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From the eyes of the mentor, from the eyes of the mentee.

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Reflections on the Mentor-Mentee Relationship

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Kalpana Manthiram, Kathryn M Edwards, Reflections on the Mentor-Mentee Relationship, Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society , Volume 10, Issue 11, November 2021, Pages 1040–1043, https://doi.org/10.1093/jpids/piab025

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A successful mentoring relationship can bring significant benefits to the mentee in terms of academic research productivity and career satisfaction. Through their mentees, mentors can also traverse new and fulfilling research directions. Here, we reflect on our own mentor-mentee relationship from both of our vantage points. We offer advice on how to choose a mentee/mentor, what each person needs to bring to the relationship, and how the relationship changes with time.

Numerous studies have shown the benefits of academic mentorship for the mentee in terms of promotion, publication output, success in receiving grants, and retention in academia [ 1 ]. However, benefits of mentorship extend beyond these metrics and improve the well-being and career satisfaction of the mentee as well [ 1–3 ]. In our experience, the mentor-mentee relationship has been an enriching source of motivation, knowledge, and self-reflection along the challenging but fulfilling journey of a career in science and medicine. We take this opportunity to reflect on our own relationship and offer suggestions for developing a successful relationship ( Table 1 ).

Responsibilities of the Mentor and Mentee

In my 4 decades of academic medicine, I have had many mentees and each of them has brought different skills and pursued unique paths. Each one of them has been very special to me. One of my earliest mentees, Gary Marshall, used to call me his “academic mother,” and I think that captures much of the relationship that I treasure with my mentees. But let’s get down to the basics of mentor-mentee relationships and how to make them work.

How Do I Decide to Take on a Mentee?

First, I need to know that they are committed to gaining new knowledge and that this pursuit is their driving force. They ask questions of “why?” Why is there disease in this patient with this pathogen at this time? Second, they expend the effort needed to be an academic investigator. They comprehensively know the literature, they meet deadlines, they meticulously design their studies, and they interpret their successes and their failures. Third, they are driven to make a difference through their research and patient care. In total, they need to show me that they are curious, hard-working, and committed.

What Do I Need to Bring to the Relationship?

Like an “academic mother,” I am committed to providing financial, intellectual, and emotional support. I take this responsibility very seriously. I am dedicated to guiding their research efforts, stimulating them to ask important questions, helping them navigate the complexities of academia, and supporting them when the challenges appear. The best way to accomplish these goals is to have open and frequent communication. For me, that means meeting with the mentee each week for 1 hour. These meetings are rarely canceled and are some of my most important events each week. At the beginning of the mentorship relationship, I insist on an agenda that the mentee sends the day before the meeting. If new literature will change the study design, then, these articles need to be shared with me before we meet. I need to have read it and thought about its impact on the mentee’s work. If there is a draft manuscript to discuss, this also needs to be sent so that I can review it and be prepared to discuss. The weekly meetings allow me to review the mentee’s progress and address challenges, to provide links to the networks that they will need to form to be academically successful, and to review their reports, data, manuscripts, and grants. Waiting days for input on a manuscript can be disheartening; I try and turn comments around in 1 to 2 days.

How Does the Relationship Change?

How does a mentee acquire independence and the ability to pursue research that is unique from your own? Like an “academic mother,” the mentor’s ultimate goal is to nurture the mentee into an independent investigator who goes on to mentor their own mentees. So, it is critical to make sure that you are directing the mentee in an area of research that is something they can pursue and not be in direct competition with you as their mentor. For clinical research studies, that may mean you guide them to evaluate populations unique from those that you are studying, such as infants or immunocompromised individuals, who pose new challenges for investigation. For other mentees, this may be facilitating links with other investigators who bring innovative laboratory methods to the questions that the mentee is pursuing. Finally, it may be introducing the mentee to a special research question that you have identified but have been unable to study in the ways that are needed. It was this latter situation with K. M. where she took on the syndrome that Dr Marshall and I described 3 decades earlier, Periodic Fever, Adenitis, Pharyngitis, and Aphthous Stomatitis (PFAPA).

As the mentee completes one phase of their training, such as a fellowship, they need to decide where they will pursue their next position, often seeking a faculty position at an academic institution. This will involve assessing whether the mentee has the necessary skills to become an independent investigator or whether additional postdoctoral training will be needed. This will also involve deciding what the mentee can keep for their project and pursue independently from your work. If the mentee leaves the mentor’s academic institution, this transition to independence will be easier. But if they remain, the interactions between the mentee and the mentor can be stressful. It is not very different than the evolution of the relationship between a parent and adolescent who is leaving home in pursuit of their independence. Both the mentor and the mentee need to be willing to give in on some of their expectations and the mentor will need to relinquish control of aspects of the mentee’s projects. If there has been a long-standing collaborative relationship, then, this difficult time can be successfully navigated. For some mentor-mentee relationships, this will be the time when they fracture. Whether the relationship can ultimately be rekindled with different expectations depends on the personalities of the individuals and their ultimate goals.

In addition, this is a time when the mentor’s network of academic colleagues is critical. Calling on division leaders in my field to tell them about the skills of a mentee and to support an application to their program goes a long way to demonstrating your commitment and the qualities of the mentee. Drawing on my previous interactions with colleagues at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) was critical in linking K. M. to her current position. However, it goes without saying that you need to make sure that the mentees are prepared and committed to such positions.

As I look back on my career, I am extremely fulfilled in my research pursuits and the problems solved and insights gained. However, now at this point in my career, I find the greatest pride in the accomplishments of my mentees. As they lead divisions, departments, research and vaccine centers, and multicenter national and international initiatives, their impact extends much further than my individual accomplishments. Like an academic mother, I am very proud of my academic children and what they have accomplished.

How Do I Choose a Mentor?

Finding the right mentor is an essential first step. A potential mentor’s prior track record may provide insights into their commitment and style as a mentor. Who are their previous mentees? Did these mentees reach their goals in terms of navigating and completing research studies, publishing the results, and obtaining grants? What types of careers have they pursued? It is very informative (I would say critical) to speak to prior mentees and get a detailed sense of what kind of feedback a mentor provides on experiments and manuscripts, the mentor’s day-to-day involvement in a mentee’s work, their level of support in a job search, their generosity in promoting and in providing resources to mentees, and how they handle differences of opinion. When successful, the mentor-mentee relationship can propel one’s career; however, difficult relationships can stifle one’s career advancement and be demoralizing. Take serious note of red flags and consider whether they may crack a relationship for you.

As a mentee, it is important to consider your level of experience in the projects upon which you are embarking and what support you will need. If you are launching into a new area where you need to acquire new skills, directly ask whether your mentor can provide you the training needed to acquire those skills through themselves, members of their own lab/research group, connections with collaborators who are committed to provide that training, or classes or workshops. Throughout our relationship, K. M. E. connected me with collaborators as I began venturing into new research areas, generously provided the necessary financial support for my work or pointed me to grant opportunities, and allowed me to work with and learn from her experienced research nurses and regulatory specialists. This was critical for my training.

In addition to these factors, consider your “chemistry” with a potential mentor. As scientists, physicians, and humans, we each have different personalities, motivating factors, and ways of giving and receiving feedback. As you meet with a potential mentor, notice how you feel afterward. Do you have a sense of enthusiasm about your research project? Do you feel a sense of optimism for your ability to implement and succeed in your work? For every researcher, there are times when research becomes a struggle and feels arduous; we may feel that we are at a dead end or the mountain is too big to climb. At those times, I have been fortunate to have mentors who normalized these difficulties as a part of the process and gave me the fuel I needed to continue in this career path.

As you get to know each other’s styles, we have found that having structure to the relationship can help it get off on the right foot. From the beginning, K. M. E. and I had scheduled weekly meetings. For K. M. E., these times were sacred, and she prioritized them in her schedule, which also made me appreciate their importance. As a mentee, being well prepared for these meetings was key and made the meetings more productive and enjoyable for both of us. Write out an agenda for the meeting which includes questions for how to proceed in a project, specific requests for help or resources, new data that you would like to discuss, or any manuscripts or abstracts you want your mentor to review. If you have particular needs, ask your mentor directly. For some mentors, it may be helpful to share the agenda beforehand. During some meetings, my agenda was very short, but even checking in for 10 minutes gave me a boost for the week.

I found that preparing an agenda also gave me the opportunity to reflect on the status of the project and steer the ship for my project, which I could then discuss with my mentor to get their input. These discussions were an important part of my development as an independent scientist—it was an opportunity to explore my own thought process in a secure and tolerant relationship. Strong preparation will also show your mentor your commitment and enthusiasm toward the project and show them that you are thinking independently so they begin to trust your judgment and expertise.

As with any relationship, a successful mentor-mentee relationship evolves with the trainee’s development. A mentor who embraces their own evolution as their mentee gains independence and who generously helps the mentee flourish in their newly created niche advances the mentee. I was fortunate to have mentors who generously extended opportunities to give presentations or write invited reviews that they received to me so that I could begin to be seen as an expert in my own area.

An openness to feedback and open communication on both sides can also help the relationship change with time. As the mentee, maintaining an openness to feedback and not interpreting criticisms or suggestions as reflections of your abilities is essential to your growth as a scientist. At times, I would feel frustrated or disappointed that I did not properly design an experiment or was unaware of some existing literature that should have guided me. However, gaining research skills takes time just as it took us years to gain the skills to be a physician—and feedback from patients, nurses, attendings, and medical students is part of that process. I remember tossing 10 drafts of an abstract in one day between myself and K. M. E. until I was able to clearly convey the essence of the study and our findings; through that process, the clarity of my writing improved! At the same time, occasions may arise where there are differences of opinion as to how to proceed in a project. At those times, it is important to openly discuss the different ways forward and come with a case for your own ideas. Establishing a relationship based on mutual respect from the beginning can make these conversations easier and can strengthen your work.

A mentoring relationship at its best can extend beyond the mechanics of determining study design, planning an experiment, or writing a manuscript. I have found comfort and guidance from K. M. E. in many areas of my life. She had the foresight to suggest that I study PFAPA syndrome, and I now see that studying this intriguing syndrome has allowed me to gain diverse research skills and establish my own niche. Our weekly meetings, which have continued over 9 years and even after I completed by pediatric infectious diseases fellowship and left Vanderbilt, are precious not only for the research guidance I received but also because they allowed me to have K. M. E.’s support in navigating other aspects of my personal and professional life. Many times, I came to our meetings unsure of what to do but emerged with clarity. K. M. E. has both consciously and subconsciously been a role model for me. I observed firsthand the genuine care she gave all members of her research team, her work ethic and passion, her deep commitment to her patients, her thirst for understanding the mechanisms of disease, her perseverance in the face of challenges, and how she balanced work and family life. I carry her example with me daily as I strive to be a physician-scientist. Academic medicine is challenging and requires grit and hard work; observing a person you admire successfully navigate that journey can provide just the motivation to keep exploring.

Acknowledgment. K. M. was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, NIAID.

Potential conflicts of interest. K. M. E. receives grant funding from the NIH and CDC, is a consultant to Bionet and IBM, and a member of the Data Safety and Monitoring Boards for Sanofi, X-4 Pharma, Seqirus, Moderna, Pfizer, Merck, and Roche. K. M. has no conflicts of interest to disclose. Both authors have submitted the ICMJE Form for Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest. Conflicts that the editors consider relevant to the content of the manuscript have been disclosed.

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Farkas AH , Bonifacino E , Turner R , Tilstra SA , Corbelli JA . Mentorship of women in academic medicine: a systematic review . J Gen Intern Med 2019 ; 34 ( 7 ): 1322 – 9 .

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The Concept of Mentoring Essay

What is mentoring.

A personal development that involves a mentor and mentee is called mentoring. Mentoring is the process of correlating an individual’s personal skills with empowerment tools. Mentoring principles include synergy, relationship, and uniqueness. Synergy describes the combination of two variables to produce a greater effect. Mentoring synergy creates a learning environment. Thus, the mentee will develop learning skills. Relationship principle creates partnership between the mentor and mentee. The relationship principle describes the coaching process and pattern. The uniqueness principle creates a channel for productive learning. The mentoring process is guided by synergy, uniqueness, and relationship. Thus, mentoring can be summarized as a powerful partnership process that creates a learning environment for the mentee.

What is a mentor?

A mentor is a guide who builds an individual’s personal learning skills. The responsibilities of a mentor include training, inspiring, and teaching. Other responsibilities of a mentor include availability, support, guide, patient, and respect. A mentor acts as a guide, teacher, counsellor, motivator, coach, advisor, referral agent, and a role model. The roles of a mentor create a positive learning process for the mentee. A successful mentor makes the mentee independent after the mentoring process. A mentor must have appreciative inquiry, listening skills, empathy, respect, warmth, focus, self-disclosure, observation skills and a good storyteller. Appreciative inquiry describes the personal character of the mentor. An effective mentor must listen as a child and act with precision. Thus, a mentor creates learning strategies that develop the mentee.

What is a mentee?

A mentor provides assistance using suitable experience. An experienced mentor shortens the learning process of the mentee. The ability to guide a mentee depends on the learning strategy (Johnson & Huwe 2003). Thus, a mentor determines the strategies of the mentoring process. A mentor creates a mutual bond with the mentee. The mentor builds the communication chain with the mentee. A successful mentoring process can be achieved with a positive relationship. A mentor identifies the mentee’s weakness using corrective strategies. Thus, the responsibility of a mentor describes the objective of the mentoring program.

A mentee is the person who receives training, coaching, and experience from a mentor.

The relationship between mentor and mentee

A mentee’s desire to learn is backed up with the willingness and ability to absorb the mentoring process. The progress of the mentoring process depends on the role played by the mentee. The responsibilities of the mentee include positive attitude, willingness to learn, patience, good listener, punctual, respect, proactive, trust and charisma. The mentee usually organizes the mentoring process. Thus, a proactive mentee will guarantee the smooth operations of the mentoring process. Trust is a principle in the mentoring process. A successful mentoring process is built on confidentiality. The skills required by the mentee includes listening ability, creating scenarios, responsibility, reflection, commitment, fellowship, initiatives, connection, communication and learning skills.

Who can participate in the mentoring program?

The participants include the mentor and mentee. The mentor is a guide, teacher, coach, motivator, trainer, and a role model. The mentee is an individual willing to learn from an experienced teacher. Thus, an eligible participant must be willing to teach or learn during the mentoring program.

A mentee must be ready to receive advice and instructions. A mentee must respect and acknowledge the experience of the mentor. The driving force in a mentoring process is a willingness to learn. Thus, a mentee determines the success of the mentoring process. The roles of a mentee can be summarized in four phases. Phase 1 describes the initiation process. The mentee understands the reason for the mentoring process. Phase 2 describes the learning outcomes of the learning process. The mentee creates his or learning need. Communication expectations are development phase two. Phase 3 describes the working relationship between the mentor and mentee.

Am I obligated to accept a match?

No one is obligated to accept a match in a mentoring program. The match determinants include similarity, compatibility, mutuality, and proximity. Thus, the match determinants evaluate the participants.

The fourth phase describes the overall mentoring process. The mentee updates the mentor with the learning outcomes.

The relationship between the mentor and the mentee defines the mentoring process. Thus, we can be summarized the keys for an effective mentoring process into four categories.

• Trust: An effective mentoring process is determined by the communication pattern.
• Responsibility: The role of the mentor must be identified. The role of the mentee in the mentoring program must be identified. The mentor must list the order of events during the learning process.
• Create long and short-term plan: The learning process must be defined by short and long-term goals. For example, the weakness of the mentee will be treated as a short-term goal while the overall mentoring objectives will be a long-term plan.
• Collaborate: The collaborative effort of the mentor and mentee defines the success of the program. For example, the mentor and mentee must collaborate to solve, plan, and discuss the mentoring process. Other tips for a successful mentor and mentee relationship includes open communication, support, expectations, contact, honesty, participation, innovation, creativity, reliable and consistent.

What happens during a mentor-mentee meeting?

During a mentor-mentee meeting, the mentor creates counsel schedules and objectives.

Other activities of the mentor during the meeting include storytelling, discuss, counselling sessions and mentee’s growth. The activities of the mentee include creating agendas, organise the meeting, and summarize the mentoring goals.

How do you match mentors with the mentee?

The matching process should be guided by six considerations.

• Guardian/parental approval.
• Common interest.
• Expectations of the participant.
• Family backgrounds of the participants.
• Life expectations and preferences of the participants.
• Strength and weakness of the participants.

How often do the mentor and mentee meet?

The participants will determine the meeting schedule. However, the mentor and mentee must meet within the first three weeks of the program.

Additional follow-up will be required within the next three months. The meeting sessions may continue for a year, depending on the mentoring agreement.

What is the job description of operation manager?

The operations manager aligns the goals of the organisation with the available resources (Slack, Johnston & Chambers 2007). Thus, operation managers must understand the firm’s objectives, create an operational strategy, design the operational process, and improve the performance of the organisation.

What is the job description of the Training Evaluation Manager?

A training evaluation manager creates, develops, execute, and evaluate operation strategies (Filstad 2004). The personal requirements of an evaluation manager include initiative, maturity, learning, and research knowledge, communication, and organizational skills. The training and evaluation manager conducts research survey and analyses. The manager develops training modules based on the organizational strategy. An effective evaluation strategy is determined by a proper training session. The evaluation manager provides training materials for new employees.

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IvyPanda. (2024, March 13). The Concept of Mentoring. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-concept-of-mentoring/

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The Best Mentorships Help Both People Grow

Mentorships should be transformational — not transactional.

