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Art Essay Examples

Art Essay Examples to Get You Inspired - Top 10 Samples

Published on: May 4, 2023

Last updated on: Jan 30, 2024

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Are you struggling to come up with ideas for your art essay? Or are you looking for examples to help guide you in the right direction? 

Look no further, as we have got you covered!

In this blog, we provide a range of art writing examples that cover different art forms, time periods, and themes. Whether you're interested in the classics or contemporary art, we have something for everyone. These examples offer insight into how to structure your essay, analyze art pieces, and write compelling arguments.

So, let's explore our collection of art essay examples and take the first step toward becoming a better art writer!

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Good Art Essay Examples

In the following section, we will examine a selection of art essay examples that are inspiring for various academic levels.

College Art Essay Examples

Let’s take a look at college art essay examples below:  

The Intersection of Art and Politics: An Analysis of Picasso's Guernica

The Role of Nature in American Art: A Comparative Study

University Art Essay Examples

University-level art essay assignments often differ in length and complexity. Here are two examples:

Gender and Identity in Contemporary Art: A Comparative Study

Art and Activism: The Role of Street Art in Political Movements

A Level Art Essay Examples

Below are some art paper examples A level. Check out: 

The Use Of Color In Wassily Kandinsky's Composition Viii

The Influence of African Art on Pablo Picasso's Les Demoiselles D'avignon

A Level Fine Art Essay Examples

If you're a student of fine arts, these A-level fine arts examples can serve as inspiration for your own work.

The Use Of Texture In Vincent Van Gogh's Starry Night

Exploring Identity Through Portraiture: A Comparative Study

Art Essay Examples IELTS 

The Impact of Art on Mental Health

The Effects of Technology on Art And Creativity

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AP Art Essay Examples

A Comparison of Neoclassical and Romantic Art

An Examination Of The Effects Of Globalization On Contemporary Art

Types of Art Essay with Examples

Art essays can be categorized into different types. Let's take a brief look at these types with examples:

Art Criticism Essay : A critical essay analyzing and evaluating an artwork, its elements, and its meaning.

The Persistence of Memory" by Salvador Dali: A Critical Analysis

Art History Essay: A comprehensive essay that examines the historical context, development, and significance of an artwork or art movement.

The Renaissance: A Rebirth of Artistic Expression

Exhibition Review: A review of an art exhibition that evaluates the quality and significance of the artwork on display.

A Review of the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Exhibition

Contemporary Art Essay: An essay that explores and analyzes contemporary art and its cultural and social context.

The Intersection of Technology and Art in Contemporary Society

Modern Art Essay: An essay that examines modern art and its significance in the development of modernism.

Cubism and its Influence on Modern Art [insert pdf]

Art Theory Essay: An essay that analyzes and critiques various theories and approaches to art.

Feminist Art Theory: A Critical Analysis of its Impact on Contemporary Art [insert pdf]

Additional Art Essay Example

Let’s take a brief look at some added art essay samples:

Artwork Essay Example

Artist Essay Example

Advanced Higher Art Essay Example

Common Art Essay Prompts

Here are some common art essay topics that you may encounter during your coursework:

• Describe a piece of artwork that has inspired you.
• A comparative analysis of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa and Michelangelo's David.
• Analyze the cultural significance of a particular art movement.
• Discuss the relationship between art and politics.
• Compare and contrast two works of art from different time periods or cultures.
• The representation of identity in art
• The Evolution of Artists' Paintings:
• From Traditional to Contemporary Art
• The representation of identity in Frida Kahlo's self-portraits.
• The significance of oil on canvas in the history of art.
• The significance of the Mona Lisa in the Italian Renaissance

Art Essay Topics IELTS

Here are some art essay topics for IELTS students. Take a look: 

• The value of art education.
• The role of museums in preserving art and culture.
• The impact of globalization on contemporary art.
• The influence of technology on art and artists.
• The significance of public art in urban environments.

