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5 research and development project examples for small businesses.

There are several research and development project examples for small businesses. Today, the global investment in research and development (R&D) is worth over $2 trillion. In fact, companies ranging from big tech to automotive invest more than 15 percent of their earnings each year. As a business owner, you should learn about different R&D projects that many government and academic officials complete yearly. This way, you can generate your own innovative ideas to provide consumers with new products and services. Read on to discover different research and development project examples for small businesses.

Wearable Technology

Emergency planning software.

Next, another example of a research and development project for your small business is emergency planning software. This R&D project is great for emergency teams and first responders who need to plan for and prevent a crisis. During this project, you should invest in a SaaS-mode development software portal to create your plans. In addition, consider a dedicated software platform over a traditional text processor, like Microsoft. Once you’re ready to add features, you should opt for multi-lingual accessibility. You can also include 24/7 access in your software so users can reach emergency services anytime. Of course, emergency planning software is another research and development project example.

Biometric Authentication Systems

In addition, another example of research and development projects is a biometric authentication system. Since biometrics can prevent hackers and unauthorized users from accessing sensitive information, this R&D project is great for the financial industry. Indeed, you can create a desktop or mobile application that uses fingerprints for authentication. Since every user has a unique fingerprint, you should design your program to save only one per person. This way, only the sole authorized user can access the software or machine for a more secure form of entry. For example, you can build a fingerprint-based ATM system. With these systems, users can access their bank accounts to deposit money or make withdrawals without an ATM card. In fact, even advanced technology like cloud based POS systems utilize biometric authentication to secure their platform. In short, biometric authentication systems are another example of research and development projects you can complete.

Pharmaceutical Research Projects

Also, pharmaceuticals are excellent research and development project examples for small businesses. Research common illnesses that affect millions of people each year. Then, start developing a smart drug that can help diagnosed patients. For example, millions of people have lung cancer in the United States. With the proper pharmaceutical research, you can put together a team, analyze medical data, and propose lifesaving solutions. To accelerate development, you can partner with another research team. Afterwards, your companies can begin experimental tests to get your smart drugs approved for hospital use. This way, you can improve patient lives, and reduce costs associated with public healthcare. Certainly, pharmaceuticals are remarkable research and development project examples as a small company.

Environmental Projects

Furthermore, environmental projects are another type of research and development example for small businesses. Conduct research on the environment to identify problems and brainstorm solutions. For example, you could develop hydrogen, provide solar energy , or wind mills as a green energy alternative. Then, you could allocate funding to develop eco-friendly prototypes for both large corporations and average homeowners. Over time, you can improve and optimize the products to make a positive environmental impact. Of course, environmental projects are great research and development examples as a small business.

There are various research and development project examples for small businesses. First, app developers can build wearable technology to track user fitness data. Next, first responder teams can use emergency software to track and prevent a crisis. In addition, you can build biometric authentication systems so users can use a fingerprint to access accounts. You can also develop pharmaceutical projects to treat different cancers with minimal side effects. Furthermore, scientists can use environmental projects to build green technology and promote sustainable living standards. These are different research and development project examples for small businesses.

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10 Successful Undergraduate Research Project Examples To Inspire You

Embarking on an undergraduate research project can be a transformative experience, offering students the opportunity to delve deep into their areas of interest, develop critical thinking skills, and contribute original insights to their fields. This article showcases 10 successful undergraduate research project examples, each designed to inspire and guide students in creating impactful and innovative research projects.

Key Takeaways

• Academic projects can significantly enhance your research and analytical skills.
• Choosing a project that aligns with your interests can increase engagement and output quality.
• Utilizing structured templates and tools can streamline the research process.
• Collaborative projects often yield richer insights and more comprehensive outcomes.
• Presenting research in various formats (e.g., infographics, presentations) can broaden its impact.

1. Academic Project Planner

The Academic Project Planner is an essential tool that aids in transitioning from thesis to project mode with structured planning, time management, stress-free management, versatile support, and a detailed roadmap for academic projects. It helps you define the scope of your project clearly , ensuring that your academic endeavor is focused and feasible. By consulting with advisors and utilizing tools like the Academic Project Planner, you can refine your ideas and ensure that your project meets the academic standards of your institution.

Key Features:

• Structured Planning : Provides a clear framework to organize your project from start to finish.
• Time Management : Helps you allocate time effectively to meet deadlines.
• Versatile Support : Offers various tools and resources to assist in different aspects of project management.
• Detailed Roadmap : Guides you through each phase of the project, ensuring no detail is overlooked.

By following these strategies and utilizing the Academic Project Planner, you can embark on your research journey with confidence, knowing that you have a well-organized plan to guide you.

2. Literature Navigator

The Literature Navigator is designed to guide you through the complex terrain of academic literature, making it easier for you to navigate your research efficiently. This tool is invaluable for students who are embarking on extensive research projects and need a structured approach to manage their literature review process.

Key Features

• Clear instructions : Step-by-step guidance on how to find literature , ensuring you never feel lost in the sea of information.
• Efficient strategies : Techniques for efficient searching, sorting, and synthesizing information.
• Quality sources : Access to databases and journals recommended for academic research.
• Plagiarism prevention : Tools and tips to help you maintain academic integrity in your work.

By utilizing the Literature Navigator, you can enhance your research efficiency and ensure a more organized and effective literature review. This tool not only helps you in gathering and organizing information but also in critically analyzing and using it to support your thesis or research project.

3. Writing Wizard's Template

When embarking on your academic writing journey, the Writing Wizard's Template can be a game-changer. This tool is designed to streamline the writing process, making it more efficient and less daunting. Expect to write multiple drafts , but with this template, each revision will be more focused and effective. The template guides you through structuring your argument, ensuring that all critical points are covered comprehensively.

Here are some steps to effectively use the Writing Wizard's Template:

• Start by outlining your main argument or thesis statement.
• Use the template to structure each section of your paper.
• Regularly update your drafts to refine your argument and incorporate feedback.
• Utilize the checklist feature to ensure all elements of the paper meet academic standards.

By following these steps, you can enhance the clarity and impact of your academic papers, making the writing process a more manageable and rewarding experience.

4. Thesis Dialogue Blueprint

When embarking on your thesis, the Thesis Dialogue Blueprint can be a game-changer. This tool is designed to help you structure the conversations and interactions within your research, ensuring that every dialogue or interview conducted is purposeful and contributes significantly to your thesis. Here’s how you can utilize this blueprint effectively:

• Identify the key stakeholders involved in your research and list the potential questions or topics you need to discuss with them.
• Organize these dialogues chronologically or thematically to maintain a coherent flow of information.
• Prepare contingency questions in case the conversation veers off the intended path.

By systematically organizing your interactions, you ensure that no critical information is missed and that your thesis remains on track. Remember, the significance of setting realistic deadlines cannot be overstated; it is crucial for maintaining momentum and ensuring successful completion of your academic research.

5. Research Proposal Compass

Navigating the complexities of crafting a successful research proposal can be daunting. The Research Proposal Compass is designed to guide you through every step of this critical process. From understanding the basics of proposal structure to advanced techniques for persuasive writing, this tool is invaluable for students at all academic levels.

Key features include:

• Step-by-step guidance on structuring your proposal
• Tips on how to find research question
• Strategies for effectively presenting your research goals

This comprehensive guide ensures that you are well-prepared to present a polished and persuasive research proposal, significantly boosting your confidence and potential for success.

6. Thesis Action Plan

Embarking on your thesis can be a daunting task, often accompanied by thesis anxiety . However, with a structured Thesis Action Plan , you can navigate this journey with confidence. This plan acts as a comprehensive guide, providing you with step-by-step instructions from the initial stages of selecting a topic to the final steps of crafting a flawless report. Here’s how you can create an effective master thesis outline:

• Identify Your Research Topic : Pinpoint a topic that not only interests you but also contributes to your field of study.
• Literature Review : Gather and synthesize relevant research to build a solid foundation for your study.
• Methodology Design : Decide on the appropriate research methods to collect and analyze data.
• Data Collection and Analysis : Systematically gather data and perform analyses to draw meaningful conclusions.
• Writing and Revision : Draft your thesis, then revise to ensure clarity and coherence.
• Final Presentation : Prepare to present your findings in a clear and professional manner.

By following these steps, you can reduce uncertainty and manage your thesis with precision, ultimately leading to a successful completion.

7. Infographics

Infographics are a powerful tool for undergraduate research projects, allowing you to present complex data and insights in a visually engaging and easily digestible format. By transforming your research findings into infographics, you can enhance comprehension and retention among your audience. List infographics , for example, are particularly effective for summarizing steps, processes, or lists of items, making them ideal for projects that involve sequential information or categorization.

Consider using infographics to compare and contrast different elements of your study, such as theoretical frameworks or case study outcomes. This method not only makes the information more accessible but also more compelling to review. Below is an example of how you might structure an infographic for a project comparing different educational theories :

• Key Concept: Concept 1
• Application: How it applies
• Key Concept: Concept 2

By employing infographics, you ensure that your research is not only academically rigorous but also visually impactful, making it easier for your peers and professors to grasp the nuances of your work.

8. Brochures

Brochures are a powerful tool for undergraduate research projects, allowing you to present your findings in a visually appealing and concise format. Creating a compelling brochure involves more than just listing facts; it requires a strategic layout and engaging content that captures the essence of your research. Start by defining the purpose of your brochure and identifying your target audience. This will guide the design choices and the complexity of the information you include.

Consider the following structure for your brochure:

• Cover Page: Introduce your project with a catchy title and an intriguing graphic.
• Introduction: Provide a brief overview of your research question and objectives.
• Methodology: Explain how you conducted your research, highlighting any innovative techniques used.
• Results: Present your findings in a clear and structured manner, using charts or graphs if applicable.
• Conclusion: Summarize the implications of your research and any future directions.
• Contact Information: Include details for further communication, such as your email or a link to your academic profile.

By utilizing brochure templates and tools available online, you can create a professional-looking brochure that effectively communicates your research to peers, professors, and potential employers. Remember, the key to a successful brochure is clarity and visual impact, making your research accessible and engaging to a wider audience.

9. Presentations

When it comes to showcasing your research, presentations play a pivotal role in communicating your findings effectively. Whether you're presenting at a conference , in a classroom, or online, the ability to deliver a clear and engaging presentation is crucial. Here are some key elements to consider:

• Design : Use text size, weight, and color for emphasis. Keep the slides clean and uncluttered by including only essential information.
• Content : Focus on emphasizing key points . This can be achieved through a combination of text and visual aids such as graphs or images.
• Delivery : Practice your presentation multiple times to ensure smooth delivery. Pay attention to your pacing and make sure to engage with your audience through eye contact and questions.

By mastering these elements, you can ensure that your presentation not only delivers the necessary information but also keeps the audience engaged and interested.

10. Mind maps

Mind maps are a powerful tool for organizing and visualizing your research ideas. By creating a mind map, you can visually structure your thoughts, making complex topics easier to understand and communicate. This method is particularly effective for brainstorming sessions, where you can freely explore different aspects of your topic without the constraints of a linear format.

Benefits of Using Mind Maps

• Enhances creativity by allowing you to explore various pathways and connections.
• Improves memory and recall through the visual and organized representation of information.
• Facilitates a better understanding of relationships and hierarchies within your research topic.

How to Create an Effective Mind Map

• Start with a central idea and branch out into major themes.
• Use colors and images to differentiate and emphasize different sections.
• Keep branches curved and flowing to enhance readability and aesthetic appeal.

Mind maps are not just a learning strategy ; they are a multi-sensory tool that can significantly enhance your academic performance. As highlighted in studies, mind maps help students organize and integrate knowledge effectively, making them a valuable addition to any research project.

Explore the power of mind maps in our latest article section '10. Mind maps' on Research Rebels. Mind maps are an incredible tool for organizing your thoughts and tackling complex projects like thesis writing. Dive into our comprehensive guide and learn how to effectively use mind maps to streamline your academic work. Don't miss out on enhancing your study techniques— visit our website now to read more and claim your special offer!

In conclusion, the diverse array of undergraduate research projects presented in this article exemplifies the profound impact that focused academic inquiry can have, not only within the confines of academia but also in broader societal contexts. These projects, ranging from scientific investigations to creative endeavors, highlight the potential of undergraduate research to foster innovation, solve real-world problems, and contribute to the academic and professional growth of students. As these examples show, engaging in research projects can be a transformative component of the undergraduate experience, providing students with invaluable skills, insights, and opportunities to contribute to their fields of study. Whether you are a student contemplating a research project or an educator guiding scholarly pursuits, these examples serve as a beacon of inspiration and a testament to the possibilities that await in the world of academic research.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is project based learning.

Project based learning is a teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an authentic, engaging, and complex question, problem, or challenge.

How can I effectively use infographics in my research project?

Infographics can be used to visually represent data, making complex information easier to understand and more engaging. They are particularly useful for summarizing research findings, illustrating trends, and comparing statistics.

What are the benefits of using a Thesis Dialogue Blueprint?

The Thesis Dialogue Blueprint helps structure your thesis discussions, ensuring clarity and coherence in presenting your arguments. It aids in organizing your thoughts and aligning them with your research objectives.

How can I manage thesis anxiety?

Managing thesis anxiety involves planning, seeking support from advisors, using organizational tools like the Thesis Action Plan, and maintaining a healthy work-life balance. Engaging with supportive communities like Research Rebels can also alleviate anxiety.

What should I consider when choosing a research project?

Consider your interests, the relevance to your field, the resources available, and the scope of the project. It's important to choose a topic that is both intriguing and manageable within the constraints of your program.

How can project based learning enhance student success?

Project based learning promotes critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills. It encourages active learning and collaboration among students, which are key factors in enhancing student success and engagement in the learning process.

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Building an R&D strategy for modern times

The global investment in research and development (R&D) is staggering. In 2019 alone, organizations around the world spent $2.3 trillion on R&D—the equivalent of roughly 2 percent of global GDP—about half of which came from industry and the remainder from governments and academic institutions. What’s more, that annual investment has been growing at approximately 4 percent per year over the past decade. 1 2.3 trillion on purchasing-power-parity basis; 2019 global R&D funding forecast , Supplement, R&D Magazine, March 2019, rdworldonline.com.

While the pharmaceutical sector garners much attention due to its high R&D spending as a percentage of revenues, a comparison based on industry profits shows that several industries, ranging from high tech to automotive to consumer, are putting more than 20 percent of earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization (EBITDA) back into innovation research (Exhibit 1).

What do organizations expect to get in return? At the core, they hope their R&D investments yield the critical technology from which they can develop new products, services, and business models. But for R&D to deliver genuine value, its role must be woven centrally into the organization’s mission. R&D should help to both deliver and shape corporate strategy, so that it develops differentiated offerings for the company’s priority markets and reveals strategic options, highlighting promising ways to reposition the business through new platforms and disruptive breakthroughs.

Yet many enterprises lack an R&D strategy that has the necessary clarity, agility, and conviction to realize the organization’s aspirations. Instead of serving as the company’s innovation engine, R&D ends up isolated from corporate priorities, disconnected from market developments, and out of sync with the speed of business. Amid a growing gap in performance  between those that innovate successfully and those that do not, companies wishing to get ahead and stay ahead of competitors need a robust R&D strategy that makes the most of their innovation investments. Building such a strategy takes three steps: understanding the challenges that often work as barriers to R&D success, choosing the right ingredients for your strategy, and then pressure testing it before enacting it.

Overcoming the barriers to successful R&D

The first step to building an R&D strategy is to understand the four main challenges that modern R&D organizations face:

Innovation cycles are accelerating. The growing reliance on software and the availability of simulation and automation technologies have caused the cost of experimentation to plummet while raising R&D throughput. The pace of corporate innovation is further spurred by the increasing emergence of broadly applicable technologies, such as digital and biotech, from outside the walls of leading industry players.

But incumbent corporations are only one part of the equation. The trillion dollars a year that companies spend on R&D is matched by the public sector. Well-funded start-ups, meanwhile, are developing and rapidly scaling innovations that often threaten to upset established business models or steer industry growth into new areas. Add increasing investor scrutiny of research spending, and the result is rising pressure on R&D leaders to quickly show results for their efforts.

R&D lacks connection to the customer. The R&D group tends to be isolated from the rest of the organization. The complexity of its activities and its specialized lexicon make it difficult for others to understand what the R&D function really does. That sense of working inside a “black box” often exists even within the R&D organization. During a meeting of one large company’s R&D leaders, a significant portion of the discussion focused on simply getting everyone up to speed on what the various divisions were doing, let alone connecting those efforts to the company’s broader goals.

Given the challenges R&D faces in collaborating with other functions, going one step further and connecting with customers becomes all the more difficult. While many organizations pay lip service to customer-centric development, their R&D groups rarely get the opportunity to test products directly with end users. This frequently results in market-back product development that relies on a game of telephone via many intermediaries about what the customers want and need.

Projects have few accountability metrics. R&D groups in most sectors lack effective mechanisms to measure and communicate progress; the pharmaceutical industry, with its standard pipeline for new therapeutics that provides well-understood metrics of progress and valuation implications, is the exception, not the rule. When failure is explained away as experimentation and success is described in terms of patents, rather than profits, corporate leaders find it hard to quantify R&D’s contribution.

Yet proven metrics exist  to effectively measure progress and outcomes. A common challenge we observe at R&D organizations, ranging from automotive to chemical companies, is how to value the contribution of a single component that is a building block of multiple products. One specialty-chemicals company faced this challenge in determining the value of an ingredient it used in its complex formulations. It created categorizations to help develop initial business cases and enable long-term tracking. This allowed pragmatic investment decisions at the start of projects and helped determine the value created after their completion.

Even with outcomes clearly measured, the often-lengthy period between initial investment and finished product can obscure the R&D organization’s performance. Yet, this too can be effectively managed by tracking the overall value and development progress of the pipeline so that the organization can react and, potentially, promptly reorient both the portfolio and individual projects within it.