A transformational mentorship is a relationship that offers something powerful to both the mentee  and  the mentor. As a mentee, the trick to fully engaging your mentor lies in finding the right person: someone with whom you can build a relaxed, inspiring camaraderie, driven by curiosity as opposed to the binary instructor-student exchange we normally teach. How do you find this person? Try following these steps:

• Look beyond the obvious places. It can be challenging to avoid the traditional teacher-student approach to mentorship when your mentor is a leader within your own organization. Instead, try looking for potential mentors in ecosystems tangential to your work and your interests.
• Ask to meet before you ask for mentoring.  While someone may seem perfect on paper, they could easily end up being a bad fit once you engage directly. You need to make sure there is a genuine connection, so start small with (virtual) coffee or lunch.
• Test the waters. Your ideal mentor should be someone who resists providing you with quick answers, and prefers engaging you in conversation through which you can both learn and grow.
• Don’t limit yourself. Just as you can teach and influence your mentor as the mentee, you can mentor others. By teaching someone else, you will also learn to clearly express and communicate your ideas, which is essential to your professional growth.

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Businesses are now transforming at an accelerated pace and your industry may look very different five to 10 years from now. Your ability to grow and develop the skills you need to thrive will depend largely on your adaptability and willingness to learn and collaborate with others. Mentorships are great conduits for this kind of growth, particularly if both parties are benefiting from the relationship.

• DN David Nour is an advisor and coach to executives and boards, and the author of Curve Benders : How Strategic Relationships Can Power Your Non-linear Growth in the Future of Work .    

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How Mentorship Can Benefit Both the Mentor and the Mentee

Mentoring is a win-win situation that could bring career success to both mentors and mentees.

How Mentorship Benefits Both Parties

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Though mentees benefit from mentors' knowledge and guidance, mentors often feel equally rewarded watching their protégés take their teachings and run with them.

The right mentor can catapult your career to the next level. Even Warren Buffett – one of the most famous investors of all time – attributes many of his achievements to his mentor, Benjamin Graham, who guided him on his path to success.

However, mentorship isn’t always a one-way street. Though mentees benefit from mentors' knowledge and guidance, mentors often feel equally rewarded watching their protégés take their teachings and run with them. In this article, we’ll dive deeper into what mentorship is and how it could benefit both parties.

What Is Mentorship, and How Does It Work?

Mentorship is when someone with more knowledge and skills (the mentor) provides guidance and support to someone typically less experienced (the mentee). A mentor will often take the mentee under their wing and help them grow and achieve their goals – whether that be professional, academic or personal.

Formal Mentorships

Mentorship programs in formal settings like the workplace provide an excellent opportunity for knowledge and skill-sharing. For example, a mentor-mentee relationship between a senior software engineer and a junior engineer could include weekly check-ins. During these meetings, the mentor may discuss details of work projects with their mentee and provide feedback on completed tasks or strategies for tackling future assignments.

Informal Mentorships

Informal mentorships outside the workplace are typically less structured and more organic. For example, if you’re an aspiring cook, your mentor might be a seasoned home chef in your circle who could show you the ropes. Or, if you’re a first-year medical student, you could seek mentorship from a fourth-year medical student and meet up once a month to touch base and discuss topics related to coursework.

The Benefits of Being a Mentor

Mentoring relationships are typically mutually beneficial, and mentors often find that they learn as much from mentees as the other way around. If you’re considering becoming a mentor, here are some reasons why it’s a good idea:

Enhanced Leadership Skills

Mentorship is a great way to develop and hone your leadership skills. By taking on the role of a mentor, you’ll gain valuable insight into your strengths and weaknesses as a leader as you go through the dynamic process of teaching and exchanging ideas with your mentee. You’ll also develop confidence and empathy in a way that allows you to better lead a team in the future.

Gaining New Perspectives

Mentors provide invaluable support and guidance to mentees eager to learn a new skill or trade. However, as a mentor, it’s easy to become stuck in your own ways after working in a specific industry for so long. In this case, having a mentee could inject fresh ideas into the conversation, challenging you to think beyond what you know and consider new perspectives .

Increased Happiness and Sense of Purpose

The saying “there is more happiness in giving than receiving” really does hold true. Research by psychologists from the University of Chicago Booth School of Business and Northwestern University Kellogg School of Management found that we experience longer-lasting happiness by giving to others rather than receiving.

By giving away your knowledge to mentees who need it, not only will you contribute to their positive growth, but you might also create a newfound purpose and happiness in your life. Rachel Neill, CEO of Carex Consulting Group, wrote in an email: “Mentoring brings me joy and fills me with purpose. It helps me achieve a different type of success – one that can't be measured with awards, profits, contracts and revenue."

The Benefits of Being a Mentee

Many preach the importance of having a mentor. But what are the benefits, and how does being a mentee help unlock your potential?

Having Proper Guidance 

Without guidance, it's easy to take the wrong turns and waste precious time on your journey to success. Having a mentor gives you a leg up since they can help you identify the blind spots and show you where to focus your energy. And while plenty of people achieve success on their own, having a mentor can fast-track your progress and cut months – or even years – off the learning curve.

So if you’ve been feeling stuck or struggling to make progress in your career or other endeavors, consider finding a mentor who can point you in the right direction.

Expanded Network 

One of the most significant benefits of having a mentor is having access to the mentor's network that they’ve built over their career. A mentor's contacts are like gold. Jeroen De Koninck, the founder of the career accelerator Preppally and a mentor who helps young professionals land jobs at top tech companies like Google , knows this all too well. He has seen how connecting his mentees with his contacts allowed them to unlock career opportunities they may have never had without it.

“Most of my mentees are extremely talented,” De Koninck says. However, because they come from less-privileged backgrounds, they often “don’t have direct access to the social network that could help them land their dream jobs.” To level the playing field, De Koninck uses his connections to open doors for his mentees and propel their careers forward.

An Insider’s Look Into a Desired Role or Company

It pays to have a mentor if you want to break into a new career field or switch to a new company. Kirk Hazlett, a communications professor at The University of Tampa, says mentors can provide “an insider's look into the role and organization” the mentee aspires to join.

“Because every organization differs in often unseen but set-in-stone expectations,” having a mentor who has worked in a specific company or role can give you insight into your desired position. Think of it like you're getting the inside scoop.

How to Start a Mentorship Program

Starting a mentorship program can be a great way to give back to your community. Before jumping in, take some time to think about how you want the program to work.

For example, will there be applications or interviews for potential mentees? What is the main communication method between you and the mentees? How many mentees are you able to take on at a time? What is the core focus of the mentorship program, and what goals do you wish to accomplish? Answering these questions will help you better organize the structure of your program.

How to Find a Mentor 

Before finding a mentor, clearly understand what you want to gain from this experience. Are you seeking insight into a specific career path or industry, or do you need an accountability partner to help achieve your goals? Once you've got that down, start by brainstorming contacts with experience and expertise in the area that interests you.

Then, put yourself out there. Reach out to potential mentors on LinkedIn and start building a relationship with them. Remember, don’t immediately ask the person to become your mentor in your first message since it could come off as pushy. Focus on introducing yourself and showing a genuine interest in what they do. You could also find mentors offline by attending networking events in your field of interest.

Mentorship Is a Win-Win Relationship

A successful mentor-mentee relationship can benefit both parties: Mentees gain knowledge, connections and support that no textbook or online tutorial could offer, while mentors find a sense of purpose and hone their soft skills while passing along their knowledge. So, if you’re ready to take your career or other pursuits to the next level, consider finding a mentor or becoming one – it may be the catalyst you need.

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Perspective article, mentor-mentee relationships in academia: insights toward a fulfilling career.

• Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, FCAV, São Paulo State University, Jaboticabal, Brazil

Over my academic journey, I had the privilege of learning from several insightful professionals in the field of Physiology and Neurosciences. During my graduate and postdoctoral training at seven universities in Brazil, the US and Canada, my mentors were able to stimulate my curiosity and motivation and made me very enthusiastic about science, teaching and especially mentoring. Despite the hurdles that researchers confront daily, having a supportive mentor in a diverse and inclusive workplace influenced my decision to pursue a career in academia. Unfortunately, for the vast majority of graduate students and aspiring scientists, this is not the case. Engaging with colleagues from different fields and cultural backgrounds taught me how students and trainees always expected more from their mentors, on multiple levels. Many studies have shown that high levels of attrition across STEM disciplines, as well as an increased time-to-degree completion, are indicative of this scenario. In this perspective article, I outline the findings of the ad hoc research mentorship method, as well as my self-reflections on how we could conquer the major problems correlated with a research mentor-mentee relationship. I specifically illustrate how communication, time, and environment constitute interrelated components that can be managed effectively to produce short and long-term results toward an optimal and fruitful partnership. Finally, I highlighted institutions’ critical role in implementing effective mentorship practices, procedures and policies that support mentors and students. These discussions on the importance of appropriate mentorship can assist all levels of mentors in creating a pleasurable pathway for knowledge transmission and contribute to ensuring that a more equal, diverse, and inclusive population of young scientists has the opportunity to excel in their professions.

1. Introduction

Attrition rates and time-to-degree completion serve as crucial indicators of a graduate program’s efficacy ( Groenvynck et al., 2013 ). Over the last decade, we have witnessed a higher volume of attrition in graduate education, especially in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) areas ( Sowell et al., 2015 ; Levecque et al., 2017 ; Kis et al., 2022 ). Furthermore, when we examine the disproportionately under-represented (UR) this scenario becomes much worse ( Bowen et al., 1992 ; Lovitts, 2001 ; Nettles and Millet, 2006 ). High attrition rates among STEM doctorate students will significantly impact the future STEM workforce and the country’s economies ( Golde, 2005 ; Sowell et al., 2015 ).

Several initiatives have been undertaken to comprehend the causes of the aforementioned alarming attrition rates. A growing number of research investigations have revealed that graduate students are dissatisfied, anxious, or depressed frequently. They also did not feel welcomed or supported by their mentors or the institution ( Golde, 1998 ; Lovitts, 2001 ; Sowell et al., 2015 ; Sithole et al., 2017 ). These states have a direct impact on mentee effectiveness and efficiency, causing a severe detriment to their mental health ( Eby and Allen, 2002 ; Hyun et al., 2006 ; Levecque et al., 2017 ; Nagy et al., 2019 ; Allen et al., 2022 ). In this sense, other studies have found that more than 50% of students fail to obtain their Ph.D. degrees ( Golde, 1998 ; Lovitts, 2001 ; Sowell et al., 2015 ).

In this context, an effective mentorship is defined as a combination of career and psychosocial support to the mentee that is marked by reciprocal satisfaction, and trust ( Eby et al., 2013 ; Eby and Robertson, 2020 ). Mentorship is also defined as a “ collaborative learning relationship and working alliance based on intentionality, trust, and shared responsibility for the interactions in that relationship and the effectiveness of those encounters ” ( NASEM, 2019 ).

Indeed, many students and trainees disclose that developing a top-notch long-term mentoring relationship elevated their probabilities of success in STEM ( Jeste et al., 2009 ).

More recently, Tuma and collaborators’ remarkable study with 40 US graduate students in life established an ecological system model to define and characterize what factors lead to a poor research mentoring experience ( Tuma et al., 2021 ). To date, the ecological system theory has been used to explore fundamental mentor conduct, which is additionally molded by an assortment of practices, norms and disciplinary cultures found in different places and institutions ( Bronfenbrenner, 1977 ; Chandler et al., 2011 ). Through a set of exploratory interviews, the results revealed that mentee discontent is typically caused by a lack of mentor knowledge or availability, lack of interpersonal skills, deceit, unequal treatment, interpersonal mismatch, and lack of career or emotional support. Furthermore, the mentor’s actions are not the only source of dissatisfaction. The impact from the entire research group, department and institution (collegial protection to mentor, lack of policies to protect mentees against hostile mentor behavior; toxic working environment) and finally the culture of science and research (abusive power structure; lack of incentive to mentor provide a quality mentorship, tension due to misaligning expectations) all play a significant negative role in the relationship among mentor and mentee ( Tuma et al., 2021 ).

The findings laid out herein ought to call our attention and prompt us to inquire “ What are we doing wrong ” and “ How can we do better ”?

A potential rationale for the paucity of attention and acknowledgment given to mentorship in comparison to other professional academic tasks is that it has been neglected over the years ( Stolzenberg et al., 2019 ). In this viewpoint piece, I discuss some of my research mentorship experiences and self-reflections as a graduate student and postdoctoral trainee. I have highlighted three major interdependent components that I feel we should address to significantly increase the quality of a mentor-mentee research connection. The first element, communication, is directly linked with the second one, time. I explore the significance of effective and constant communication between mentor and mentee, as well as the time investment essential to form trusting and enduring relations. The final element, which pertains to time accessibility, is the micro (laboratory and classroom) and macro environment (department, institution) and how they may foster the establishment of effective mentor-mentee interactions. Figure 1 presents some instances that may aid mentors to take more assertive actions and also inform mentees about what to expect from their mentors. Figure 2 provides examples of how the institutional environment and funding agencies may assist the adoption of a cultural change in higher educational institutions that encourages the creation of recurring research-informed mentorship practices.

Figure 1 . Examples of strategies that mentors could use to establish effective mentorship practices through communication, spending quality time with mentees to discuss topics that go beyond research projects, and how the microenvironment (laboratory, classroom) could favor the implementation of better mentorship practices. Through these 3 elements, mentors can offer knowledge transmission, skill development, career guidance, sponsorship and psychosocial support functions (e.g., psychological and emotional support, role modeling) (created by Tenorio-Lopes; supported by NASEM, 2019 ).

Figure 2 . Examples of how institutions and funding agencies could help to accelerate the implementation of a cultural change in higher education that supports the creation of ongoing research-informed mentorship practices with broader access to all academic communities. Those actions can positively impact and help to shape the future STEM workplaces, allowing that creativity and innovation support professionals to be more responsive to emerging problems. UR: under-represented (Created by Tenorio-Lopes; Supported by Jeste et al., 2009 ; Fleming et al., 2012 ; NASEM, 2019 ).

As previously stated, this manuscript brings forth my take on how we might strengthen mentorship relationships in academia. Readers interested in expanding their knowledge in the study and practice of mentorship are referred to two excellent guides both published in 2019. First, The Science of Effective Mentorship in STEMM , was created by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) ( NASEM, 2019 ). Second, the STEM mentoring emerging strategies for inclusion , was published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) ( Smith and George, 2019 ).

2. Elements to enrich mentor-mentee relationships in academia

2.1. communication: forthcoming, truthful, and continual.

Numerous research investigations have found that high-quality mentoring is directly related to graduate students’ persistence in academia ( McGee and Keller, 2007 ; Williams et al., 2016 ). Thus, just as it is in all other professional fields, communication is a valuable ability that should be deeply explored in all phases of our academic trajectory. For instance, even before officially entering a laboratory, students should contact future lab peers to help them to make a better choice of mentor and research environment they envision working. They can get a glimpse of the supervisor’s mentorship style, attitude and availability, as well as confirm whether they share comparable research interests, values, and life objectives. Once in a research setting, open and ongoing communication will aid in the development of a tighter and more trustworthy relationship between mentors and mentees ( Willemyns et al., 2003 ; Wanberg et al., 2007 ). Even brief (but regular) interactions count, especially for junior mentees as they make them feel guided and more confident about their performance. I hold the stance that my learning curve and work enthusiasm were always enhanced when I had the option to be closer to my mentors. Each one, with its own approach, provided me with the opportunity to learn a variety of lessons, most of which were pleasant but occasionally difficult. Furthermore, our friendship has endured over the years, and they have provided support and counsel when needed. Those experiences pushed me to be committed to my mentees as well. There are no perfect mentors, in my opinion, but we can surely focus on the traits and great future results that may result from the encounter.

Having mentors with different personalities and workstyle taught me to use communication in an open and straightway form, and most of the time I could feel that things would work out. By communicating, mentors and mentees have the opportunity to align and define clear and realistic expectations and goals, in a way that both can be benefited ( Majocha et al., 2018 ). For instance, creating space for weekly meetings, make students and trainees develop a sense of collaboration where they can discuss preliminary data, develop solutions to solve project issues and/or other concerns, find external collaborators, and think about career development strategies ( Figure 1 ). Especially during transition phases, students and trainees could benefit from the mentor’s experience and guidance in providing networking opportunities, supportive reference letters, and discussing different career options, even when those are dissimilar from their research interests or outside academia. Although the value of face-to-face meetings cannot be replaced for some, novel forms of contact may be beneficial with limited mentoring time. This modality, also known as e-mentoring (electronic), has grown in popularity over the last 20 years ( Ensher and Murphy, 1997 ; Bierema and Merriam, 2002 ; Single and Single, 2005 ). Slack and What’s App, for example, are useful, engaging, rapid, and less formal communication systems that allow ongoing dialogs between mentors, mentees, and the entire research team. Online mentorship services such as MentorNet ( Powell, 2006 ; MentorNet, 2019 ) and MyMentor ( MyMentor, 1997 ; Sorkness et al., 2017 ) are also available. Users have shown a high level of satisfaction with these tools ( Rowland, 2012 ).

2.2. Time: an investment in enriching a relationship

“ No significant learning occurs without a significant relationship .” The renowned phrase by Dr. James Comer, an American psychiatrist and Yale professor, translates well into our thoughts on how to build effective mentor-mentee relationships. In 1968 he established the Comer School Development Program, a trailblazing initiative based on cooperative mentorship methods in which educators, parents, and the community worked together to closely assist the children’s development and academic learning. The positive outcomes of his method have been featured in many media outlets and academic journals ( Comer, 2004 ; Comer, 2009 ). As previously observed, establishing communication routines is an essential step toward building a stronger mentorship practice, which is inextricably tied to time availability. That is, in most cases, the true issue. Mentorship, like other working relationships, is a dynamic process that must be developed in stages and continuously ( NASEM, 2019 ). It should be an honest and open process in which both mentor and mentee are committed to mutual growth ( NASEM, 2019 ). That would need hours of dedication from both sides, where mentors, for example, provide career advice and encourage skill development ( Kram, 1983 ; Roberts, 2000 ). Concerns will be addressed and goals will be revisited during these times. Merely investing time in the mentor-mentee connection can lead to the development of trust, which is considered the foundation of good mentoring ( NASEM, 2019 ). However, the mentor’s availability is significantly hampered by their commitment to other numerous academic obligations such as attending conferences, institutional meetings and leadership events, serving in committees, and teaching. Furthermore, the constant pressure to obtain continuing research funding lead mentors to devote an incredible amount of time to writing grants, thus preventing them to be physically/mentally/emotionally available for mentoring ( Johnson and Nelson, 1999 ).