Tips For Writing a Successful Art Essay

Here are some tips for writing a stand-out art essay:

• Develop a clear thesis statement that guides your essay: Your thesis statement should clearly and concisely state the main argument of your essay.
• Conduct thorough research and analysis of the artwork you are writing about : This includes examining the visual elements of the artwork, researching the artist, and considering the historical significance.
• Use formal and precise language to discuss the artwork: Avoid using colloquial language and instead focus on using formal language to describe the artwork.
• Include specific examples from the artwork to support your arguments: Use specific details from the artwork to back up your analysis.
• Avoid personal bias and subjective language: Your essay should be objective and avoid using personal opinions or subjective language.
• Consider the historical and cultural context of the artwork: Analyze the artwork in the context of the time period and cultural context in which they were created.
• Edit and proofread your essay carefully before submitting it: Ensure your essay is well-organized, coherent, and free of grammatical errors and typos.
• Use proper citation format when referencing sources: Follow the appropriate citation style guidelines and give credit to all sources used in your essay.
• Be concise and focused in your writing: Stick to your main thesis statement and avoid going off-topic or including irrelevant information.
• Read your essay aloud to ensure clarity and coherence: Reading your essay out loud can help you identify inconsistencies or any other mistakes.

The Bottom Line!

We hope that the art essay examples we've explored have provided you with inspiration for your own essay. Art offers endless possibilities for analysis, and your essay is a chance to showcase your unique opinions.

Use these examples as a guide to craft an essay that reflects your personality while demonstrating your knowledge of the subject.

Short on time? Let CollegeEssay.org help you! All you have to do is to ask our experts, " write college essay for me " and they'll help you secure top grades in college.

Don't wait, reach out to our art essay writing service.

Take the first step towards excellence in your art studies with our AI essay writer !

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Writing Essays in Art History

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Art History Analysis – Formal Analysis and Stylistic Analysis

Typically in an art history class the main essay students will need to write for a final paper or for an exam is a formal or stylistic analysis.

A formal analysis is just what it sounds like – you need to analyze the form of the artwork. This includes the individual design elements – composition, color, line, texture, scale, contrast, etc. Questions to consider in a formal analysis is how do all these elements come together to create this work of art? Think of formal analysis in relation to literature – authors give descriptions of characters or places through the written word. How does an artist convey this same information?

Organize your information and focus on each feature before moving onto the text – it is not ideal to discuss color and jump from line to then in the conclusion discuss color again. First summarize the overall appearance of the work of art – is this a painting? Does the artist use only dark colors? Why heavy brushstrokes? etc and then discuss details of the object – this specific animal is gray, the sky is missing a moon, etc. Again, it is best to be organized and focused in your writing – if you discuss the animals and then the individuals and go back to the animals you run the risk of making your writing unorganized and hard to read. It is also ideal to discuss the focal of the piece – what is in the center? What stands out the most in the piece or takes up most of the composition?

A stylistic approach can be described as an indicator of unique characteristics that analyzes and uses the formal elements (2-D: Line, color, value, shape and 3-D all of those and mass).The point of style is to see all the commonalities in a person’s works, such as the use of paint and brush strokes in Van Gogh’s work. Style can distinguish an artist’s work from others and within their own timeline, geographical regions, etc.

Methods & Theories To Consider:

Expressionism

Instructuralism

Postmodernism

Social Art History

Biographical Approach

Poststructuralism

Museum Studies

Visual Cultural Studies

Stylistic Analysis Example:

The following is a brief stylistic analysis of two Greek statues, an example of how style has changed because of the “essence of the age.” Over the years, sculptures of women started off as being plain and fully clothed with no distinct features, to the beautiful Venus/Aphrodite figures most people recognize today. In the mid-seventh century to the early fifth, life-sized standing marble statues of young women, often elaborately dress in gaily painted garments were created known as korai. The earliest korai is a Naxian women to Artemis. The statue wears a tight-fitted, belted peplos, giving the body a very plain look. The earliest korai wore the simpler Dorian peplos, which was a heavy woolen garment. From about 530, most wear a thinner, more elaborate, and brightly painted Ionic linen and himation. A largely contrasting Greek statue to the korai is the Venus de Milo. The Venus from head to toe is six feet seven inches tall. Her hips suggest that she has had several children. Though her body shows to be heavy, she still seems to almost be weightless. Viewing the Venus de Milo, she changes from side to side. From her right side she seems almost like a pillar and her leg bears most of the weight. She seems be firmly planted into the earth, and since she is looking at the left, her big features such as her waist define her. The Venus de Milo had a band around her right bicep. She had earrings that were brutally stolen, ripping her ears away. Venus was noted for loving necklaces, so it is very possibly she would have had one. It is also possible she had a tiara and bracelets. Venus was normally defined as “golden,” so her hair would have been painted. Two statues in the same region, have throughout history, changed in their style.