Incremental projects get priority. Our research indicates that incremental projects account for more than half of an average company’s R&D investment, even though bold bets and aggressive reallocation  of the innovation portfolio deliver higher rates of success. Organizations tend to favor “safe” projects with near-term returns—such as those emerging out of customer requests—that in many cases do little more than maintain existing market share. One consumer-goods company, for example, divided the R&D budget among its business units, whose leaders then used the money to meet their short-term targets rather than the company’s longer-term differentiation and growth objectives.

Focusing innovation solely around the core business may enable a company to coast for a while—until the industry suddenly passes it by. A mindset that views risk as something to be avoided rather than managed can be unwittingly reinforced by how the business case is measured. Transformational projects at one company faced a higher internal-rate-of-return hurdle than incremental R&D, even after the probability of success had been factored into their valuation, reducing their chances of securing funding and tilting the pipeline toward initiatives close to the core.

As organizations mature, innovation-driven growth becomes increasingly important, as their traditional means of organic growth, such as geographic expansion and entry into untapped market segments, diminish. To succeed, they need to develop R&D strategies equipped for the modern era that treat R&D not as a cost center but as the growth engine it can become.

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Choosing the ingredients of a winning r&d strategy.

Given R&D’s role as the innovation driver that advances the corporate agenda, its guiding strategy needs to link board-level priorities with the technologies that are the organization’s focus (Exhibit 2). The R&D strategy must provide clarity and commitment to three central elements: what we want to deliver, what we need to deliver it, and how we will deliver it.

What we want to deliver. To understand what a company wants to and can deliver, the R&D, commercial, and corporate-strategy functions need to collaborate closely, with commercial and corporate-strategy teams anchoring the R&D team on the company’s priorities and the R&D team revealing what is possible. The R&D strategy and the corporate strategy must be in sync while answering questions such as the following: At the highest level, what are the company’s goals? Which of these will require R&D in order to be realized? In short, what is the R&D organization’s purpose?

Bringing the two strategies into alignment is not as easy as it may seem. In some companies, what passes for corporate strategy is merely a five-year business plan. In others, the corporate strategy is detailed but covers only three to five years—too short a time horizon to guide R&D, especially in industries such as pharma or semiconductors where the product-development cycle is much longer than that. To get this first step right, corporate-strategy leaders should actively engage with R&D. That means providing clarity where it is lacking and incorporating R&D feedback that may illuminate opportunities, such as new technologies that unlock growth adjacencies for the company or enable completely new business models.

Secondly, the R&D and commercial functions need to align on core battlegrounds and solutions. Chief technology officers want to be close to and shape the market by delivering innovative solutions that define new levels of customer expectations. Aligning R&D strategy provides a powerful forum for identifying those opportunities by forcing conversations about customer needs and possible solutions that, in many companies, occur only rarely. Just as with the corporate strategy alignment, the commercial and R&D teams need to clearly articulate their aspirations by asking questions such as the following: Which markets will make or break us as a company? What does a winning product or service look like for customers?

When defining these essential battlegrounds, companies should not feel bound by conventional market definitions based on product groups, geographies, or customer segments. One agricultural player instead defined its markets by the challenges customers faced that its solutions could address. For example, drought resistance was a key battleground no matter where in the world it occurred. That framing clarified the R&D–commercial strategy link: if an R&D project could improve drought resistance, it was aligned to the strategy.

The dialogue between the R&D, commercial, and strategy functions cannot stop once the R&D strategy is set. Over time, leaders of all three groups should reexamine the strategic direction and continuously refine target product profiles as customer needs and the competitive landscape evolve.

What we need to deliver it. This part of the R&D strategy determines what capabilities and technologies the R&D organization must have in place to bring the desired solutions to market. The distinction between the two is subtle but important. Simply put, R&D capabilities are the technical abilities to discover, develop, or scale marketable solutions. Capabilities are unlocked by a combination of technologies and assets, and focus on the outcomes. Technologies, however, focus on the inputs—for example, CRISPR is a technology that enables the genome-editing capability.

This delineation protects against the common pitfall of the R&D organization fixating on components of a capability instead of the capability itself—potentially missing the fact that the capability itself has evolved. Consider the dawn of the digital age: in many engineering fields, a historical reliance on talent (human number crunchers) was suddenly replaced by the need for assets (computers). Those who focused on hiring the fastest mathematicians were soon overtaken by rivals who recognized the capability provided by emerging technologies.

The simplest way to identify the needed capabilities is to go through the development processes of priority solutions step by step—what will it take to produce a new product or feature? Being exhaustive is not the point; the goal is to identify high-priority capabilities, not to log standard operating procedures.

Prioritizing capabilities is a critical but often contentious aspect of developing an R&D strategy. For some capabilities, being good is sufficient. For others, being best in class is vital because it enables a faster path to market or the development of a better product than those of competitors. Take computer-aided design (CAD), which is used to design and prototype engineering components in numerous industries, such as aerospace or automotive. While companies in those sectors need that capability, it is unlikely that being the best at it will deliver a meaningful advantage. Furthermore, organizations should strive to anticipate which capabilities will be most important in the future, not what has mattered most to the business historically.

Once capabilities are prioritized, the R&D organization needs to define what being “good” and “the best” at them will mean over the course of the strategy. The bar rises rapidly in many fields. Between 2009 and 2019, the cost of sequencing a genome dropped 150-fold, for example. 2 Kris A. Wetterstrand, “DNA sequencing costs: Data,” NHGRI Genome Sequencing Program (GSP), August 25, 2020, genome.gov. Next, the organization needs to determine how to develop, acquire, or access the needed capabilities. The decision of whether to look internally or externally is crucial. An automatic “we can build it better” mindset diminishes the benefits of specialization and dilutes focus. Additionally, the bias to building everything in-house can cut off or delay access to the best the world has to offer—something that may be essential for high-priority capabilities. At Procter & Gamble, it famously took the clearly articulated aspiration of former CEO A. G. Lafley to break the company’s focus on in-house R&D and set targets for sourcing innovation externally. As R&D organizations increasingly source capabilities externally, finding partners and collaborating with them effectively is becoming a critical capability in its own right.

How we will do it. The choices of operating model and organizational design will ultimately determine how well the R&D strategy is executed. During the strategy’s development, however, the focus should be on enablers that represent cross-cutting skills and ways of working. A strategy for attracting, developing, and retaining talent is one common example.

Another is digital enablement, which today touches nearly every aspect of what the R&D function does. Artificial intelligence can be used at the discovery phase to identify emerging market needs or new uses of existing technology. Automation and advanced analytics approaches to experimentation can enable high throughput screening at a small scale and distinguish the signal from the noise. Digital (“in silico”) simulations are particularly valuable when physical experiments are expensive or dangerous. Collaboration tools are addressing the connectivity challenges common among geographically dispersed project teams. They have become indispensable in bringing together existing collaborators, but the next horizon is to generate the serendipity of chance encounters that are the hallmark of so many innovations.

Testing your R&D strategy

Developing a strategy for the R&D organization entails some unique challenges that other functions do not face. For one, scientists and engineers have to weigh considerations beyond their core expertise, such as customer, market, and economic factors. Stakeholders outside R&D labs, meanwhile, need to understand complex technologies and development processes and think along much longer time horizons than those to which they are accustomed.

For an R&D strategy to be robust and comprehensive enough to serve as a blueprint to guide the organization, it needs to involve stakeholders both inside and outside the R&D group, from leading scientists to chief commercial officers. What’s more, its definition of capabilities, technologies, talent, and assets should become progressively more granular as the strategy is brought to life at deeper levels of the R&D organization. So how can an organization tell if its new strategy passes muster? In our experience, McKinsey’s ten timeless tests of strategy  apply just as well to R&D strategy as to corporate and business-unit strategies. The following two tests are the most important in the R&D context:

• Does the organization’s strategy tap the true source of advantage? Too often, R&D organizations conflate technical necessity (what is needed to develop a solution) with strategic importance (distinctive capabilities that allow an organization to develop a meaningfully better solution than those of their competitors). It is also vital for organizations to regularly review their answers to this question, as capabilities that once provided differentiation can become commoditized and no longer serve as sources of advantage.
• Does the organization’s strategy balance commitment-rich choices with flexibility and learning? R&D strategies may have relatively long time horizons but that does not mean they should be insulated from changes in the outside world and never revisited. Companies should establish technical, regulatory, or other milestones that serve as clear decision points for shifting resources to or away from certain research areas. Such milestones can also help mark progress and gauge whether strategy execution is on track.

Additionally, the R&D strategy should be simply and clearly communicated to other functions within the company and to external stakeholders. To boost its clarity, organizations might try this exercise: distill the strategy into a set of fill-in-the-blank components that define, first, how the world will evolve and how the company plans to refocus accordingly (for example, industry trends that may lead the organization to pursue new target markets or segments); next, the choices the R&D function will make in order to support the company’s new focus (which capabilities will be prioritized and which de-emphasized); and finally, how the R&D team will execute the strategy in terms of concrete actions and milestones. If a company cannot fit the exercise on a single page, it has not sufficiently synthesized the strategy—as the famed physicist Richard Feynman observed, the ultimate test of comprehension is the ability to convey something to others in a simple manner.

Cascading the strategy down through the R&D organization will further reinforce its impact. For example, asking managers to communicate the strategy to their subordinates will deepen their own understanding. A useful corollary is that those hearing the strategy for the first time are introduced to it by their immediate supervisors rather than more distant R&D leaders. One R&D group demonstrated the broad benefits of this communication model: involving employees in developing and communicating the R&D strategy helped it double its Organizational Health Index  strategic clarity score, which measures one of the four “power practices”  highly connected to organizational performance.

R&D represents a massive innovation investment, but as companies confront globalized competition, rapidly changing customer needs, and technological shifts coming from an ever-wider range of fields, they are struggling to deliver on R&D’s full potential. A clearly articulated R&D strategy that supports and informs the corporate strategy is necessary to maximize the innovation investment and long-term company value.

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• How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

Published on October 12, 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on September 5, 2024.

A research proposal describes what you will investigate, why it’s important, and how you will conduct your research.

The format of a research proposal varies between fields, but most proposals will contain at least these elements:

Introduction

Literature review.

• Research design

Reference list

While the sections may vary, the overall objective is always the same. A research proposal serves as a blueprint and guide for your research plan, helping you get organized and feel confident in the path forward you choose to take.

Table of contents

Research proposal purpose, research proposal examples, research design and methods, contribution to knowledge, research schedule, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research proposals.

Academics often have to write research proposals to get funding for their projects. As a student, you might have to write a research proposal as part of a grad school application , or prior to starting your thesis or dissertation .

In addition to helping you figure out what your research can look like, a proposal can also serve to demonstrate why your project is worth pursuing to a funder, educational institution, or supervisor.

Research proposal length

The length of a research proposal can vary quite a bit. A bachelor’s or master’s thesis proposal can be just a few pages, while proposals for PhD dissertations or research funding are usually much longer and more detailed. Your supervisor can help you determine the best length for your work.

One trick to get started is to think of your proposal’s structure as a shorter version of your thesis or dissertation , only without the results , conclusion and discussion sections.

Download our research proposal template

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Writing a research proposal can be quite challenging, but a good starting point could be to look at some examples. We’ve included a few for you below.

• Example research proposal #1: “A Conceptual Framework for Scheduling Constraint Management”
• Example research proposal #2: “Medical Students as Mediators of Change in Tobacco Use”

Like your dissertation or thesis, the proposal will usually have a title page that includes:

• The proposed title of your project
• Your supervisor’s name
• Your institution and department

The first part of your proposal is the initial pitch for your project. Make sure it succinctly explains what you want to do and why.

Your introduction should:

• Introduce your topic
• Give necessary background and context
• Outline your  problem statement  and research questions

To guide your introduction , include information about:

• Who could have an interest in the topic (e.g., scientists, policymakers)
• How much is already known about the topic
• What is missing from this current knowledge
• What new insights your research will contribute
• Why you believe this research is worth doing

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As you get started, it’s important to demonstrate that you’re familiar with the most important research on your topic. A strong literature review  shows your reader that your project has a solid foundation in existing knowledge or theory. It also shows that you’re not simply repeating what other people have already done or said, but rather using existing research as a jumping-off point for your own.

In this section, share exactly how your project will contribute to ongoing conversations in the field by:

• Comparing and contrasting the main theories, methods, and debates
• Examining the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches
• Explaining how will you build on, challenge, or synthesize prior scholarship

Following the literature review, restate your main  objectives . This brings the focus back to your own project. Next, your research design or methodology section will describe your overall approach, and the practical steps you will take to answer your research questions.

To finish your proposal on a strong note, explore the potential implications of your research for your field. Emphasize again what you aim to contribute and why it matters.

For example, your results might have implications for:

• Improving best practices
• Informing policymaking decisions
• Strengthening a theory or model
• Challenging popular or scientific beliefs
• Creating a basis for future research

Last but not least, your research proposal must include correct citations for every source you have used, compiled in a reference list . To create citations quickly and easily, you can use our free APA citation generator .

Some institutions or funders require a detailed timeline of the project, asking you to forecast what you will do at each stage and how long it may take. While not always required, be sure to check the requirements of your project.

Here’s an example schedule to help you get started. You can also download a template at the button below.

Download our research schedule template

If you are applying for research funding, chances are you will have to include a detailed budget. This shows your estimates of how much each part of your project will cost.

Make sure to check what type of costs the funding body will agree to cover. For each item, include:

• Cost : exactly how much money do you need?
• Justification : why is this cost necessary to complete the research?
• Source : how did you calculate the amount?

To determine your budget, think about:

• Travel costs : do you need to go somewhere to collect your data? How will you get there, and how much time will you need? What will you do there (e.g., interviews, archival research)?
• Materials : do you need access to any tools or technologies?
• Help : do you need to hire any research assistants for the project? What will they do, and how much will you pay them?

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

A PhD, which is short for philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy in Latin), is the highest university degree that can be obtained. In a PhD, students spend 3–5 years writing a dissertation , which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge.

A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector.

A master’s is a 1- or 2-year graduate degree that can prepare you for a variety of careers.

All master’s involve graduate-level coursework. Some are research-intensive and intend to prepare students for further study in a PhD; these usually require their students to write a master’s thesis . Others focus on professional training for a specific career.

Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.

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What Is Research and Development?

• Understanding R&D
• Types of R&D
• Pros and Cons
• Considerations
• R&D vs. Applied Research
• R&D Tax Credits

The Bottom Line

• Business Essentials

What Is Research and Development (R&D)?

Investopedia / Ellen Lindner

Research and development (R&D) is the series of activities that companies undertake to innovate. R&D is often the first stage in the development process that results in market research product development, and product testing.

Key Takeaways

• Research and development represents the activities companies undertake to innovate and introduce new products and services or to improve their existing offerings.
• R&D allows a company to stay ahead of its competition by catering to new wants or needs in the market.
• Companies in different sectors and industries conduct R&D—pharmaceuticals, semiconductors, and technology companies generally spend the most.
• R&D is often a broad approach to exploratory advancement, while applied research is more geared towards researching a more narrow scope.
• The accounting for treatment for R&D costs can materially impact a company's income statement and balance sheet.

Understanding Research and Development (R&D)

The concept of research and development is widely linked to innovation both in the corporate and government sectors. R&D allows a company to stay ahead of its competition. Without an R&D program, a company may not survive on its own and may have to rely on other ways to innovate such as engaging in mergers and acquisitions (M&A) or partnerships. Through R&D, companies can design new products and improve their existing offerings.

R&D is distinct from most operational activities performed by a corporation. The research and/or development is typically not performed with the expectation of immediate profit. Instead, it is expected to contribute to the long-term profitability of a company. R&D may often allow companies to secure intellectual property, including patents , copyrights, and trademarks as discoveries are made and products created.

Companies that set up and employ departments dedicated entirely to R&D commit substantial capital to the effort. They must estimate the risk-adjusted return on their R&D expenditures, which inevitably involves risk of capital. That's because there is no immediate payoff, and the return on investment (ROI) is uncertain. As more money is invested in R&D, the level of capital risk increases. Other companies may choose to outsource their R&D for a variety of reasons including size and cost.

Companies across all sectors and industries undergo R&D activities. Corporations experience growth through these improvements and the development of new goods and services. Pharmaceuticals, semiconductors , and software/technology companies tend to spend the most on R&D. In Europe, R&D is known as research and technical or technological development.

Many small and mid-sized businesses may choose to outsource their R&D efforts because they don't have the right staff in-house to meet their needs.

Types of Research and Development (R&D)

There are several different types of R&D that exist in the corporate world and within government. The type used depends entirely on the entity undertaking it and the results can differ.

Basic Research

There are business incubators and accelerators, where corporations invest in startups and provide funding assistance and guidance to entrepreneurs in the hope that innovations will result that they can use to their benefit.

M&As and partnerships are also forms of R&D as companies join forces to take advantage of other companies' institutional knowledge and talent.

Applied Research

One R&D model is a department staffed primarily by engineers who develop new products —a task that typically involves extensive research. There is no specific goal or application in mind with this model. Instead, the research is done for the sake of research.

Development Research

This model involves a department composed of industrial scientists or researchers, all of who are tasked with applied research in technical, scientific, or industrial fields. This model facilitates the development of future products or the improvement of current products and/or operating procedures.

The largest companies may also be the ones that drive the most R&D spend. For example, Amazon has reported $1.147 billion of research and development value on its 2023 annual report.

Advantages and Disadvantages of R&D

There are several key benefits to research and development. It facilitates innovation, allowing companies to improve existing products and services or by letting them develop new ones to bring to the market.

Because R&D also is a key component of innovation, it requires a greater degree of skill from employees who take part. This allows companies to expand their talent pool, which often comes with special skill sets.

The advantages go beyond corporations. Consumers stand to benefit from R&D because it gives them better, high-quality products and services as well as a wider range of options. Corporations can, therefore, rely on consumers to remain loyal to their brands. It also helps drive productivity and economic growth.

