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Buildings for books: the complete story of the library

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For 20 years architectural historian Dr James Campbell waited for someone to write a definitive book about libraries. When he decided to write one himself, his research took him to 82 libraries in 21 countries. The Library: A World History is much overdue but well worth waiting for.

A history of libraries is much more than a compendium of buildings: it’s also a story about the history of art, science, technology, culture, belief and education – and how all these strands mesh together Dr James Campbell

In 1975 archaeologists investigating the palace of the ancient city of Elba in Syria uncovered a room containing fragments of some 15,000 inscribed tablets. The shelves that once held them had collapsed but, scattered on the ground, the tablets remained roughly in the order in which they had been placed some 4,000 years ago. In 2012 a tiny library opened across the world in Jiaojiehe, north of Beijing. Its Chinese architect designed this exquisite building with an area where visitors can sit by the fire and sip tea, read and dream.

The Library: A World History (Thames & Hudson) by Dr James Campbell, an architectural historian in the Department of Architecture at Cambridge University, is the scholarly and highly readable story of what happened between the making of the earliest libraries and the design of their modern counterparts. It is a journey that takes the reader through some of the grandest libraries in the world which in their various ways reflect mankind’s preoccupation with learning as represented by books in all their guises.

Campbell’s previous book Brick: A World History is an account of what mankind has constructed by employing the simplest of materials: baked mud. In writing The Library , he reveals not just his passion for books and buildings but also his grasp of the human endeavours that connect the two. Most importantly for us, he is motivated by a desire to share his enthusiasm and expertise. Without compromising on accuracy in his discussion of each of the libraries he visits, he provides a gripping narrative.

We asked Dr Campbell five questions about his book and the research that went into it.

As a student I wrote a dissertation about the Radcliffe Camera in Oxford, a building which is in some ways a mausoleum for its benefactor, the physician Sir John Radcliffe. As I embarked on my research, I looked for a book that told the whole story of the architecture of libraries and found that there really wasn’t one. I waited 20 years for someone to write the kind of book I wanted to read – and when no-one did, I decided that I’d write one myself.

As an undergraduate at Cambridge I naturally spent a lot of time in libraries – the wonderful Wren Library at Trinity College, where I was a student, the University Library which I love, and the Old Squire Law Library (now the Library of Gonville and Caius), where I spent a lot of time revising for exams. Libraries have a feel of their own, a smell of their own. It’s something you notice right away when you walk into the UL, the scent of thousands of dusty books – paper, leather, glue – with the inevitable and inimitable whiff of age and decay.

So libraries combine two of my interests: buildings and books. In The Library I’ve concentrated on a particular kind of library - some of the world’s finest examples of the buildings designed to house books – and I’ve explored the topic chronologically. Of course, a history of libraries is much more than a compendium of buildings: it’s also a story about the history of art, science, technology, culture, belief and education – and how all these strands mesh together.

How does the history of the library reflect the history of the book – and vice versa?

Books and the buildings made for them are closely interconnected - with advances in technology shaping both the form that books take and the ways in which they are protected, stored and made available to readers. Books as we know them have their origins in clay tablets which were inscribed with accounts. Next came the use of papyrus and parchment, followed by the development of paper made from textiles, the invention of block printing in the East and mechanical printing press in the West. Jumping almost six centuries, we see the emergence of digital technologies that transformed the storing the storage of, and access to, knowledge over the last ten years.

The library at Queens' College, Cambridge, where I am a Fellow, shows evidence of how libraries were adapted over time and to meet changing needs. The lecterns made to hold a small number of books were adapted in the later 17th century to make tall bookcases to accommodate the growing number of books in the college collection. The stall system of dividing libraries into alcoves where readers could sit started in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge and was copied all over the country in public and private libraries. It allowed for a large number of books to be shelved and accessed, with each alcove or bay being a library within a library.

Throughout history libraries have often lagged behind advances in technology.  The new British Library was 40 years in the making. By the time it was complete, the card system it had been designed to incorporate had been superseded by digital technologies to do the same job using a fraction of the space.

What was (and is) the purpose of libraries?

Libraries are all about capturing, storing and cataloguing knowledge. But you only have to glimpse the fabulous photographs that Will Pryce took for the book to understand that libraries are about are about much more than simply housing books. They are about power and status: they are an outward demonstration of learning and accomplishment. Some of the most spectacular libraries – particularly the great Baroque and Rococo examples found in Europe – are theatrical and palatial in their celebration of the arts and sciences. Although many of the great libraries have an impressive sense of space, they weren't designed as places for reading books. Readers would take the books and read them somewhere else: the space is a measure of the importance accorded to the contents.