Compare and Contrast Essay

Most introductory art history classes will ask students to write a compare and contrast essay about two pieces – examples include comparing and contrasting a medieval to a renaissance painting. It is always best to start with smaller comparisons between the two works of art such as the medium of the piece. Then the comparison can include attention to detail so use of color, subject matter, or iconography. Do the same for contrasting the two pieces – start small. After the foundation is set move on to the analysis and what these comparisons or contrasting material mean – ‘what is the bigger picture here?’ Consider why one artist would wish to show the same subject matter in a different way, how, when, etc are all questions to ask in the compare and contrast essay. If during an exam it would be best to quickly outline the points to make before tackling writing the essay.

Compare and Contrast Example:

Stele of Hammurabi from Susa (modern Shush, Iran), ca. 1792 – 1750 BCE, Basalt, height of stele approx. 7’ height of relief 28’

Stele, relief sculpture, Art as propaganda – Hammurabi shows that his law code is approved by the gods, depiction of land in background, Hammurabi on the same place of importance as the god, etc.

Top of this stele shows the relief image of Hammurabi receiving the law code from Shamash, god of justice, Code of Babylonian social law, only two figures shown, different area and time period, etc.

Stele of Naram-sin , Sippar Found at Susa c. 2220 - 2184 bce. Limestone, height 6'6"

Stele, relief sculpture, Example of propaganda because the ruler (like the Stele of Hammurabi) shows his power through divine authority, Naramsin is the main character due to his large size, depiction of land in background, etc.

Akkadian art, made of limestone, the stele commemorates a victory of Naramsin, multiple figures are shown specifically soldiers, different area and time period, etc.

Iconography

Regardless of what essay approach you take in class it is absolutely necessary to understand how to analyze the iconography of a work of art and to incorporate into your paper. Iconography is defined as subject matter, what the image means. For example, why do things such as a small dog in a painting in early Northern Renaissance paintings represent sexuality? Additionally, how can an individual perhaps identify these motifs that keep coming up?

The following is a list of symbols and their meaning in Marriage a la Mode by William Hogarth (1743) that is a series of six paintings that show the story of marriage in Hogarth’s eyes.

• Man has pockets turned out symbolizing he has lost money and was recently in a fight by the state of his clothes.
• Lap dog shows loyalty but sniffs at woman’s hat in the husband’s pocket showing sexual exploits.
• Black dot on husband’s neck believed to be symbol of syphilis.
• Mantel full of ugly Chinese porcelain statues symbolizing that the couple has no class.
• Butler had to go pay bills, you can tell this by the distasteful look on his face and that his pockets are stuffed with bills and papers.
• Card game just finished up, women has directions to game under foot, shows her easily cheating nature.
• Paintings of saints line a wall of the background room, isolated from the living, shows the couple’s complete disregard to faith and religion.
• The dangers of sexual excess are underscored in the Hograth by placing Cupid among ruins, foreshadowing the inevitable ruin of the marriage.
• Eventually the series (other five paintings) shows that the woman has an affair, the men duel and die, the woman hangs herself and the father takes her ring off her finger symbolizing the one thing he could salvage from the marriage.

Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, how to get into college as an artist: what you need to know.

College Admissions

Hoping to get into a college art program? Many of the best art programs are highly competitive, and, even if your portfolio is strong, it can be difficult to stand out from the crowd. In this guide, we break down what every part of your college application must include for you to become a standout art applicant. This article applies to all types of arts programs, including drawing, painting, photography, and fashion. Follow these tips to produce an exceptional application for art programs.