This is especially difficult for emerging mentors who are coping with all demands placed on new faculty members. Then comes the importance of having a supportive environment that understands and recognizes the relevance and long-term benefit of successful mentorship follows ( NASEM, 2019 ). Institutions must provide training mentors on how to employ evidence-based mentorship methods and resources ( Pfund et al., 2016 ). As a result, when mentors set aside time expressly for mentoring education and be involved not only in both the mentee relationship level but also departmental/institutional level, we will have skilled mentors who are familiar with the practice of successful mentorship ( NASEM, 2019 ).

2.3. Environment: laying the groundwork for communication and quality time to blossom

A healthy work environment has been shown to lead to greater job satisfaction, creativity and productivity ( Cameron et al., 2011 ; Redelinghuys et al., 2019 ).

Although there is evidence of effective mentorship in place in some institutions, various hurdles limit intervention, implementation and dissemination of procedures and policies to promote proper mentorship ( NASEM, 2019 ). The primary barrier is an institutional culture that does not prioritize mentorship ( Stolzenberg et al., 2019 ) ( Figure 2 ). That culture overburdens faculty members with numerous academic responsibilities restricting their time to form satisfying relationships with mentees. Another example is that mentorship is not always recognized, rewarded or taken into consideration in promotion decisions. Other barriers such as lack of infrastructure and resources, and expertise also limit que mentorship’s quality. A second aspect that is critical to enriching the quality of mentorship experiences is the creation of an equal, diverse and inclusive working environment ( Mannix and Neale, 2005 ; Summers, 2011 ; Whittaker and Montgomery, 2012 ; Bert, 2018 ). This could be reached intentionally through hiring decisions, assuring that people with different backgrounds and perspectives but driven by similar learning objectives work to grow together. It is important to mention that faculty working with working with UR students and trainees should specifically learn how to engage with students who come from different backgrounds from their own ( Jeste et al., 2009 ; Montgomery, 2016 ; Clayton-Pedersen et al., 2017 ). A number of research studies have discovered that a varied workforce is synonymous with higher financial performance ( Cook and Glass, 2011 ) and better occupational health ( Nielsen and Huse, 2010 ), resulting in a more equitable work environment with lower employee turnover ( McKAY et al., 2007 ; Kaplan et al., 2011 ).

As an international woman arriving in Canada from a Latin country, throughout my post-doctoral studies at Université Laval and the University of Calgary, I had first-hand experience being labeled as a UR trainee. I was acquainted with an array of workplace cultures, two new languages and family/societal situations. I had been parted from my family for many years, and after the first months of the excitement of the new, those things hit me hard. Fortunately, my job in a research lab was pleasant, and a large part of that was due to the encouragement I received from my mentors. They made me feel directed, included, and valued for my contributions which made me realize the impact of a devoted mentorship. I have had extensive and dynamic encounters with colleagues from the United States, Canada, India, Pakistan, China, France, Bolivia, Algeria, and the United Kingdom. I discovered that being immersed in such a diverse and inclusive environment aided me in developing my capacity to adapt to various educational settings, accommodate different learning styles, and I learned the value of working collaboratively, a vital talent in academia. As a result of my immersion in the lab environment, I was equipped to relish the learning opportunities and create a more versatile and empathic approach as a researcher and mentor.

The establishment of an equal, diverse and inclusive environment should be a shared responsibility throughout the entire institution, requiring the dedication of deans, department chairs and individual faculty members ( Fleming et al., 2012 ; Montgomery, 2016 ). In this regard, the growth of internship programs, seminar series, and social activities to enhance networking could benefit all students and trainees.

Moreover, and often neglected, is the importance of mentees developing a sense of belonging to a broader community ( Figure 2 ). Mentors, for example, can encourage participation in a key scientific meeting once a year where their mentees can be closer to a specific community related to their fields. The creation of a professional development program would enable them to know further about the prospects available in their scientific fields and most importantly, to be better equipped to take more assertive actions in the future.

Finally, funding agencies can contribute to a cultural shift in which mentorship is acknowledged as an essential component of the program curriculum ( Jeste et al., 2009 ). For example, encouraging and requiring institutions to develop individual mentorship plans for students (particularly for UR); creating/expanding a category for Mentor Awards; and requiring mentoring from multiple researchers as a way to expose students to a diverse set of technical skills, are all means to help with the rolling out of better mentorship practices ( Campbell and Campbell, 2007 ; NASEM, 2019 ).

3. Final thoughts: the importance of continuous mentorship over the road

Whereas the majority of literature about mentoring in academia revolves around graduate students and postdoctoral trainees, the importance of having a mentor guiding junior faculty members is also essential ( Campbell, 1992 ; Chalmers, 1992 ; Kohn, 2014 ). Surviving the overload phase of the first few years of tenure is difficult. Launching a new research program, securing physical space, and equipment, producing grant proposals and articles, attending conferences, serving on university and research committees, designing and teaching courses, recruiting students and lab personnel and…mentoring them! In most situations, we were trained to perform research but not prepared to tackle all the other employment opportunities simultaneously. With all of these demands, new faculties are likely to be quickly gobbled up, therefore it is not surprising that they require the helping hand of a (skilled and experienced) mentor. It would be very helpful to assist in strategically balancing time constraints, by prioritizing suitable duties, bringing forth support about the department’s customs and networking (both inside and outside their institution), and identifying internal and external financial opportunities ( Zeind et al., 2005 ; Popper, 2007 ).

Cultivating our teaching expertise and establishing ourselves as educators convey new obstacles. We must learn how to effectively deliver lectures, devise novel courses, assignments and exams, and accept and deal with criticism from students, other educators, and even from ourselves. “ Achieving brilliance in both academia and research is a long journey ,” one of my mentors warned me, “ and we must give ourselves time to improve and grow progressively while giving our best. ” Gaining information from mentors who have faced similar situations in the past can be incredibly beneficial in avoiding naive blunders.

Finally, through a mentor-mentee relationship new faculties could be also benefited in terms of obtaining logistic, strategic, and emotional support ( Popper, 2007 ; Kohn, 2014 ). The pressure to obtain funding and the general feeling of job insecurity plays a huge role in the first years as a young professor when we are trying to solidify our professional identity. Indeed, these are the two main reasons why new faculty, especially UR researchers, are quitting academia along with role overload, inequitable hiring practices, and harassment ( Christian et al., 2020 ; Gewin, 2022 ).

4. Conclusion

Mentoring experiences can positively impact the individuals involved. Countless mentees (including myself), report developing life-long relationships with their mentors. Yet, positive mentorship experience is directly proportional to the decrease in attrition rates across STEM fields ( NASEM, 2019 ).

In higher education, an excellent mentoring system ought to be greatly appraised. It not only offers value on an individual scale, but it also generates prosperity throughout every bit of the organization. I am convinced that to see a culture shift that recognizes the value and impact of providing high-quality mentorship to students and junior faculty - is an absolute requisite. Individual mentors should have protected time to hone their mentoring abilities and effectively guide their mentees. Otherwise, given the multitude of duties, demands, and competitiveness demanded of senior postdocs and junior professors, developing a strong mentorship skill set will be an arduous process. is challenging to develop a robust mentorship skill set. Because everyone should be permitted to have a personal/family life aside from work, we are approaching a point of rupture in which exceptional trainees will rarely opt to pursue academic careers. We must ensure that these exceptionally driven scientists receive appropriate support and mentorship to do remarkable research while imparting their burning passion for science through purposeful practice, criticism, contemplation, and training. Moreover, they should become great mentors to guide the next generation of STEM workers.

We may foresee an improved prospect for academia when educational establishments prioritize mentorship in their programs by deploying new practices and regulations. These activities would be reflected in the recruitment quality, personnel retention, and attrition decrease particularly among UR students.

Developing stronger mentorship policies within graduate institutions across the countries should be the starting point for an enriched learning experience and personal growth, allowing trainees to successfully optimize their learning capacity and achieve their professional goals in science.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank all my teachers, professors, mentors, colleagues, and students that has enriched my academic journey. Especial thanks to Drs Azair Canto-de-Souza (Federal University of São Carlos), Luciane Gargaglioni (São Paulo State University), Robert Putnam (Wright State University, in memorian), Richard Kinkead (Université Laval), Richard Wilson (University of Calgary), Marie-Ève Tremblay (University of Victoria) for contributing to the advancement of my scientific career. Most importantly, they taught me through many different and peculiar ways, how to navigate through challenging days and keep moving toward achieving a better version of myself as a scientist, mentor and person.

Conflict of interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: mentor-mentee relationship, attrition, graduate students, post-doctoral trainees, junior faculty members, research mentorship

Citation: Tenorio-Lopes L (2023) Mentor-mentee relationships in academia: insights toward a fulfilling career. Front. Educ . 8:1198094. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2023.1198094

Received: 03 April 2023; Accepted: 03 July 2023; Published: 02 August 2023.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2023 Tenorio-Lopes. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Luana Tenorio-Lopes, [email protected] ; [email protected]

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The Nature and Evolution of the Mentoring Relationship in Academic Health Centers

• Published: 27 June 2022
• Volume 29 , pages 557–569, ( 2022 )

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• Sarah E. M. Hill 1 ,
• Wendy L. Ward   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6009-7762 2 , 3 ,
• A. Seay 2 &
• J. Buzenski 4  

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Mentoring has a long tradition in academic health centers, and from an institutional perspective can positively impact retention, wellness, promotion success, work satisfaction, and more. On the individual level, mentorship can provide professional growth and personal satisfaction for both participants. However, mentors may struggle with how to build their mentorship skills, navigating challenges with mentees over time, or if/how/when to conclude a mentor–mentee relationship. Mentees may not understand how to find a mentor, what the nature of that relationship is, or what their role is (what characterizes a “good” mentee). As important as mentorship is, it can be challenging for both to find and maintain a high-quality mentor–mentee relationship. This article reviews the qualities that are most critical in developing a successful mentoring relationship, the longitudinal nature of this relationship, common problems that arise, and the potential rewards that exist for each person involved in the relationship.

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Introduction

Throughout the history of academic health centers, mentoring has been a vital element for interprofessional faculty growth and development. It is a teaching and learning opportunity for the mentor and mentee alike and can serve to increase professional and personal satisfaction for both participants. For mentees, the result of successful mentoring relationships is strategic career planning, career advancement and/or promotion, greater feelings of work satisfaction, increase in motivation to continue in academic medicine, and personal growth and improvement (Dimitriadis et al., 2012 ; Goldner & Ofra, 2009 ; Williams et al., 2004 ). These benefits to both mentees and mentors are seen in physicians (Crites et al., 2022 ), nurses (Evans et al., 2020 ; Ortiz, 2021 ), dentists (Al-Jewair et al., 2019 ), pharmacy (Biehle et al., 2021 ), psychologists (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ), and other health professions (Henry-Noel et al., 2019 ). Further, the positive benefits of mentoring programs are seen across undergraduate (Evans et al., 2020 ), graduate (Gitlin & Lypson, 2017 ; Wettemann, 2021 ), medical students (Altonji et al., 2019 ), nursing school (Clement & Welch, 2021 ), advanced training such as residents and fellows (Dawkins & Grier, 2021 ), and faculty (Cranmer et al., 2018 ; Ortiz, 2021 ). The benefits of a mentoring relationship may be particularly helpful for those in underrepresented groups in academic health centers such as male nurses (Ortiz, 2021 ), female pharmacists (Biehle et al., 2021 ), female physicians (Marshall et al., 2020 ), racial minority groups (Dawkins & Grier, 2021 ; Mokel et al., 2022 ).

From an institutional perspective, successful mentorship relationships lead to joint high levels of engagement and work satisfaction, improved recruitment and retention of interprofessional faculty, enhanced belief in the institution’s commitment to its faculty, publication success, increased grant acquisition rates, and successful promotion/career development (LaFleur & White, 2010 ; Ward et al., 2020 ; Yehia et al., 2014 ). These results are true for colleges of medicine (Crites et al., 2022 ), nursing (Brook et al., 2019 ), as well as in community-based primary care professionals (Shtasel et al., 2015 ).

For clarity, the term “mentoring” used in this manuscript is a process that serves a functional purpose (working toward career success) (Crites et al., 2022 ; Ward et al., 2020 ) but is inherently flexible and can vary in its form and function (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). Mentoring can further be described as a complex relationship based on mutual interests, both professional and personal (Sambunjak et al., 2010 ). Mentoring can be distinct from sponsoring (advocating for a faculty member for a particular role or other opportunity), supervising/precepting (which focus on clinical skills and the provision of care), onboarding (orientation and adjustment to duties/resources, etc.), research advising (focusing on a research project or series of projects), counseling (a relationship addressing clinical symptoms utilizing therapeutic techniques), or consulting (limited role to provide insight or specific skill development) (Crites et al., 2022 ; Ward et al., 2020 ). An individual can serve in all or some of these roles at different times. In its purest form, a mentor explores strategic career development in a supportive manner that facilitates mentee growth and provides mentor satisfaction and a sense of fulfillment (Crites et al., 2022 ; Ward et al., 2020 ).

A review of the literature on mentorship and mentoring programs in academic health centers is beyond the scope of this manuscript and two recent systematic literature reviews can be found (Crites et al., 2022 ; Kashiwagi et al., 2013 ). Systematic reviews also exist regarding the role that mentorship can play in: prevention or intervention of physician burnout (West et al., 2016 ), development of teaching skills for new clinical preceptors (Ahmed et al., 2016 ), and serving the unique mentorship needs of underrepresented minority faculty (Beech et al., 2013 ; Rodriguez et al., 2014 ) and/or women faculty (Farkas et al., 2019 ) in their career development. A systematic review of the meaning of mentorship to the individuals involved and the ideal characteristics of mentees and mentors exists but is outdated (Sambunjak et al., 2010 ).

As important as mentoring is, it can be challenging to find and maintain a quality relationship. Some mentoring relationships develop informally, through intentional or coincidental networking or social gatherings (Ward et al., 2020 ). Other mentoring relationships are created and maintained as part of a mentoring program (i.e., Cranmer et al., 2018 ). Different mentoring program structures exist (one-to-one dyadic pairing, peer or near peer pairing, mentoring circles with one or two mentors and multiple mentees, mentoring committees with one mentee and multiple mentors, etc.) as well as approaches to pairing mentors and mentees (more details below) (Crites et al., 2022 ). Mentoring contracts are common and clarity of program goals and participant expectations is recommended (Ward et al., 2020 ). Goals of the relationship may include promotion success, how to publish, how to write grants, general support/job stress, work-family integration, networking, teaching skills, etc. (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ; Crites et al., 2022 ). Mentee characteristics differ among programs (rank, track, or a variety of demographics) (Crites et al, 2022 ). Some groups may benefit from mentorship more than others (i.e., women, ethnic, LGBTQ+, cultural or racial minority groups, etc.). Guidance for how to design, implement, and evaluate a mentoring program exists (Ward et al., 2020 ). This book chapter summarizes that “Mentoring programs have been linked to recruitment, engagement, beliefs in the institution’s commitment to its faculty, professional wellness, retention, and career success” and that successful programs intentionally align intended goals for participation between mentor and mentee.

Little is written on the evolution of the mentoring relationship over time (or how it might end). This article builds upon the existing literature in three ways: reviews the qualities that are most critical in developing a successful mentor–mentee relationship and the potential rewards for each participant (both as an update to Samburnjak et al., 2006’s review) and explores the longitudinal nature of this relationship and ways the relationship evolves, common ways it can be derailed, and how it may conclude.

Mentor Qualities

An effective mentor is most commonly described as available, approachable, experienced, supportive, trustworthy, enthusiastic, encouraging, and an active listener (Goldner & Ofra, 2009 ; Lin et al., 2013 ; Omary, 2008 ; Thomas-McLean et al., 2010 ; Tor et al., 2011 ). A mentor’s past experience and knowledge (Thomas-McLean et al., 2010 ) and being a good role model for a mentee is essential (Aagaard & Hauer, 2003 ). Mentors provide both wisdom and guidance as well as encouragement and moral support (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). Mentors may also assist with tactical networking and the navigation of professional settings/organizational structures. In addition, a mentor’s ability to facilitate the development of a mentee as part of a positive process—not just providing advice, or challenging them but facilitating the mentee’s own self-reflection and growth—is critical (Taherian & Shekarchian, 2008 ). Research also highlights the importance of a mentor being trustworthy, making the mentee feel safe within the mentoring relationship (Goldner & Ofra, 2009 ; Lin et al., 2013 ). Further, a mentor who collaboratively approaches goal-setting with mentees can be most effective (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). If these personal characteristics and interpersonal communication skills are lacking, communication can be hindered, making it difficult for the relationship to progress. When present, an open, honest, and healthy mentoring relationship is facilitated (See Table 1 for a summary of effective mentors’ characteristics).

Mentee Qualities

Mentee qualities are equally important to the relationship (See Table 1 for a summary of effective mentees’ characteristics). Characteristics of a good mentee include being proactive, committed, willing to learn, excited, open-minded, and communicative (Thomas-McLean et al, 2010 ; Williams et al., 2004 ). Additional positive descriptors of a mentee include being hard-working, reliable, and inquisitive (Melanson, 2009 ) with a generally positive and respectful demeanor, active listening, ethical behavior, and the ability to set boundaries and adhere to them (American Psychological Association [APA] Presidential Task Force on Mentoring, 2012 ). Likewise, a mentee’s availability and approachability are essential to a good mentoring relationship, with an openness to instruction and the ability for self-awareness and reflection that helps the mentee identify questions for mentors and skill deficits that have growth potential with guidance (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ; Omary, 2008 ). In the long run, a mentee that is communicative is more likely to find success than one who is reserved and demonstrates limited communication. Research indicates that personality can play an important part in the mentoring relationship, such that shyness and limited initiation by a mentee are inversely correlated with mentoring success (LaFleur & White, 2010 ). A mentee who initiates contact as needed and has a good understanding that a mentor’s time is extremely valuable will produce a more productive and balanced relationship with their mentor (Williams et al., 2004 ). Finally, open-mindedness, flexibility, and acceptance of feedback are also thought to be essential to being a good mentee (Melanson, 2009 ). Without full mentee participation, the onset of the potential benefits of the mentoring relationship may be delayed and the relationship may not progress to its full potential.