Disadvantages

One of the major drawbacks to R&D is the cost. First, there is the financial expense as it requires a significant investment of cash upfront. This can include setting up a separate R&D department, hiring talent, and product and service testing, among others.

Innovation doesn't happen overnight so there is also a time factor to consider. This means that it takes a lot of time to bring products and services to market from conception to production to delivery.

Because it does take time to go from concept to product, companies stand the risk of being at the mercy of changing market trends . So what they thought may be a great seller at one time may reach the market too late and not fly off the shelves once it's ready.

Facilitates innovation

Improved or new products and services

Expands knowledge and talent pool

Increased consumer choice and brand loyalty

Economic driver

Financial investment

Shifting market trends

R&D Accounting

R&D may be beneficial to a company's bottom line, but it is considered an expense . After all, companies spend substantial amounts on research and trying to develop new products and services. As such, these expenses are often reported for accounting purposes on the income statement and do not carry long-term value.

There are certain situations where R&D costs are capitalized and reported on the balance sheet. Some examples include but are not limited to:

• Materials, fixed assets, or other assets have alternative future uses with an estimable value and useful life.
• Software that can be converted or applied elsewhere in the company to have a useful life beyond a specific single R&D project.
• Indirect costs or overhead expenses allocated between projects.
• R&D purchased from a third party that is accompanied by intangible value. That intangible asset may be recorded as a separate balance sheet asset.

R&D Considerations

Before taking on the task of research and development, it's important for companies and governments to consider some of the key factors associated with it. Some of the most notable considerations are:

• Objectives and Outcome: One of the most important factors to consider is the intended goals of the R&D project. Is it to innovate and fill a need for certain products that aren't being sold? Or is it to make improvements on existing ones? Whatever the reason, it's always important to note that there should be some flexibility as things can change over time.
• Timing: R&D requires a lot of time. This involves reviewing the market to see where there may be a lack of certain products and services or finding ways to improve on those that are already on the shelves.
• Cost: R&D costs a great deal of money, especially when it comes to the upfront costs. And there may be higher costs associated with the conception and production of new products rather than updating existing ones.
• Risks: As with any venture, R&D does come with risks. R&D doesn't come with any guarantees, no matter the time and money that goes into it. This means that companies and governments may sacrifice their ROI if the end product isn't successful.

Research and Development vs. Applied Research

Basic research is aimed at a fuller, more complete understanding of the fundamental aspects of a concept or phenomenon. This understanding is generally the first step in R&D. These activities provide a basis of information without directed applications toward products, policies, or operational processes .

Applied research entails the activities used to gain knowledge with a specific goal in mind. The activities may be to determine and develop new products, policies, or operational processes. While basic research is time-consuming, applied research is painstaking and more costly because of its detailed and complex nature.

R&D Tax Credits

The IRS offers a R&D tax credit to encourage innovation and significantly reduction their tax liability. The credit calls for specific types of spend such as product development, process improvement, and software creation.

Enacted under Section 41 of the Internal Revenue Code, this credit encourages innovation by providing a dollar-for-dollar reduction in tax obligations. The eligibility criteria, expanded by the Protecting Americans from Tax Hikes (PATH) Act of 2015, now encompass a broader spectrum of businesses. The credit tens to benefit small-to-midsize enterprises.

To claim R&D tax credits, businesses must document their qualifying expenses and complete IRS Form 6765 (Credit for Increasing Research Activities). The credit, typically ranging from 6% to 8% of annual qualifying expenses, offers businesses a direct offset against federal income tax liabilities. Additionally, businesses can claim up to $250,000 per year against their payroll taxes.

Example of Research and Development (R&D)

One of the more innovative companies of this millennium is Apple Inc. As part of its annual reporting, it has the following to say about its research and development spend:

In 2023, Apple reported having spent $29.915 billion. This is 8% of their annual total net sales. Note that Apple's R&D spend was reported to be higher than the company's selling, general and administrative costs (of $24.932 billion).

Note that the company doesn't go into length about what exactly the R&D spend is for. According to the notes, the company's year-over-year growth was "driven primarily by increases in headcount-related expenses". However, this does not explain the underlying basis carried from prior years (i.e. materials, patents, etc.).

Research and development refers to the systematic process of investigating, experimenting, and innovating to create new products, processes, or technologies. It encompasses activities such as scientific research, technological development, and experimentation conducted to achieve specific objectives to bring new items to market.

What Types of Activities Can Be Found in Research and Development?

Research and development activities focus on the innovation of new products or services in a company. Among the primary purposes of R&D activities is for a company to remain competitive as it produces products that advance and elevate its current product line. Since R&D typically operates on a longer-term horizon, its activities are not anticipated to generate immediate returns. However, in time, R&D projects may lead to patents, trademarks, or breakthrough discoveries with lasting benefits to the company. 

Why Is Research and Development Important?

Given the rapid rate of technological advancement, R&D is important for companies to stay competitive. Specifically, R&D allows companies to create products that are difficult for their competitors to replicate. Meanwhile, R&D efforts can lead to improved productivity that helps increase margins, further creating an edge in outpacing competitors. From a broader perspective, R&D can allow a company to stay ahead of the curve, anticipating customer demands or trends.

There are many things companies can do in order to advance in their industries and the overall market. Research and development is just one way they can set themselves apart from their competition. It opens up the potential for innovation and increasing sales. However, it does come with some drawbacks—the most obvious being the financial cost and the time it takes to innovate.

Amazon. " 2023 Annual Report ."

Internal Revenue Service. " Research Credit ."

Internal Revenue Service. " About Form 6765, Credit for Increasing Research Activities ."

Apple. " 2023 Annual Report ."

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Research and development (R&D) and the product lifecycle

Imagine a young boy searching through the December edition of Intertoys , the Dutch version of the Toys-R-Us magazine. The magazine has over 150 toys, including molding clay, step bikes, board games, M.A.S.K and G.I Joe action figures, Transformers, ThunderCats, and tons more.

His eyes are focused on the pages dedicated to LEGO. The boy finds himself overcome with joy, thinking about all the possibilities to expand his LEGO city. Will he ask for the police station, the gas station, or maybe the medieval castle? He tries to imagine how each enhances his city and the additional stories they can bring.

This young boy was me back in 1986.

LEGO delivered on its mission to inspire and develop the builders of tomorrow. How do I know that to be true? Well, here I am as a product leader who is curious and enjoys experimenting and trying new ways to devise, innovate, and to meet and exceed customer needs.

LEGO is a prime example of a company that recognizes the value of being customer-obsessed, researching, observing, experimenting, and trying over and over again to build what excites and inspires generations to come. It truly harnesses the power of research and development (R&D).

In this guide, we’ll explore what R&D is, the different types of R&D, and how it can inform product development. We’ll also show you how research and development influence go-to-market and help determine whether a launch is successful.

What is research and development (R&D)?

Research and development (R&D) refers to activities and investments directed toward creating new products, improving existing products, streamlining processes, and pursuing knowledge.

The main purpose of R&D is to promote innovation and, in doing so, drive growth and increase competitiveness. Additionally, by improving processes and finding efficiency gains, R&D can lead to cost savings.

In some industries, R&D is necessary for regulatory compliance and to maintain or improve product quality.

R&D example

For an example of how R&D can impact a company’s growth, let’s look a LEGO’s research and development process.

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LEGO works to create new building block shapes and designs and endeavors to improve their performance and safety on an ongoing basis. One of LEGO’s primary R&D efforts aims at developing sustainable production methods.

In 2015, the company invested nearly $150 million into sustainable materials R&D . It’s important to its mission to leave a positive impact on the planet for future generations to inherit.

We’ll refer to the LEGO examples throughout this guide to show what research and development efforts look like in the real world.

Research and development (R&D) vs. product development

It’s tempting to say that R&D and product development are one and the same, but while they overlap, not all product development is R&D.

To qualify as true, authentic, and real R&D, an activity must meet specific criteria that make it SUPA (yes, I just created that acronym).

SUPA stands for:

• Systematic — R&D must follow a systematic approach to solving problems or creating new products
• Advancement — R&D must involve either the creation of new knowledge, a significant improvement to existing knowledge, or a significant advancement in overall understanding
• Purpose — R&D must have the primary purpose of creating new knowledge, improving existing products radically, or creating new ones
• Uncertainty — There must be an element of uncertainty or risk involved in the work. This means you can’t always anticipate the outcome with confidence

As a product manager, most of the above should be familiar. As Marvin Gaye would have said, R&D and product management work together just like music .

R&D and the product development lifecycle

Research provides you with the necessary information and insights to inform and guide your product design. Development helps you bring ideas to life, validate them and then build and commercialize them.

The product development lifecycle is as follows:

• Ideation and concept development
• Design and prototyping
• Development
• Launch and commercialization

Let’s zoom in on each stage to see how R&D plays a role in every aspect of product development.

1. Research

The research phase involves systematically gathering market data, understanding the competitive landscape, and assessing customers in their current use of your product and their unmet needs. R&D helps you find the next big thing or game changer that gains you more market share.

2. Ideation and concept development

This step focuses on generating new ideas and concepts that push the boundaries of what you know. It requires looking at new ideas at a high-level and evaluating their potential feasibility.

3. Design and prototyping

Dip your toes further into the development waters — but make sure not to step on a LEGO while doing so.

The design and prototyping stage is where you create your hypothesis, conduct experiments, create designs, and prototype solutions to validate the assumptions made.

4. Development

During the development stage, any prototypes that fail to deliver advancements are abandoned. Those passing the validation are ready for development consideration.

5. Launch and commercialization

The activities described above will aid in making informed decisions about the product launch , pricing , and go-to-market strategy .

Example: How does R&D influence go-to-market?

Let’s refer back to our example:

LEGO was hugely successful through R&D when bringing the LEGO Mindstorms line to market.

This line empowers users to build and program robots using LEGO bricks and a microcomputer. The creation of the product line involved a multidisciplinary approach. It combined expertise in product design, software engineering, and electronics.

The R&D process started with research that identified the need for a product that allowed users to experiment with and learn about robotics.

LEGO then went through intensive ideation iterations and decided to work with experts in the field to design a system that would be easy to use and accessible to people of all ages and skill levels.

The design and prototypes were thoroughly tested and proved to validate assumptions .

The resulting product was a great success.

3 types of R&D

There are several types of research and development that you can pursue. Each type requires different approaches, resources, expertise, and generates different outcomes.

You can choose to focus on one or more R&D types, depending on your strategic objectives, resources, and capabilities.

Let’s have a look at the three major types of R&D:

Basic research

Applied research, experimental development.

Basic research aims to increase knowledge and understanding of a particular subject, with no immediate application in mind.

LEGO continuously explores new methods for connecting building blocks to each other. This research could involve looking into new materials or design principles that could improve the strength and stability of the connections between the blocks.

Applied research focuses on solving specific practical problems and developing new or improved processes, services, or products.

To reduce its carbon footprint, LEGO is researching a new plant-based plastic for its building blocks. This new material, made from sugarcane, replaces traditional petroleum-based plastic.

Experiment research involves designing, building, and testing a prototype to evaluate the feasibility and potential of new processes, services, or products.

LEGO is developing building sets that incorporate augmented reality (AR) technology. The R&D effort combines applied research with experimental development, as the company seeks to create a new product that utilizes AR to enhance the building and play experience.

How to incorporate R&D into the product development process

So you want to incorporate R&D into your product development process. Kudos to you!

Practice makes perfect. Before looking at a few ways to do this, it is important to remember that incorporating R&D into your product development process is a continuous endeavor and requires adjustments along the way.

The following strategies will help you incorporate R&D:

Prioritize R&D

Foster a culture of innovation.

• Embrace experimentation

Build user-centered

Collaborate with external partners.

The obvious one here is to ensure that R&D is a priority within your company and resources are freed up. This could include dedicating a portion of the budget, allocating capacity, or setting aside dedicated R&D time.

Encourage a culture in your company that values and supports innovation, experimentation, and risk-taking. It could include encouraging employees to pursue their own interests and providing them with the resources to do so.

Embrace experimentation, prototyping, and testing

R&D-ers love experimenting and testing their assumptions through building hypotheses, prototyping, and testing. It allows you to validate ideas, refine designs, identify and address any issues or limitations before bringing a product to market. As a product manager, you probably already have incorporated some of these practices. If not, I highly encourage you to do so.

To find an opportunity you will need to discover and unravel a need. User-centered building helps ensure that products and services are designed with the end-user in mind, leading to better, more effective problem-solving, and solutions to meet the needs of the people who will be using them.

Consider partnering with external organizations, such as universities, research institutes, or other companies, to help drive R&D. This can provide access to additional resources, expertise, and perspectives.

Example: How does R&D influence product development?

Referring back back to our example:

LEGO places a strong emphasis on user-centered design. It conducts user research to understand their needs, preferences, and behaviors and incorporate those findings into product design and development.

LEGO also collaborates with a variety of external partners, including universities, research institutions, and other companies, to drive innovation and R&D. For example, it has worked with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) on several projects.

LEGO uses rapid prototyping and testing to iterate and improve its products and encourage employees to be creative and innovative. It does this through the LEGO IDEAS program, which provides a platform for employees to submit and vote on new product ideas.

How to analyze and interpret the results of R&D

It goes without saying that analyzing and interpreting the results of research and development is crucial. How else will you validate or disprove hypotheses, determine the success or failure, and inform future R&D decisions?

Here are some steps that will help you out:

• Define the objectives and hypothesis
• Gather and organize data
• Analyze the data
• Interpret the results
• Validate the results
• Communicate the results
• Use the results to inform future R&D decisions

1. Define the objectives and hypothesis

When you want to analyze results, it’s crucial to have a clear understanding of what you set out to achieve and what you expected to see.

2. Gather and organize data

Collect all relevant data and organize it in a way that allows for easy analysis and interpretation.

3. Analyze the data

Use appropriate statistical methods to analyze the data, such as hypothesis testing, regression analysis, or analysis of variance (ANOVA).

4. Interpret the results

Based on the analysis, interpret the results and draw meaningful conclusions. This may involve identifying patterns, correlations, or relationships between variables.

5. Validate the results

Validate the results by checking for consistency, accuracy, and reliability. It may also be necessary to perform additional tests or experiments to confirm or refute the results.

6. Communicate the results

Communicate the results of the R&D project to stakeholders, including management, investors, customers, and employees. This may involve presenting data, charts, graphs, or other visual representations of the results.

7. Use the results to inform future R&D decisions

Use the results of the R&D project to inform future R&D decisions, including what to research next, what to improve, and what to commercialize.

Proper analysis and interpretation of R&D results are crucial to make informed decisions and drive innovation and growth.

There are various strategies you can implement in your product process. It is key to define your objective and expected results and have a structured process to validate R&D success.

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The management of research and development activities

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• University of California at Berkeley - Econometrics Laboratory - Research and Development
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Most research and development projects are examples of a project, or one-shot, production system . Here, as opposed to the ongoing activity found in batch or continuous systems, resources are brought together for a period of time, focused on a particular task, such as the development of a new product, and then disbanded and reassigned. The management of such projects requires a special type of organization to administer project resources in an effective manner and maintain clear accountability for the progress of the project. This organization also must avoid the inherent conflict of authority between project managers and managers in the marketing , production, and other departments and coordinate members of R and D teams who are assigned to more than one project and must divide their time among conflicting demands. The management of the whole process is a key to R and D and commercial success.

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In industries where continuous innovation and R and D are critical, such as electronics , drugs, robotics , and aerospace, the R and D department usually operates on a corporate level comparable to production, finance, and marketing. A relatively small management group usually sets priorities and budgets and supervises R and D activities. Most research and development personnel are assigned to project activity and report to individual project managers who have considerable autonomy and authority over the people and resources required to complete the project.

The basic purpose of the R and D laboratories of private industry is to provide new products for manufacture and new or improved processes for producing them. One difficulty facing those who plan these projects is the relationship between development costs and predicted sales. In the early stages of development, project expenditures are typically low. They increase to a maximum and decline slowly, disappearing as early production difficulties are overcome and the product settles into a market niche .

Similarly, production rises slowly at first, then more rapidly, and finally reaches a plateau. After a time, production starts to fall, sales declining gradually as the product becomes obsolete or abruptly as it is replaced by a new one.

At any particular time, a company may have a number of products at different stages of the cycle. Project managers must ensure that the total development effort required is neither greater nor significantly less than available human and financial resources. Production managers must be satisfied that the eventual demands upon their capacity and resources will be sufficient to keep them fully loaded but not overloaded.

To maintain such a balanced condition, a steady flow of new R and D proposals is required. Each must be studied by technical, commercial, financial, and manufacturing experts. Planning within an R and D organization, then, consists of selecting for development new products and processes that promise to employ the resources available in the most profitable manner. R and D managers have a key part to play in proposing projects as well as in carrying them out.

At each stage of the research and development process, there are numerous technical, financial, and managerial issues that have to be resolved and coordinated with many groups. For example, during the late 1970s and early 1980s several computer and electronics companies in the United States and Europe established major research programs aimed at developing bubble memory devices for large computers. As bubble memories were proved to be technically feasible ( i.e., work reliably under normal operating conditions), attention shifted to developing processes to manufacture the memory units at competitive costs. This part of the job proved the most difficult, and by the mid-1980s bubble memories had captured only a minuscule share of the total market for memory devices.

The difficulties in developing the design and production specifications needed to produce low-cost bubble memory units severely tested the mettle of the R and D organizations in several companies in the United States, Japan, and Europe. Each company had to balance the expense of continued R and D investment against the consequences of withdrawing from bubble memory research. Making a decision like this requires a keen sense of the market, a knowledge of the technical issues at hand, and, most importantly, an understanding of the company’s priorities and alternatives for R and D funds.

Project management and planning techniques

In the areas in which technology advances fastest, new products and new materials are required in a constant flow, but there are many industries in which the rate of change is gentle. Although ships, automobiles, telephones, and television receivers have changed over the last quarter of a century, the changes have not been spectacular. Nevertheless, a manufacturer who used methods even 10 years old could not survive in these businesses. The task of R and D laboratories working in these areas is to keep every facet of the production process under review and to maintain a steady stream of improvements. Although each in itself may be trivial, the total effect is many times as large as the margin between success and failure in a competitive situation.