What Do Colleges Look for in Applicants?

There are lots of misconceptions around what it takes to get into college, especially as a potential art student. Many people think you need to excel in a lot of areas in order to show schools that you're smart and talented. However, for many top programs, being well-rounded can actually put you at a disadvantage. 

What the most competitive schools want to see is that you're highly-skilled in a specific area. This is especially true for art programs, where you'll need to show strong art talent to have a good chance of being accepted. So, instead of being pretty good in all your classes, being in an art club, playing a sport, doing some volunteer work, doing some art projects on your own time, etc. y ou'll be a much stronger art candidate if you can clearly show your talent for art. Having a strong focus in a single area is what we call a "spike." We go into spikes more in this article , but, basically, a spike is where you focus your talents in one area so that you become exceptional in it, rather than be "pretty good" in a bunch of different areas. 

Why is the spike approach better? Art schools want to admit students they think will achieve great things as an artist. The best way to do this is for the schools to admit students who have already shown strong artistic talent and commitment to art as high school students. You can't be illiterate/unable to count, but showing that you're a great artist and spend most of your time on art makes you a much stronger art program candidate than showing that you're pretty good at a bunch of things, including art. Your goal is to have every part of your application show clearly "I'm a great artist!" 

For your art spike, you must show:

• A passion for art
• Exceptional artistic skills
• Measurable achievements, particularly in extracurriculars and your portfolio

In the rest of this article, we'll explain how to do this for each part of your college application, and we'll also go over some examples of standout art candidates. 

How Can You Impress Colleges as an Art Applicant?

Below, we break down how to make each key part of your application as strong as possible so you give yourself the best chance of being accepted into art programs. We go over:

Test Scores

Extracurriculars, personal statements.

• Letter of Recommendation

For each, we give concrete goals to aim for, as well as general qualities your application should have throughout. In general, remember that you want your artistic talents to be most prominent, but you don't want to slack in other areas to make schools doubt you can handle college-level classes.

Your art portfolio is the #1 most important part of your application to art programs. If it's strong, it can often be enough to make up for weaker grades, test scores, and extracurriculars (to a point), and if it's weak, you probably won't get into top art programs, even if the rest of your application is perfect. We have a guide specifically on developing an art portfolio for college , but we'll give an overview here on how to make your portfolio shine.

An art portfolio is typically a collection of about 10-20 pieces of your very best work that you send to colleges to give them an overview of your work. Each school has slightly different requirements for the pieces to send in, how many to send in, and what they want to see in your portfolio. Make sure to read their portfolio instructions very carefully to make sure you're giving each school what they want. You may have to end up tweaking your portfolio for each school, which can be annoying, but this will be some of the most useful time you spend creating a strong college application. Admissions teams look for three main things in an art portfolio:

Technical Mastery

You could be the most creative and innovative artist in the world, but you still need to prove you have a strong foundation of basic skills. Technical mastery includes being able to apply basic and advanced art principals to your work, create work that shows a high level of attention and detail, and complete projects that are free of sloppiness and mistakes. Art programs are often most interested in your drawing skills because many art forms require a strong drawing ability. Most art programs recommend applicants submit at least drawing in their portfolio, even if that is not their preferred art form, and some schools, such as the Rhode Island School of Design, require at least one drawing sample.

Variety and Versatility

While it's expected for students to have an art form they create most frequently and are most comfortable with, art schools want applicants who are strong artists across a variety of media and art forms. One reason versatility is important is because the ability to create multiple art forms is a sign of a talented artist and one who can apply their skills in multiple ways.

Unique Style/Personality

The School of the Art Institute of Chicago (SAIC) states on its admissions page that the most important thing they look for in an art portfolio is "[W]ork that will give us a sense of you, your interests, and your willingness to explore, experiment, and think beyond technical art and design skills." Your art portfolio must showcase your personality and unique way of looking at the world. You want to show art schools that there is a reason they should admit you specifically, so there must be some unique quality to your work. Technical skill is not enough if you can only copy what others have already created.