Benefits of the Relationship

There are a myriad of benefits associated with the mentoring relationship. For mentors, they may learn valuable lessons from their mentees related to new perspectives, technologies, methodologies, and/or emerging issues (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). Mentors also gain new insights and perspective, increasing in self-esteem, continued self-development, gaining peer recognition for mentorship skill, being recognized as an institutional leader, and satisfaction from influencing the next generation (Ward et al., 2020 ). Mentee perception will likely change throughout the relationship, as they grow professionally and emotionally in a positive learning environment, gaining valuable experience and knowledge from the mentor’s experience and expertise, develop skills, and build confidence and a sense of self-efficacy as their professional identity solidifies (Ward et al., 2020 ; Williams et al., 2004 ). Institutions benefit from the success of mentees (promotion success, publication success, grant acquisitions, high-quality teaching, high-quality clinical skills and service, etc.), as well as the impact that mentoring programs can have on the workforce—higher levels of engagement, work satisfaction, retention, and wellness (LaFleur & White, 2010 ; Ward et al., 2020 ; Yehia et al., 2014 ). Having happy faculty whose careers are growing suggest a culture that supports faculty vitality and assists with recruitment efforts as well.

Relationship Development

This section will provide an overview of the development of the mentor/mentee relationship over time (See Table 2 ) and contextual issues within which the relationship may occur.

Pre-match Stage

Finding a good match is the first step in developing a successful mentoring relationship, and it can be extremely challenging. As mentioned above, mentors and mentees may meet informally or through a formal mentor program. Pairing processes may be informal where mentees search for individuals with career success and serve as good role models, making their own choices. Mentors search for talented mentees who are open to feedback. Mentors may interview prospective mentees looking for characteristics previously outlined before committing. Similarly, mentees may review potential mentors’ qualities and skills as well as their history of effective mentoring. Though not essential, finding a good “match” of personality and interaction style is helpful as a starting point upon which one can build a healthy relationship (Fleming et al., 2013 ). Similarity in area of expertise/department, gender, race, and personal interests may be important for some mentees (Carapinha et al., 2016 ). Thus, formal mentoring programs often apply a pairing process, linking individuals based on shared interested, matching needs with expertise, demographics, or other variables. Mentoring programs often include both a mentor and mentee training component to clarify expectations of each and objectives of the mentoring process (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). Additional specific content of these training programs depends on the purpose of the mentoring program (overall career success, promotion, or a specific skill set like teaching or research). The first dyadic interaction is typically focused on exploring the relationship possibility and evaluating the appropriateness of the match.

Initiation Stage

Once the match is made and accepted, it is important to define goals and roles within the relationship during the early stages of the relationship (Fleming et al., 2013 ). We refer to this stage as “Initiation Stage” consistent with language utilized elsewhere (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). Having an orientation session for mentors and mentees help with expectation setting (Ward et al., 2020 ). The orientation often includes guidelines regarding frequency of meetings, boundaries that should be set and maintained, goal-setting tips, and potential topics for discussion. Typically programs have a contract, recommend one meeting a month, and specify the mentee as the responsible party to initiate meetings (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). Of course, mentor success in academics does not guarantee high-quality mentoring skills (Ward et al., 2020 ). Training mentors is key, particularly in evidence-based approaches such as deliberate instruction, thought-provoking questions, active listening, specific and intentional praise and reinforcement, constructive criticism, conflict resolution skills, how to create psychological safety, modeling, role playing, advising leading to learning, etc. all while maintaining confidentiality and building trust.

During this initiation period, it is ideal for the mentor to foster an environment where the mentee feels safe, supported, able to ask questions, and seek help as needed during the course of the mentoring relationship (Palmer, 2019 ). Both adhering to the rules of mentorship etiquette is also beneficial, such as a stance of mutual respect which can serve as a “social lubricant for mentoring” (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). Overall, this early stage of the mentoring relationship is crucial for setting the tone for the progression and evolution of the relationship.

Cultivation Stage

The cultivation stage is the primary stage of growth and development (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). As the mentoring relationship develops, interpersonal comfort and trust grows and open communication increases (Palmer, 2019 ). Despite busy schedules, it is important to foster this comfort and ease in the mentoring relationship with regular meetings. In the context of this supportive and trusting relationship with open bi-directional communication, feedback is given and received easily. In this way, the relationship could be thought of as a series of significant conversations building upon each other as a deepening collaborative relationship (Dorland et al., 2019 ). This ongoing relationship development allows for continued mentee growth and trust, and agile responsivity to emerging questions and concerns which can facilitate discussion of both short-term and long-term goals and career planning (Fleming et al., 2013 ). Regularly scheduled mentorship meetings should continue to expand as the relationships grows.

During the cultivation stage, key topics are typically discussed such as how to work effectively and efficiently, resilience and how to survive and thrive, building knowledge in the field to the point of expertise, and tactical networking with a goal of maximizing visibility of the mentee in the field (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). A number of additional potential topics including publication skills, grant writing skills, teaching skills, strategic career planning, and leadership skills may also be discussed (Crites et al., 2022 ). Assessing a mentee’s perception of their progress and professional growth and whether they feel they are on track can also be valuable to explore at this stage in the mentoring relationship (Yehia et al., 2014 ).

Transition Stage

The amount of time mentors and mentees stay in this stage of deep engagement and learning is not limited; however, the relationship does continue to evolve. Typically a slow reduction in the need for guidance and knowledge occurs, skill development achieves competence or expertise level, confidence builds, professional identity solidifies, and they become regarded by their mentor as “colleagues” after this occurs (Holmes et al., 2010 ). The mentor and mentee may keep in touch and occasionally see each other, remaining friendly and supportive, despite not meeting as mentor/mentee. Conversations may become more informative rather than strategic or consultative. Sometimes, the mentor and mentee drift apart and although the relationship is remembered and benefitted from, they may no longer communicate. It is important to acknowledge the time when the relationship has reached its conclusion or transition to avoid a lack of closure. The last meeting should include a reflection on the mentorship given and received, from both participants’ perspectives, including key takeaways (Provost, 2020 ). The last meeting could also include discussing future growth opportunities and the ideal of continuous learning as well as thanking each other for their time, engagement, and contributions in a mutually positive relationship.

Redefinition Stage

Following this transition phase is a period of redefinition (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). The mentor and mentee acknowledge that their relationship continues not as mentor/mentee but as colleagues and perhaps even as friends. The focus of conversations are no longer the mentee’s growth and development. The mentee may feel they no longer need mentorship but more often they then search for a new mentor with a different skill set to support their continued growth process. They also may consider the role of mentor for themselves. Mentors may take on new mentees as well.

Contextual Issues

It is always possible that the mentor has many mentees, each of which is in a different stage of the mentoring relationship. Mentors can serve the same or different purposes for different mentees dependent on the needs of the mentee and aforementioned agreed-upon goals of the relationship (e.g. a focus on strategic career planning for one and on work-life balance for another) (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). As noted above, mentors may be senior colleagues, peers, near peers, etc. and this relationship has an impact on the foci of the relationship and topics of discussion (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). It is equally possible that each mentee has multiple mentors with whom they are working on diverse goals at different stages in the mentoring relationship (Baugh & Scandura, 1999 ). At some point, when they feel comfortable and confident, a mentee is encouraged to take on his or her own mentee, agreeing to provide mentoring though they still may be receiving mentorship from others (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). Thus, individuals may take the role of both mentor and mentee at the same time. Mindfulness of the strengths and weaknesses of oneself in those different roles can improve all those relationships, and developing a keen ability for self-monitoring and reflection can be helpful. Research shows that understanding of one’s identity in both roles can result in positive personal development (Dorland et al., 2019 ).

When Problems Arise

As in any other type of relationship, the ideal progression of the mentor–mentee relationship may not occur. Problems may arise (from small to extensive), causing tension and at times leading to the termination of the relationship (Eby et al., 2008 ). Chopra et al. ( 2016 ) go so far as to define these problems as “mentorship malpractice” but the potential for problems in the mentoring relationship are not limited to those caused by mentors. In fact, the most common problems include transition difficulties, mismatched personalities (Fleming et al., 2013 ; LaFleur & White, 2010 ), poor boundaries (Chopra et al., 2016 ), or confidentiality breaches (Chopra et al., 2016 ; Taherian & Shekarchian, 2008 ), medical or psychological concerns for either the mentor or mentee including burnout or negative relational patterns (Eby et al., 2008 ), mentor bias (Johnson et al., 2017 ), geographical relocation, Taherian & Shekarchian, 2008 ), and limited contact/limited evolution of the relationship (Leary et al., 2016 ). This section will present these areas of concern (See Table 3 ).

Transition Difficulties

Transitioning from the cultivation phase to the transition phase can be very difficult for some mentors and mentees. If the transition to colleagues is not agreed upon and accepted by either party, this stage can be stressful. Mentees may wish to transition before mentors feel they are ready, leading to difficult conversations regarding each party’s benchmarks for readiness to transition. Mentors may feel betrayed or used if the mentee no longer seeks their counsel or support. Alternatively, mentees may feel abandoned, betrayed, or unprepared if they perceive the separation to be premature. Poor boundaries can contribute to a lack of readiness for transition, such as mentee dependence on a mentor or a mentor’s exploitation of a mentee’s time and talents to support their own career (as noted below).

Prevention strategies begin in the initiation phase and include clarity of goals, expectations for the relationship, and benchmarks for readiness for transition. Noting progress, identifying new goals, or approaching the achievement of goals during the cultivation phase allows preparedness for transition to become a part of the active work prior to entering this phase and allows both parties to reflect, discuss differences in their perceptions of readiness, and emotionally prepare.

Personality Match

In the case of mismatched personalities, the mentor and mentee may have difficulty achieving the level of connection and communication necessary to make the mentoring relationship a success (Thomas-McLean et al., 2010 ). As an example, conflict-avoidant personality may inhibit conversations that lead to professional growth (Chopra et al., 2016 ). Other personality problems or simply the mismatch of interpersonal styles can result in both parties remaining distant from or disjointed from one another, impeding bonding and limiting their ability to discuss feedback openly and receive it positively. Careful evaluation of potential mentors and mentees prior to committing to the relationship can reduce the risk of this occurrence. However, even with careful screening, the mismatch may not become apparent until after initiating the mentoring relationship. If this is recognized early, it is best to acknowledge this concern openly and honestly, either working actively to resolve the issues that are present (e.g., looking for similarities can reduce the relative weight and impact of perceived differences, addressing the need for more time in getting to know each other, acknowledging the use of different communication styles and identifying a compromise to support the relationship, or other ways to overcome the mismatch) or dissolving the relationship. In both scenarios, it is important to do so in a way that is respectful, kind, and protects each individual's interests. If the problems are ignored, it can create more tension and resistance in the relationship, leading to passive avoidance, negative communication, or unspoken frustration from either individual. Recognizing whether or not an individual is an ideal match for you is not necessarily based on any judgements about overall level of performance or skill; rather, it is based simply on personality compatibility or incompatibility. Both parties may agree to amicably terminate and find alternate individuals with whom to build a mentoring relationship.

Professional Boundaries

Maintaining professional boundaries is important throughout the mentoring relationship. Most commonly discussed in mentor training is the need to avoid flirting and sexual involvement (Young et al., 2006 ). However, the issue of boundaries is much broader than inappropriate sexual behavior. Boundaries, roles, and expectations should be defined clearly and early in the initiation phase (and reiterated as needed). In addition, physical boundaries (maintaining the roles as professional in nature, discussing the degree to which physical touch like a hug is acceptable to each, etc.), time boundaries (setting times for meetings and attending/concluding promptly, limiting between-meeting contacts to rare emergencies, etc.), conversation boundaries (which topics will be the focus, and which may not be discussed as either irrelevant or inappropriate in a mentoring context), relationship boundaries (establishing the mentor/mentee relationship is close and may involve mutual personal disclosures but is not a friendship). Other forms of professional boundary issues include inappropriate jokes, insensitive comments, inappropriate settings or activities for meetings such as drinking or meeting alone together at someone’s home (Chopra et al., 2016 ; Taherian & Shekarchian, 2008 ) as well as over- or under-expecting from each other (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). Mentors may be jealous when their mentees succeed. A mentee’s reputation may be tarnished if their mentor engages in poor behavior, struggles to obtain funding, or is not publishing as expected. Likewise, a mentor may be viewed negatively if their mentee is not engaging in professional behavior or performing as expected. Poor boundaries can lead to a mentee being dependent on a mentor, asking for management of every aspect of their training and career development (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). Mentors should encourage critical reflection on issues to enable mentees to find solutions to their own problems and promote supported independence (Taherian & Shekarchian, 2008 ). Poor boundaries may also lead to a mentee asking for personal favors or expecting involvement and credit in the mentor's work.

The power differential between a mentor and mentee can also be an issue when the mentor’s position, relative to the mentee, is superior in status or power. Active forms of mentor boundary breaches would be abuse of mentee’s academic and intellectual security; for example, shifting the power-dynamic in benefit of the mentor (Chopra et al., 2016 ). A mentor has the power to positively or negatively affect the mentee’s career development and success through their influence. Role conflict can occur (a mentor having both supervisory and mentorship roles, for example). It is recommended that mentors not have a supervisory or managerial role whenever possible or otherwise involved in grading or assessing the mentee’s performance (Taherian & Shekarchian, 2008 ). Some mentoring programs require mentors to not be the mentee’s supervisor to avoid conflicts of interest between trainee needs and departmental needs as well (i.e. Cranmer et al., 2018 ) and others promote a near peer or peer mentoring structure to reduce power differentials.

Prevention strategies include having boundaries, roles, and expectations clearly defined in the initiation stage in a discussion, orientation, and/or contract signed by both parties (Crites et al., 2022 ). It is recommended that mentors and mentees discuss these again if a point of conflict or confusion arises, and each person should be willing to resolve that issue. The mentor should model and discuss professional boundaries openly in all stages of the mentoring relationship especially if the relationship transitions to friendship or colleagueship in the transition stage (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). The mentor should provide mentorship only in area(s) of expertise and suggest other mentors or sources of instruction as needed. Mentors should not use mentees to further their own career, nor to delegate their own workload unless the experience benefits mentees in some clear way and is mutually agreeable. Mentor’s should not take credit for mentee’s work though collaborative work and shared credit may occur. Mentors should also not overcommit to too many mentees. It is also recommended that mentees should not be ignore or tolerate poor boundaries in the relationship (Chopra et al., 2016 ). Mentees should not expect their mentor to be available at their whim nor that their mentor will guarantee inclusion in a grant or writing project nor necessarily a positive recommendation letter. Having a process for requesting a recommendation letter that allows for a mentor to decline can be helpful in this regard.

Confidentiality Breaches

The mentor/mentee relationship by its definition connotes self-disclosure (sharing problems, concerns, issues on the part of the mentee and sharing hard-won lessons learned on the part of the mentor). Both parties should agree to protect confidentiality, and avoid any gossiping or breaches of this trust. Inappropriate disclosures can negatively affect the nature of the relationship (Chopra et al., 2016 ; Taherian & Shekarchian, 2008 ). Content of conversations, goals for professional development, or concerns about performance should be considered confidential and should not be shared with others even supervisors without consent (Taherian & Shekarchian, 2008 ). This is true for mentors as well, who may disclose sensitive past history. Safeguards of confidentiality are critical for maintaining the integrity of the mentoring process (Taherian & Shekarchian, 2008 ).

Building shared trust and psychological safety intentionally from the outset of the relationship is critical including but not limited to when confidentiality might need to be breached (at times of concern for the mental or physical well-being of either party) as well as a proactive discussion about social media posts. If an inappropriate comment or event occurs, it is recommended that mentors and mentees either openly discuss the transgression and the feelings it caused and agree on boundaries for future interactions, seek external consultation as appropriate, or consider terminating the relationship (Chopra et al., 2016 ; Taherian & Shekarchian, 2008 ).

Physical or Mental Health Issues

Professional wellness, work/life balance (or lack thereof), burnout, stress, and stress-related physical ailments are paramount issues in the healthcare industry (Maslach & Leiter, 2016 ; National Academy of Medicine, n.d.; Williams et al, 2020 ) particularly since the COVID-19 pandemic (Walton et al., 2020 ). It is important for mentors and mentees to be knowledgeable about the signs and symptoms of these concerns, common contributing factors, resiliency strategies, and institutional policies and resources (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ). Mentors should not embark on mentorship of others if they are feeling emotionally exhausted, cynical, detached from their work, and/or have a sense of ineffectiveness, which are common symptoms of burnout. Mentees exhibiting stress or approaching burnout may benefit from mentorship, but when mental health conditions (depression, anxiety, or other mental health disorders) are present they may be unable to meet basic expectations of being a mentee. If the mentor or mentee develops mental health concern after the relationship has started, the mentoring relationship can be a source of support or can suffer and disintegrate. Similar issues can arise from a physical condition. For example, a diagnosis that results in absence from work or significant physical exhaustion or other symptoms may impair a mentor or mentee in their ability to contribute fully to a mentoring relationship.