These efforts to improve existing products and processes have been formalized under the titles of value engineering and cost-benefit analysis.

In value engineering every complete product and every component have their primary function described by an action verb and a noun. For example, an automobile’s dynamo, or generator, generates electricity. The engineer considers all other possible methods of generation, calculates a cost for each, and compares the lowest figure with that for the existing dynamo. If the ratio is reasonably close to unity , the dynamo can be accepted as an efficient component. If not, the engineer examines the alternatives in more detail. The same treatment is applied in turn to each of the parts out of which the chosen component is built, until it is clear that the best possible value is being obtained.

Cost-benefit analysis approaches the same fundamental problem from a different angle. It takes each part of a product or process and completely defines its function and the basis for measuring its benefits or effectiveness. Then the costs of obtaining each part are reviewed, taking full account of purchased material, labour, investment cost, downtime , and other factors. This focuses attention upon the most expensive items and makes it possible to apply the principal effort in seeking economies at the points of maximum reward. In the effort to improve a product or process, care must be taken to evaluate alternatives on the same “cost” and “benefit” bases so that existing approaches do not enjoy a special advantage just because they are familiar.

These two processes are unending. Every new material, new manufacturing technique, or new way of carrying out an operation gives the engineer a chance to improve his product, and it is from these continuing improvements that the high degree of economy and reliability of modern equipment derives .

Research And Development Plan Template

What is a Research And Development Plan?

A research and development (R&D) plan outlines the strategy, timeline, and budget for researching, testing, and creating new products and services. It is essential for product and service innovation, and is often the first step in the product development process. R&D plans are critical for any business, organization, or institution that is looking to develop and introduce new products and services.

What's included in this Research And Development Plan template?

• 3 focus areas
• 6 objectives

Each focus area has its own objectives, projects, and KPIs to ensure that the strategy is comprehensive and effective.

Who is the Research And Development Plan template for?

This R&D plan template is designed to help teams identify, develop, and launch new products and services. It can be used by any business that wants to increase their product and service innovation. The template outlines a structured approach to setting objectives, implementing projects, and measuring progress to ensure that the R&D plan is successful.

1. Define clear examples of your focus areas

A focus area is the key concept, goal, or purpose of the research and development plan. It should define the desired outcome of the plan and provide a framework for the objectives, projects, and KPIs (key performance indicators). Examples of focus areas may include identifying new products and services, strengthening research and development capacity, or improving product performance.

2. Think about the objectives that could fall under that focus area

Objectives are the specific goals that need to be achieved to accomplish the focus area. They should be measurable and achievable, and they should be linked to the focus area. Examples of objectives may include increasing customer satisfaction, increasing product innovation, or increasing R&D team size.

3. Set measurable targets (KPIs) to tackle the objective

KPIs are measurable targets that can be used to track progress against the objectives. They should be linked to the objectives and should be specific and measurable. Examples of KPIs may include increasing customer loyalty, reducing response time to customer queries, or increasing the number of product tests conducted.

4. Implement related projects to achieve the KPIs

Projects, also known as actions, are specific activities that must be completed to achieve the objectives. They should be linked to the objectives and KPIs, and should be achievable in a reasonable timeframe. Examples of projects may include increasing customer loyalty programs, researching and evaluating potential new products and services, or increasing the R&D team size.

5. Utilize Cascade Strategy Execution Platform to see faster results from your strategy

Cascade is a strategy execution platform that helps teams easily create, manage, and measure their R&D plans. With Cascade, teams can set objectives, implement projects, and track progress in real-time. Cascade’s intuitive dashboard makes it easy to see progress and make adjustments as needed to ensure that the plan is successful.

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What Is Research and Development (R&D)? Definition and Guide

Learn the definition of research and development, the types of R&D, and the benefits and risks of investing in research and development for your business

When it comes to the products and ideas that revolutionize and reshape our world, it can be tempting to imagine them springing from a singular moment of inspiration (think Isaac Newton and the apple).

The truth, however, is that in any industry, the most innovative and successful products are typically the result of years of study, experimentation, and hard work. That process is known as research and development—and whether you're running a high-tech Fortune 500 company or a small online store, it can be the first step to incredible success.

In this guide, you'll learn the definition of research and development, as well as the potential benefits and risks of investing in the practice.

What is research and development?

Research and Development is a systematic activity that companies undertake to innovate and introduce new products and services or to improve their existing offerings. 

Many people think of pharmaceutical and technology companies when they hear “R&D,” but other firms, including those that produce consumer products, invest time and resources into R&D as well. For example, a spaghetti sauce brand's many variations on the original product – “Chunky Garden,” “Four Cheese,” and “Tomato Basil Garlic”– are the results of extensive R&D.

Any business that creates and sells a product or service, whether it's software or spark plugs,  invests in some level of R&D .

Basic vs. applied research

Research and development comes in two main types: basic, and applied.

Basic research

Basic research (also known as fundamental research) is focused on improving our understanding of a particular problem or phenomenon through exploration of big questions. Some examples of basic research questions are:

• Why do mice get caught in traps?
• Why are some people allergic to gluten?

While basic research can certainly help a company acquire new knowledge, its focus on research for its own sake means that the financial benefits are uncertain. Consequently, this type of research and development is primarily performed by large corporations, universities, and government agencies.

Applied research

Applied research is also done to acquire knowledge. But unlike basic research, it's done with a specific goal, use, or product in mind. Where basic research is theoretical, applied research is practical, with a focus on finding workable solutions for current problems. Some examples of applied research questions include:

• How can we build a better mousetrap?
• What combination of flours will produce the best gluten-free pie crust?

Why invest in research and development?

While the overarching goal of research and development is to add to a company's bottom line, companies undertake R&D for a variety of reasons.

• Create new and improved products: Whether you're starting a new company, or looking to expand your existing offerings, innovation research can help you meet customer demands for new and better products that solve their problems more quickly and easily.
• Increase business efficiency: R&D can help you gain knowledge about your production processes, business structure, and place in the market, providing insights that increase productivity by eliminating time-consuming inefficiencies and allocating resources to the most impactful projects.
• Reduce costs: Profits aren't the only way that research and development can pay off. In fact, many companies focus their R&D on improving existing technologies and processes for internal use, reducing the overall cost of bringing your products to market.
• Remain competitive: Research and development is a great way to stay ahead of the competition . By investing in emerging technologies that improve your products, you can gain a competitive edge over even the most established firms.
• Secure investment: Even if your research efforts aren't immediately profitable, they may point to future innovations or developments that investors are excited to support.

Who handles research and development?

Often, research and development is handled in house by an internal department in a company, but it can also be outsourced to a specialist or a university. Large multinational companies might do all three, and some of the outsourced work might be done in another country so that the company leverages both the talent and local market knowledge there.

Outsourced R&D is especially appealing to the small business owner who has a new product concept but lacks the design or engineering staff needed to create and test options. Solopreneurs who offer software as a service are an example on the smallest scale, as they sometimes outsource the R&D and resulting software development.

R&D and accounting

There are no guarantees when it comes to research and development, and it's very unlikely to lead to an immediate profit. Often, a company will spend a large amount of money in search of a better method, material, or medication, and never see a return on the investment. In this sense R&D is not an asset: it's a business  expense . For that reason, general  accounting  standards and practices dictate that most (but not all) costs associated with research and development be charged to expense as incurred.

That said, businesses can mitigate some of the impacts of research and development by leveraging federal tax breaks and deductions focused on promoting R&D.

Research and development FAQ

What does r&d stand for, why is research and development important, what are the challenges of research and development, what is the difference between r&d and product development.

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1000+ FREE Research Topics & Title Ideas

Select your area of interest to view a collection of potential research topics and ideas.

Or grab the full list 📋 (for free)

PS – You can also check out our free topic ideation webinar for more ideas

How To Find A Research Topic

If you’re struggling to get started, this step-by-step video tutorial will help you find the perfect research topic.

Research Topic FAQs

What (exactly) is a research topic.

A research topic is the subject of a research project or study – for example, a dissertation or thesis. A research topic typically takes the form of a problem to be solved, or a question to be answered.

A good research topic should be specific enough to allow for focused research and analysis. For example, if you are interested in studying the effects of climate change on agriculture, your research topic could focus on how rising temperatures have impacted crop yields in certain regions over time.

To learn more about the basics of developing a research topic, consider our free research topic ideation webinar.

What constitutes a good research topic?

A strong research topic comprises three important qualities : originality, value and feasibility.

• Originality – a good topic explores an original area or takes a novel angle on an existing area of study.
• Value – a strong research topic provides value and makes a contribution, either academically or practically.
• Feasibility – a good research topic needs to be practical and manageable, given the resource constraints you face.

To learn more about what makes for a high-quality research topic, check out this post .

What's the difference between a research topic and research problem?

A research topic and a research problem are two distinct concepts that are often confused. A research topic is a broader label that indicates the focus of the study , while a research problem is an issue or gap in knowledge within the broader field that needs to be addressed.

To illustrate this distinction, consider a student who has chosen “teenage pregnancy in the United Kingdom” as their research topic. This research topic could encompass any number of issues related to teenage pregnancy such as causes, prevention strategies, health outcomes for mothers and babies, etc.

Within this broad category (the research topic) lies potential areas of inquiry that can be explored further – these become the research problems . For example:

• What factors contribute to higher rates of teenage pregnancy in certain communities?
• How do different types of parenting styles affect teen pregnancy rates?
• What interventions have been successful in reducing teenage pregnancies?

Simply put, a key difference between a research topic and a research problem is scope ; the research topic provides an umbrella under which multiple questions can be asked, while the research problem focuses on one specific question or set of questions within that larger context.

How can I find potential research topics for my project?

There are many steps involved in the process of finding and choosing a high-quality research topic for a dissertation or thesis. We cover these steps in detail in this video (also accessible below).

How can I find quality sources for my research topic?

Finding quality sources is an essential step in the topic ideation process. To do this, you should start by researching scholarly journals, books, and other academic publications related to your topic. These sources can provide reliable information on a wide range of topics. Additionally, they may contain data or statistics that can help support your argument or conclusions.

Identifying Relevant Sources

When searching for relevant sources, it’s important to look beyond just published material; try using online databases such as Google Scholar or JSTOR to find articles from reputable journals that have been peer-reviewed by experts in the field.

You can also use search engines like Google or Bing to locate websites with useful information about your topic. However, be sure to evaluate any website before citing it as a source—look for evidence of authorship (such as an “About Us” page) and make sure the content is up-to-date and accurate before relying on it.

Evaluating Sources

Once you’ve identified potential sources for your research project, take some time to evaluate them thoroughly before deciding which ones will best serve your purpose. Consider factors such as author credibility (are they an expert in their field?), publication date (is the source current?), objectivity (does the author present both sides of an issue?) and relevance (how closely does this source relate to my specific topic?).

By researching the current literature on your topic, you can identify potential sources that will help to provide quality information. Once you’ve identified these sources, it’s time to look for a gap in the research and determine what new knowledge could be gained from further study.

How can I find a good research gap?

Finding a strong gap in the literature is an essential step when looking for potential research topics. We explain what research gaps are and how to find them in this post.

How should I evaluate potential research topics/ideas?

When evaluating potential research topics, it is important to consider the factors that make for a strong topic (we discussed these earlier). Specifically:

• Originality
• Feasibility

So, when you have a list of potential topics or ideas, assess each of them in terms of these three criteria. A good topic should take a unique angle, provide value (either to academia or practitioners), and be practical enough for you to pull off, given your limited resources.

Finally, you should also assess whether this project could lead to potential career opportunities such as internships or job offers down the line. Make sure that you are researching something that is relevant enough so that it can benefit your professional development in some way. Additionally, consider how each research topic aligns with your career goals and interests; researching something that you are passionate about can help keep motivation high throughout the process.

How can I assess the feasibility of a research topic?

When evaluating the feasibility and practicality of a research topic, it is important to consider several factors.

First, you should assess whether or not the research topic is within your area of competence. Of course, when you start out, you are not expected to be the world’s leading expert, but do should at least have some foundational knowledge.

Time commitment

When considering a research topic, you should think about how much time will be required for completion. Depending on your field of study, some topics may require more time than others due to their complexity or scope.

Additionally, if you plan on collaborating with other researchers or institutions in order to complete your project, additional considerations must be taken into account such as coordinating schedules and ensuring that all parties involved have adequate resources available.

Resources needed

It’s also critically important to consider what type of resources are necessary in order to conduct the research successfully. This includes physical materials such as lab equipment and chemicals but can also include intangible items like access to certain databases or software programs which may be necessary depending on the nature of your work. Additionally, if there are costs associated with obtaining these materials then this must also be factored into your evaluation process.

Potential risks

It’s important to consider the inherent potential risks for each potential research topic. These can include ethical risks (challenges getting ethical approval), data risks (not being able to access the data you’ll need), technical risks relating to the equipment you’ll use and funding risks (not securing the necessary financial back to undertake the research).

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10 Remarkable OKR Examples in Research & Development

• 08 Jun, 2023

Research and Development (R&D) is a crucial function for organizations aiming to innovate and stay ahead in competitive markets. Objectives and Key Results (OKRs) can provide a structured framework to drive performance and success in R&D initiatives. Here are ten remarkable OKR examples in Research & Development:

1. Accelerating Product Innovation

Objective : Drive the development of new and innovative products.

Key Results:

• Launch 5 new products or product features within the next year.
• Increase the percentage of revenue generated from new products by 10%.
• Obtain 3 patents or intellectual property registrations.

2. Improving Research Efficiency

Objective : Enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the research process.

• Reduce the average time required to bring a new concept from ideation to prototype by 20%.
• Increase the success rate of research projects, measured by 70% of projects meeting predefined milestones.
• Implement a research collaboration platform and achieve 40% adoption rate.

3. Strengthening Intellectual Property Strategy

Objective : Protect and leverage intellectual property assets effectively.

• Conduct 1 comprehensive intellectual property audit and identify 5 opportunities for IP portfolio optimization.
• Increase the number of licensing or partnership agreements based on intellectual property assets by 30%.
• Achieve a 20% reduction in intellectual property infringement incidents.

4. Enhancing Cross-Functional Collaboration

Objective : Foster collaboration between R&D and other departments or teams.

• Implement cross-functional projects or initiatives involving R&D and at least 3 other departments.
• Conduct regular knowledge-sharing sessions between R&D and other teams, resulting in 60% increase in cross-functional understanding.
• Achieve a 70% improvement in the integration of customer feedback into the R&D process.

5. Increasing Research Funding

Objective : Secure additional funding for research and development activities.

• Obtain $1000 of funding from external sources, such as grants, partnerships, or investments.
• Increase the success rate of research funding applications by 80%.
• Develop a strategy for diversifying funding sources and implement 10 initiatives within the next year.

6. Enhancing Product Testing and Validation

Objective : Improve the rigor and effectiveness of product testing and validation processes.

• Implement standardized testing protocols for 100% of new products or major product revisions.
• Achieve a customer satisfaction rating of 9 based on product quality and performance.
• Reduce the number of product recalls or quality incidents by 60%.

7. Enhancing Research Collaboration with External Partners

Objective : Strengthen collaborative partnerships with external research organizations or institutions.

• Establish 7 strategic partnerships or collaborations with external research entities.
• Increase the number of joint research publications or patents by 50%.
• Implement 1 process for evaluating and selecting 7 external research partners based on predefined criteria.

8. Driving Technology Transfer and Commercialization

Objective : Facilitate the transfer of R&D outputs into commercial products or processes.

• Develop 3 technology transfer projects resulting in successful commercialization.
• Increase the percentage of revenue generated from technology transfer projects by 15%.
• Implement 1 process for assessing the commercial viability of R&D projects at predefined milestones.

9. Enhancing R&D Talent Development

Objective : Foster the growth and development of R&D professionals.

• Implement 1 mentorship program for R&D team members by the next quarter.
• Provide training on emerging research methodologies or technologies to 90% of the team within the next year.
• Achieve a 85% employee satisfaction rate with career development initiatives within the next six months.

10. Improving R&D Project Management

Objective : Enhance project management practices to ensure timely and successful project completion.

• Implement a standardized project management framework for 100% of R&D projects.
• Improve project delivery time by 20% compared to the previous year.
• Achieve a 30% reduction in project overruns or delays.

By adopting these OKR examples in Research & Development, organizations can drive innovation, improve research efficiency, protect intellectual property, foster collaboration, secure funding, and develop R&D talent. These strategic objectives and key results provide a roadmap for organizations seeking to excel in their R&D function and drive long-term success.

When looking to set OKRs, it’s natural to want examples to ignite the thought process or simply compare yours to OKR Examples. Check out our compendium of OKR Examples here .

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• Research and Development (R&D) | Overview & Process

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Companies often spend resources on certain investigative undertakings in an effort to make discoveries that can help develop new products or way of doing things or work towards enhancing pre-existing products or processes. These activities come under the Research and Development (R&D) umbrella.

R&D is an important means for achieving future growth and maintaining a relevant product in the market . There is a misconception that R&D is the domain of high tech technology firms or the big pharmaceutical companies. In fact, most established consumer goods companies dedicate a significant part of their resources towards developing new versions of products or improving existing designs . However, where most other firms may only spend less than 5 percent of their revenue on research, industries such as pharmaceutical, software or high technology products need to spend significantly given the nature of their products.

© Shutterstock.com | Alexander Raths

In this article, we look at 1) types of R&D , 2) understanding similar terminology , 3) making the R&D decision , 4) basic R&D process , 5) creating an effective R&D process , 6) advantages of R&D , and 7) R&D challenges .

TYPES OF R&D

A US government agency, the National Science Foundation defines three types of R&D .

