJ L78/41

When citing American federal legislation and rules, do not include the name of the enactment.

28 U.S.C. § 1391

Fed. R. Civ. P. 4

Students should be aware that two well-known U.S. treatise series – the Restatement (of Tort, of Contract, of Foreign Relations, etc.) and A.L.R. (American Law Reports) do not constitute binding authority in the U.S. Instead, these works simply generalise about the laws of the various U.S. states and should not be considered as authoritative in any particular jurisdiction. While some courts may adopt the Restatement position on a particular issue, the Restatement does not constitute the law in that jurisdiction until a court has so stated. In all instances, the authority comes from the court, not the Restatement.

Which reporting series should I use?

Since the introduction of the neutral citation system in 2001, it is always proper to cite to that series, using paragraph numbers instead of page numbers. If a case is reported in the official Law Reports (AC, QB, etc.), then you should use that report in addition to the neutral citation (at least for decisions after 2001). If the case is not reported in the official Law Reports, you should use to the Weekly Law Reports and All England Law Reports, in that order. After that, you may turn to any other published source, including specialist series such as Lloyd's or the Times.

What is OSCOLA and how does it relate to the Harvard citation style?

'OSCOLA' refers to the Oxford Standard Citation of Legal Authorities, which is available free of charge on the University of Oxford Faculty of Law website ( www.law.ox.ac.uk ). The faculty releases two publications: 'Big OSCOLA', which is over 300 pages in length, and 'Little OSCOLA', which is about 30 pages long. Both documents give you detailed instructions on how to cite cases, statutes, books, journals and other legal materials. Most people should start with Little OSCOLA unless they are doing a postgraduate degree at Oxford or are directed to use Big OSCOLA. The OSCOLA system reflects a common understanding of how British legal authorities should be cited and is a good place to learn how British and European cases should be referenced. Notably, the OSCOLA system proposes a citation methodology that conflicts with American usage, and those whose work includes a large number of American cases may prefer to consult the latest edition of the Bluebook, which is available in many university law libraries, for U.S. sources.

You may also hear about the Harvard style of citation, particularly if you conduct socio-legal or other multi-disciplinary research. The Harvard style is not the same as the Bluebook, even though that guide is also put out by Harvard. The Harvard style of citation focuses primarily on non-legal sources such as books and journal articles, and, as such, is not as useful for those taking a strict law course as OSCOLA is. Under the Harvard style of citation, cases are cited in the text, rather than in the footnotes.

Citation signals

Older sources make wide use of Latin phrases such as infra, supra, ante, id, op cit, loc cit and contra . American sources continue to use many of these phrases in addition to a number of signals ( see, see also, but see, cf., accord ) at the beginning of a cite and descriptors ( cert. denied , aff'd by, rev'd by, superseded by , etc.) following a cite. Current British usage avoids all Latin phrases except for ibid , which means 'in the place of' and refers to the preceding citation only. You may only use ibid if the subsequent citation is to the same page; otherwise, use ibid 345 (if, for example, the new citation is to page number 345) or ibid art. 3 (if, for example, the new citation is to article 3). You may also use cf (compare) as a signal, but avoid the American use of see, see also, but see , etc.

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