Open discussion regarding how the mental health condition may impact the mentoring relationship is key. In some cases, a plan of action can be developed and the relationship may continue with support and encouragement. Other times, the mentoring relationship may need to be paused until the condition improves or the period of distress ends. Alternatively and following honest communication about the concerns, the relationship may need to end permanently. In any case, resources can be provided if significant issues are identified by either party.

Major medical or mental health issues are not the only concern, more minor challenges or frustrations can also be detrimental. To a mentoring relationship despite the best planning and intention, a mentor or mentee who has had a stressful day can provide or receive feedback in a less than ideal manner. A mentee or mentor can become distracted by other duties or stressed and may be behind in their work and/or start to passively avoid meetings. Gossiping, cynicism, or making negative comments about other colleagues or students may take place when interactions have otherwise been professional. It is important to recognize that while an occasional lapse in judgement can occur, it should be followed by a review of professionalism, resiliency skills, and appropriate etiquette in an open conversation about feelings related to the event. It can be helpful to review goals, boundaries, and expectations and to determine the willingness of each party to recommit to established standards. If a negative pattern continues, further discussion and an agreement on the plan moving forward is necessary, which may even include referral for treatment or other resources, consultation with a third party, and/or termination of the relationship.

Mentor or Mentee Bias

Our past experiences as well as commonly held stereotypes create filters through which we understand and interpret human relationships (D’Costa, n.d.). Unconscious biases are thus inherent in the cognitive processes of all humans and would inevitably impact mentoring relationships. Personal histories and experiences result in different perspectives. Mentors may be older, in more mid- or senior-career stage, and in leadership roles. They may or may not have been faced with similar challenges as their mentees who may be younger, trainees or early career professionals, and not in leadership roles. Advice from mentors is often based on their own experiences, assumptions and beliefs but may or may not hold true for mentees. While hearing stories of positive solutions or lessons learned from mentors may be helpful, another useful way to facilitate learning and growth is for mentors to ask more open-ended questions or to present multiple options to the mentee for their consideration. The differences in experiences or the length of time since they were faced with similar challenges may limit their ability to emphathize or relate to those experiences (D’Costa, n.d.). Openly discussing similarities and differences in backgrounds and experiences at the outset of the relationship (in the orientation, contract, and initial visits) can help set the stage and ongoing discussion as needed can provide an open forum for mutual awareness of biases as they arise which will reduce the risk these biases negatively impact the outcomes of the mentoring relationship for either mentor or mentee (Taherian & Shekarchian, 2008 ).

Social forces and interpersonal dynamics can compromise mentoring relationships (Osman & Gottlieb, 2018 ). This is especially in the context of structural disadvantage due to racism, gender bias, social class, and other discriminatory factors. A workshop titled “Mentoring Across Differences (MAD)” has been found to assist mentors and mentees in developing skills, self-awareness, and mindful mentorship sessions (Osman & Gottlieb, 2018 ) are a workshop designed to develop and nurture skills, confidence, self-awareness, and mindful practice in mentors and mentees and allow them to navigate differences across a variety of domains successfully.

In addition, the affinity bias can influence the mutual selection process of mentors and mentees. Mentors and mentees often seek mentors who are similar to them—perhaps in gender, race, ethnicity, culture, religion or sexual orientation (D’Costa, n.d.). Furthermore, mentees can identify with particular mentors who have values, attitudes, and experiences that the mentee holds or aspires to have (and vice versa). If having a different perspective or area of expertise from your mentor is a goal, self-selection would not be an ideal approach for pairing given this bias. The affinity bias could also limit those underrepresented in healthcare fields as they may not find others like themselves to be their mentors. Research suggests that women and underrepresented minority groups often do not have equal access to professional networks and mentoring relationships that can accelerate their careers (APA Presidential Task Force, 2012 ).

Biases can occur in many areas, such as related to race, gender, sexual orientation, etc. Mentors who are not aware and self-reflective in an ongoing manner can fall victim to their own inherent biases. As an example, a study of unconscious racial bias in a sample of pediatric faculty attending diversity workshops found “slight pro-white/anti-black bias” in participants (Johnson et al., 2017 ). It is important to note that 83% of those participants had leadership roles and 93% were involved in recruitment. This article and others call for high-quality minority mentors to reduce the likelihood of bias. Gender differences (not just male and female but also transgender and nonbinary) between mentors and mentees may also lead to assumptions and bias (Cook et al., 2020 ). Access to resources like mentoring in academic medicine settings can be differential based on gender and unconscious gender bias may be present in the mentoring relationship negatively impacting career success and professional wellness (Westring et al., 2016 ). While many mentees may want and benefit from mentors similar to themselves in whatever category of potential bias is of import to them, some specialty areas have very few mentors of any kind available. A random pairing approach or alternatively a pairing process based on needs and area of expertise may help reduce the affinity bias and improve access to support for women and underrepresented minorities (Miller et al., under review; Ward et al., 2020 ). It is imperative that mentors and mentees not just be aware of the potential of bias but actively engage in professional development experiences that heighten their knowledge, promote self-refection, and develop skills that reduce the likelihood of bias in their thought processes or interpersonal interactions together. Mentor training focused on building mentor skills in facilitating growth in mentees from underrepresented groups is critical (Johnson & Gandhi, 2015 ). Ongoing during the mentoring process, personal reflection and collaborative discourse about each party’s background, experiences, and potential bias (similarities and differences) will contribute to a deepening of understanding and reduce risk of the negative impact of bias on the relationship or its outcomes (Cook et al., 2020 ).

Lack of Relationship Evolution

A variety of factors may limit mentor or mentee interest in positively fostering the relationship as evidenced by delays in feedback or lacking face-to-face time due to physical unavailability (Chopra et al., 2016 ). Mismatched expectations between mentor and mentee, too few mentors available in the institution, and geographic separation between mentor and mentee are a few (Leary et al., 2016 ). More difficult to overcome is a low level of institutional support (insufficient protected time, support, resources, or quality assurance of mentoring) (Leary et al., 2016 ; Sambunjak, 2010 ) or an institutional culture that does not value or support mentorship efforts (Choi et al., 2019 ). Some individuals might prefer a different mentorship model (peer mentoring, team/group mentoring, etc.) rather than the traditional dyadic model (Pololi & Knight, 2005 ) which stalls progress. Institution-level interventions to address culture and resources, as well as individual-level barriers should be identified and openly addressed by both parties. Consider an amicable termination of the relationship where appropriate.

Implications for Psychologists in Academic Health Centers

Psychologists, like other health professions working in an academic medicine context, can benefit from better understanding the nature and evaluation of the mentoring relationship. In addition, psychologists may be uniquely prepared to design, implement, and evaluate mentoring programs. Psychologists have a long history as educators and mentors of trainees and early career professionals both within their profession but also across other health professions (Ward, 2017 ). In addition, psychologists are well-trained in the scientific method and can assist with designing and evaluating programs with rigor, including capturing both quantitative outcomes (such as perceived mentor effectiveness, knowledge gains, perceived skill-development, satisfaction with the program, and reaching targets such as promotion or publication) and qualitative experiences (psychological safety, impact of bias or lack thereof, culture of confidentiality, impact on professional identity formation, stages of evaluation of the relationship, etc.) (Berk et al., 2005 ). Additional evaluation and ongoing quality improvement related to the pairing process, mentor and mentee training/orientation, contract content, and more would advance our understanding of best practices (Johnson & Gandhi, 2015 ). Creating, managing, and/or evaluating such programs are a potential leadership role opportunity for psychologists working in academic health centers for which they are well-equipped.

The mentoring relationship is a hallmark of academic medicine. Good mentoring is a facilitative, developmental and positive process which requires adequate time, intentional discourse, mutual respect, and a willingness to support the relationship. There are clear benefits for both mentees and mentors who work together to develop this type of relationship. Most successful relationships include individuals that demonstrate key characteristics as highlighted in this paper. The mentoring relationship is not static; rather, it is a dynamic process that evolves over time. It is as unique as the people who engage in this worthwhile venture. Dedicated individuals, who are intentional in their interactions with one another, will surely gain benefits in their careers and may even develop an enduring partnership through their experience in mentoring. Common pitfalls and problems as well as ways to address such problems were also included here along with prevention and intervention strategies. In general, personal reflection about the mentor relationship both before initiating it and throughout its course, by both the mentor and mentee, will contribute to a robust, growth-oriented relationship that meets expectations and achieves targeted goals.

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Hill, S.E.M., Ward, W.L., Seay, A. et al. The Nature and Evolution of the Mentoring Relationship in Academic Health Centers. J Clin Psychol Med Settings 29 , 557–569 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10880-022-09893-6

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Mentee Reflection - Navigating Personal and Professional Growth

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Mentee reflection: navigating growth and learning through mentorship, the power of guidance and encouragement, fostering self-reflection and growth, cultivating networking and professional skills, conclusion: a transformative journey.

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Mentor-mentee relationships are beyond powerful, here’s why

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What is a mentor-mentee relationship?

What are the roles and responsibilities of a mentor, what are the roles and responsibilities of a mentee, the importance of feedback in mentorship, what does a successful mentor-mentee relationship look like, what does a bad mentor-mentee relationship look like, 5 tips to start and maintain a great mentor-mentee relationship, ready for an outstanding mentor-mentee relationship.

The mentor-mentee relationship is one of the most crucial you will develop during your career.

Finding and working with a mentor is a defining career moment for many people. One that accelerates professional growth and helps them meet both short-term and long-term goals .

And once you gain significant experience, you can influence the next generation of business leaders by becoming a mentor  yourself.

But why does mentoring matter, and what makes a successful mentor-mentee relationship? Let’s find out why a mentor is important for your career.

The mentor-mentee relationship is a professional and interpersonal relationship. It exists between a mentor and a protégé or mentee.

Mentors are different from coaches and act as guides to their mentees. They do this by offering advice and support, as well as helping them develop new skills.

The precise function of each mentor-mentee relationship varies from case to case. But in general, the goal is to help the mentee achieve personal and professional objectives.

These objectives are often similar to those the mentor has already achieved and are usually in line with organizational goals . However, a mentor doesn’t necessarily have to be someone from the same company as you.

Mentorship is important because it helps people realize their potential . This allows them to reach their goals more quickly than they would on their own. This is because it’s easier to tap into your potential with the support and guidance of an experienced mentor.

If you’re looking for a mentor, look for someone you think would fulfill the following roles and responsibilities.

If you’re a mentor or considering becoming one, use this as a guide to improve the quality of your mentorship.

1. Act as a role model

By definition, a mentor is a person who others look up to and respect. But with recognition comes responsibility. Employees expect you to set the standards for both their behavior and their achievements.

This responsibility is not to be taken lightly. Make sure your   words are coherent with your actions . Build trust and respect among your employees, and always do your best to act with the utmost integrity.

2. Help mentees with their career development

Mentors may help mentees define their career path through goal-setting. Together, they set out an action plan so that they can achieve their goals within a specific time frame.

3. Provide constructive feedback

Since a mentor’s role is to support their mentee’s growth and development, it’s essential for them to   provide constructive feedback .

The mentor has experience that the mentee lacks and can use that experience to guide their mentee to their desired destination.

4. Be a coach

A good mentor knows when to use coaching techniques and when to intervene with advice.

A coach   encourages their clients  to look for their own solutions. But a mentor will also give career advice to their mentee based on their own career.

5. Act as a sounding board

A mentor is always there for their mentee. They help them develop ideas,   overcome challenges , achieve their   career goals , and celebrate their wins.

They may also take on the role of devil’s advocate when the mentee has to   make a decision . This helps the mentee consider all possible factors and outcomes before deciding.

6. Follow up on their mentee’s progress

A mentor should follow up regularly with their mentees to   hold them accountable  for any actions they agree to take.

Having a mentor doesn’t mean handing the wheel over to them. Being a mentee also carries responsibility and commitment.

Before embarking on a mentorship, make sure you’re ready to work hard and take on the following roles and responsibilities.

1. Be coachable

To be coachable means letting the mentor take the lead and being open and   willing to listen  to their insights.

It also means being highly committed to your own   personal growth  and   professional development .

2. Use active listening

When the mentor is speaking, use active listening to understand and absorb the information they’re sharing. Reflect back what you’ve heard them say to make sure you’ve understood it correctly.

Avoid interrupting and make notes of the most relevant points. Asking lots of questions helps you gain more clarity.

3. Be clear on your goals

You may not know exactly what your   professional goals  are before starting the mentor-mentee relationship. But you should know what your goals for the mentor-mentee relationship are.

You should also know   which direction you want to go  so that the mentor will know whether they can help or not.

Knowing your objectives also helps the mentor decide on exactly which guidance or advice to give you and what approach to take.

4. Ask for feedback

A good mentor will provide plenty of feedback, but if you need more, you should   never be afraid to ask .

It can be uncomfortable to receive   constructive criticism . But it’s fundamental for your professional growth.

Be open to   listening to and acting on any feedback  without getting defensive. Instead, thank the mentor for their honesty and for helping you grow.

5. Respect the mentor’s time

The mentor is volunteering part of their precious time to help you. Avoid being late for meetings and keep explanations as concise as possible.

You should also respect meeting times and avoid asking for last-minute changes, as well as replying to messages or calls promptly.

6. Be ready to move on

All mentor-mentee relationships end. You must prepare yourself to move beyond the mentoring process once it finishes.

Staying in contact with your mentor can help you stay motivated. It can also help you overcome future obstacles. But avoid overreliance on your mentor once the mentorship ends.

Feedback plays an essential role in mentorship. It’s what allows the mentee to take action and make decisions that help them achieve their goals. The mentor’s feedback can help them avoid mistakes and save time in the process.

However, there is an art to giving constructive criticism. Mentors should criticize behaviors and choices, but not the person.

They should also take every opportunity to offer a balance of both positive and developmental feedback and use all communication channels. This could be anything from a formal meeting to an instant message.

Every mentorship is unique. However, there are a few characteristics that all successful mentor-mentee relationships share.

1. Mutual respect

The relationship between a mentor and mentee is a two-way professional relationship. Both parties are invested in the mentee’s success.

The mentor doesn’t belittle or diminish the mentee in any way — after all, they were once in their shoes. Likewise, the mentee respects and listens to the mentor’s opinions and advice.

2. Personal connection

People who share similarities are  more likely to have a successful mentoring relationship . This might be their   beliefs and values , educational background, career trajectory, or even where they're from.

A good mentoring program will pair mentors with mentees who have things in common.

3. Communication and listening

Effective communication  is essential for a successful mentor-mentee relationship. The mentor must be able to deliver constructive feedback and use active listening to judge what the mentee needs.

The mentee should be receptive to feedback and also use active listening to make sure they understand what is being conveyed to them.

4. Realistic expectations

The mentor and mentee should agree on a set of realistic expectations for the outcomes of the relationship. For example, the mentee cannot hold the mentor responsible for the achievement of their desired results.

According to research, there are six main characteristics that could cause a mentoring relationship to fail .

1. Poor communication

Poor communication can lead to unclear expectations, setting the mentorship up for failure. The mentee should feel safe to open up to the mentor and share things honestly with them.

2. Lack of commitment

The mentor must be 100% committed to the mentee’s success. Otherwise, they will get distracted and fail to engage with or prioritize their responsibilities as a mentor.

The mentee must also be committed to the process and should take the lead in   planning their own career  and scheduling the mentorship program.

3. Personality differences

When two people have a totally different worldview, it’s difficult for them to agree on the best path forward. Their preferred working methods should also be compatible.

4. Perceived competition

Sometimes, mentors can feel threatened by their juniors and inadvertently try to sabotage them or fail to give them credit for their work.

5. Conflicts of interest

The mentor may be in a senior position, but they should not have direct authority over the mentee, and the mentee should not depend on them for resources. Otherwise, it could create a conflict of interest.

6. Mentor’s lack of experience

A mentor needs to have sufficient knowledge and experience to be able to provide the mentee with the guidance and advice they need.

Whether you’re a potential mentor or mentee, follow these five mentor-mentee relationship guidelines for success.

1. Look for similarities

When choosing a mentor,   look for things you have in common  that will help you establish a personal connection. This might be a shared passion for swing dancing or being from the same city — the possibilities are endless.

2. Commit to the process

Mentorship requires time, dedication, and hard work on the part of both the mentor and the mentee. Without commitment, there won’t be the necessary discipline to follow through on actions or agreements. This will lead to the failure of the mentorship.

3. Set goals

A mentorship should have clearly defined goals that guide the form and content and allow measurement of the mentee’s progress.

4. Build trust

Make sure that both of you align on your values and principles before embarking on a mentoring relationship. These will form the foundation of the relationship.

Schedule regular face-to-face and video meetings and   build trust through personal connection .

5. Establish a communication plan

Agree on regular touchpoints and accountability check-ins. As a mentor, make sure you celebrate every win, no matter how small.

On the flip side, never pass up an opportunity to provide constructive feedback, no matter how insignificant it may seem.

The mentor-mentee relationship benefits can transform your career. Working with a mentor allows you to benefit from their experience and wisdom. This helps you replicate their successes and avoid repeating their mistakes.

But mentorship is a commitment that should be taken seriously by both parties in order to give the desired results. Following the steps outlined above will help set you up for a successful collaboration with your mentor or mentee.

If working with a mentor isn’t possible for you right now, consider working with a BetterUp coach instead . They fulfill many of the roles of a mentor, such as goal-setting, coaching, and accountability, and they are 100% committed to your success.

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Elizabeth Perry, ACC

Elizabeth Perry is a Coach Community Manager at BetterUp. She uses strategic engagement strategies to cultivate a learning community across a global network of Coaches through in-person and virtual experiences, technology-enabled platforms, and strategic coaching industry partnerships. With over 3 years of coaching experience and a certification in transformative leadership and life coaching from Sofia University, Elizabeth leverages transpersonal psychology expertise to help coaches and clients gain awareness of their behavioral and thought patterns, discover their purpose and passions, and elevate their potential. She is a lifelong student of psychology, personal growth, and human potential as well as an ICF-certified ACC transpersonal life and leadership Coach.