Basic Research

When research aims to understand a subject matter more completely and build on the body of knowledge relating to it, then it falls in the basic research category. This research does not have much practical or commercial application. The findings of such research may often be of potential interest to a company

Applied Research

Applied research has more specific and directed objectives. This type of research aims to determine methods to address a specific customer/industry need or requirement. These investigations are all focused on specific commercial objectives regarding products or processes.

Development

Development is when findings of a research are utilized for the production of specific products including materials, systems and methods. Design and development of prototypes and processes are also part of this area. A vital differentiation at this point is between development and engineering or manufacturing. Development is research that generates requisite knowledge and designs for production and converts these into prototypes. Engineering is utilization of these plans and research to produce commercial products.

UNDERSTANDING SIMILAR TERMINOLOGY

There are a number of terms that are often used interchangeably. Thought there is often overlap in all of these processes, there still remains a considerable difference in what they represent. This is why it is important to understand these differences.

The creation of new body of knowledge about existing products or processes, or the creation of an entirely new product is called R&D. This is systematic creative work, and the resulting new knowledge is then used to formulate new materials or entire new products as well as to alter and improve existing ones

Innovation includes either of two events or a combination of both of them. These are either the exploitation of a new market opportunity or the development and subsequent marketing of a technical invention. A technical invention with no demand will not be an innovation.

New Product Development

This is a management or business term where there is some change in the appearance, materials or marketing of a product but no new invention. It is basically the conversion of a market need or opportunity into a new product or a product upgrade

When an idea is turned into information which can lead to a new product then it is called design. This term is interpreted differently from country to country and varies between analytical marketing approaches to a more creative process.

Product Design

Misleadingly thought of as the superficial appearance of a product, product design actually encompasses a lot more. It is a cross functional process that includes market research, technical research, design of a concept, prototype creation, final product creation and launch . Usually, this is the refinement of an existing product rather than a new product.

MAKING THE R&D DECISION

Investment in R&D can be extensive and a long term commitment. Often, the required knowledge already exists and can be acquired for a price. Before committing to investment in R&D, a company needs to analyze whether it makes more sense to produce their own knowledge base or acquire existing work. The influence of the following factors can help make this decision.

Proprietariness

If the nature of the research is such that it can be protected through patents or non-disclosure agreements , then this research becomes the sole property of the company undertaking it and becomes much more valuable. Patents can allow a company several years of a head start to maximize profits and cement its position in the market. This sort of situation justifies the cost of the R&D process. On the other hand, if the research cannot be protected, then it may be easily copied by a competitor with little or no monetary expense. In this case, it may be a good idea to acquire research.

Setting up a R&D wing only makes sense if the market growth rate is slow or relatively moderate. In a fast paced environment, competitors may rush ahead before research has been completed, making the entire process useless.

Because of its nature, R&D is not always a guaranteed success commercially. In this regard, it may be desirable to acquire the required research to convert it into necessary marketable products. There is significantly less risk in acquisition as there may be an opportunity to test the technology out before formally purchasing anything.

Considering the long term potential success of a product, acquiring technology is less risky but more costly than generating own research. This is because license fees or royalties may need to be paid and there may even be an arrangement that requires payments tied to sales figures and may continue for as long as the license period. There is also the danger of geographical limitations or other restrictive caveats. In addition, if the technology changes mid license, all the investment will become a sunk cost. Setting up R&D has its own costs associated with it. There needs to be massive initial investment that leads to negative cash flow for a long time. But it does protect the company from the rest of the limitations of acquiring research.

All these aspects need to be carefully assessed and a pros vs. cons assessment needs to be conducted before the make or buy decision is finalized.

BASIC R&D PROCESS

Foster Ideas

At this point the research team may sit down to brainstorm. The discussion may start with an understanding and itemization of the issues faced in their particular industry and then narrowed down to important or core areas of opportunity or concern.

Focus Ideas

The initial pool of ideas is vast and may be generic. The team will then sift through these and locate ideas with potential or those that do not have insurmountable limitations. At this point the team may look into existing products and assess how original a new idea is and how well it can be developed.

Develop Ideas

Once an idea has been thoroughly researched, it may be combined with a market survey to assess market readiness. Ideas with true potential are once again narrowed down and the process of turning research into a marketable commodity begins.

Prototypes and Trials

Researchers may work closely with product developers to understand and agree on how an idea may be turned into a practical product. As the process iterates, the prototype complexity may start to increase and issues such as mass production and sales tactics may begin to enter the process.

Regulatory, Marketing & Product Development Activities

As the product takes shape, the process that began with R&D divides into relevant areas necessary to bring the research product to the market. Regulatory aspects are assessed and work begins to meet all the criteria for approvals and launch. The marketing function begins developing strategies and preparing their materials while sales, pricing and distribution are also planned for.

The product that started as a research question will now be ready for its biggest test, the introduction to the market. The evaluation of the product continues at this stage and beyond, eventually leading to possible re-designs if needed. At any point in this process the idea may be abandoned. Its feasibility may be questioned or the research may not reveal what the business hoped for. It is therefore important to analyze each idea critically at every stage and not become emotionally invested in anything.

CREATING AN EFFECTIVE R&D PROCESS

A formal R&D function adds great value to any organization. It can significantly contribute towards organizational growth and sustained market share. However, all business may not have the necessary resources to set up such a function. In such cases, or in organizations where a formal R&D function is not really required, it is a good idea to foster an R&D mindset . When all employees are encouraged to think creatively and with a research oriented thought process, they all feel invested in the business and there will be the possibility of innovation and unique ideas and solutions. This mindset can be slowly inculcated within the company by following the steps mentioned below.

Assess Customer Needs

It is a good idea to regularly scan and assess the market and identify whether the company’s offering is doing well or if it is in trouble. If it is successful, encourage employees to identify reasons for success so that these can then be used as benchmarks or best practices. If the product is not doing well, then encourage teams to research reasons why. Perhaps a competitor is offering a better solution or perhaps the product cannot meet the customer’s needs effectively.

Identify Objectives

Allow your employees to see clearly what the business objectives are. The end goal for a commercial enterprise is to enhance profits. If this is the case, then all research the employees engage in should focus on reaching this goal while fulfilling a customer need.

Define and Design Processes

A definite project management process helps keep formal and informal research programs on schedule. Realistic goals and targets help focus the process and ensures that relevant and realistic timelines are decided upon.

Create a Team

A team may need to be created if a specific project is on the agenda. This team should be cross functional and will be able to work towards a specific goal in a systematic manner. If the surrounding organizational environment also has a research mindset then they will be better prepared and suited to assist the core team when ever needed.

Whenever needed, it may be a good idea to outsource research projects. Universities and specific research organizations can help achieve research objectives that may not be manageable within a limited organizational budget.

ADVANTAGES OF R&D

Though setting up an R&D function is not an easy task by any means, it has its unique advantages for the organization. These include the following.

Research and Development expenses are often tax deductible. This depends on the country of operations of course but a significant write-off can be a great way to offset large initial investments. But it is important to understand what kind of research activities are deductible and which ones are not. Generally, things like market research or an assessment of historical information are not deductible.

A company can use research to identify leaner and more cost effective means of manufacturing. This reduction in cost can either help provide a more reasonably priced product to the customer or increase the profit margin.

When an investor sets out to put their resources into any company, they tend to prefer those who can become market leaders and innovate constantly. An effective R&D function goes a long way in helping to achieve these objectives for a company. Investors see this as a proactive approach to business and they may end up financing the costs associated with maintaining this R&D function.

Recruitment

Top talent is also attracted to innovative companies doing exciting things. With a successful Research and Development function, qualified candidates will be excited to join the company.

Through R&D based developments, companies can acquire patents for their products. These can help them gain market advantage and cement their position in the industry. This one time product development can lead to long term profits.

R&D CHALLENGES

R&D also has many challenges associated with it. These may include the following.

Initial setup costs as well as continued investment are necessary to keep research work cutting edge and relevant. Not all companies may find it feasible to continue this expenditure.

Increased Timescales

Once a commitment to R&D is made, it may take many years for the actual product to reach the market and a number of years will be filled with no return on continued heavy investment.

Uncertain Results

Not all research that is undertaken yields results. Many ideas and solutions are scrapped midway and work has to start from the beginning.

Market Conditions

There is always the danger that a significant new invention or innovation will render years of research obsolete and create setbacks in the industry with competitors becoming front runners for the customer’s business.

It is important for any business to understand the advantages and disadvantages of engaging in Research and Development activities. Once these are studied, then the step can be taken towards becoming and R&D organization.

In the meanwhile, it is good practice to inculcate a research mind set and research oriented thinking within all employees, no matter what their functional area of expertise. This will help bring about new ideas, new solutions and an innovative way of approaching all business problems, whether small or large.

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26 Most Important R&D KPIs and Metrics

• Updated on July 13, 2023

If you want to accurately measure your Research and Development performance but don’t where to start, we collected all the necessary R&D KPIs and metrics for you!

Also, we are proud to present our R&D Dashboard templates if you need to make the analysis and recording within you Research and Development department. But first, you can learn more about the R&D key metrics!

What is KPI in research and development?

Research and development KPIs or key performance indicators are used to determine the performance of research and development departments in businesses.

Why should you track r&d KPIs?

You should track research and development key metrics to have a clear point of view about the state of your R&D department. That way, you can improve and anvance your R&D department in an organized manner.

What are the most important KPIs in r&d?

Research and development departments deal with different issues in each other company, so there are various metrics you can use. However, you can see the top 26 research and development KPIs below to get a better idea.

Research and Development Metrics

1. Proposal Success Rate

R&D Metrics / Project Progress / Work Effectiveness

Description: Percentage of grant applications that successfully received funding and can go further with the R&D.

Calculation Method / Formula: number of applications that were accepted and got funds / number of all applications

Should be High or Low?: The higher % the better. Otherwise there is needed extra work time on creating or redefining ideas.

2. Ideas turned into experiments

Description: This shows of how many ideas within some period of time went into the experimental phase. It depends on how many ideas there is; has granted funds and if the R&D team is managing the time given properly.

Calculation Method / Formula: number of ideas within some period of time went into the experimental phase / number of ideas that were supposed to be in the experimental phase within specified period of time

Should be High or Low?: If the % is going down it may indicate not enough resources in people or equipment.

3. Projects completed

R&D Metrics / Project Progress / Work Effectiveness / Time Management

Description: Shows the ratio of completed within all started projects. But in case there are some changes, or the grant funds are frozen or for some other seasons the project cannot continue it can have influence on the completion ratio. This metrics allows you to track if you have enough resources and capability to open more tasks and manage to stay on time with the work planned.

Calculation Method / Formula: completed projects / all planned projects

Should be High or Low?: If the % is going down it may indicate not enough resources in people or equipment or some changes in a project or requirement that may close the project not completed.

4. Time-to-market

Description: This metrics stands for how quickly your company plan and execute the projects. It is the duration from Phase 0 to Market Release. Average number of days per project

Calculation Method / Formula: It can be calculated as simple average: Cumulative number of days of all finished projects / number of projects

Should be High or Low?: If the time to market exceed planned days, it can give some indication about incorrect assumptions or some unexpected problems

5. Time for the experiments

Description: This is metrics shows time spent only for the experiment phase. That time can be very different depending on a sector of the R&D department. The unit of time may be measured in Days as default, but it can be also adjusted for your needs.

Calculation Method / Formula: cumulative experimental time of number of projects / number of projects

Should be High or Low?: If the time goes over a target this may indicate problems that weren’t predicted in the planning phase.

6. Deviation from Schedule

Description: This metrics measures how accurate planned project schedules are. And may indicate if there is some need for changing the system of planning or find some bottleneck of the process.

Calculation Method / Formula: (Actual Time to Make – Planned Time to make) / Planned Time to Make.

Should be High or Low?: Based on the equation if the value is below zero it means the projects’ time are overcalculated and probably the time evaluation should be restructured. The same if the value goes above zero but it means the predicted time probably was too small for the available resources.

7. Portfolio in existing products

R&D Metrics / Product Investment / Budget Management

Description: Percentage of R&D Budget which keep the existing products.

Calculation Method / Formula: Cost of sustaining the exisiting products / total R&D budget

8. R&D costs / Total costs

R&D Metrics / Product Investment / Budget Management / Cost

Description: This metrics shows what is the percentage of exactly the R&D cost among Total Costs of the R&D department. (or among total cost of the company)?

Calculation Method / Formula: R&D cost / Total cost of R&D dept.

Should be High or Low?: This is just an orientation information.

9. License costs / Total R&D cost

Description: Shows how big part of Total costs is License Costs.

Calculation Method / Formula: Licence cost / Total cost od R&D dept.

10. R&D Costs / Sales

R&D Metrics / Product Investment / Budget Management / Cost / Sales / Performance

Description: It shows the ratio between money spend on R&D and the money earned from Total Sales

Calculation Method / Formula: Total R&D cost / Total sales

Should be High or Low?: First of all, R&D cost should not be higher than total sales, but also the higher difference there will be the higher profit will be observed

11. Product improvements / R&D cost

Description: Shows how big part of R&D costs is Product Improvements.

Calculation Method / Formula: Improvement Costs / R&D Costs

Should be High or Low?: This is an orientation information. There might be some target to reduce that cost, but it depends on the characteristics of R&D projects.

12. Cost Savings Attributable to R&D

R&D Metrics / Product Investment / Budget Management / Cost / Savings

Description: This metrics helps to calculate the cost savings because of the R&D Department’s improvements. Cost savings in given period of time.

Calculation Method / Formula: Might be calculated by (time needed to compleete some task before – time needed after improvenents) * workinghour cost in some period of time

Should be High or Low?: Based on that measurement we can measure how long it will take to “pay back” the cost of improvement.

13. Total Patents Filed

R&D Metrics / Cost / R&D Investment / Product Investment / Brand Value

Description: This metrics shows the number of patents waiting to be approved by the patent institution.

Should be High or Low?: If the patents are unique or it is predicted that they will bring income higher than cost of keeping patent itself then the higher number is better but the target should be set based on how much valuable they can be.

14. Ideas in the Pipeline

Description: It helps to track the number of ideas that were completed and put in a schedule in an assumed time or period.

Should be High or Low?: Target depends on the R&D sector and taken period of time.

15. Projects that meet planned targets

Description: It helps to track the number of projects which follow to the plan schedule in each time or period.

16. Products launched on time

Description: This metrics shows how many projects were completed and launched out of the planned to be completed in that given period.

Calculation Method / Formula: number of projects completed / number of sheduled projects to be completed

Should be High or Low?: If the % is much lower the assumption in scheduling should be checked.

17. Number of products released

R&D Metrics / Work Effectiveness / Products / Brand Value

Description: Shows how many products were released in a given time.

Should be High or Low?: Target depends on the R&D sector, time and value per product.

18. Income from New products

R&D Metrics / Products / Revenue / Sales / Profitability

Description: New products (which might not be yet noticed by all the target customers) sales value among total sales in percentage.

Calculation Method / Formula: new product sales value / total incom from all product sales

Should be High or Low?: It can help to plan in future some steps to make the product more visible from the beginning.

19. Budget Variance / Cost Variance (CV)

R&D Metrics / Budget Management / Financial Performance / Revenue / Cost

Description: This metrics shows how accurate is your planning the project costs and how well you manage the budget during the time of project life from the beginning until Market Release. The percentage in the end of project shows what is the percentage of assumed at the beginning cost. If the value comes close to zero long before the end of the project it may show that the budget evaluation was wrong.

Calculation Method / Formula: Earned Value – Actual Cost

Should be High or Low?: If the conclusion is: below 0 – you are behind the schedule; 0 – you are on schedule; above zero – ahead of schedule.

20. Return on Innovation Investment (ROI)

R&D Metrics / Revenue / Budget Management / Financial Performance / Investment

Description: This metrics can help to predict if the investment in the new product was worth the cost and how long it might take for money return.

Calculation Method / Formula: ( Profits of New Product or Service Sales) / (Expenditures Generated in Creating these New Products or Services)

21. Products launched on budget

R&D Metrics / Budget Management / Product Investment / Work Efficiency

Description: This metrics shows percentage of new services or products that has been finished within expected budget. It shows how accurate is the cost projection.

Should be High or Low?: If the metrics should be as close as possible to 100%, if it is much lower it may indicate wrong budget planning or lots of unexpected changes that were not included in the calculations.

22. Research & Development Effectiveness Index (RDEI)

R&D Metrics / Work Efficiency / Revenue / R&D Investment / Profitability

Description: It shows how the profit generated by new products compares to total R&D expenses. Success of product vs development efforts.

Calculation Method / Formula: Profit from New Products / R&D Sending

23. Total R&D Headcount

R&D Metrics / Employee Management / Budget Management

Description: Number of employees in the R&D department.

Should be High or Low?: The target should be based on projections and which direction company is going, what is the budget for hiring.

24. Portfolio in Core and Growth Projects

R&D Metrics / Project Progress / Work Effectiveness / Cost

Description: This metrics is the percentage of Projects that will not be completed even though company has already invested in them.

Should be High or Low?: It will have strong negative or positive impact on the growth and prosperity of the company.

25. R&D Budget

R&D Metrics / Budget Management / R&D Investment / Cost

Description: This metrics is the budget of the company intended for the R&D Department.

Should be High or Low?: May depend on the target and the direction of the company.

26. Suggested ideas by the team

R&D Metrics / Work Effectiveness / Product Investment

Description: That is a number of ideas which the R&D Department came up with during some period of time.

Should be High or Low?: In general, the more ideas the better, but the quality of ideas has an impact on further work and eventual success.

Below is the summary of R&D KPI metrics:

Most Important KPIs for Different Industries

If you are interested in other industries or departments and their performance, you should learn more about their KPIs via our related articles!

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• What is R&D? Its role in business and how it relates to R&D tax credits

What is R&D? Its role in business and how it relates to R&D tax credits

In order to understand the role and impact of R&D, it is useful to define research and development, explore its role in business and its wider importance. This will put us in a better position to look at how R&D is funded including via the government’s powerful R&D tax credit incentives.

What does R&D stand for?

R&D stands for research and development. What R&D represents in a business context and its power is a much wider and more complex area that we will now explore.