After you've read the portfolio requirements and recommendations of each school you're applying to, you're ready to assemble your portfolio. As you do, keep these tips in mind:

Give yourself plenty of time: You'll likely need months, or even years to create the work you'll use in your portfolio, but give yourself at least eight weeks just to compile the portfolio itself.

Show the breadth of your skills: Even if you are only submitting work from one art form, you can show a great deal of variety within it, both in technique and subject matter. 

Include pieces from direct observation: Many art programs require or highly recommend pieces created from direct observation. These are pieces created by observing real things around you. Even if your background is more in abstract art, most programs want to know you can recreate scenes around you, hence the direct observation requirement.

Ensure your pieces look their best: First, make sure there are no smudges, rips, wrinkles, etc. that you don't want on your work. Once they're perfect, put a lot of care into photographing/videoing them as well. Spending time to take quality pictures and videos of your work is almost as important as creating quality art itself.

Contrary to what you might have been told, you can't fail your classes and still expect to get into top art programs, even if your portfolio is exceptional. Art schools want students with at least a solid education. This is for several reasons. First, even if you become the best artist in the world, you will still need additional skills to get by in the world; everyone does. Reading, writing, and math skills are often the most important because you'll likely be using these skills every day for the rest of your life. Art schools want to know you already have a strong foundation in these areas.

Additionally, art school is still school. Art schools want to make sure you have the work ethic needed to complete classes in a satisfactory manner, even if you're not that excited about the coursework. If your high school transcript shows a wave of dropped classes and low grades because you just "didn't like those subjects" they're going to wonder if you'll bail on their classes, too.

How much do your grades matter for art school? It really depends on the school. Art programs that are part of a highly-competitive university, such as the art programs at Yale, USC, and Brown, will expect strong grades. At these schools, you'll be taking plenty of non-art classes and will need to keep up with a high-achieving student body. For these programs, even the most amazing portfolio won't guarantee admission if your grades are poor. If you really do have a stellar portfolio, you don't need to aim for perfect scores (because your portfolio will be the shining tip of your spike and make up for shortcomings elsewhere), but, in general, we recommend at least a 3.5 unweighted GPA . You should also be taking honors and AP classes if your school offers them. As art is your spike, you can take advanced classes in whichever classes you enjoy most/do best in.

For all your classes, aim to not get anything lower than a "B," although a few C's might be OK if your portfolio is very strong. Take all the art classes you can, especially AP art classes (the current options are 2-D Art and Design, 3-D Art and Design, Art History, Drawing, and Music Theory). If your school doesn't offer many art classes, see if you can take classes at a local community college to add to your transcript and show your commitment to gaining a solid foundation in basic art skills.

Schools that exclusively cater to art and design students, even highly competitive ones such as RISD and CalArts, generally have lower grade expectations. For these, your art portfolio will matter more, and your grades and test scores are of lower importance. This is especially true if you'll be receiving a BFA degree, rather than a BA degree. However, there is still a lot of variation between different schools. RISD is known for wanting strong grades and test scores, while programs like CalArts and SAIC often accept students with lower GPAs if their portfolios are excellent. In general, we recommend taking all the art classes you can (honors and AP if possible). For the rest of your classes, take the most challenging course schedule you can without getting overwhelmed. Set a goal to not get grades lower than a "B," but some lower grades are usually OK. 

As with your GPA, some programs find your standardized test scores to be an important part of your application, while others don't really care about them. Some programs, such as CalArts and Massachusetts College of Art and Design, don't require standardized test scores. You'll need to do some research to see how much different art programs value standardized test scores. As with GPA, purely art schools tend to not weigh test scores very heavily or even require them at all, but more general liberal arts schools will expect decent to strong test scores. If you're applying to a school where standardized test scores are an important part of the application, it is very much to your benefit to get a strong score. Even just a few days of study for the SAT and ACT is often enough to give you a significant score boost. 

What score should you aim for? Again, it depends on the school. For highly-competitive schools like Yale, aim for a 700+ on both sections of the SAT or a 30+ on the ACT. Higher is always better, especially if you feel other parts of your application aren't as strong as you want.