The medieval libraries of the monasteries – which were the great centres of learning in the West - were an attempt to capture all the knowledge in the world in one building. Some of the world’s most stunning historic libraries held what seem to us today very small numbers of books. In 1338 the Sorbonne Library in Paris had 338 books available for consultation and 1,728 books on its register, 300 of which were marked as lost.

Can you tell us about your partnership with the photographer, Will Pryce?

You can’t experience a building without physically being there, so Will and I travelled together to all the 82 libraries that feature in the book. When we reached our destination we would discuss the key issues. Will would then pick the shots that he felt best portrayed the library while reflecting what I would be writing. The clarity of the pictures is due to the time it takes to set each shot up. Will uses a large format digital camera which produces stunning pictures of extraordinary resolution. It can take up to an hour to capture a single view.

For Will, one of the greatest challenges was light and getting a true representation of the colours. Many of the great libraries we visited for the book are now lit by electric light which turns colours yellow, green or blue so our first task was to persuade the librarians to switch off the lights and let the natural light flood in. Many of the librarians were amazed at how well their libraries were designed in terms of making the most of the natural light.

However, the library I would most like to go back to is Admont Abbey Library in Austria. When Will and I went to see it, there was four feet of snow on the ground outside. It was so cold in the library that we wore outdoor winter clothing to keep warm. Designed by the architect Josef Hueber and constructed between 1764 and 1774, it is one of the world's longest monastic libraries, 13 metres wide and 72 metres long. The predominant colours are white and gold; when it was built, the abbey's existing books were rebound in white pigskin at enormous expense to match the shelves. The object of monastic study was to reach wisdom and the focus of the sumptuous decorative scheme, commissioned by the abbots to embody the church's teachings, is the figure of Divine Wisdom. The domed ceiling is lavishly pained with classical and religious scenes, the floor is tiled in a dazzling black-and-white three-dimensional pattern, and staircases to the balconied galleries are concealed behind secret doors set into the bookshelves. Walking into this ethereal space is like entering a world of thoughts.

Dr James Campbell is a Senior University Lecturer in the Department of Architecture and a Fellow of Queens' College, Cambridge. The Library: A World History by James Campbell with photographs by Will Pryce is published by Thames and Hudson.

For more information about this story contact Alexandra Buxton, Office of Communications, University of Cambridge [email protected] 01223 761673

Inset images from top: Radcliffe Camera (Oxford),  Library of the Chapter of Noyon Cathedral (France) ,  Trinity Hall Library (Cambridge),  Queens College Library (Cambridge),  Mafra Library (Portugal), Altenburg Abbey (Austria),  Tripitaka Koreana (Korea),  Admont Abbey Library (Austria). Copyright Will Pryce .

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Licence . If you use this content on your site please link back to this page.

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Credit: Will Pryce

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International Conference on Computer Science, Environment, Ecoinformatics, and Education

CSEE 2011: Advances in Computer Science, Environment, Ecoinformatics, and Education pp 63–67 Cite as

The Origin and Development of Library

• Chengbao Zhang 2  
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Part of the book series: Communications in Computer and Information Science ((CCIS,volume 215))

From the buildings used to store books to the modern library, the term “library” contains a long history. This paper focuses on the transformation of library from ancient China to the modern form, and demonstrating the transformation of library in China.

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Zhu, L.: On the Origin of Book Storage. Journal of Jiangxi Library (2009)

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Zhang, R.: On the Origin of Modern Libraries in China. Frontline (2007)

Lifeng, L.: From Book-storing House to Liarbry. Journal of Shaoxing Art and Science College (2005)

Chen, H.: A Reflection on the Histiry of Libraries in China. Research on Books and Intelligence in Shanghai (2003)

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Library, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, Shandong, China, 255049

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Zhang, C. (2011). The Origin and Development of Library. In: Lin, S., Huang, X. (eds) Advances in Computer Science, Environment, Ecoinformatics, and Education. CSEE 2011. Communications in Computer and Information Science, vol 215. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-23324-1_12

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How Ben Franklin Invented the Library as We Know It

Books were rare and expensive in colonial America, but the founding father had an idea

Elizabeth Webster

Founding father  Benjamin Franklin knew better than most the benefits of self-education. In 1727, he established the Philadelphia-based discussion group known as the Junto, which sought “mutual improvement” through intellectual dialogue. Yet while Franklin enjoyed the Junto’s spirited—and secret—debates on matters moral and scientific, he became convinced that the group needed an authoritative library to referee basic facts. Books were rare and expensive in colonial America, but Franklin had an idea.