What is research and development?

Research and development is the generation of new knowledge. In a business context, it is an activity that companies undertake in order to develop new products, processes or services, or improve those that already exist. In order to do this, businesses often take on risk. This is because uncertainties exist around if what they are attempting is technologically feasible, or, more commonly, they don’t know how they will achieve their objectives in practical terms.

R&D is an essential function for many businesses. Launching new offerings or improving existing ones is a way for a business to remain competitive and make profit.

When developing a new product, process or service, or refining an existing one, R&D is one of the earliest phases. Experimentation and innovation is often rife at this stage, along with risk. The R&D cycle often begins with ideation and theorising, followed by research and exploration and then into design and development.

What sectors does R&D occur in?

Research and development occurs across a wide range of sectors and industries, and in companies of all sizes. These range from intensive R&D industries that rely heavily on R&D projects like pharmaceuticals , life sciences , automotive, software and technology to areas like food and drink.

Types of research and development

All R&D tends to start with ideas and theories – this can relate to identifying issues or new opportunities. The R&D process then focuses on exploring and researching those ideas, seeing what’s feasible. There are two main types of research within R&D – basic research and applied research.

• Basic research is all about acquiring knowledge and using it to build understanding and intelligence that a business can use to its advantage. This knowledge can be the foundation for further R&D projects and feed into strategic business decisions.
• Applied research is a lot more defined, and often looks to achieve a specific objective. This could be using a new technology, reaching a new market, improving safety or cutting costs. Applied research is often what leads to the development phase.

The design and development phase is all about taking an idea and making it into a product or process. Effectively, it’s about translating the research into a commercial product or service. It often involves designs, prototyping, trials, testing and refinement.

Prototyping is key to the development phase as it allows you to identify and overcome issues, and improve the design. Eventually, for those in manufacturing development, you move into manufacturing trials where you look to produce the product on a larger scale.

R&D can be set-up to look at different outcomes as follows:

New product research and development

R&D and product development often go hand in hand. Rapid changes in consumer demands and emerging technologies means there’s always a need to adapt. Before developing new products, you need a deep understanding of the market and the user needs. This lays the groundwork for the development of the new product.

Various concepts are generated and tested at the outset. These can then be prototyped for further research and testing.

Improving existing products and processes

The continual evaluation of existing products, services and processes is also a key part of R&D. If a product, service or process is no longer profitable or adding value in a market then it risks stagnating.

It could also be that technology has been developed that could facilitate improvements that may cut costs, make efficiency gains or improve safety. This can include improvements to the manufacturing and production processes of the product.

Legislative changes or shifts in user wants can also mean a product or process must change or evolve to remain viable.

Research and development examples

Take a look at our case studies to see some real life R&D examples.

R&D projects

Research and development projects are set up to achieve a range of objectives and business needs. These could be around introducing a new product or service, improving an existing process or utilising a new technology.

Often these R&D projects will have unknowns and uncertainties at their core – and the R&D is aiming to resolve these. It is this uncertainty that forms a core aspect to the definition of R&D for tax purposes.

An example of an R&D project could be to migrate a legacy system onto the cloud, automate an aspect of the manufacturing process, or utilise new materials to improve performance.

Research and development in business

With emerging technologies and fast-changing markets, R&D in business is more important than ever. Although many businesses have an R&D function, how R&D actually looks on the ground varies dramatically. R&D intensity also differs dramatically between industries and individual companies. We will explore this in a little more detail.

What is R&D in business?

Businesses will approach R&D in different ways, with different organisational structures implementing different R&D strategies. How R&D is leveraged internally also varies dramatically between businesses, having a significant bearing in terms of its overall impact.

Some businesses won’t have the capability to do R&D in house so will outsource their R&D, relying on others to drive innovation. Some businesses choose to outsource their R&D while others have R&D departments entirely dedicated to R&D.

R&D is a complex function within any business and often comes with its challenges. Many R&D leaders struggle to reduce development times as well as plan and roadmap more effectively for the future. Building a culture of innovation across a business through R&D is often a goal for many businesses but one that is also hard to achieve.

R&D strategy

It’s not enough to simply carry out R&D. In order to make the most out of an R&D function, you need to strategise. Regardless of your R&D objectives, whether you want a competitive edge, a first mover advantage to capitalise on a new technology, to keep up with a competitor or break into a new market – how you plan and strategise around R&D is essential.

An R&D programme that is strategic will reap benefits. When combined with R&D tax credits, it becomes even more advantageous. You may want to adapt your R&D processes and planning to make more use of R&D tax credits. The ultimate goal is for R&D to permeate a company’s culture and approach to business.

The uncertainty at the heart of the potentially most lucrative R&D projects can be mitigated financially by the use of R&D tax credits.  You can get rewarded for taking more risks. This helps effect a change in mindset when approaching risky projects. This is where our sector experts and chartered tax advisers come in. At ForrestBrown, we work closely  with businesses to help them make the most of their R&D.

How to promote a culture of R&D in your business

Read more about the benefits of promoting a culture of R&D in your business.

R&D costs

Research and development can be expensive. Emerging tech and highly specialised staff, all come with a price tag. The fact that the costs are upfront without any guarantees of ROI understandably makes many CEOs apprehensive. Yet it remains an essential function and R&D spending needs to be factored into budgets.

In some businesses, R&D expenditure can be one of the biggest outgoings. There are annual lists published of those companies that spend the most on R&D – Amazon, Samsung, and Apple spend billions of dollars on R&D and frequently top these lists.

The good news is that many of the R&D costs can be recovered with R&D tax credits. There are others though that don’t qualify. You can see a detailed breakdown of qualifying R&D costs here . As a business, you need to weigh up the total project cost against the qualifying costs for R&D tax credits, then decide if your project is feasible.

R&D investment

Although the costs are high, by investing in R&D a business is investing in their future capabilities. R&D investment is a good way for a business to stay competitive and keep up with shifting customer demands. Those businesses that invest in R&D can receive different forms of funding including R&D tax incentives. In terms of R&D tax credits, there’s the SME incentive as well as the RDEC incentive for large companies and grant-funded SMEs .

Find out more about ForrestBrown’s RDEC services for large companies .

R&D departments

Some businesses will have a small team responsible for R&D or just pick up R&D activities across various teams and individuals on a more ad hoc basis. Other companies have a dedicated R&D department. Larger companies may even establish R&D centres – these can give them access to local R&D leaders and specialised R&D functions.

What is an R&D department?

An R&D department can contain a whole range of professionals, from R&D engineers and chemists to R&D managers responsible for the outputs. Sometimes you will have R&D leaders that look to drive the R&D department in a business.

The role of an R&D department?

The role of an R&D department is to keep a business competitive by providing insights into the market and developing new services / products or improving existing ones accordingly. The future growth of the business sits in a large part with the R&D department.

The R&D department will have a range of responsibilities. This can be everything from understanding a target market’s needs to looking at new products to quality control.

Elmelin go into good levels of detail around the role of an R&D department .

Outsourcing R&D

Businesses of all sizes make the decision to outsource their R&D. It’s not always viable to carry out R&D in-house. R&D outsourcing means you engage other organisations to help support or run your activity. These partners can then provide you with something that you can use as a business. This spans everything from independent R&D labs to university research organisations to clinical research organisations.    

It’s always worth a business considering what R&D activities they can bring in-house as this can be beneficial. In particular, in terms of R&D tax credits. We use a few worked examples to explore who can claim for R&D in complex projects. 

R&D and innovation

Research and development is closely linked to innovation. Innovation is a broad term and can be difficult to define. It often refers to those ideas, products, services, and methods/processes that are new and different.  R&D activity and projects is one of the main ways a business will seek to innovate.

When it comes to R&D activity, innovation can mean new to your business or genuinely unique. InnovateUK summarise this: “‘new to me’ innovation encompasses proven technology being applied in new and creative ways. Whilst the technology itself might not be brand spanking new, the application or product is novel.”

Although not all R&D leads to innovation, it’s unlikely that innovation occurs without some degree of R&D.

The definition of innovation for R&D for tax purposes is narrower. This means that R&D tax credits can’t be a substitute for innovation. R&D for tax purposes focuses specifically on achieving an advance in science or technology and resolving uncertainty.

Why R&D is important for business

R&D is important for businesses because it provides powerful knowledge and insights, leads to improvements to existing processes where efficiency can be increased and costs reduced. It also allows businesses to develop new products and services to allow it to survive and thrive in competitive markets.

Benefits of R&D

As we’ve discussed, R&D is important to business growth and your ability to compete in a market. A business that can innovate and adopt new technologies as well as improving existing processes is more likely to succeed in the long run.

At a wider level, the benefits of R&D extend into entire sectors as well as positively impacting the wider economy. A sector that invests heavily in R&D will develop and achieve more, including providing real-world benefits to people.

For many countries, R&D and economic growth go hand-in-hand. Some form of R&D incentive often feature as part of a government’s plans to grow its economy. This is because they are designed to improve productivity. The new UK Government has made R&D tax credits a cornerstone of policy.

On a global level, spending on R&D has reached a record high of almost US$ 1.7 trillion – see Unesco . The United States and China lead the way in terms of R&D spending. The true benefits of R&D can really kick in on a global scale where advances are made that improve the lives of inhabitants, including those most in need.

Claiming R&D tax credits for the first time?

If you’re new to R&D tax credits, we can help you get started and set you up for your future investment in innovation. We will adapt to your business, offering a bespoke service to meet your unique requirements.

What is R&D for tax purposes?

When it comes to R&D tax credits, the government has set out a specific definition of R&D. It is defined in the following terms:

“R&D for tax purposes takes place when a project seeks to achieve an advance in science or technology. The activities that directly contribute to achieving this advance in science or technology through the resolution of scientific or technological uncertainty are R&D.” 

Let’s break this down further. To count as R&D, you need to look for three things:

Project 

As well as your own R&D projects, an R&D tax claim can include work undertaken for a client. And remember, a project doesn’t have to have been successful to qualify.

Advance 

For the government’s accepted research and development definition, an R&D has to seek an advance in overall knowledge or capability in a field of science or technology.

Uncertainty

If you’re not sure if your R&D project is possible, or you don’t know how to achieve it in practice, you could be resolving technological uncertainties and be carrying out qualifying R&D.

If you have any questions around what constitutes as R&D for tax purposes or want to know if your projects contain qualifying R&D, ForrestBrown are happy to discuss it with you. Call us on 0117 926 9022.

R&D tax credits

At ForrestBrown, R&D tax credits is all we do. Day in day out, we see the positive impact R&D tax incentives have on supporting and supercharging the R&D function within businesses. From hiring new staff to embarking on bolder projects, it often has a transformational impact.

When used strategically, R&D tax credits create a virtuous circle of innovation. You receive your benefit and invest it in more innovation, and then receive more innovation. This can form part of a solution for overcoming challenges plagued by many businesses. This includes talent acquisition and retention, competitiveness and productivity.

With our expert award-winning team we help you mitigate risk and drive innovation throughout your business. We offer end-to-end claim services as well as one-off R&D tax consultancy .

Clinical Research & Product Development, M.S.

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What is Clinical Research?

Clinical researchers conduct clinical trials necessary to move new drugs, biologics, and biomedical devices through the regulatory process to reach regulatory approval and post-marketing studies required for drug safety and used for label/market expansion.

Our program provides a rigorous curriculum that prepares graduates for mid-to upper-level roles in the biopharmaceutical clinical research industry.

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• Reuse of Materials: Application materials from a previous application cycle may be re-used, in accordance with Graduate School policy, except for the statement of interest and resume/CV, which should be updated.
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• Open access
• Published: 13 September 2024

Understanding disciplinary perspectives: a framework to develop skills for interdisciplinary research collaborations of medical experts and engineers

• Sophie van Baalen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1592-3276 1 , 2 &
• Mieke Boon   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2492-2854 1  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  1000 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Health professionals need to be prepared for interdisciplinary research collaborations aimed at the development and implementation of medical technology. Expertise is highly domain-specific, and learned by being immersed in professional practice. Therefore, the approaches and results from one domain are not easily understood by experts from another domain. Interdisciplinary collaboration in medical research faces not only institutional, but also cognitive and epistemological barriers. This is one of the reasons why interdisciplinary and interprofessional research collaborations are so difficult. To explain the cognitive and epistemological barriers, we introduce the concept of disciplinary perspectives . Making explicit the disciplinary perspectives of experts participating in interdisciplinary collaborations helps to clarify the specific approach of each expert, thereby improving mutual understanding.

We developed a framework for making disciplinary perspectives of experts participating in an interdisciplinary research collaboration explicit. The applicability of the framework has been tested in an interdisciplinary medical research project aimed at the development and implementation of diffusion MRI for the diagnosis of kidney cancer, where the framework was applied to analyse and articulate the disciplinary perspectives of the experts involved.

We propose a general framework, in the form of a series of questions, based on new insights from the philosophy of science into the epistemology of interdisciplinary research. We explain these philosophical underpinnings in order to clarify the cognitive and epistemological barriers of interdisciplinary research collaborations. In addition, we present a detailed example of the use of the framework in a concrete interdisciplinary research project aimed at developing a diagnostic technology. This case study demonstrates the applicability of the framework in interdisciplinary research projects.

Interdisciplinary research collaborations can be facilitated by a better understanding of how an expert’s disciplinary perspectives enables and guides their specific approach to a problem. Implicit disciplinary perspectives can and should be made explicit in a systematic manner, for which we propose a framework that can be used by disciplinary experts participating in interdisciplinary research project. Furthermore, we suggest that educators can explore how the framework and philosophical underpinning can be implemented in HPE to support the development of students’ interdisciplinary expertise.

Peer Review reports

Expertise is highly domain-specific, and learned by being immersed in professional practice [ 1 ]. However, today’s rapidly evolving health care systems require clinicians who are capable of meeting complex challenges [ 2 ], which often requires interdisciplinary and interprofessional collaborations between experts from distinct disciplines. Footnote 1 With the increasingly central role of innovative medical technologies in many medical specialties [ 3 ], health professionals will presumable participate in interdisciplinary and interprofessional research collaborations. But interprofessional and interdisciplinary research collaborations are notoriously difficult (e.g., [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]). Boon et al. (2019) argue that the complexity of current medical practices requires interdisciplinary expertise , which is an extension of adaptive expertise [ 8 ]. Interdisciplinary expertise involves the ability to understand the role of disciplinary perspectives .

In this paper, we combine insights from the philosophy of science on disciplinary perspectives and practice experience from an interdisciplinary medical research project aimed at the development and implementation of diffusion MRI for the diagnosis of kidney cancer. Based on these insights and practice experience, we propose a framework for mitigating cognitive and epistemological barriers caused by different disciplinary perspectives. In addition, we present a detailed example of the use of the framework to analyse and explain the experts’ disciplinary perspectives in the aforementioned interdisciplinary research project aimed at developing a diagnostic technology. This case study demonstrates the use of the framework in interdisciplinary research projects. The framework can be used by health professionals to facilitate their interdisciplinary research projects, by analysing and explaining their disciplinary perspectives.

Interdisciplinary research

To address the barriers to interdisciplinary research, various authors have developed analytical frameworks to guide the research process and help disciplinary experts understand what it takes to execute projects together with experts from other disciplines [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Menken et al. (2016), for example, provide a method for interdisciplinary research that is much similar to the traditional empirical cycle, including steps such as “identify problem or topic,” “formulate preliminary research questions,” “data collection” and “draw conclusions” [ 11 ]. Other frameworks describe which steps need to be taken in the interdisciplinary research process . In the literature on team science , several authors also aim to provide a better understanding of the process of interdisciplinary research. For example, Hasan et al. (2023) focuses on the ‘micro’ layers of the team science ecosystem proposed by Stokols et al. (2019) – the layer of individual team members collaborating in interdisciplinary research projects [ 13 , 14 ]. From their analysis of an online collaborations between early academics from different fields, they provide insights into common issues in interdisciplinary research and methods for dealing with them. By applying their framework from the start of the interdisciplinary research process, they argue, interdisciplinary capture [ 15 ] can be avoided.

Although the aforementioned frameworks provide valuable guidance on the process of interdisciplinary collaboration, they do not address the deeper cognitive and epistemological challenges of interdisciplinary research collaboration [ 5 , 16 ], which is the objective of our contribution. A crucial assumption in current frameworks seems to be that interdisciplinary research collaboration is learned by doing, and that the integration of different disciplines will automatically follow. Footnote 2 In our view, however, the integration of different disciplines is both crucial and one of the most challenging aspects of interdisciplinary research collaboration. In previous work we have argued that the inherent cognitive and epistemological (knowledge-theoretical) challenges of integration have been neglected by most authors providing models for interdisciplinary research [ 8 ]. In this paper, our focus is therefore on challenges of using and producing knowledge in interdisciplinary research collaborations that aim at solving complex real-world problems. Examples are collaborations between distinct medical specialists in the diagnosis and treatment of a specific patient (e.g., an oncologist and radiologist), but also collaborations between medical experts and biomedical engineers aimed at innovative medical technology for clinical uses. In this paper, we focus on inter disciplinary research projects, in which two or more academic fields are integrated to solve real-world problems, and not on trans disciplinary projects in which one or more academic fields are integrated with expertise from outside of academia such as policy-making or practice. Footnote 3

The challenge of interdisciplinary research collaborations aimed at solving a shared problem is that each expert is guided by his/her own disciplinary perspective. However, the results produced by experts from different disciplines, although internally coherent, are not mutually coherent, so that they are not easily integrated. Furthermore, approaches and results understood within a contributing disciplinary perspective are not easily understood by experts specialised in other disciplinary perspectives, even though each expert aims to contribute to the same problem.

In short, the way in which experts use and produce knowledge is guided by the disciplinary perspective typical of their own practice. But experts are often unaware of having a disciplinary perspective. We argue that this is an obstacle to participating in interdisciplinary research collaborations focused on using and producing knowledge for complex problem-solving . Moreover, disciplinary perspectives are often considered impenetrable —as they are acquired by doing — which makes dealing with the disciplinary perspective of other experts a difficult learning objective. In this paper, we defend that disciplinary perspectives can be made explicit in a systematic manner, and that their role in ‘how experts in a specific discipline use and produce knowledge’ can thus be made understandable for experts and students in both their own and other disciplines.