For other schools, what should you aim for? RISD is one of the few art schools to report its average SAT scores: its admitted freshman students average a 688 on SAT Math and 655 on EBRW. Those are good benchmarks to aim for if you're applying to non-Ivy League schools that still consider test scores a key part of the college application.

If the art programs you're applying to don't weigh test scores strongly, you can aim lower. A 1200 on the SAT or 1200 on the ACT is a good goal to set, but if your portfolio is strong, you can likely get lower than these scores and still have an excellent chance of getting accepted. 

For programs that don't require standardized test scores, you can opt not to take the ACT/SAT or not to send scores if you're unhappy with them. However, we only recommend doing this if your grades are fairly strong, as you'll need to have some proof of being able to succeed in school. Also, if you score well, we recommend sending in your scores, even if they're not required. Strong standardized test scores will always be a boost to your application.

Having additional test scores, such as AP  or IB scores, is also a good way to strengthen your application. Aim for a 3 or higher for APs (or a 4 or 5 if you're applying to highly competitive schools like Yale or Brown), and 4+ on IBs (or a 5 or higher for highly competitive schools). Again, art is already your spike, so you can take these tests in the subjects you think you'll do best in.

In general, you want the majority (at least ¾) of your extracurriculars to relate to art. This will reinforce your spike. There are multiple ways to get strong extracurriculars:

Competitions

If you have won an art competition, that's a great thing to have on your application! This is true even if it was a small/local competition, or if you weren't given the top prize but were still given an award/honorable mention. Winning a competition obviously shows you are a talented artist, but even just applying to one shows colleges you're motivated and believe in your skills, which they love seeing in applicants.

Clubs/Camps

Being a member of an art club is a great extracurricular because it gives you more experience creating art, exposes you to the viewpoints of other artists so you can learn more about art and how to improve your own work, and shows you have social skills and like being around others. The art club you join can be a school club, community club, or even one you start on your own and recruit others to. One thing you don't need to do though is pay lots of money to go to a "prestigious" art camp. Unless the art camp is both highly competitive (acceptance rate less than 25%) and well-known, paying thousands of dollars to attend an art camp won't be any more impressive to colleges than joining your school art club for free. As always, it's the art you produce that's most important, not where you produce the art.

Volunteering

All schools want applicants who are generally good people and will have a positive impact on campus. Having extracurriculars on your application that show you care about others is a strong plus. Also, unlike competitions, you don't need to win anything to give back as an artist; you just need to decide you want to help others! Examples include volunteering to teach younger students about art, donating art supplies to daycares/schools/senior homes that can't afford them, contributing to a community art event like painting over graffiti with a mural, etc. Just participating in these is great, but if you start your own project, that's even better because it shows leadership skills and a strong work ethic (two things all colleges love).

Non-Art Extracurriculars

The art program you're applying to may have an essay prompt specifically related to art (this is sometimes called an "artist statement." For this, be sure to answer every part of the prompt (they often contain three or more things to discuss), and show your unique approach to art, specific artistic achievements, and your artistic goals for the future (as long as those topics apply to the prompt, of course).

For most of these prompts, you can answer them with a past/present/future focus. For the past, discuss why you became interested in art, for the present discuss current projects/skills/accomplishments, and for the future discuss how you envision your artistic career progressing, both short-term and long-term, including how the school you're applying to will help you achieve those goals. Most schools recommend this statement be between 1-2 double-spaced pages, so expect to go into some depth. The artist's statement is often an extremely important part of your art application, so really put some time into it. Make sure it's free of spelling and grammar errors, too (have someone else look it over to double-check).

If your programs don't require artist statements, no worries! Even generic prompts can be related to your art spike if you get creative (which of course you can do; you're an artist!). We recommend you still try to connect these essays to art, as this is your chance for schools to really understand what makes you tick as an artist. Here are some examples of things to discuss for different prompts:

• Why do you want to attend this school? Discuss the school's art program, including specific professors/classes/internships/etc… that you're most excited about. Also discuss how the school's art program will help you achieve your goals as an artist.
• Describe a problem you've solved: Discuss a difficulty you had with one of your art projects, whether that was conceptualizing it, getting the proper materials/workspace, matching the art to your vision, etc.
• Discuss an accomplishment you're proud of: Winning an art competition, mentoring other art students, or a piece you're particularly proud of creating
• Which fictional character best represents you? Discuss an artistic character such as Peeta Mellark from The Hunger Games, Luna Lovegood from Harry Potter, Rapunzel in Tangled, etc...Pick aspects that relate to you, and connect them to your love of art and creating.
• What have you done to make your school or community a better place? Discuss donating art supplies, volunteering your time to teach art classes, a community art project you participated in, etc. 