He conceived of a library with a subscription fee, the Library Company of Philadelphia , which he founded in 1731. The Library Company allowed members—at first, largely male artisans of modest means—to purchase shares in the library at a low cost. Members also built a sort of intellectual wealth with their shares, as they could be passed down from generation to generation. Since Franklin wished to ensure access to useful books, he favored volumes in English that could be more widely understood. The Library Company’s catalog would respond to readers’ fervent interests—and those readers kept multiplying: After early successes, the Library Company soon began allowing non-shareholders to borrow books, too, requiring only a small fee as collateral. This innovative structure quickly inspired imitators, and by 1800, there were more than 40 lending libraries throughout the United States. During the same era in Britain, philanthropists donated books to libraries for community enrichment, but only among the stacks; these libraries did not generally circulate books. In some instances, books were chained to bookshelves to prevent theft.

By 1771, as the Revolution neared, Franklin reflected in his autobiography on the lending library’s crucial role in fostering democracy: “These libraries have improved the general conversation of the Americans” and “made the common tradesmen and farmers as intelligent as most gentlemen from other countries.” From the Revolutionary War until 1800, the Library Company served as the first de facto Library of Congress while the federal government was in Philadelphia.

Still supported by shareholders, the Library Company today stands as an independent research library, free and open to the public. Some of its earliest holdings, such as Franklin’s original copy of Logic, or, the Art of Thinking by Antoine Arnauld and Pierre Nicole, are preserved in its vast, non-circulating collection. Though the Library Company currently specializes in American history before 1900, its mission remains the same. “[The founders] knew that democracies were inherently fragile and that the only way you could sustain a democracy was by having an educated populace,” says Michael J. Barsanti, who served as director of the Library Company until this past February. “That’s one of our first, most important roles as an institution, and it’s one that we still have today. … We are trying to remind people, using the Junto as our inspiration, that … we learn best when we learn together.”

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2 History of Libraries

We have already explored several terms that may have other meanings in external fields of research but that have specific meanings in library science. In order for you to understand the terms and trends in the field, you will need to develop a knowledge of its lexicon. A Lexicon is a specialized collection of words that are unique, or at least have a unique meaning, for a particular field. For example, the word “Record” has been defined as a formatted collection of all of an item’s metadata. You would not, however, refer to a medical history record as a collection of all metadata about a patient. A medical history record is a chart or data collection about a patient’s treatments and health throughout a given period of time. These definitions are similar, and comparable, but are not entirely appropriate when applied to each others’ fields.

Libraries in the Ancient and Pre-American World

Ironically, in order to understand the concept of libraries you will need to understand a different definition of the word “lexicon.” Originally, it was a term for a dictionary or thesaurus that recorded all of the words in a given language. Ancient civilizations used to create lexicons with each others’ languages as a type of training manual. These were among the first books to be written down. Many ancient Greek lexicons exist.

The first writing system, however, was not the Greek language. The honor of creating the first written language belongs to the ancient kingdom of Sumer. Sumerians developed a system of writing called Cuneiform . This language utilized a pattern of symbols carved into stone and clay. The earliest examples of cuneiform writing describe day-to-day activities such as purchasing groceries and larger matters such as settling land disputes. Cuneiform usage spread throughout the area and became standard in several other kingdoms during the Bronze Age.

Papyrus was the first light and easily-transportable material on which one could write information. This plant material was pressed into sheets by the Ancient Egyptians around 2900 B.C.E. It became the dominant medium for writing things down throughout the ancient world, even being used by the ancient Greeks. Papyrus documents were not folded into the book-shaped form we know today. Rather, they were rolled together.

The standard form of books came much later. Religious scholars and monks wrote texts on sheets of paper, and some of these were folded into small books called “quartos.” After a long time of handwritten text and large block printing, the Printing Revolution came in the 1450s, when Johannes Gutenberg printed his Gutenberg Bible . Many books, including previous works and new ones, swiftly followed the Gutenberg Bible. Information spread throughout the Western world, chiefly carried by books.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, some of the more important European libraries were founded, such as the Bodleian Library at Oxford, the British Museum Library in London, the Mazarine Library and the Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, the Austrian National Library in Vienna, the National Central Library in Florence, the Prussian State Library in Berlin, the Załuski Library in Warsaw and the M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin State Public Library of St Petersburg. [1] The 18th century is when we see the beginning of the modern public library. In France, the French Revolution saw the confiscation in 1789 of church libraries and rich nobles’ private libraries, and their collections became state property. The confiscated stock became part of a new national library – the Bibliothèque Nationale. Two famous librarians, Hubert-Pascal Ameilhon and Joseph Van Praet, selected and identified over 300,000 books and manuscripts that became the property of the people in the  Bibliothèque Nationale . During the French Revolution, librarians were solely responsible for the bibliographic planning of the nation. Out of this came the implementation of the concept of library service – the democratic extension of library services to the general public regardless of wealth or education. [2]

Libraries in the United States

Libraries were an important part of the beginning of the United States. In addition to academic libraries essential to educational systems created in colonial settlements in the American colonies, libraries in private residences provided access to much of the information necessary to foment the American Revolution and create the first American government. Libraries are so important to the federal government that in 1800, John Adams approved the creation of a Library of Congress. This library was damaged by the fire started by British soldiers in the War of 1812, but it was more than replenished when Thomas Jefferson donated his personal library of almost 6,500 books to its collections. Physical books were the main holdings of the library, and its scope was limited to members of Congress, although the public was welcome to look at popular books. In 1897, the library received its own building and became the largest library in the entire world at that time.