To this end, we have developed a framework, based on new insights in the philosophy of science and on practice experience of interdisciplinary research collaboration aimed at the development of a medical technology, which can be used by experts in a particular discipline to analyse different elements of their discipline and, together with collaborators, to analyse the same elements from other disciplines. We believe that this systematic approach to understanding disciplinary perspectives will facilitate interdisciplinary research collaborations between experts from different fields. It will create awareness of one’s own disciplinary perspective and the ability to understand the disciplinary perspective of other experts at a sufficient level. Our framework thus aims to alleviate the challenge of integration in a collaborative research project by providing a tool for analysing disciplinary perspectives . We suggest that the concrete descriptions of disciplinary perspectives that result from the application of the framework, clarify the approaches of experts in a multi-disciplinary team. It thus enables effective communication through improved understanding of how each discipline contributes. Once researchers sufficiently understand each other’s discipline, they will be able to construct so-called conceptual models that integrate content relevant to the problems at hand. Footnote 4

Education in interdisciplinary research

In addition to professionals using our framework to facilitate collaboration in interdisciplinary research projects, we suggest that this framework can also be implemented in medical education. It can be used to teach students what it means to have a disciplinary perspective, and to explicate the role of disciplinary perspectives of disciplinary experts participating in an interdisciplinary research collaboration. We have implemented this framework in an innovative, challenge-based educational design that explicitly aims to support and promote the development of interdisciplinary research skills [ 22 ]. Research into the intended learning objectives has not yet been completed, but our initial findings indicate that the proposed framework effectively supports students in their ability to develop crucial skills for conducting interdisciplinary research projects. We suggest therefore that the framework can also be implemented in HPE as a scaffold for teaching and learning metacognitive skills needed in interdisciplinary research collaborations, for example between medical experts and engineers.

Research has shown that interprofessional education courses for healthcare students can have a positive effect on the knowledge, skills and attitudes required for interprofessional collaboration, but that organising such interventions is challenging [ 23 , 24 ]. In the HPE literature, it is generally assumed that the limitations of interprofessional and interdisciplinary teamwork are due to problems of communication, collaboration and cooperation [ 25 , 26 ], which are linked to barriers and enablers at institutional, organizational, infrastructural, professional and individual levels (e.g., [ 27 , 28 ]). Therefore, interprofessional and interdisciplinary collaborations are discussed extensively in the HPE literature – our focus is challenges of interdisciplinary research collaboration.

The ability to use and produce knowledge and methods in solving (novel) problems is covered in the HPE literature by the notion of adaptive expertise , which encompasses clinical reasoning, integrating basic and clinical sciences, and the transfer of previously learned knowledge, concepts and methods to solve new problems in another context (e.g., [ 1 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]). In previous work, we introduced the concept of interdisciplinary expertise, which expands on the notion of adaptive expertise by including the ability to understand, analyse and communicate disciplinary perspectives [ 8 ]. In this paper, we address the challenge posed by how this ability to understand, analyse and communicate disciplinary perspectives can be learned. The framework that we propose can be implemented in HPE to function as a tool to scaffold metacognitive skills of health professions students, facilitating the development of interdisciplinary expertise.

Aims and contributions of this paper

Our first objective is to show that interdisciplinary collaboration in (medical) research faces not only institutional, but also cognitive and epistemological barriers. Therefore, we first provide a theoretical explanation of the concept of ‘disciplinary perspective’ as developed in the philosophy of science, in order to make it plausible that the cognitive barriers experienced by experts in interdisciplinary collaboration are the result of different disciplinary perspectives on a problem and its solution.

Our second objective is to provide a systematic approach to improve interdisciplinary research, for which we propose a framework, in the form of a series of questions, based on new insights from the philosophy of science into the epistemology of interdisciplinary research. We provide a detailed explanation of the application of the proposed framework in an interdisciplinary medical research project to illustrate its applicability in a multidisciplinary research collaborations, by showing that the different disciplinary perspectives that inform researchers and technicians within a multidisciplinary research team can be made transparent in a systematic way.

In short, our intended contribution is (i) to explain cognitive and epistemological barriers by introducing the concept of disciplinary perspectives in medical research collaborations, (ii) to offer a framework that enables the mitigation of these barriers within interdisciplinary research projects that are caused by different disciplinary perspectives, and (iii) to illustrate the applicability of this framework by a concrete case of an interdisciplinary research collaboration in a medical-technical research setting.

We developed a framework for making disciplinary perspectives of experts participating in an interdisciplinary research collaboration explicit, by combining insights from the philosophy of science with practical experience from a medical research project. Philosophy of science provided the theoretical basis for our concept of disciplinary perspectives. Our detailed case-description stems from an interdisciplinary medical research project to develop and implement a new imaging tool for the diagnosis of kidney cancer, in which the first author participated. We then applied the framework to analyze and articulate the disciplinary perspectives of experts involved in this interdisciplinary medical research project.

The usefulness and applicability of the proposed framework was tested by the first author who, in her role as PI, was able to use it successfully in coordinating an interdisciplinary research project aimed at developing a biomedical technology for clinical practice [ 35 , 36 ]. Below, we illustrate how the framework was systematically applied to this specific case, providing initial evidence of its applicability. However, to test whether the proposed framework reduces the cognitive and epistemological barriers caused by different disciplinary perspectives, experts need to be trained in its use. We suggest that training in the use of this framework requires, among other things, some insight into the philosophical underpinnings of the concept of ‘disciplinary perspective’. Our explanation of the so-called epistemology of disciplinary perspectives in this paper aims to provide such insight.

Developing a framework for analysing and articulating a disciplinary perspective

The framework proposed here is based on insights about disciplinary perspectives in the philosophy of science. These insights concern an epistemology (a theory of knowledge) of scientific disciplines. In other words, the framework is based on an account of the knowledge-theoretical (epistemic) and pragmatic aspects that guide the production of knowledge and scientific understanding by a discipline [ 21 ].

The epistemology of scientific disciplines developed in our previous work is based on the philosophical work of Thomas Kuhn [ 37 ]. Building on his seminal ideas, we understand disciplinary perspectives as analysable in terms of a coherent set of epistemic and pragmatic aspects related to the way in which experts trained in the discipline (and who have thus, albeit implicitly, acquired the disciplinary perspective) apply and produce knowledge [ 38 ]. In our approach, the epistemic and pragmatic aspects that generally characterize a discipline, are made explicit through a set of questions that form the basis of the proposed framework (see Table 1 , and the first column of Table  2 ). The disciplinary perspective can thus be revealed through this framework. In turn, when used in educational settings, this framework can be used to foster interdisciplinary expertise by acting as a scaffold for teaching and learning metacognitive skills for interdisciplinary research collaborations. Footnote 5

The general aspects indicated by italics in each question in Table 1 are interdependent, so that analysis using this framework results in a coherent description of the disciplinary perspective in terms of these aspects. The framework can be used by experts in an interdisciplinary research project not only to make explicit their disciplinary perspective in a general sense, but to also to specify in a systematic way how these aspects relate to the interdisciplinary research problem from their disciplinary discipline (see Table  2 , which contains both the general and problem-specific descriptions for each aspect per discipline). In our view, this approach is productive in overcoming the cognitive and epistemological barriers. It thus contributes to productive interdisciplinary collaboration.

Applying the framework in an interdisciplinary medical research project

To test the applicability of this framework, we applied it to an interdisciplinary medical research project. The interdisciplinary medical research project aimed at developing a new clinical imaging tool, namely, diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (i.e., diffusion MRI) to characterize the micro-structural makeup of kidney tumours, running from early 2014 to mid-2018. The first author was involved in this project as a principle investigator (PI). As an interdisciplinary expert with a background in technical medicine , which combines medical training with technological expertise [ 41 ], she coordinated and integrated contributions from experts with medical and engineering backgrounds. In her role as PI, she applied the proposed framework to analyse and articulate the disciplinary perspectives of other experts involved in the medical research project.

The aim of the interdisciplinary medical research project was to develop a new imaging tool for the characterization of renal tumours, i.e., diffusion MRI. Diffusion MRI allows for visualization and quantification of water diffusion without administration of exogenous contrast materials and is, therefore, a promising technique for imaging kidney tumours. In earlier studies, several parameters derived from diffusion MRI studies were found to differentiate between different tumour types in the kidney [ 42 , 43 , 44 ]. Existing imaging methods in clinical practice can detect the size and location of kidney tumours, but the tumour type and malignancy can only be determined histologically after surgery. The purpose of the medical research project was to assess whether more advanced parameters that can be obtained from diffusion MRI [ 35 , 45 ] can differentiate between malignant and benign kidney tumours [ 36 ]. Being able to make this distinction could potentially prevent unnecessary surgery in patients with non-malignant tumours.

The interdisciplinary medical research project needed to bring together expertise (knowledge and skills) from different professionals, academic researchers as well as clinicians. Therefore, the research team consisted of a physicist, a biomedical engineer, a radiologist, a urologist and the principle investigator. The complex, interdisciplinary research object can be thought of as a system that encompasses several elements: the MRI-machine, the software necessary to produce images, the patient with a (suspected) kidney tumour, and the wider practice of care in which the clinical tool should function. In developing the clinical tool, these elements must be considered interrelated, whereas usually each expert focuses on one of these elements.

The PI utilized the framework to coordinate and integrate the contributions from different experts in the following manner. Throughout the project, she had meetings with each of the team members, where she probed them to explain their specific expertise in regard of the research object, as well as their expert contribution to the development of the imaging tool. Her approach in these meetings was guided by the general questions of the framework (Table 1 ). In this manner, she succeeded in getting a clear insight in aspects of each discipline relevant to the research object, and also in the specific contribution that needed to be made by each expert (as illustrated in Table  2 below). The level of understanding gained by this approach enabled her to, firstly, facilitate interdisciplinary team meetings in which disciplinary interpretations and questions from the experts about the target system could be aligned, and secondly, integrate their contributions towards the development of the new imaging tool [ 36 ].

In the presented approach, the framework was exclusively used by the PI, enabling her to acquire relevant information and understanding about the contributions of the disciplines involved. The other team members in the medical research project were not explicitly involved in applying the framework, nor in articulating their own disciplinary perspective or that of others. Hence, the resulting articulation of the disciplinary perspectives and of the contributions per discipline to the research object (in Table  2 ) is crafted by the PI. The level of understanding of the role of each discipline that the PI has acquired thereby appears to be sufficient to enable her coordinating task in this complex medical research project. Our suggestion for other research and educational practices, though, is that clinicians (as well as) other medical experts can develop this metacognitive skill by using the scaffold (in Table  1 ) in order to participate more effectively in these kinds of complex medical research projects.

In the results  section we will first present our explanation and justification of the idea that disciplinary perspectives determine the specific approaches of experts (who have been trained in a specific discipline in using and producing knowledge) when faced with a complex problem. In this explanation and justification, we will use insights from the philosophy of science. Next, we will explain and illustrate the systematic use of the proposed framework (Table 1 ) by showing the results of applying it to the interdisciplinary medical research project.

The insights from philosophy of science on which the proposed framework for the explication of disciplinary perspectives is rooted in insights of the philosophers Immanuel Kant (1794–1804) and Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996). Their important epistemological insight was that ‘objective’ knowledge of reality does not arise from some kind of imprint in the mind, such as on a photographic plate, but is partly formed by the concepts and theories that scientists hold. These concepts and theories therefore shape the way they perceive the world and produce knowledge about reality. This philosophical insight provides an important explanation for the cognitive and epistemological barriers between disciplines. After all, scientific experts learn these concepts and theories by being trained within a certain discipline. In this way, they develop a disciplinary perspective that determines their view and understanding of reality. Based on this philosophical insight, we can imagine how these barriers can be bridged, namely by developing the metacognitive ability to think about their own cognition and how their scientific view of reality is shaped by their specific disciplinary perspective. In order to facilitate this ability, we develop a framework that can be used as a metacognitive scaffold. Finally, we apply this framework to an example interdisciplinary medical-technical research project, to illustrate it’s use in practice.

Insights from the philosophy of science: disciplinary perspectives

Boon et al. (2019) refer to the notion of disciplinary perspectives and their indelible role in how experts approach problems —in particular, the ways in which experts use and produce knowledge in regard of the problem they aim to solve— and provide a philosophical account of this notion based on so-called constructivist (Kantian) epistemology (i.e., knowledge-theory, [ 38 , 46 ]). On a Kantian view, ‘the world does not speak for itself,’ i.e., knowledge of (aspects of) the external world is not acquired passively on the basis of impressions in the mind (physically) caused by the external world (e.g., similar to how pictures of the world are physically imprinted on a photographic plate). Instead, the way in which people produce and use knowledge results from an interaction between the external world, the human senses and the human cognitive system. Crucially, neither our concepts nor our perceptions stem from passive impressions. Instead, ‘pre-given’ concepts ‘in the mind’ are needed in order to be able to perceive something at all and thus to produce knowledge about reality. Conversely, according to Kant, the imaginative (i.e. creative) capacity of the mind is then able to generate new concepts and to draw new connections of which the adequacy and usability must be tested against our experiences of reality. When new concepts (invented by the creative capacity of the human mind) have been tested against experience, they allow us to see new things in the external world, which we would not see without those concepts. This theoretical insight by Kant is crucial to get past naïve conceptions of knowledge, in particular, by understanding the indelible role of concepts in generating knowledge from observations and experiences.

This philosophical insight already makes it clear, for instance, that ‘descriptions of facts’ in a research project involve discipline-specific concepts, making these descriptions not easy to understand for someone who is not trained in that discipline. After Kant, this role of concepts has been expanded to the role of perspectives . For, Kuhn [ 37 ] created awareness that the human mind plays ‘unconsciously’ and ‘unintentionally’ a much greater role in the way scientific knowledge is created than usually assumed in the view that scientific knowledge is objective . Kuhn has introduced the concept of scientific paradigm to indicate in what sense the mind contributes. His idea was revolutionary because the notion of true and objective knowledge, which is the aim of science, became deeply problematic, as knowledge is only true and objective within the scientific paradigm, whereas it may even be meaningless in another.

Our notion of disciplinary perspectives is in many respects comparable to Kuhn’s idea of scientific paradigm, and is certainly indebted to Kuhn’s invention, particularly, with regard to the idea that it is a more or less coherent, usually implicit ‘background picture’ or ‘conceptual framework,’ which constitutes an inherent part of the cognitive system of an expert, and which forms the basis from which an expert thinks, sees and investigates in a scientific or professional practice. Furthermore, the scientific paradigm is not ‘innate,’ nor individually acquired, but maintained and transferred in scientific or professional practices, usually by being immersed in it. The same can be said about disciplinary perspectives. Yet, there are also important differences.

First, Kuhn believed that the paradigm is so deeply rooted in the cognitive structure of individual scientists, and, moreover, is embedded in how the scientific community functions, that it takes a scientific revolution and a new generation of scientists to shift into another paradigm, which is called a paradigm-shift (sometimes explained as a Gestalt-switch ). Kuhn’s belief suggests that humans lack the capacity to reflect on their own paradigm. Footnote 6 Conversely, we argue that humans can develop the metacognitive ability to perform this kind of reflection by which the structure and content of the paradigm or disciplinary perspective is made explicit. We take this as an important part of interdisciplinary expertise . Our suggestion, however, should not be confused with the idea that we can think without any paradigm or disciplinary perspective – we can’t, but we can explicate its workings (and adapt it), which is what we will illustrate in the case-description below.

Second, Kuhn’s focus was science , i.e., the production of objectively true scientific knowledge, in particular, theories. Instead, our focus is on experts trained in specific disciplines, who use and produce knowledge with regard to (practical) problems that have to be solved. Nonetheless, the Kuhnean insight explains why knowledge generated in distinct disciplines often cannot be combined in a straightforward manner (e.g., as in a jigsaw puzzle), which is due to the fact that knowledge is only fully meaningful and understandable relative to the disciplinary perspective in which it has been produced.

Our notion of disciplinary perspectives is similar to Kuhn’s idea of paradigm (which he specified later on as disciplinary matrices ) in the sense that a paradigm functions as a perspective or a conceptual framework , i.e., a background picture within which a scientific or professional practice of a specific discipline is embedded and which guides and enables this practice. But instead of considering them as replacing each other in a serial historical order as Kuhn did, we assume that disciplinary perspectives co-exist, that is, exist in parallel instead of serial. This view on disciplinary perspectives can be elaborated somewhat further by harking back to Ludwik Fleck [ 47 ], a microbiologist, who already in the 1930s developed a historical philosophy and sociology of science that is very similar to Kuhn’s (also see [ 48 ]). Footnote 7 Similar to and deeply affected by Kant, Fleck draws a close connection between human knowledge (e.g., facts) and cognition. Hence, Fleck disputes that facts are descriptions of things in reality discovered through properly passive observation of aspects in reality – which is why, according to Fleck, facts are invented , not discovered . Similar to Kuhn, Fleck expands on Kant by also including the role of the community in which scientists and experts are trained. Instead of paradigms , however, Fleck uses the terms thought styles and thought collectives to describe how experts in a certain professional or academic community adopt similar ways of perceiving and thinking that differ between disciplines: “The expert [trained in the discipline] is already a specially moulded individual who can no longer escape the bonds of tradition and of the collective; otherwise he would not be an expert” ([ 47 ], p. 54). But while Kuhn strove to explain radical changes in science, Fleck’s focus is on ‘normal science,’ that is, on communities ( thought collectives each having their own thought style ) that co-exist and gradually, rather than radically, change, which is closer to our take on disciplines. Importantly, according to Fleck, the community guides which problems members of that communities find relevant and how they approach these problems. Translated to our vocabulary, in scientific and professional practices, experts trained in different disciplines each have different disciplinary perspective, by means of which they recognize different aspects and problems of the same so-called research object , which they approach in accordance with their own discipline.