Obviously, your essay topic will depend on your own individual circumstances, but there are many ways to relate it to your art spike. Besides general college essay tips , your focus should be to highlight both your passion for art and creating. If there's anything you're particularly proud of in your spike, this is a great place to mention it again. But you don't need to come off as perfect. You can discuss struggling with tough classes, or being unsure of exactly how you'll make a career out of art, as long as you can explain that you're now ready to thrive as an undergrad art student.

Letters of Recommendation

You should aim for at least one of your letters of recommendation to be written by an art teacher of yours or an art mentor you have. If a school you're applying to sets requirements for who can write your letters of rec (such as one from a math/science teacher and one from a social science/English teacher), follow those guidelines, and check to see if the school allows additional letters of recommendation to be submitted; many schools allow this. 

When you ask a teacher to write you a letter of recommendation (which you should always do in person, when possible), it's very helpful if you include a "brag sheet" or list of accomplishments/qualities you're proud of. This both helps the teacher know what to write and helps you make sure your best achievements have a better chance of being discussed. For an art teacher writing a letter of rec, there may be specific pieces or skills you want them to mention. 

For other teachers, they'll obviously discuss other things besides your art skills. Potential things for them to discuss include your strong work ethic, skill in a particular topic, willingness to help other students, etc. Remember, you can't control what teachers will write about in your letters, but by offering suggestions and potentially discussing what they'll include, you can make sure they're writing a letter they feel comfortable with and that highlights the accomplishments you want.

What Do Good Examples of Art Spikes Look Like?

Below are two hypothetical examples of students who developed great art spikes. Students with these profiles don't have a guarantee of getting into their art programs of choice, but these examples can give you a jumping-off point for developing your spike and setting goals for yourself.

Profile 1: Elodie the Painter

Portfolio: Elodie's profile mostly includes paintings that she embellishes with scavenged materials. She also included several drawings she's particularly proud of because of how detailed and realistic they are. Elodie's work shows clear skill in both drawing and painting, and she uses the scavenged materials in unique ways to add interest and create compelling stories behind each work. Elodie's art evokes a strong sense of the natural world that strongly ties in to her artist statement.

Grades: Elodie has gotten A's in all her art classes, including AP 2-D Art. Most of her other grades are Bs, with a few C's in math (which she has never liked). Her overall unweighted GPA is a 3.2.

Test Scores: Elodie received a 26 on the ACT. She received 3s on AP World History and AP English Literature, and a 5 in AP 2-D Art.

Extracurriculars: She's a member of her school art club, and she organized a new showcase of student art at the end of each year. Elodie has also played soccer for ten years, although she's never made the school varsity team. She's won several local art awards, including a 2nd place prize at a citywide painting competition. She was the only high school student to receive an award at the competition. 

Personal Statement: Elodie uses her artist statement to explain how painting and using natural materials allows her to feel connected to the natural world. She turned to art when her family moved from the countryside to the city and she began missing nature. Her goal in creating her paintings and collages is to incite a love for nature in others, and she often includes scavenged materials in her work both to show the prevalence of trash in the world as well as how items we may think of as disposable and useless still have value. Her personal statements give specific anecdotes about her life and her work, and she's able to clearly show how the schools she's applying to will help her achieve her goals of opening her own art studio and creating a program where inner-city students can take field trips to nature preserves and create art based on their experiences.

Letters of Rec: Elodie's drawing and painting teacher wrote one of her letters of recommendation, and he gives a glowing review of Elodie's artistic skills, work ethic, and vision. She's clearly one of the most talented students he has taught. Elodie's other letter is written by her geometry teacher. Even though Elodie only received a B in geometry, her teacher describes the effort Elodie put into understanding the material, and how she explained challenging topics to other struggling students once she understood them. Her geometry teacher states that it's clear that Elodie has a strong natural curiosity and isn't one to give up easily.