Since then, the Library of Congress has adapted and evolved into a unique, global institution, widely known for its free, non-partisan service to Congress, librarians, scholars, and the public—in the United States and around the world. It has become the gold standard for libraries everywhere. This is why we follow the procedures, practices, and classifying norms we do–because the Library of Congress has collaborated with professionals around the world to create internationally-recognized standards.

Institutions and Realities of the Modern World of Librarianship

The other major organizations in modern librarianship in the United States are OCLC and the American Library Association. The ALA was founded on October 6, 1876. Its purpose was originally to facilitate connections between librarians rather than serve as a massive organization and network for libraries as institutions. Gradually, it morphed into that latter definition. It promotes the use of librarianship and information literacy education to encourage advocacy, diversity, and lifelong learning. In addition to the norms of LCC, the Code of Ethics and the Bill of Rights provided by the ALA are  the guiding documents of the profession. Librarians in all types of libraries adhere to these principles.

OCLC, which used to refer to the Ohio College Library Center and then the Online Computer Library Center, now stands for nothing. Literally. That is the name of the organization. This group produces the most effective trainings and products for librarianship. They are the force behind Interlibrary Loan, WebDewey, Connexion, and WorldCat. While they have somewhat misappropriated their influence to form a monopoly, they have also created tools that are invaluable. The Library of Congress Classification Web service can be used in conjunction with these to help in many technical services aspects of librarianship. WorldCat can even help with some patron service aspects as well.

In today’s modern world, there are more information and data carriers than books or other verbal media. Audiovisual, audio, and image carriers are also wonderful ways to obtain data and information and cement knowledge into our minds. This book explores the many different types of libraries and the similar functions and services they all offer to their patrons.

When we think of libraries today, we usually visualize the public library. However, the public library is a relatively new development in the history of library science. While books and libraries are typically seen as the great equalizer in terms of information, the original libraries only served the wealthy members of society. Thus, power that was originally in the hands of the clergy because of lack of information only spread to the wealthy and educated upper class. Libraries only gave items to those who sponsored their collections and maintenance. This original library iteration was known as the Subscription Library . Although subscription libraries exist today, member institutions often extend their privileges to students and others. For example, a library may create an institutional account to the “subscription library”-esque site of Encyclopedia Britannica. All of its members can thus access all of Encyclopedia Britannica’s pages.

How did the first libraries categorize and catalog their holdings and collections? There were no set criteria for cataloging items or works. Organization depended largely on the whim of the local librarian. The first major break from this trend was the creation of the Dewey Decimal Classification System by Melvil Dewey in the late nineteenth century. This system is currently in its 23rd iteration. It is increasingly being replaced by the Library of Congress Classification System. However, the DDC is still significant in that it was the first comprehensive attempt to categorize all knowledge contained in library items.

• Stockwell, Foster (2000).  A History of Information and Storage Retrieval .  ISBN   0-7864-0840-5 . ↵
• Mukherjee, A. K. (1966)  Librarianship: its Philosophy and History . Asia Publishing House; p. 112. ↵

This word has two meanings:

A dictionary A collection of vocabulary words and phrases that are important to a specific group of people. Words in this collection are often referred to colloquially as "jargon" or "lingo."

The glossary of this book follows the second definition. Many of these words have definitions that are unique to the world of librarianship (for example, MARC). Other definitions are similar to external definitions (for example, customer service).

The first symbols recorded on a movable record. This system of writing was invented by the Sumerians around 3200 B.C.E. Scribes wrote these symbols into stone walls or clay tablets.

This is the first material on which words or ideas were written. It was invented around the 2900 BCE in Egypt. From there, its use spread to Ancient Greece and other kingdoms. It was the dominant medium for writing until paper was invented in China around three and a half thousand years later.

One of the first books printed by Johannes Gutenberg on a printing press in the 1450s. This was proof that information and data was spreadable to people by other means than handwriting. The proliferation of this Bible was made even more significant by the fact that the type blocks used to create the Bible were mass-produced. After the creation of this Bible, many printed books followed.

A library whose access extends only to those who pay a subscription fee. Under certain circumstances, members can extend their membership to other interested parties for a limited time or to a limited scope of materials. This type of library is similar to a database whose data can only be accessed by paying individuals or institutions.

A system created by Melvil Dewey in the late nineteenth century to classify all knowledge into ten broad categories. This system has been modified twenty three times until the current iteration, Dewey Decimal System Edition 23, was created in early 2010s. It is often used on its own and in conjunction with the Library of Congress Classification System.