We propose that disciplinary perspectives can be analysed and made explicit, which we consider a crucial metacognitive skill of interdisciplinary experts. Our proposal for the framework to analyse disciplinary perspectives (in Table 1 ) takes its cue in Kuhn’s notion of disciplinary matrices. Kuhn’s original notion presents a matrix by which historians and philosophers can analyse the paradigm in hindsight, specifying aspects such as the metaphysical background beliefs and basic concepts, core theories, epistemic values, and methods, which all play a role in how knowledge is generated (also see [ 8 , 50 ]). Our framework includes some of these aspects, but also adds others, thereby generating a scaffold that facilitates interdisciplinary collaborations aimed at applying and producing knowledge for complex problem-solving in professional research practices aimed at ‘real-world’ practices, such as medical research practice. Below, we will illustrate the application of this framework in a concrete case.

Interdisciplinary research project: diffusion MRI for the diagnosis of kidney tumour

We will illustrate the applicability of the proposed framework (Table 1 ) for the analysis of disciplinary perspectives using the example of a research project that aims to develop a new clinical imaging tool, namely, diffusion MRI to characterize the microstructure of renal tumours. In our analysis, we focus on experts from four different disciplines: (I) clinical practice, (II) medical biology, (III) MRI physics, and (IV) signal and image processing. As indicated in the methods section, the complex, interdisciplinary research object that these experts have to deal with concerns a system consisting of the MRI-machine, the software necessary to produce images, and the patient with a (suspected) renal tumour, including the broader care practice in which the clinical tool should function.

In the following paragraphs we will first present a general explanation of the four disciplines involved in the project, and next, illustrate how the proposed framework can be applied to analyse and articulate each disciplinary perspective as well as the specific contribution of each discipline to the research object (in Table  2 ). It is not our intention to provide comprehensive descriptions of the fields that are involved, but rather to provide insight into how the fields differ from each other across the elements of our framework. In addition, we do not believe that all (disciplinary) experts only adhere to one disciplinary perspective. For example, clinicians usually combine both a clinical and biomedical perspective to fit together a complete picture of a patient for clinical decision-making concerning diagnosis and treatment [ 51 , 52 , 53 ]. Moreover, MRI engineers will usually need to combine insights from MRI physics and signal processing.

I. Clinical practice concerning patients with renal tumours

Clinical practice concerns the patient with a renal tumour. This practice differs from the other disciplines in our example, because it is not primarily a scientific discipline. Nonetheless, to develop a diagnostic tool, the disciplinary perspective of clinicians specialized in patients with kidney tumours is crucial, for example, to determine the conditions that the technology needs to meet in order to be useful for their clinical practice. The knowledge-base of clinical experts is rooted in biomedical sciences, which means that clinical experts often understand their patient’s signs and symptoms from a biomedical perspective (i.e., in terms of tumour formation of healthy renal physiology). Yet, clinicians will usually focus on their patient’s clinical presentation and possible diagnostic and clinical pathways. In clinical practice, several kidney tumour types are distinguished, each with its own histological presentation (visible under the microscope), tumour growth rate and chance of metastases. Unfortunately, all kidney tumour types, including non-malignant types, appear the same on standard imaging modalities, namely, as solid lesions. When the tumour is not metastasized, treatment consists of surgery removing the whole kidney or the part of the kidney that contains the tumour (i.e., ‘radical’ or ‘partial’ nephrectomy). If surgery is not possible, other treatments include chemotherapy or radiation. After surgery, a pathologist examines the tumour tissue to determine the tumour type. Occasionally, the pathologist concludes that the removed tumour was non-malignant, which is a situation that may be prevented if diffusion MRI can be used to distinguish between malignant and non-malignant tumours prior to surgery.

II. Medical biology

In biology, the structure and working of the body is studied at several levels, from the interaction of proteins and other macromolecules within cells to the functioning of organs. In the case at hand, the organ of interest is the kidney. Functions of the kidneys are excretion of waste materials, control of blood pressure via hormone excretion, balancing the body fluid, acid-base balance and balancing salts by excretion or resorption of ions. Understanding these functions requires insights into the anatomy, tissue architecture and physiology of the kidneys. The main functional structures of the kidney are: (1) the nephron, consisting of a tuft of capillaries (the glomerulus) surrounded by membranes that are shaped like a cup (Bowman’s capsule), responsible for the first filtration of water and small ions, and (2) the renal tubule that is responsible for more specific resorption and excretion of ions and water. The arrangement of small tubes that fan from the centre towards the outside (or cortex) of the kidneys allows maintaining variation in concentrations of ions, which helps to regulate resorption and excretion. The contribution of medical biology to the development of the diagnostic tool is important because knowledge about kidneys such as just sketched provides an understanding of the properties (i.e., microstructural of physiological properties) by which different tumour types can be distinguished from each other, which is crucial to interpreting the novel diagnostic imaging technology.

III. MRI physics & diffusion MRI

Magnetic resonance imaging is based on the physics of magnetism and the interaction of tissue components with radio magnetic fields. The main component of the human body that clinical MRI machines are sensitive to is (the amount of) water molecules or, more specifically, hydrogen nuclei (protons). These protons can be thought of as rotating or spinning , producing (tiny) magnetic fields. By placing tissue in a relatively strong magnetic field (usually 1.5 or 3 Tesla emitted by a large coil that surrounds the body), the tiny magnetic fields of protons (in the water-phase of the tissue) will align themselves with the direction of the strong magnetic field. By then applying a series of radiofrequency pulses, protons will be pushed out of balance and rotate back to their original state, causing a magnetic flux that causes a change in voltage which is picked up by receiver coils in the MRI machine. The rate with which protons return to their original state, the relaxation time, is influenced by the makeup of their environment, and will, therefore, differ for different tissues, resulting in image contrasts between tissues. To be able to form images of the signal, magnetic field gradients are applied, spatially varying the field which enables to differentiate between signals from different locations. Computer software using mathematical formulas ‘translate’ the signal into a series of images.

Diffusion MRI is a subfield of MR imaging, that is based on a contrast between ‘diffusion rates’ of water molecules in different tissues. Diffusion is based on the random (‘Brownian’) motion of water molecules in tissue. This motion is restricted by tissue components such as membranes and macromolecules and therefore water molecules move (or ‘diffuse’) at different rates in different tissues, depending on the microstructure of tissues. To measure this, additional magnetic field gradients are applied, which results in a signal attenuation proportional to the diffusion rate, as water molecules move (‘or diffuse’) out of their original voxel due to diffusion.

The method for acquiring diffusion-weighted images with an MRI machine (i.e., the ‘acquisition sequence’ of applying radiofrequency pulses and switching gradients on and off) is designed to gain sensitivity to the water molecules diffusing from their original location. The measured diffusion coefficient is considered to be related to microstructural properties of the tissue, namely the density of tissue structures such as macromolecules and membranes that restrict water diffusion. Together with other diffusion parameters that can be obtained by fitting the signal to other functions or ‘models’, the diffusion coefficient can be used to characterise and distinguish between different (tumour) tissue types, which is the aim of this new imaging tool.

IV. Signal and image processing

The signal acquired by MRI machines undergoes many processing steps before they appear as images on the screen. Some of these steps are performed automatically by the MRI system while others require standardized operations in the software package supplied by the manufacturer, and yet other, more advanced, manipulations are performed in custom-made programs or software packages developed for specific research purposes. In the field of diffusion MRI, software packages that perform the most common fitting procedures are available but often custom-made algorithms are required. The reason for this is that diffusion MRI is originally developed for brain imaging, while investigating its feasibility in other organs has started more recently and only makes up a small part of the field. New applications generate new challenges. For example, unlike the brain, kidneys (and other abdominal organs) move up and down as a consequence of breathing. Therefore, specific algorithms manipulating the scan to correct for this respiratory motion are required for diffusion MRI of the kidneys. Furthermore, as tissue structure and physiology in the kidneys differ from that in the brain, existing models need to be adjusted to that of the kidney.

In this paper, we have argued that interdisciplinary collaboration is difficult because of the role of experts’ disciplinary perspective, which shapes their view and approach to a problem and creates cognitive and epistemological barriers when collaborating with other disciplines. To overcome these barriers, disciplinary experts involved in interdisciplinary research projects need to be able to explicate their own disciplinary perspective. This ability is part of what is known as interdisciplinary expertise [ 8 ]. We defend that interdisciplinary expertise begins with creating awareness of the role of disciplinary perspectives in how experts view a problem, interpret it, formulate questions and develop solutions.

Analytical frameworks to guide interdisciplinary research processes previously developed by other authors typically focus on the process of interdisciplinary collaboration [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. The approach we propose here contributes to this literature by addressing the deeper cognitive and epistemological challenges of interdisciplinary research collaboration on the role of the disciplinary perspective as an inherent part of one’s expertise [ 5 , 16 ]. Several authors have already used the concept of ‘disciplinary perspectives’ to point out the challenges of interdisciplinary research (e.g., [ 9 , 15 ]). Our contribution to this literature is the idea, based on philosophical insights into the epistemology of interdisciplinary research, that disciplinary perspectives can be made explicit, and next, to provide an analytical framework with which disciplinary perspectives within an interdisciplinary research context can be systematically described (as in Table 1 ) with the aim of facilitating interdisciplinary communication within such research projects.

Our further contribution is that we have applied this framework to a concrete case, thereby demonstrating that disciplinary perspectives within a concrete interdisciplinary research project can actually be analyzed and explicated in terms of a coherent set of elements that make up the proposed framework. The result of this analysis (in Table  2 ) shows a coherent description of the discipline in question per column, with an explanation per aspect of what this aspect means for the interdisciplinary research project. It can also be seen that the horizontal comparison (in Table  2 ) results in very different descriptions per aspect for each discipline. We believe that this example demonstrates that it is possible to explain the nature of a specific discipline in a way that is accessible to experts from other disciplines. We do not claim, therefore, that this table is an exhaustive description of the four disciplines involved. Instead, our aim is to show that the approach outlined in this table reduces cognitive and epistemological barriers in interdisciplinary research by enabling communication about the content and nature of the disciplines involved.

We suggest that educators can explore how the framework and philosophical underpinning can be implemented in HPE to support the development of students’ interdisciplinary expertise. Much has been written, especially in the engineering education literature, about the importance of interdisciplinarity and how to teach it. A recent systematic review article shows that the focus of education aimed at interdisciplinarity is on so-called soft skills such as communication and teamwork. Project-based learning is often used to teach the necessary skills, but without specific support to promote these skills [ 7 ]. In our literature review on education for interdisciplinarity [ 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 ], we did not find any authors who specifically address the cognitive and epistemological barriers to interdisciplinary collaboration as described in our article. One possible reason for this is that current epistemological views on the application of science in real-world problem-solving contexts, such as the research project presented here, do not recognise the inherent cognitive and epistemological barriers philosophically explained in this article [ 78 ]. The novelty of our approach is therefore our emphasis on the epistemological and cognitive barriers between disciplines that result from the ineradicable role of disciplinary perspectives in the discipline-bound way in which researchers frame and interpret the common problem. This makes interdisciplinary communication and integration particularly difficult. Specific scaffolds are needed to overcome these barriers. The framework proposed here, which systematically makes the disciplinary perspective explicit, aims to be such a scaffold. We therefore argue that much more attention should be paid to this specific challenge of interdisciplinary collaboration in academic HPE education. This requires both an in-depth philosophical explanation that offers a new view of scientific knowledge that makes clear why interdisciplinary research is difficult, and learning how to make disciplinary perspectives explicit, for which the proposed framework provides a metacognitive scaffold.

We have implemented this framework in a newly designed minor programme that uses challenge-based learning and aims to develop interdisciplinary research skills. In this minor, small groups of students from different disciplines work on the (interdisciplinary) analysis and solution of a complex real-world problem. A number of other scaffolds focused on the overarching learning objective have been included in the educational design, which means that the framework proposed here cannot be tested in isolation. Although our research into whether this new educational design achieves the intended learning goal is not yet complete, our initial experience of using the framework is positive. Students, guided by the teacher, are able to use the framework in their interdisciplinary communication - first in a general sense to get to know each other’s disciplines and then within their research project. This implies that the framework is useful in education aimed at learning to conduct interdisciplinary research.

This example, where the framework has been implemented in education aimed at developing interdisciplinary research skills, also shows that although it was developed in the context of a medical-technical research project, it is in fact very general and well suited for any interdisciplinary research.

A critical comment should be made regarding our preliminary evidence of the framework’s usefulness. The first author, who was PI of the interdisciplinary medical research project, in which she applied this framework in her role as coordinator, was also involved in the development of the framework [ 35 , 36 ]. She, therefore has a detailed insight into the theoretical underpinnings of the framework in relation to its intended application. The lack of such a theoretical background may make it more difficult to apply the framework in interdisciplinary research. Footnote 8 Which is why we have provided an extensive elaboration of these underpinnings in this paper.

Further research should address the question of whether this scaffold can facilitate interdisciplinary collaboration between disciplinary experts.

Further research is also needed to systematically analyse the value of this framework in HPE education. This starts with the question of what type of educational design it can be successfully implemented in. Other important questions are: Can interdisciplinary expertise be acquired without knowledge of the other discipline (e.g., biomedical engineering)? In other words, how much education in other disciplines should HPE provide to prepare experts to participate in specific interdisciplinary collaborations?

Furthermore, we emphasize that in addition to learning to use this framework as a metacognitive scaffold to gain a deeper understanding of the epistemological and cognitive barriers, students also need to develop other skills necessary for interdisciplinary research collaboration and working in interdisciplinary teams. The frameworks discussed in our introduction that analyse and guide the interdisciplinary research process provide insights into these skills (e.g. [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ] and [ 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 ]).

We suggest that the article as a whole can be used in such educational settings to achieve several goals, provided that students are guided and coached by educators. First, to foster student’s understanding of the epistemological challenges of interdisciplinary collaboration and to recognize that these challenges are usually underestimated and not addressed in most approaches. Second, by providing insights into the epistemological challenges by outlining the philosophical underpinnings, students will be made aware of having a disciplinary perspective and how it guides their work. Finally, by providing a framework that can be used to analyse these disciplinary perspectives and by providing an example from the case description. When successful, this approach encourages students to developing transferrable skills that can be used in research projects beyond the initial educational project.

Conclusions

Interdisciplinary research collaborations can be facilitated by a better understanding of how an expert’s disciplinary perspectives enables and guides their specific approach to a problem. Implicit disciplinary perspectives can and should be made explicit in a systematic manner, for which we propose a framework that can be used by disciplinary experts participating in interdisciplinary research projects. With this framework, and its philosophical underpinning, we contribute to a fundamental aspect of interdisciplinary collaborations.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published.

In this article, we use ‘disciplines,’ ‘fields’ and ‘specialisms’ interchangeably.

Bridle (2013), Klein (1990), Newell (2007) and Szostak (2002) provide activities that are important for interdisciplinary collaborations, such as communication, negotiation and evaluating assumptions. In order to be able to perform such activities, students need to develop the appropriate skills [ 9 , 17 , 18 , 19 ].

Roux et al. (2017) provide a clear characterization of transdisciplinary research: “A key aim of transdisciplinary research is for actors from science, policy and practice to co-evolve their understanding of a social–ecological issue, reconcile their diverse perspectives and co-produce appropriate knowledge to serve a common purpose.” ([ 20 ], p. 1).

Boon (2020, 2023) explains the notion of conceptual modelling in application oriented research [ 21 , 22 ].

i.e., a framework that enables us to think analytically and systematically about our cognitive processes when we use and produce knowledge [ 39 , 40 ].

Yet, we recognize that this belief was plausible in Kuhn’s era, where the idea that humans (including scientists) are inevitably and indelibly guided by paradigms and perspectives was revolutionary and devastating with regard to the rational view of man. But nowadays we have become familiar with this idea, which offers an opening for the metacognitive abilities that we suggest.

To scholars in HPE, we recommend the entry on Ludwik Fleck in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy [ 49 ].

The point made here touches on a more fundamental issue that is beyond the scope of this article. Namely, that resistance of students, but also of teachers, to the described approach may have to do with more traditional epistemological beliefs about science that do not fit well with the way scientific research works in practice [ 78 , 79 ]. The philosophical underpinnings of the proposed framework explained in this article suggest alternative epistemological beliefs that are more appropriate for interdisciplinary research aimed at (complex) ‘real-world’ problems.

Abbreviations

Health professions education

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Principle investigator

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Acknowledgements

We are very grateful to three anonymous reviewers who have provided valuable feedback and suggestions that have helped us improve the paper.

This work is financed by an Aspasia grant (409.40216) of the Dutch National Science Foundation (NWO) for the project Philosophy of Science for the Engineering Sciences , and by the work package Interdisciplinary Engineering Education at the 4TU-CEE (Centre Engineering Education https://www.4tu.nl/cee/en/ ) in The Netherlands.

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Sophie van Baalen & Mieke Boon

Rathenau Instituut, Den Haag, The Netherlands

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SvB and MB have co-authored the manuscript and have contributed equally to the article.

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Mieke Boon (PhD) graduated in chemical engineering (cum laude) and is a full professor in philosophy of science in practice . Her research aims at a philosophy of science for the engineering sciences , addressing topics such as methodology, technological instruments, scientific modeling, paradigms of science, interdisciplinarity, and science teaching. Sophie van Baalen (PhD) graduated in technical medicine and in philosophy of science technology and society , both cum laude. She recently finished her PhD project in which she aimed to understand epistemological aspects of technical medicine from a philosophy of science perspective, such as evidence-based medicine, expertise, interdisciplinarity and technological instruments.

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van Baalen, S., Boon, M. Understanding disciplinary perspectives: a framework to develop skills for interdisciplinary research collaborations of medical experts and engineers. BMC Med Educ 24 , 1000 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05913-1

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Received : 14 July 2023

Accepted : 14 August 2024

Published : 13 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05913-1

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