The benefits of mentorship for your professional development

How to recognize mental abuse, and why it's not your fault, reverse mentorship is one more key to developing and retaining top talent, 13 tips for healthy relationships to blossom and grow, what are green flags in relationships and how can you identify them, 10 tips to help you make friends and get along better with others, key values in a relationship: why are they important, bonding time: 7 tips to deepen your relationships, what’s relationship coaching how to find a coach, similar articles, a look at the types of work relationships: finding your people, a guide on how to find the right mentor for your career, discover the 7 essential types of life skills you need, how to be a mentor: 4 ways to change someone’s life, mentor vs. sponsor: why having both is key for your career, why learning how to learn (and unlearn) is the new competitive advantage, coaching, counseling, and mentorship: what’s the difference, stay connected with betterup, get our newsletter, event invites, plus product insights and research..

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• v.11(1); Fall 2012

The Intentional Mentor: Effective Mentorship of Undergraduate Science Students

Promoting quality mentorship of undergraduate science students has recently emerged as an important strategy for successfully recruiting and retaining students in the sciences. Although numerous faculty members are naturally gifted mentors, most faculty are inserted into a mentorship role with little, if any, training. Successfully mentoring undergraduate science students requires a myriad of skills that can be honed with forethought and practice. In this essay, the value of mentoring, the developmental profile of young adult students, and the traits of a good mentor are explored. The Triangular Model proposed by W. Brad Johnson provides a theoretical framework for the development of effective mentorship. Fifteen tips gleaned from the literature and the author’s personal experience are provided to help improve mentoring skills of faculty working with undergraduate science students.

Over the last twenty years, the scientific community in the United States has come to the realization that educating the next generation of scientists will require more than simply lecturing to them in classrooms and depositing them into laboratories with a to-do list. National lamentations and debates about dwindling and leaky pipelines have renewed the scientific community’s commitment to ensuring that science students are well educated, properly trained, and inspired to make the great discoveries of the future. A key element that has emerged in this national dialogue is the importance of mentorship, as illustrated in the National Academies publication in 1997 of Adviser, Teacher, Role Model, Friend: On Being a Mentor to Students in Science and Engineering . Many studies of mentoring have since revealed that personal, one-on-one interactions with their faculty are essential ingredients in nurturing the nascent interest students might have in a scientific career. Indeed, establishing personal and enriching relationships may be particularly important for sustaining interest in scientific careers among students from underrepresented groups in the sciences. Against a backdrop of insightful theoretical efforts providing a coherent framework guiding mentoring activities, the goal of this essay is to explore approaches that have been effective in promoting healthy mentoring relationships in college.

Before we embark on this exploration, a brief digression into the origin of the term mentor might be instructive. Mentor is derived from a proper noun, the name of a character appearing in Homer’s Odyssey. When Odysseus (aka Ulysses) was called to fight the Trojan War, he left his infant son Telemachus in the care of a wise friend, Mentor. Odysseus asked Mentor to protect and guide Telemachus during his absence, which lasted until Telemachus himself was a young man of about twenty. The goddess Athena appeared to the twenty year old Telemachus in the form of Mentor to encourage him to find his father Odysseus, who had been wandering futilely for ten years, and return him home to Ithaca. Reflecting on this series of events, one can interpret this dual nature of Mentor, both male and female, as indicative of the integration of qualities necessary for properly providing counsel, support, wisdom, and guidance to the next generation.

ADVISING VS MENTORING

As we consider the role of the mentor, care should be taken to distinguish an academic or research adviser from a mentor. Depending on the institution, academic advisers are typically appointed to their role and students may or may not have a choice of the adviser with whom they work. Academic advisers have the responsibility of guiding their student advisees through an institution’s academic program. Academic advisers should be intimately familiar with the academic rules and regulations of an institution to ensure that students are well informed about their paths to their diplomas. At the very minimum, academic advisers are checking off the boxes that reveal their advisees are making progress towards fulfilling their graduation requirements. At a deeper level, research advisers may be intensely involved in their students’ research activity and may not necessarily serve their students as an academic adviser. Research advisers’ responsibility is to facilitate their students’ education in the research enterprise – guiding students from the formulation of research questions through design and analysis stages and finally to the interpretation of the findings as well as their integration into the greater body of knowledge providing the context for the research. Whereas academic advisers may not benefit personally from advising students, research advisers may in fact benefit tremendously from students conducting research that advances the research program of the research adviser. In a relationship between a research adviser and an advisee, reciprocity begins to emerge as a fundamental aspect of the relationship, but a deeper and enduring relationship is not a predestined outcome. The relationship may have a quid pro quo feel to it, in fact.

A mentor in contrast has a significant investment in his/her students’ personal development, which extends well beyond a concern for the adequate attainment of degree requirements or the completion of a research thesis. An academic or research adviser may evolve into a mentor for a student, but the mentoring relationship becomes more clearly characterized by the intertwining of professional and personal features. The relationship is reciprocal and the development of a life-long friendship would not be unusual.

The remainder of this essay is focused on the characteristics that define a mentor, the attributes that make a mentor effective, and tips for successful mentoring. To help us form a more crystallized view of what mentoring involves, I have found the definition provided in the excellent and comprehensive book On Being a Mentor: A Guide for Higher Education Faculty by W. Brad Johnson at the U. S. Naval Academy to be most useful: “Mentoring is a personal and reciprocal relationship in which a more experienced (usually older) faculty member acts as a guide, role model, teacher, and sponsor of a less experienced (usually younger) student or faculty member. A mentor provides the protégé with knowledge, advice, counsel, challenge, and support in the protégé’s pursuit of becoming a full member of a particular profession.” The term protégé is derived from the French protéger meaning to protect. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines protégé as “one who is protected or trained or whose career is furthered by a person of experience, prominence, or influence.” In recent years, the term mentee has become a popular synonym for protégé. Because mentee avoids the gender designation of protégé(e), we will use mentee in the remainder of this essay.

ADVANTAGES OF MENTORING

The investment of time and energy required from both the mentor and the mentee to establish and build a meaningful relationship raises an important question: Is it worth the effort? For some, an ineffectual, marginal, or failing mentorship would certainly not be worth the effort and indeed could be toxic for a budding scientist. The evidence gleaned from numerous studies suggests on the contrary that engagement in a mentoring relationship is fertile soil from which numerous personal and professional benefits may be harvested. Students report being happier with their chosen majors, they persist to graduation, and they achieve greater academic heights. Importantly, students report that a mentoring relationship introduced them to career paths and advanced study that they may not have otherwise contemplated pursuing. Overall, student mentees appear to attain higher levels of personal well-being, confidence, and belief in their own abilities to succeed. Objective assessments of career attainments suggest that mentorship is predictive of future distinction in a mentee’s career. Faculty mentors report tremendous intrinsic satisfaction in preparing the next generation of scholars and problem-solvers. Benefits from the mentoring relationship also accrue for the mentors in external ways: trustworthy mentors attract good students and develop reputations for producing excellent students. As their mentees graduate, excel, and become established, the professional network of mentors may expand dramatically as well. Finally, mentees who are eager to learn, experiment, and test the boundaries of knowledge are likely to motivate their mentors to remain current in their fields of expertise. Thus, for both the mentors and the mentees the rewards both intrinsically and extrinsically are numerous and ultimately appear to be well worth the effort.

DISTINCTIVE ELEMENTS OF MENTORSHIP

Although there are numerous aspects of relationships that may define a mentorship, here we will focus on several elements that are particularly salient for developing a healthy and productive mentoring relationship. In agreeing to mentor a student, the faculty member is implicitly accepting the responsibility of helping to promote the personal growth and psychosocial development of the mentee. Oftentimes, the developmental trajectory that the mentor is hoping to facilitate will involve encouraging students to move from a state of dependence, wherein they are neophytes in the scientific enterprise, to a state of independence, characterized by confidence, deep knowledge, and well-developed skills in conducting scientific work. A theme that appears frequently in the literature suggests that the full development of a mentoring relationship requires reciprocity – a thoughtful exchange of ideas, openness to personal and professional experiences, and mutual respect. In order to attain this reciprocity, the mentor must provide a safe haven for the students to explore their dreams. The mentor’s task is, of course, to provide an informed sounding board for the student, but also to enable the student to think expansively about the future, to dream the big dreams. More pragmatically, as mentors stimulate the professional growth of their mentees, mentors must ensure that their students are developing a skill set that will advance their performance in the classroom, the laboratory, the field, or on the job. Perhaps of greatest importance to mentees who are first-generation college students, good mentoring requires that the mentees are properly introduced to the culture of the professional world – items ranging from punctuality to conversational style to proper dress could be arenas where mentors can help their students become accustomed to the requirements of the professional world. Of course, the Academy is not known for a plethora of black tie events (with the notable exception of Stockholm festivities), but t-shirts and jeans are likely not going to impress interviewers for entrance to a graduate program or for a job. Finally, providing career opportunities to the mentee is an essential aspect of a healthy mentorship. The opportunities appear in the form of introductions to the mentor’s network, which may include job, graduate school, or fellowship prospects. Mentors who actively seek out opportunities for their mentees are likely to discover that providing their students with access to the next phase of their professional growth is exceptionally rewarding.

DEVELOPMENTAL PROFILE OF THE UNDERGRADUATE MENTEE

In 1969, Arthur Chickering in Education and Identity (revised in 1993 with Linda Reisser) published a prominent model for understanding the undergraduate psyche. In the seven vector theory of identity development, Chickering suggests that young adults (specifically, undergraduate students) undergo psychological development that emphasizes developing competence, managing emotions, becoming autonomous, developing mature interpersonal relationships, establishing identity, developing purpose, and developing integrity.

A key aspect of psychological maturation that occurs between the first year of college and graduation is the development of competence. According to seven vector theory, competence may occur in three areas: intellectual, physical/manual, and interpersonal. Clearly, as science students transition from introductory courses in the sciences to the advanced courses that may ultimately lead to senior theses, they are demonstrating greater competence in the intellectual arena. Importantly, during this same time frame students may gain more refined control over their bodies. For an athlete, the control may mean developing exceptional command of a racquet or basketball; for a budding scientist, the control may mean developing exquisite manual dexterity to thread a cannula into a rat femoral artery. Undergraduate students are simultaneously developing competence in the interpersonal arena. Learning how to maneuver through interactions with others, from understanding the transactional nature of relationships to the nuances involved in effective leadership, is a significant piece of developing competence for a college student. Indeed, the importance of this interpersonal competence is emphasized in several other vectors proposed in the model, which will be discussed shortly.

The ability to manage one’s emotions throughout the college years and thereafter is the second vector of the model. Clearly, the tidal experience of emotions in early adolescence has not completely subsided by college. Oftentimes the mentor may be most influential for a young adult who is in the throes of an emotional maelstrom by simply modeling how an emotionally balanced adult behaves. Occasionally, the mentor may be required to be more direct in advising about acceptable emotional behavior or to suggest seeking professional support.

The third vector in the model focuses on autonomous behavior, which involves helping a student transition from a state of dependence and constant reassurance to a state of independence and self-direction. Although it is very appropriate for a student who has just been introduced to a mentor’s research program to require frequent sessions guiding the mentee in the project, a mentor’s job to some extent is to become superfluous as the mentee becomes equipped to solve problems arising in the research project, though the mentee should have enough humility to know when to ask the mentor for guidance. Even as the mentee develops a sense of autonomy, it is essential that the mentor maintain regular contact to continue building and nurturing the relationship.

Developing mature interpersonal relationships is the fourth vector described in the model. Here, students are on the path of broadening their tolerance of and appreciation for cultural differences that are encountered because of increasing diversity of the population. As American institutions of higher education become more reflective of the Nation’s changing demographics, students will be immersed in a mix of social circumstances that challenge their previous interpersonal approaches and that hopefully lead to more mature interpersonal relationships.

The fifth vector in the model is a particularly salient feature of a personality theory: the establishment of a personal identity. Young adults in college have especially malleable personas; indeed, many are experimenting with the multiple facets of self that ultimately comprise who they are currently and who they are becoming. Some students may be struggling with their gender or sexual identity; a number of students from minority groups may be struggling to understand their racial or ethnic identity. As students integrate these personality elements into a coherent whole, they are deeply influenced by the role models they engage and the feedback that they receive from their role models. For many mentees, and this may be especially the case for students from underrepresented groups in the sciences and first-generation college students, the undergraduate years are crucial for helping them ascertain their place in the broader cultural or historical context that helps these students define who they are. Thus, the mentor has an important task of guiding their mentees by word and deed as the mentees struggle with the establishment of their personal identities throughout the college years.

The model’s sixth vector is focused on the development of purpose in a college student’s life. Not surprisingly, many undergraduate students are steeped in a search for meaning and purpose. The exploration of new ideas, ways of being in the world, and interpersonal relationships all may help students crystallize purpose in their lives. A supportive mentor may significantly facilitate this quest for purpose. As students work toward synthesizing their vocational and personal interests in the context of their family aspirations, a mentor’s knowledge of professional opportunities and attitude in balancing family and work may be crucial in helping students identify and embrace a purposive life.

The seventh and final vector appearing in the model addresses the development of integrity. As students develop along the dimensions involved in the other six vectors of this model, they are also moving psychologically into a space that integrates their efforts into a coherent whole characterized by humanizing and personalizing values. The model proposes that students developing humanizing values begin to develop moral reasoning skills that are less absolutist and more relativistic in nature. Students also are simultaneously personalizing values indicating that they are affirming their core values while concurrently respecting others’ opinions, though they may disagree with them. Developing integrity to a large extent is reflected in the appearance of congruence between students’ personal beliefs and their overt behaviors. As Chickering and Reisser (1993) make clear in the model, the development of integrity is inchoate in young adults and will continue throughout their lifetimes. A mentor may be particularly instrumental in helping students appreciate whether the values they espouse indeed align with the behaviors they exhibit. A mentor’s personal integrity is likely to be his or her students’ most important inspiration to develop integrity in their own lives.

THE INTENTIONAL MENTOR

Historically, the Academy’s approach to mentoring was simply sink or swim. A student was matched with a research advisor and both were often left to their own devices as to how or whether a mentoring relationship would evolve. Although the apprenticeship model has been a part of science education for centuries, clearly articulated instruction in mentoring for faculty is a recent innovation. The approach promoted in this essay can best be described as intentional mentoring. The intentional mentor approaches a mentoring relationship with the kind of forethought and planning that would go into designing an experiment. Just as a scientist would become familiar with the nuances of a problem under investigation, the intentional mentor becomes deeply familiar with the prospective mentee. Development of the mentoring relationship is taken seriously and involves creating an atmosphere of trust, support, and openness to dreams about the future.

Research and theoretical work by W. Brad Johnson is especially instructive as we contemplate the traits characterizing a competent mentor. Johnson’s “Triangular Model of Mentor Competence” proposes three fundamental dimensions that define mentoring proficiency: Virtues, Abilities, and Competencies.

As Figure 1 illustrates, virtues form the base of the triangle; these are the qualities in an individual typically regarded by society as admirable traits that suggest moral and behavioral uprightness. The model proposes that the mentor should have integrity, i.e., the mentor should act in accordance with ethical principles indicative of an honest and upfront individual. A competent mentor should also be caring, exhibiting genuine concern for the mentee, and prudent, demonstrating sound judgment and wisdom. At the base of the triangle in parentheses, I have added “patience” to the Triangular Model. Guiding young persons as they wind their way through the complexities of the academic life will require mentors to sit back patiently and allow their students to err and learn from their mistakes.

Triangular Model of Mentor Competence. (Modified from Johnson, 2003 ).

Abilities constitute three categories of assets: cognitive, emotional, and relational. As Johnson describes in his model, these assets are not necessarily trainable; they are capacities individuals may or may not have as part of their psychological disposition. By virtue of attaining faculty status, a mentor is likely to have the intellectual skills necessary to provide a mentee with the instruction necessary to make progress in the laboratory or classroom. It is also likely that a faculty member will embrace the complexity of the problems encountered in the mentor’s research and career, which will be useful as the mentor guides mentees through their efforts to attain a diploma. The command of emotional and relational elements may be less certain across prospective mentors. As role models in the position to provide counsel to college students, mentors should be well-balanced emotionally and well-adjusted psychologically. Indeed, given the vicissitudes of life, there may be times when a mentor may decide to take a respite from mentoring to regain perspective and tranquility in his or her own life. As to relational elements, the capacity to establish intimate relationships and to communicate clearly with mentees is essential for nurturing mentees. The reciprocal nature of a mentoring relationship requires openness to relate in deeply personal as well as professional ways.

According to Johnson, competencies, the third side of the triangular model, essentially comprise the fundamental skill set and knowledge that a mentor brings to the mentorship. As opposed to virtues and abilities, mentoring competencies can be readily modified and enhanced through conscious effort. Indeed, it is this aspect of the model in which the intentional mentor can make significant gains in a mentoring relationship.

The ten competencies highlighted in the model include: 1) developing an awareness of mentees’ state of psychological development (e.g., as described above in Chickering’s Seven Vector Theory); 2) having an understanding of the status of the mentoring relationship (e.g., whether it is just being established or is ready to progress to an amicable separation); 3) clearly articulating for the mentee the details defining the nature of the mentorship (this competency will be revisited later in this essay); 4) appreciating the three primary mentor functions offered to mentees – career guidance, psychosocial support, and role-modeling; 5) maintaining a set of boundaries in the relationship that protect the mentee from coercive behavior that may sometimes evolve from power imbalances or from overly personal involvement that may compromise professional judgment; 6) acknowledging when a mentoring relationship has become dysfunctional and implementing strategies to correct the problems or to separate amicably; 7) developing skills in cross-gender relationships, which include developing an awareness for the obstacles and concerns a mentee of the opposite gender may be confronting; 8) developing skills in cross-race or cross-ethnicity mentoring – similar to the cross-gender skill set, this competency involves developing sensitivities to cultural differences that may exist between the mentor and mentee as well as trying to understand the obstacles encountered by mentees who are members of minority groups, particularly those underrepresented in the sciences; 9) respecting mentees as autonomous young adults who are entitled to discover and create their own paths with the mentor’s support, rather than simply viewing them as the prospective clones of the mentor; 10) remaining vigilant about the benefits that the mentor can bring to the mentee thereby ensuring that mentees do indeed gain useful knowledge and skills to advance their careers.