Introduction to Library and Information Science Copyright © 2023 by College of Southern Idaho is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Seminars Index

History of Libraries

These seminars are jointly sponsored by the Institute of English Studies, the Institute of Historical Research, the Warburg Institute and the Library & Information History Group of CILIP.

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Term 1- Autumn 2023

CANCELLED: Reconstructing the libraries of King James VI and I, Britain’s most bookish monarch

Alex Plane ((Newcastle University))

Early modern semi-public libraries workshop

Public libraries in the roman world.

Matthew Nicholls (St John’s College, Oxford)

Term 2- Winter 2023

‘fiction and film as both record and distortion'.

Alistair Black (University of Illinois)

Reconstructing the libraries of King James VI and I, Britain’s most bookish monarch

Alex Plane (Newcastle University)

'Towards a comprehensive bibliography of private library catalogues published in France during the hand-press era (1630-1830)’

Helwi Blom (Radboud University, Nijmegen)

Libraries Then and Now: The Ideas We Share

What products or materials come to mind when you think of libraries? The obvious things might be books and shelving, but to keep a library functioning other items are needed as well. Supplies for circulating and tracking books and identifying ownership of books remain largely behind the scenes but are just as important.

Classified Illustrated Catalog of the Library Department of Library Bureau (1899) by Library Bureau is a trade catalog providing us a glimpse into supplies and equipment that library staff in 1899 might have used to complete their everyday tasks. Though much has changed, we might recognize some basic concepts that still exist.

Today we use a library borrower’s card to check out a book. Typically, each book has a barcode that assists library staff in circulating and tracking that particular book via an online library system. We might also notice a property stamp inside the book. The property stamp identifies the library that owns the book. What supplies did libraries in 1899 use to circulate and identify their materials?

As highlighted in a previous post , paper-based charging systems were used to circulate books before the availability of computers and online library systems. Both types of systems require borrower’s cards, but paper-based charging systems also require a book card or charging card for each book.

An example of a borrower’s card from 1899 is shown below. The top portion included general information pertaining to the user such as name and address. It also included the Borrower’s Pledge. A version of this pledge might sound familiar to us today. As in the example below, library borrowers pledged to be responsible for all materials charged to them. The bottom portion of the card included ruled lines for noting borrowed books and dates for when each book was borrowed and returned.

When a paper-based charging system is used, a charging card, or book card, for each book is also necessary. An example of a charging card from 1899 is shown below. It included ruled lines on both the front and back to record information about the book. The three lines at the top were intended for entering the title and author of the book and its number, what we typically refer to as a call number today. Below that section were more ruled lines or small boxes. Each time the book was checked out and returned, library staff recorded such things as borrowing date and returned date in those small boxes. This provided a history of the book’s circulation.

To record those dates on the cards, library staff might have used the Self-Inking Library Dater illustrated below (middle right) or the Lever Dater also shown below (top left). Both had the ability to stamp dates in tiny spaces on cards. According to this 1899 trade catalog, the Lever Dater was Library Bureau’s “most popular style” at the time. A drawback of the Self-Inking Library Dater might have been that it was not as noiseless as the Lever Stamp.

Dates were just one piece of information for which libraries might have used a stamp. The Self-Inker (below, bottom left) was another handy tool because it was customizable and capable of stamping both dates and words. Due to its design, another feature was its ability to stamp not only cards or single sheets of paper but also books.

Just like today, libraries in 1899 needed a way to mark ownership to assist in identifying their books. Today we might notice a property stamp inside a book stating the name of the library that owns it. In 1899, an option for marking ownership was the Perforating Stamp. As shown below, this type of stamp perforated the page by spelling out the name of the library with perforation marks. It was described as an alternative to the embossing stamp and did not increase the thickness of the book.

Now let’s take a closer look at equipment that might be useful when shelving or browsing the stacks. Every so often, library staff may come across a book that is too large to be safely shelved in its proper location. The book is typically removed and shelved in a more suitable spot based on its size. Judging from supplies offered in this trade catalog, the same thing happened in 1899.

To assist in locating an oversize book in its new location, Library Bureau offered supplies called “Wood Dummies.” These were thin boards measuring 5 x 8 x 1/4 inches and meant to be shelved in the book’s proper, or original, location. A label, such as the one below, was attached to the board to assist users in locating the book’s actual location. The label included bibliographic information and the book’s new location along with the reason for it being moved. This particular label gives several reasons. Besides being “too large for the regular shelves,” other reasons included rarity, cost, being transferred to Reference, or missing.