Particularly effective mentors are likely to share four distinct approaches: an altruistic orientation, an upbeat attitude, a sense of humility, and consistency. Mentors should have an altruistic orientation in their dealings with both their mentees and colleagues. Erik Erikson ( 1959, 1980 ; Johnson, 2007 ) describes in his theory of psychosocial development a 7th stage of development characterized by a deep caring for the next generation, which he calls “generativity.” This stage emerges between the ages of 35 and 65, a period coinciding with the establishment and flourishing of an academic’s career. The intentional mentor is affirming the mentoring relationship by exhibiting empathy and concern for the mentee. It is also important to recognize that the mentor’s behavior towards others serves as a model for good professional and collegial behavior, which the mentee may emulate. In many respects, the intentional mentor is an excellent cheerleader. Maintaining an upbeat and positive attitude is key in helping many a mentee through stressful times. Providing the positive regard and respect to the mentee throughout the course of the relationship will help build trust in the mentoring relationship and improve undergraduate mentees’ confidence as they progress towards graduation. A healthy mentoring relationship is founded on openness and accessibility to the mentor. Having a sense of humor about one’s foibles and a sense of humility may balance the power structure in the mentoring relationship so a mentee may be more relaxed with the mentor, which is important for maintaining open communication. Finally, mentors must align their behavior with their principles; in other words, a mentor’s words and deeds should be congruent. Living by the expression “Do as I say, not as I do!” is a surefire way to undermine a mentoring relationship as mentees will rapidly detect hypocrisy.

CORE MENTORING GOALS

A mentor’s job to a large extent is to inspire, encourage, and empower his or her students. Mentors’ efforts in the classroom, the laboratory, and the field are meant to serve as springboards for mentees’ own exploration of the world and to inspire them to seek answers to questions about the nature of the world around them. As they venture out to seek those answers, it is not unlikely that mentees will encounter obstacles and failures along the way. An intentional mentor recognizes that, much as a parent, the mentor needs to build an intellectual and emotional scaffold for the mentees as they lay their paths to discovery, in other words, to encourage them and to help them develop persistence in the face of intellectual adversity. A mentor inspires and encourages mentees, so they will grow in confidence and develop the scientific skills necessary to answer the questions about which they are passionate. Providing guidance that will enable mentees to grow intellectually and emotionally as well as providing them with opportunities to develop their research and communication skills are essential to empowering a mentee. Their successes and their ability to cope with frustration and failure in the classroom or the laboratory will empower them and will assure them that they are capable young men and women, ready to venture further into uncharted scientific terrain.

THE MENTORSHIP STRUCTURE

When establishing a mentorship formally, both the mentor and mentee will benefit from having a clear set of parameters laid out to provide structure to the developing relationship. Both parties should come into the relationship with their expectations openly discussed. For the mentorship to develop fully, honesty is paramount. Both the mentor and the mentee must share their opinions openly and truthfully. Honesty is a necessary condition for developing trust, which is ultimately an essential thread in binding the fabric of the relationship. The mentor should rightfully expect that the mentee will embrace a good work ethic and show commitment to the mentorship, including showing up punctually for meetings. The mentee should be treated with respect and should be assured that the conversation held as part of the mentorship is confidential. Punctuality in attending scheduled meetings is as important for the mentee to rely on as it is for the mentor. The goals of the mentorship should be agreed on as early as possible. For an undergraduate student, these goals would include taking the necessary steps for completing research projects and to graduate, being introduced to the path to a successful career, and working towards a strong letter of recommendation based on the honest appraisal of the mentees’ performance. Meetings should be regularly scheduled to develop and maintain a strong relationship. These meetings provide the forum for sharing dreams, learning how to maneuver in college and careers, and assessing the progress the mentee is making as well as the quality of the mentorship itself. Malcolm Campbell and Barbara Lom at Davidson College have a strategy for weekly e-mail contact in which the mentee is asked the following five questions: 1) How have you spent your time? 2) What do you know? 3) What don’t you know? 4) How can you find out what you don’t know? 5) What are your frustrations? In the event that weekly meetings are difficult to schedule, the Campbell and Lom approach at least ensures that communication with the mentee is frequent, regular, and informative. The method requires mentees to reflect on their activity and their knowledge base. The fifth question may serve as a good barometer for how mentees are doing psychologically. Finally, as in most human relationships, it is unlikely that a single mentor can adequately satisfy all the needs of mentees, thus mentees should be encouraged to develop a mentoring network wherein mentees may gather a variety of useful advice to help them progress to fruitful and enriching careers.

TIPS FOR THE INTENTIONAL MENTOR

Since the primary goal of this essay is to provide ways in which mentoring of undergraduate science students might be enhanced, here we explore a variety of mentoring tips that have been discussed in the mentoring literature as well as from my personal experience.

Know thyself!

First and foremost, take an inventory of your strengths and weaknesses as a mentor. Philip Clifford and Joan Lakoski recently published in Science Careers ( http://sciencecareers.sciencemag.org ) an 11-item inventory that nicely provides a snapshot of a mentor’s skill set. Because these items are assessing particular skills, a mentor can conceivably attend to areas of weakness and improve upon them. A mentor should realistically determine how many mentees can be taken on and still provide the kind of attention that promotes the health and well being of the relationship. Spreading oneself too thin is neither good for the mentee nor the mentor.

Accept your position as a role model

Mentors should understand the professional standards of conduct that their professional societies as well as colleges and universities have established. These standards often include directives about the nature of the relationships between a faculty member and a student. Striking a balance between professional behavior and acceptable personal interaction is paramount so as not to threaten the health of the mentoring relationship. Mentors are bound to adhere to principles guiding responsible conduct of research to ensure the integrity of their investigative work and for the example that they are setting for their mentees.

Select mentee carefully

In choosing a mentee, the mentor would be well advised to consider the old quip: “It’s not the IQ but the ‘I Will’ that counts.” A highly motivated and hard-working mentee is likely to benefit tremendously from a mentorship, which will in turn reward the mentor for his or her investment in the mentee. A mentor would be wise to have a clear idea about whether a particular student and the mentor would work well together. A mentorship in which there may be discomfort or friction because of incompatibility will likely be ineffective. One scenario is to have a probation period in which the mentorship is explored and assessed as to its potential. Both the mentor and the mentee must be clear about the duration of the probation period and the benchmarks by which success might be measured. Although a shared gender or racial identity between the mentor and mentee may be of value, a caring, open, and inspiring mentor can be effective with mentees from a broad range of backgrounds.

Hone listening skills

In this day of calendar reminders, e-mail arrivals, text message buzzes on one’s cell phone, a mentee may be easily forgotten in the middle of a mentoring session. When mentor and mentee are in a mentoring session, the mentor should be certain to attend to the needs of the student. Maintaining good eye contact and exhibiting body language conveying that one cares for the mentee is important. A seemingly disinterested mentor will not inspire confidence in the mentee and will likely damage the development of trust in the relationship. Silencing phones, calendar, and e-mail prompts are strongly suggested for both the mentor and the mentee during the mentoring session.

Be accessible

Regular interactions with the mentee are essential to maintaining the health of the mentorship. Using e-calendars (such as those found on Google or Microsoft Outlook) are effective ways to ensure that meetings are regularly scheduled and evident to both the mentor and the mentee. Efforts to have informal interactions over coffee, lunch, and the like will help solidify the personal nature of the relationship. Often times the neutral setting of a coffee shop helps to reduce some of the nervousness that might be associated with meeting one’s mentor.

Be wary of cloning!

A mentor’s role in the life of mentees is to facilitate their professional, intellectual, and emotional growth. Although satisfaction in a mentoring relationship may be particularly sweet when a student follows in the footsteps of the mentor, one should guard against encouraging the mentee along a path to satisfy one’s own ego. Obtained through honest dialogue, a deep understanding of mentees and their dreams for the future should inform mentors’ decisions in guiding their mentees as the mentees work to fulfill their dreams. Especially for college students, a mentor’s role is to encourage the students to attain their goals, which may more immediately involve graduating, securing a job, or pursuing postgraduate education in whatever area has ignited their passion. This area of interest may or may not overlap with the mentor’s career path. Mentors should enthusiastically support their mentees as they seek and embark on their paths to enriching and productive lives.

Stay informed

If the mentorship includes a student conducting research in one’s laboratory, clearly remaining current in one’s field of expertise is crucial to promoting a mentee’s development as a nascent scientist. In addition, a mentor should be familiar with research or internship opportunities on- and off-campus that would enable further skill development and exposure to scientific problems for mentees (e.g., information may be found at Pathways to Science of the Institute for Broadening Participation [ www.pathwaystoscience.org ], at the National Science Foundation [ http://www.nsf.gov/crssprgm/reu/reu_search.cfm ] or at Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience [ http://www.funfaculty.org/drupal/undergrad_internships_neuroscience ]). Similarly, mentors should be familiar with graduate school and fellowship application processes as many undergraduates (particularly first generation students) have little understanding of the steps involved in attaining advanced degrees or of ways to secure funding for a graduate degree. Unfortunately, students may encounter obstacles and suffer psychological crises that mentors are not trained to help with; these conditions underscore the importance of mentors’ awareness of their institutions’ counseling centers.

Socialize students to the profession

Regardless of the path that students ultimately take upon graduation, introducing students to the mores of the professional world will significantly improve their chances of succeeding in that environment. Helping mentees understand the importance of punctuality, bringing projects to fruition, submitting well-organized, well-written, and neat reports will aid a student’s development as a young professional. Especially for students pursuing a scientific career, the sooner mentors can introduce their mentees to the nuts- and-bolts of manuscript preparation or making oral presentations the better. Introducing students to the hierarchical structure of professional settings (e.g., in the Academy) and the salaries they might expect upon completion of an advanced degree removes the mystery of career paths and for first generation students may help them persuade their families of the value of academic and professional pursuits.

Promote mentee among colleagues

One of the key responsibilities of an intentional mentor is to facilitate mentees’ careers by networking on their behalf. For mentees who are undergraduates, the networking may be with colleagues in graduate programs who are seeking students or with colleagues who may be in need of technicians. Therefore, maintaining one’s own network and making efforts to attend regional or national conferences will be important for a mentor to serve adequately as a mentee’s agent. Acting on behalf of one’s mentees in this capacity has the added advantage of keeping the mentor fresh in his or her career and well connected with the scientific community.

Directly train and teach the mentee

If the mentee is a member of the mentor’s research team, the mentoring relationship will be significantly enhanced by direct interaction in the laboratory or field setting. Mentees benefit from direct exposure to their mentors conducting scientific work as part of a team. Role modeling and nurturing a mentoring relationship are well suited to the opportunities presented in conducting investigative work at the bench or in the field. For some students, working on projects together may be the most effective means by which to solidify a relationship.

Escalate the mentee’s responsibilities over time

As the mentor works to promote the mentees’ confidence, the intentional mentor gradually transitions the mentee from neophyte to expert. Particularly with undergraduates, it is important not to overwhelm the student at the outset. Allow the student to develop a sense of competence with smaller projects and then escalate the mentee’s responsibilities for overseeing and executing a project as part of a mentor’s research program or the mentee’s independent project.

Clear expectations for performance

As mentioned above, at the outset of the mentoring relationship, the objectives for the mentorship should be clearly laid out. If the mentee is also part of the mentor’s research team or is also an academic advisee, the mentor’s expectations of the mentee for laboratory and classroom performance should be well defined. Setting the bar high may motivate many students to perform at levels that may surprise even them, but it is important that high standards not be equated with perfection. The pursuit of perfection may paralyze some mentees, whereas the pursuit of excellence may inspire them.

Provide honest, explicit feedback

The development of a healthy mentorship relies on the trust and honesty that is established between a mentor and a mentee. Although a mentor’s job is to nurture the intellectual and psychosocial development of the mentee, this does not mean that the mentor should refrain from honestly appraising the performance of the mentee. Indeed, to do anything less than a forthright and honest appraisal would be a disservice to the mentee. Beginning these appraisals with positive comments are likely to be more effective in gaining the mentee’s trust and attention than launching into a laundry list of flaws and failings. Maintaining a positive, though firm, tone throughout the discussion is likely to be most effective in promoting the growth of the mentee.

Promote time management skills

One of the most challenging aspects of entering college for many students is the management of time. For many of these students, being away from home for the first time is a liberating experience that may test their abilities to create structure in the course of their day. Mentors, through role modeling and direct conversation, may be instrumental in helping their mentees to organize their days more efficiently. Teaching mentees to use a paper or electronic calendar may be a small but very effective way of promoting their professional growth. Creating a clear schedule to attain the major goals a student has set for him- or herself is an important aspect of the mentorship. An overt set of benchmarks along the path to thesis completion or graduation, for example, will help mentees judge their progress and facilitate any course corrections along the way. Regular contact throughout the process is of course crucial to helping mentees accomplish their goals.

Offer personal support

Although this item appears last, it is by no means least. Agreeing to accept the responsibility of a mentorship is essentially a social contract in which the mentor agrees to look out for the welfare of the mentee. All the items discussed thus far reflect the nature of this contract. There may be times, however, when the needs of a mentee, psychologically or academically, may exceed what a mentor is prepared to support. A mentor should be aware of the counseling and academic support services that one’s institution has to offer its students. Intentional mentors recognize that they are part of a network of support and should never hesitate to use whatever services an institution or colleagues may offer to promote the intellectual, professional, and psychosocial development of the mentee.

FINAL REFLECTIONS

Unfortunately, the reward systems at many academic institutions have not yet incorporated mentoring as a key element in recognizing faculty contributions to the life of these institutions. In agreement with W. Brad Johnson’s suggestion in 2003, as further research continues to underscore the importance of mentoring in the success of students, whether a member of the majority or minority, male or female, colleges and universities should embrace mentorship as an essential aspect of how the quality of a faculty member’s contributions to an institution might be measured. Reassuringly, numerous scientific societies, such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Society for Neuroscience and the Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience, acknowledge the importance of mentoring with awards highlighting outstanding mentoring of students. Indeed, even the White House has recognized the importance of mentoring to the intellectual life of the Nation with the 1996 creation of the Presidential Award for Excellence in Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Mentoring. To strengthen the scientific education of our students, colleges and universities should significantly invest in supporting programs that enhance the mentorship skills among their faculty.

In closing, mentorship is a unique gift that both the mentor and the mentee have the privilege and the joy of sharing. The hours and effort spent in nurturing a relationship with a mentee seem fleeting when the time arrives to send a mentee off to a job, graduate school, and the like. The investment often reaps much greater rewards than one could have ever anticipated. Enduring friendships, wonderful colleagues, moments of delight in reconnecting after months or years have passed are many of the unanticipated rewards that blossom in a healthy mentorship. As Winston Churchill so aptly put it “We make a living by what we get, we make a life by what we give.” The life of an intentional mentor is indeed a rich one.

Acknowledgments

With gratitude for grant support from the Presidential Award for Excellence in Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Mentoring (National Science Foundation Grant No. DUE-0930153), the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (Grant No. 52005120 to Davidson College), and the National Science Foundation (Grant No. IOS-1048556). I am deeply grateful to my mentors who guided and inspired me throughout various phases of my career: Dr. Donald Stein, Dr. Oswald Steward, Dr. Gerald Schneider, Dr. Patricia Goldman-Rakic, Dr. Michael Zigmond, Dr. William Greenough, Dr. Sonal Jhaveri, Dr. Ronald Salafia, Dr. John (Jack) Boitano, Dr. Betsy Gardner, and Dr. Dorothea Braginsky.

Finally, I dedicate this work to my mother Doña Elia Rosa Cortés: De mis mentores aprendí sobre la ciencia; de me madre, aprendí sobre la vida. Mi mayor deseo es vivir la mía tan plenamente y valerosa como mi madre vive la suya. (From my mentors, I learned about science; from my mother, I learned about life. My highest hope is to live my life as fully and as courageously as my mother lives hers.)

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A mentor and mentee’s reflection on mentoring

By caroline beaulieu posted 10-28-2014 14:07.

Since I started pharmacy school, I have a better appreciation for the importance of mentorship. I am very thankful for the individuals who have shared some of their time to help guide me through this new journey. The profession of pharmacy presents a wide range of opportunities so I always appreciate having others’ advices on how to best achieve my goals.

Some things can only be learned through experience. For that reason, having mentors can be extremely valuable, especially at the beginning of a career. During my internship at ASHP this past summer, I had the opportunity to meet Jaclyn Boyle. Jaclyn’s passion for our profession is truly inspiring. She has already accomplished a lot to help advance patient care and continues to go above and beyond to expand the role of pharmacists. Ever since I met Jaclyn, I knew I had a lot to learn from her. I highly value our mentoring relationship because not only do we share the same passion for our profession but we share a desire to always surpass our limits and help each other maximize our potential.

Mentorship can be life changing. Without mentors, I wouldn’t be where I am today. I find it very helpful to have people to look up to; individuals who you not only share goals with but who can also help guide some of your decisions. I chose to pursue a profession that is constantly evolving and I want to ensure that I can keep up and continue to learn throughout my entire career. I want to contribute to our profession to the best of my ability and having a mentor like Jaclyn can definitely help me meet this goal.  

Here is Jaclyn’s perspective on mentorship:

As Martin Luther King, Jr. once said, “Life’s most persistent and urgent question is, what are you doing for others?” Mentoring is a way to contribute to others by dedicating yourself to your mentee’s well-being. To me, mentoring is about building a synergistic relationship based on common interests and goals. When I met my mentee during our shared experience at ASHP, we instantly developed a relationship based on shared passion for the profession of pharmacy and desire to learn more about ourselves.  The nice thing about having an ambitious mentee is that they consciously or unconsciously push you to do more. For example, knowing that my mentee is depending on me for guidance and/or professional development, I am constantly thinking of ways that I can contribute to her success by seeking out new opportunities for her and for us.