Every library needs step stools for reaching high shelves. These Folding Steps, illustrated below, provided an additional benefit. How many times have we been browsing the stacks and located a book but needed a quick, safe place to set it down to take a closer look at a page? The Folding Steps provided a way to do that. Along with the step stool portion which consisted of two steps, there was also a flat surface at the very top where a book might be set down if needed. These portable steps measured between two feet and three feet in height and were capable of being expanded outward to create the step stool portion or folded inward if only a stool or the flat/table top surface was needed. Both positions are shown below.

As we flip through this trade catalog, we are reminded of how much has changed in libraries over the last century, but it also shows that we continue to share some basic ideas and concepts with our predecessors. Classified Illustrated Catalog of the Library Department of Library Bureau (1899) and other catalogs by Library Bureau are located in the Trade Literature Collection at the National Museum of American History Library .

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History of arl.

For close to a century, the Association of Research Libraries has addressed issues of concern to the library, research, higher education, and scholarly communities. The Association was established at a meeting in Chicago in December 1932, by the directors of 42 major university and research libraries that recognized the need for coordinated action and desired a forum to address common problems.  The Association incorporated in 1961 under the laws of the District of Columbia noting that “the particular business and objects of the society shall be: Exclusively for literary, educational and scientific purposes by strengthening research libraries.” In 1962, the Association established a full-time secretariat with a paid executive director and staff in Washington, DC.

ARL enjoys a rich history of accomplishments and contributions based on collaborative relationships with a wide range of communities. Over time ARL has led, co-sponsored, and contributed to many national and international efforts focused on collections, preservation, copyright, open access, diversity, global outreach, statistics, assessment, leadership, and many more.

For more details about the Association’s history, please see ARL’s Wikipedia entry and Lee Anne George and Julia Blixrud, Celebrating Seventy Years of the Association of Research Libraries, 1932–2002 (Washington, DC: ARL, 2002, corrected 2008).

Researching the Integration History of Your Library

by Suzanne LaPierre on January 10, 2023

Has your public library always been open to all residents?

In April of 2021, the Fairfax County Public Library board of trustees requested an investigation into whether our library system- and those around it- had ever been segregated. The question was referred to librarians at the Virginia Room, our library’s center for history and genealogy research. When we began studying the segregation history of libraries in Northern Virginia, the case of Samuel Tucker in Alexandria was the only one that was well known. Tucker was an attorney who masterminded a 1939 sit-in to protest the library’s whites-only policy. We had no specific knowledge of other public library systems in the vicinity having been segregated. But as we dug deeper, we discovered a hidden history of exclusion, segregation, and unequal treatment in many of our local public libraries.

It’s important to know about our past and honor those who helped achieve more equity in libraries. Getting started can be the hardest part. Based on our experience, these are some places you can begin to investigate your own library’s history.

Where to Look

• Surviving in-house records in your library’s archives or files. These might include library board minutes, circulation statistics, newsletters, manuscripts, and other ephemera, especially that from the Jim Crow era. For example, our archives included monthly record forms from the 1940s divided into statistics of Black and white customers. The sections for Black customers had been crossed out by many librarians–indicating their branches did not serve Black customers. Library board meeting minutes from that time revealed the scarcity of bookmobile stations for Black residents and the decision to keep separate bookmobile materials for Black and white customers.
• Surviving records at your state library, including state library reports and minutes. The situation at the state library might not align with that at the town or county level. For example, while the Library of Virginia complied with the Virginia state mandate that public libraries receiving state aid must serve all residents (which was the law at least as early as 1946), many local libraries in Virginia nevertheless continued to exclude Black residents while accepting taxpayer funding, even into the 1960s.
• Newspaper articles, including both Black and white newspapers published during the Jim Crow years. In addition to coverage of library protests and lawsuits, you’ll find very different attitudes towards events expressed in editorials, depending on the publication’s intended audience or slant. Opinion pieces are indicative of how many residents may have reacted to integration at that time and place.
• Previously published books, especially those focused on your region. A good overview can be found in the book “The Desegregation of Public Libraries in the Jim Crow South: Civil Rights and Local Activism,” by Shirley A. and Wayne A. Wiegand, LSU Press. Microhistories include “Public in Name Only: The 1939 Alexandria Library Sit-In Demonstration,” by Brenda Mitchell-Powell, University of Massachusetts Press.
• Thesis work. Bernice Lloyd Bell’s 1962 thesis “Integration in Public Library Service in Thirteen Southern States, 1954-1962” is a good starting point for researchers. She surveyed 290 Southern libraries to determine their level of services to Black residents and provides dates for when those libraries were desegregated.Memoirs of people who lived during that time. In his memoir “Life After Life,” Danville native Evans Hopkins shares his experience as a child using the tiny two-room library reserved for Black residents of Danville, Virginia. He also writes about the shock he felt when he was finally allowed to use the main public library after it was integrated- only to find that all the tables and chairs had been removed to keep Black and white customers from sitting together.
• Oral histories. Speaking with older members of the community, relatives and co- workers of key players, and colleagues at other institutions can fill in many blanks in the story and add personal insight. Sources include Friends of the Library groups, African American history and genealogy groups, local history clubs, and current and retired library staff.Your colleagues at other institutions can be very helpful. They may already know a lot about their organization’s history, or at least be able to point you to the best sources. They may know people who would be good candidates for oral history guidance. There’s no point in reinventing the wheel, so be sure to find out about research they’ve already done or have in progress.
• Local archives. Make appointments (if necessary) to view manuscript collections at other local libraries, museums, and archives. Do fliers about library grand openings or old library card applications state that the library is open to all residents? Do photographs from events show integrated groups in attendance?
• Current landmarks. Do some foot work by visiting existing sites and landmarks that you know of already or uncover in your research. Sometimes just showing up and exploring sites in person can add depth and texture to the story. Take your own photographs, explore the area, meet locals, and see how history is preserved and interpreted (or not) in the current landscape.
• Online groups, such as Facebook local history groups, are great sources of people willing to share memories of their hometowns from decades past. Of course, you will want to cross-reference tips received with other documents and sources to verify information.
• Census records and Ancestry databases are helpful in finding more information about key players and verifying details about their lives.