No two mentor-mentee experiences are the same.  I like to think of our relationship as a journey to a better place; somewhere neither of us would have gone to alone.  As a mentee myself, I have observed key things that my mentors have done for me in order to be able to pass those qualities to my mentees. By investing in my mentees, I hope to contribute to the profession through others; something I could not accomplish with merely my own contributions. 

Besides all of the benefits that the mentor and mentee gain from this experience, I feel that the continuity and advancement of the profession is derived from such relationships. The discovery of oneself through another helps us on the journey to having a successful career. In the midst of challenges, one can rely on a mentor for words of reassurance or advice that you may not want to hear. It is during those times when the mentoring relationship is tested and can become stronger. Mentoring provides benefits that extend far beyond the formal, outward expression of calling someone your “mentor” or “mentee”; personally, it is nice to know that I was able to help someone, even if it is in a small way. 

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The Power of Mentorship

“A mentor is not someone who walks ahead of us and tells us how they did it. A mentor is someone who walks alongside us to guide us on what we can do.” – Simon Sinek, British-American author and inspirational speaker

Around this time of year – with commencement just days away and a new cohort of medical students poised to become doctors – I am often asked to share advice with our learners on how to succeed in the next phase of their careers. While I have a few go-to pearls of wisdom, there is one that applies to everyone in every profession:

Find a great mentor.

This advice, of course, is based on my own experience. Throughout my life, I have served in many roles – leader, head and neck surgeon-scientist, wife and mom, teacher and learner. My ability to navigate each of those roles has been, in part, thanks to the excellent mentors, sponsors and role models I had along the way.

As a medical student at the University of Michigan, I quickly discovered my passion for otolaryngology–head and neck surgery and knew it was going to be the specialty I pursued. Stories from the early 1900s of Margaret F. Butler, MD, the first woman chair of a department of otolaryngology in the nation, helped me dream of the path I might take. The mentor who helped me along that path was Thomas Carey, PhD, a distinguished university research scientist and professor who took me under his wing and offered guidance and support.

Over the years, Dr. Carey and I became colleagues and co-led the head and neck oncology program in the Rogel Cancer Center. We collaborated on numerous grants and papers. He excelled at what I believe to be the essentials of mentoring – listening actively, giving honest feedback, offering guidance, thinking critically and providing motivation. Plus, he had the hallmark goals of any wonderful mentor – helping me become the best version of myself and, as television host Oprah Winfrey once described it, allowing me to “see the hope inside” myself.

In academic medicine and beyond, effective mentor-mentee relationships can have an enormous impact on things like job performance, career advancement, promotions, job satisfaction and leadership opportunities. Studies have found that career satisfaction improves with both formal and informal mentorship, and faculty in formal mentorship programs are often promoted more than a year earlier than other faculty.

Mentors benefit, too. According to research, mentors are more satisfied with their jobs compared to non-mentors and are more committed to their organization. They also get a window into the mindset of a different generational workforce as well as the joy of helping someone achieve their goals.

I encourage you to embrace the spirit of mentorship in your career. Consider whether you would like to become or seek out a mentor and know that, either way, you will be leaving a legacy.

Learn more about mentoring opportunities for faculty and for students conducting research  at The Ohio State University College of Medicine.  

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Strategies for effective mentor-mentee matching.

The text outlines the importance of effective mentor-mentee matching in modern workplaces, emphasizing the need for a strategic, technology-enhanced approach to foster professional growth. It discusses strategies for identifying mentors, creating structured matching processes, leveraging technology for better matches, and regularly evaluating and adjusting pairings to ensure success and satisfaction in mentorship programs.

• Author: HRD Connect
• Date published: Apr 22, 2024

Mentor/mentee matching in the workplace can be tricky because it’s a bit like setting up a good friendship—it’s not just about pairing people together and hoping they click.

Each person comes with their own set of skills, experiences, and personality traits, and finding the right match means aligning all these aspects in a way that both can benefit from each other. Plus, everyone has different expectations and goals for the mentorship, so finding a pair that shares the same vision can be like finding a needle in a haystack.

This process requires careful consideration and insight, making it a challenging but crucial task in fostering a supportive work environment.

Strategies for Identifying Potential Mentors

Identifying potential mentors within an organization requires a strategic approach that supports the overall objectives of the mentorship program. The first step is to identify individuals who have the necessary expertise and experience and demonstrate a genuine desire to help others grow.

These potential mentors are typically experienced professionals who have successfully navigated their career paths and are eager to share their insights.

Using internal networks and seeking recommendations can also reveal less visible yet highly capable individuals within the organization who have valuable expertise and a passion for mentoring. This approach helps ensure a diverse, skilled, and enthusiastic group of mentors.

Creating a Structured Matching Process

Establishing a structured process for matching mentors and mentees is crucial for the success of mentorship initiatives. This begins with a thorough assessment of mentees’ career goals, strengths, and areas needing improvement.

Potential mentors are similarly assessed for their expertise, experience, and commitment to fostering someone else’s development. Employing surveys and interviews can provide in-depth insights into the needs and expectations of both parties.

Incorporating technology, such as mentor-matching software, can refine the matching process by utilizing algorithms that account for various compatibility factors.

This method not only streamlines the matching process but also enhances the chances of forming successful mentor-mentee relationships. Continuous feedback and adjustments keep the matches relevant and beneficial over time.

Leveraging Technology for Enhanced Matching

In the modern digital landscape, technology plays a key role in improving the mentor-mentee matching process. Advanced algorithms and mentor-matching software enable more sophisticated pairings that go beyond basic criteria to consider detailed compatibility aspects like work styles, personality traits, and specific learning goals.

This tech-driven approach allows for more dynamic and precise matches, ensuring that mentors and mentees are paired based on a deep alignment of their professional and personal development goals. By adopting these technologies, organizations can greatly enhance the effectiveness of their mentorship programs, resulting in more rewarding mentoring experiences.

Evaluating and Adjusting Matches for Success

Mentorship is a dynamic journey that requires ongoing evaluation and adjustment to achieve successful outcomes. It starts with setting clear and measurable goals for both mentors and mentees, tailored to their professional development objectives. Regular feedback, through surveys and personal check-ins, is essential for evaluating the effectiveness of the mentorship and pinpointing improvement areas.

Adjustments may include tweaking the matching criteria based on feedback, reassigning pairs as needed, or providing extra resources to address challenges. This iterative approach helps ensure that the mentorship program adapts to the changing needs of its participants, promoting a culture of continuous improvement and development.

By focusing on the success of each pairing, organizations can maximize the benefits of their mentorship programs, contributing significantly to the growth and satisfaction of their workforce.

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Op-Ed: How To Find A Mentor And Be A Great Mentee

W e established Monday Night Mentorship (MNM) 18 months ago to accelerate career advancement for marketers of color. What an inspiration it has been to watch this group of mentors and mentees come together and build community around this shared purpose. 

As we kick off a new year focusing on forwarding the careers of up-and-coming talent, we are also reflecting on lessons we’ve learned thus far. One topic that has been consistent across MNM is the question of: “How do I get started in a mentor relationship, and how do I make it time well spent?” If your current goals include engaging with a mentor, we are offering what we see as best practices to help you get the most out of your time with a mentor and make it productive for your mentor, too!

Mentors are everywhere. Are you looking for a mentor and thinking you need someone in exactly the same field, with more experience than you have? While that can be fruitful, it isn’t necessary and learnings can come from people across disciplines, backgrounds and levels. Most often we look for the most senior person with the most influence in their industry when trying to engage a mentor. Instead of just focusing on seniority or professional experience, reflect on the personality type and characteristics that will best serve you as you enter the relationship. It’s often more important for the relationship to feel like a good fit, rather than forcing a specific set of requirements. [For example, if you require someone who will push you past your comfort zone, engaging someone who is more of a listener or “passive” in their recommendations may not feel like a good fit, resulting in frustration versus motivation and action.] 

A mentorship is a relationship. Like any relationship, it’s two-way. Mentors are eager to help, but the relationship will be more fruitful if it feels like a partnership rather than an unlimited resource to draw from. What can make the difference in resource vs partnership is for you as the mentee to offer value: Do you do your homework and show up to the relationship prepared and thoughtful? Do you listen and contribute in ways that build the relationship? Do you offer support and celebrate wins the way you would for a colleague?

Share why you reached out. It is helpful for a mentor to understand why you reached out for a conversation. If it is general — “You’ve had an amazing career!” “You’re in such a cool role!” “I’d love to pick your brain!” — that demonstrates that you haven’t thought deeply about your motivations and the rationale for the match. Be selective about who you solicit a partnership from, and communicate that to the mentor so they are clear, too.  

Be prepared. Mentors are eager to help – they wouldn’t agree to give of their time and energy if they weren’t — but in order to get the most out of your time with a mentor,  you must be prepared and intentional. Provide thorough context of what you need from the mentor including what they can help you with, what your goals are, why you chose them, the time commitment you are seeking and how frequently you would like  to meet. 

Make the meeting(s) easy, and not too long. Send your prepared information ahead of your first meeting so that the mentor can be prepared as well. Make it easy for your mentor by sending a calendar invitation, the context and the agenda. Often, multiple shorter meetings (for example, two, 30-minute-meetings) are better than a longer session. It also provides enough time for you to take action in between sessions and then you can report back on your progress.

Do your homework about your mentor. While it is good to be curious about your mentor and their career path, a lot of information can be found online. Requesting to “know all about your journey” is not a great use of time and there is rarely value in a mentor reciting their background. Try a different approach. Do you have questions about a specific part of their journey? For example, do you want to know more about balancing parenting and your career? Experiences outside of your home country? Or perhaps there is something in particular you’ve learned about the mentor’s background that might be applicable to you. Choose a focus area to get the most value from the conversation.

Work on your story. In MNM we spend time with mentees on helping them craft, distill and deliver their stories. The exercise of knowing yourself, writing your story down, and getting feedback from mentors and peers is invaluable. Providing a starting point for your mentor to digest and react to is a better use of time than having them search for this information from you. Create a draft and bring it to your first mentor meeting. It is an excellent first assignment to set the stage for who you are, where you are today, and where you’re trying to go.

Be specific. It isn’t unusual to have moments in our careers where we’re searching for a path and feeling a bit lost. We’ve all been there. That said, if you enter a mentor relationship to get unstuck and your ask for help is too general, it has a counterintuitive impact on your mentor: they can feel paralyzed. If you’ve done your homework, set intentions and worked on your story, it should help bring your “ask” for your mentor into focus. 

Be bold. Mentors love to help make your vision a reality. No ask is too bold. The worst case scenario is that your mentor says no, but if you don’t ask, we can’t help. Try framing the ask as an open-ended question: “How might you be able to help me [fill in the blank]?” instead of “Can you help me [fill the blank]?” This gives the mentor room to brainstorm approaches with you.

Make room for a two-way conversation. Don’t spend the whole meeting talking. Make room and time for the mentor to answer your questions. If you’ve sent information ahead of time, no need to repeat it. Keep the intro short and to the point so there is time for a robust discussion with real outcomes.

Feedback is a gift. Kick off your relationship by establishing that you’d like feedback, and offering to provide feedback. Ask for feedback after a session or two. Tell your mentor what was helpful, and if you are comfortable, share what wasn’t helpful as well. Mentors want to grow as much as you do.

Stay in touch. Did your mentor offer advice on a particular situation? Did you discuss an action item you were going to take? Follow up with your mentor and let them know how you implemented the advice and what the outcome was. Mentors want to learn if they’re offering workable suggestions.

Whether you’re currently in the MNM community, considering joining, or exploring how to grow in a mentee/mentor relationship, we hope these approaches spark some ideas and are helpful.  Even if you only employ one or two, you’ll be much further on your way to realizing real value from a relationship with a mentor.

– Monday Night Mentorship, Board of Mentors:

Julian Duncan, Pamela Neferkara, Jason White, Melissa Waters, Kofi Amoo-Gottfried, Annie Jean-Baptiste, Will Valentine, Sari De, Daniel Cherry, Devika Brij, Orlando Baeza, Menaka Gopinath

MNM began as a way to support, empower and provide resources for marketers of color. We’ve designed our program to center the experiences of groups that have been historically underrepresented in the professional industry. As we continue to grow, we remain committed to serving and centering the lived experiences of professionals of color, but our doors are also open to aspiring allies who want to build community, learn from one another, and commit to building a more equitable ecosystem for historically underrepresented groups. 

Alumni Mentoring Program - Mentor & Mentee Guide

Mission The Engineering Alumni Mentor Program seeks to foster meaningful and productive one-on one relationship between alumni and students of the Stanley and Karen Pigman College of Engineering through the sharing of professional and life experiences. The program is centered on the dual goals of strengthening alumni connections with the Stanley and Karen Pigman College of Engineering as well as placing students on the path to success. Mentoring is seen as essential to the college’s mission given the unique way in which alumni mentors help care for and form the whole student. Mentoring relationships involve an initial eight-month commitment that may be renewed throughout the student’s undergraduate career.

Applications Stanely and Karen Pigman College of Engineering students may apply through the first month of school. Preference is given to sophomores, juniors, and seniors, although all students are welcome to apply. Alumni may apply to be matched with a student mentee on a rolling basis. Matching Every effort is made to match a student with a mentor that have overlapping major and/or career interests. After matches are established, students and mentors are notified by email. Stanley and Karen Pigman College of Engineering staff will review applications to assign matches and notify pairs.

Timeline Matches will be communicated by the end of September. Mentor and mentee pairs are expected to connect at least once a month from October through April. Mentor and mentee pairs are welcome to continue working together after the conclusion of the formal program. There will be a virtual kickoff informational meeting for mentors and mentees in September.

Format Mentors and mentees may meet in-person, over the phone, or virtually. Students and mentors will complete a brief survey at the conclusion of the program to reflect on the experience and provide feedback.

Guidelines for a Successful Mentoring Relationship

• Be respectful and on time for all meetings with your mentor.
• Take initiative and think about questions or topics you would like to discuss with your mentor before your meetings.
• Maintain communication within the established schedule and respond to their contact promptly.
• Determine your interests, skills, and goals and share these with your mentor.
• Ask for help and guidance; seek out information related to your career development.
• Accept both praise and constructive feedback.
• Share your story and experience as appropriate and as you are comfortable.
• Ask open ended questions to promote deeper discussion.
• Respond to your mentee in a timely manner when they reach out to schedule meetings.
• Consider connecting your mentee with other professionals in your network that could further help your mentee reach their goals.

Outline for the First Meeting

• Get acquainted by sharing your backgrounds (see potential discussion questions below)
• Discuss expectations or intentions you each have for the relationship over the course of the year
• Set goals for the mentoring relationship, informed by what the student wants to work on or discuss
• Schedule your next meeting (at least one meeting/month)

Suggested Topics to Discuss

• Career tracks
• Career exploration
• Types of businesses/employers Current issues in the profession Job market trends
• Organizational culture
• Professional organization membership Quality of life in the profession Work/life balance
• Management issues
• Approaches to ethical/professional dilemmas
• Business dress
• Study/travel/employment abroad Campus involvement
• Senior design project ideas Professional dinner etiquette
• Online/social media etiquette
• Internship search advice
• Career fair navigation advice
• Job search advice
• Resumes and cover letters
• Interviewing and networking skills

Suggested Activities

• Chat via Zoom, Skype, Google Hangout, FaceTime, etc.
• Meet for coffee or a meal
• Field trip to mentor’s company or job site
• Resume review
• Attend a professional organization or networking event together
• Lecture or conference attendance
• Community service
• Informational interview(s) with colleague(s) of mentor
• Read and discuss a brook, essay, or article

Questions to Ask Your Mentor

Education & preparation.

• Why did you choose to attend UK? What led you to engineering?
• How much formal education is needed in your field? What sort of special training or advanced degree is required?
• What are the important characteristics (personal traits/qualities) for someone entering this field?
• What kinds of experience do employers want?
• What kinds of extracurricular activities and/or volunteer experiences would be beneficial?
• Are there minors/electives/special knowledge and skills that would be helpful in this field?
• What type of part-time, full-time, or summer jobs should I be seeking right now that may prepare me for this career path?

Working Conditions

• Would you please describe your organization (its mission, size, structure, etc.)?
• What is your job title?
• What did the interview process you went through look like?
• What is the typical career path in this field? What are the entry-level positions?
• How many hours per week are you expected to work? Any additional hours?
• What other things are expected of you outside working hours (such as civic or social obligations)?
• What is a typical day on the job like for you?
• What times of year are busiest/slowest?
• What are the most satisfying and the most frustrating parts of your work?
• In what ways can this job be stressful? What are the daily pressures you contend with?
• How much variety does this job involve? What is the pace of work? Is travel required?
• What is the starting salary for an entry-level position?
• How did you find your first job after graduation? What avenues did you explore to find job openings in your field?
• What role does networking play, if any, to help break into this field?
• How important is it to know someone in the industry?
• What professional associations or organizations are useful to belong to in this field?
• What magazines, journals, and website are important to read in this field?

Industry & Advancement

• How has the field changed since you started your career?
• What are the trends/challenges you see in the future of this field? What are the major trends/challenges you face today?
• How is the job market for your field in this area of the country?
• How long should I expect to stay in an entry-level position?
• What are the opportunities for advancement?
• What would be the next step in a career path for a job like this?

About Your Mentor

• What is your background? Describe your career path. How have you progressed to your present position?
• What do you find personally rewarding in your career?
• What do you find frustrating or disappointing about your career?
• If you were starting out again, would you plan your career the same way? What would you do differently?
• If your job were suddenly eliminated, what other kinds of work could you do?
• What was the most surprising part of your transition from college to work?