Telling the Story Once you’ve pulled your research together, there are many ways you can share your institution’s history. Provide a written report and/or oral presentation to your staff, board, and/or community at large. Consider making a short video of your research. Timelines, biographical sketches of local activists, photo journals of current sites and landmarks, can all help tell the story. These might be shared via displays, exhibits, or programs.

Partner with local organizations such as museums and historic sites that may want to share – and contribute to- your research. Recognition is essential to honoring the achievements of the citizens-turned-activists who worked to desegregate public libraries. Their accomplishments often inspired further desegregation efforts in schools, movie theaters, restaurants, and other institutions.

Tags: EDISJandpubliclibraries , racialsegregationinpubliclibraries , segregationhistorypubliclibraries

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Cal poly timeline and history.

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October 1903: California Polytechnic School

The founding of California Polytechnic State University, with its “learn-by-doing” philosophy, began when local journalist Myron Angel gathered a group of citizens in 1894 to lobby for a state school in San Luis Obispo. On March 8, 1901, Governor Gage signed legislation to establish the California Polytechnic School. On a visit to San Luis Obispo on May 9, 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt praised the citizens for their support of the state school. The first classes met October 1, 1903.

Early beginnings: co-ed vocational

Beginning as a co-educational vocational school during the Progressive Era, Cal Poly has become the country’s leading undergraduate university in the West. By the time  Robert Weir Ryder  was appointed director in 1914, students of the Polytechnic School had formed the first student body association, and the campus had celebrated the combination annual picnic and Decennial, bringing 3,000 visiting students back to campus.

The Poly P , one of the oldest hillside initials in the West, has always been an important part of Cal Poly history, from its stone-and-lime origins in 1919 to the use of whitewashed barn doors by the Rally Club in the 1940s, to its present concrete form.

WWI decreases enrollment

Voorhis gift: southern California training center

In 1938, Cal Poly received its first million-dollar gift when Charles and Jerry Voorhis donated their Southern California ranch for use as a horticultural training center.

WWII: Rosie the Riveter and post-war enrollment

In preparation for World War II, Cal Poly’s Rosie the Riveter training programs were set in motion, and Navy pre-flight training began in 1942. After the war, Cal Poly expanded as World War II veterans enrolled under the G.I. Bill, with on-campus housing made available at the married student village, Vetville.

Kellogg gift: Pomona campus takes root

In 1949, cereal magnate W. K. Kellogg donated his Arabian horse ranch to Cal Poly, and the Pomona campus came into being (now Cal Poly Pomona). In the same year, the San Luis Obispo and Pomona campuses combined forces to produce the first Cal Poly float for the Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena. In 1956, women were once again admitted as students at Cal Poly.

Plane Crash Tragedy

Cal Poly’s darkest hours were in the aftermath of the 1960 crash of the plane carrying the college’s football team. Sixteen Mustang football players, the student manager, a member of the Mustang Booster Club, and four others perished on October 29. Of the forty-eight persons aboard the chartered aircraft, another twenty-two were injured, some gravely.

Learn by Doing continues

In 1966, after 33 years as Cal Poly’s leader, President McPhee retired.  Robert E. Kennedy  succeeded him, ushering in a period of remarkable growth and expansion. The arrival of  President Warren J. Baker  in 1979 continued the success of Cal Poly and its learn-by-doing philosophy.

For the 2001 Centennial celebrations, the first book-length history of Cal Poly was created.  Cal Poly: The First Hundred Years  features 320 illustrations from all decades of campus life.  Copies are available in Special Collections and Archives and the main collections at the Kennedy Library .

Image caption (above): Students on campus, 1956 .

Image caption (below): Portrait collage of Cal Poly presidents.

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Francis G. Summersell Center for the Study of the South Short-Term Research Fellowship Program

To support the study of southern history and promote the use of the manuscript collections housed at The University of Alabama, the Frances S. Summersell Center for the Study of the South, the Charles G. Summersell Chair of Southern History, and the U.A. Library will offer a total of eight research fellowships in the amount of $750 each for the 2024-2025 academic year. Eligible researchers will have projects that entail work to be conducted in southern history or southern studies at the W.S. Hoole Special Collections Library, the A.S. Williams III Americana Collection, or any other University of Alabama collections.

The deadline for applications is May 1, 2024. Decisions regarding the awards will be made no later than May 15, 2024, and research may be conducted anytime between June 1, 2024 and May 31, 2025.

Both academic and non-academic researchers at any stage of their careers are encouraged to apply. Because fellowships are designed primarily to help defray travel and lodging expenses, however, eligibility is restricted to researchers living outside the Tuscaloosa area.

Completed applications will consist of electronic copies of the following materials:

• A current CV

• One letter of recommendation

• A description of the research project, no longer than one single-spaced page which includes a description of the particular resources to be used during the term of the fellowship

All application materials and questions about the fellowship should be directed to:

Prof. John M. Giggie, Director Frances S. Summersell Center for the Study of the South Department of History The University of Alabama Box 870212 202 ten Hoor Hall Tuscaloosa, AL 35487 Email: [email protected] Tel: 205-348-1859

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Seaver center for western history research.

The Seaver Center for Western History Research is the two-dimensional and flat objects collection area of the History Department.

Our purpose is to collect, preserve, and make available to the general public research materials documenting the history of the trans-Mississippi West, with special emphasis on Southern California and Los Angeles.

Historic records include manuscript materials, books, serials, pamphlets, broadsides, maps, posters, prints, and photographs.

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To schedule a research appointment, please call 213.763.3359 or write to the Seaver Center at [email protected]  to discuss your research interests.  There may be ways we can provide the information you need without an in-person visit.   Research appointments are Wednesdays/Thursdays from 10 am to noon; 1 pm to 4 pm.

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Frequently asked questions, what is the seaver center  .

The Seaver Center for Western History Research is a repository and research center for historic papers (two-dimensional flat objects) within the History Department of the Natural History Museums of Los Angeles County (NHMLAC).

What are the differences between Museum Archives and the Seaver Center for Western History Research?  

Both the Museum Archives and the Seaver Center collect two-dimensional items that contain information of enduring historical value, such as letters, photographs, posters, and brochures. However Museum Archives hold records that reflect the museum's institutional history, while the Seaver Center holds noncurrent, historical records created primarily outside of the museum, by individuals, groups, institutions, and governments.

How can I make an appointment to review Seaver Center Collections?  

To make an appointment to visit the Seaver Center, please call 213.763.3359.  Research appointments are Wednesdays/Thursdays from 10 - noon; 1 - 4 p.m.

Can I order a copy of a photograph?  

To request a copy of a photograph, please send a written request to [email protected] . In your email, please include as much information about the photograph as possible, such as: the collection number; title; subject; and the reason for your request, such as for publication in a book or journal, research copy, or for documentary film. Requests for copies can also be sent to: Seaver Center for Western History Research, 900 Exposition Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90007.

The Collections Manager will contact you if additional information is needed in order to prepare a Photograph Use Agreement which states rights assigned and for which the requestor must sign. The Agreement will also specify the proper credit line to be used for publication purposes. 

Upon receipt of the signed Photograph Use Agreement, you will be sent an invoice for Reproduction and/or Use Fees.

Please allow at least four weeks for the request to be filled.

I already have a copy of a photograph from the Seaver Center. How do I obtain permission to use the photograph?  

Please send a written request to [email protected] . In your e-mail, include as much information about the photograph as possible, such as: the collection number; title; subject; and describe the reason for your request, such as for publication in a book or journal, research copy, or for documentary film. Requests for permission can also be sent to: Seaver Center for Western History Research, 900 Exposition Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90007.

Upon receipt of the signed Photograph Use Agreement, you will be sent an invoice for Use Fees.

Does the Seaver Center accept donations?  

Staff will evaluate potential donations on a case-by-case basis according to the relevance of the artifact to the History Department's mission, similarity to current holdings, and historical value. To inquire about making a donation, please send an e-mail description of your artifact to [email protected] .

Does the museum appraise artifacts for market value?  

NHMLAC, as a nonprofit foundation, prohibits its employees from appraising artifacts and specimens for market value. Appraisals can be obtained from private dealers and auction houses. For more information, go to www.appraisers.org.

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