Elodie is an excellent example of someone having a very strong art spike. She is a hard worker, but doesn't naturally excel in many academic areas, which is why her overall GPA and test scores are pretty average. That's fine though, because her art spike is so strong. Her portfolio and artist statement will be the majority of the reason why she's accepted into art programs, but competition wins, strong letters of recommendation, and her personal statement all help bolster her spike and show the admissions teams that this is an applicant who is not only extremely talented as an artist, but who is driven to work hard and has clear goals for herself. Elodie may not get into Ivy League schools, but she's a very strong candidate for most art programs.

Profile 2: Darian the Photographer

Portfolio: Darian's portfolio shows strong photography skills, particularly for portraits. He uses his advanced technical and lighting skills to showcase his sitters in the best light. Darian also uses photo editing programs, including some he modified on his own, to give his photographs a bleak, minimalist mood. This adds a unique aspect to an otherwise standard portfolio.

Grades: Although photography is his passion, Darian enjoys school, especially when he's able to connect his schoolwork to photography. He especially excels in computer classes (because he uses photo editing programs) and English classes (because he loves writing). He understands the importance of a good education and pushes himself to take challenging classes. He's taken numerous honors and AP classes, in each main subject, and gotten mostly As. His unweighted GPA is 3.85.

Test Scores: Darian studied quite a bit for the SAT, and, on his third time taking the test, was able to achieve a 750 in both sections. He's taken five AP exams and earned a 4 or 5 in each of them.

Extracurriculars: Darian is a member of both his school's and local community's photography club where he has learned a lot from other photographers. Because he has had such great mentors, he created a club where high school and college-aged students teach photography to students at lower-income schools who have limited access to art classes. Each student is loaned a camera and encouraged to take photos of their world as they see it. At the end of the program, the students' photos are showcased at the community library. Darian started this program as a freshman, and it has grown so that dozens of students have been mentored, and local politicians and out-of-state artists attend the event. Additionally, Darian is a member of his school's coding club, and he plays on an ultimate frisbee team and works at his parent's restaurant on the weekends. 

Personal Statement: Darian used his personal statements to discuss how important photography can be to a community to create social connections and a sense of place. His current work is heavily-based on his hometown and the people in it because he wants people to feel proud about being from there. He takes time to discuss the mentorship program he started, how important it is to him, and his hopes for how it will grow. Like Elodie, Darian has clear plans for his future and what he hopes to get from an art program.

Letters of Rec: Darian's photography teacher and computer science teacher wrote his letters of recommendation. Both discussed his obvious talent, but they spend more time giving examples of what a caring and helpful person Darian is, and how much effort he puts in to help others improve and achieve their goals. Darian submits a supplemental letter of rec from the library director where Darian's mentor program holds its community showcase. The director describes what a positive impact the program has had on participants and what an exceptional person he thinks Darian is to have started such a successful program while in high school.

Darian is a strong art program candidate, but in a somewhat different way than Elodie. Darian's portfolio is strongly above average, but not hugely exceptional, although he shows the potential to keep improving his skills. Unlike Elodie, Darian's portfolio alone isn't enough to get him into top programs. However, Darian makes up for this in other areas, particularly his strong grades and test scores, and especially the mentorship program he started. Overall, Darian is a good photographer who also seems like a genuinely caring, smart, and hardworking person. He likely has a better chance of getting into liberal arts colleges with art programs than Elodie does because Darian has the strong academic background these schools want.

What's Next?

Your portfolio is the most important part of your application to art programs. Learn more about how to make a great portfolio that will impress your dream school.

Wondering what art programs you should apply to? Check out our guide on the best art schools in the United States!

How's your contour line drawing skill? Learn the basics of how to draw without shading with this guide .

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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How to Write an Artist Statement for College Applications

Congratulations, you’re an artist!

You’re pursuing a degree in art, a decision that will hopefully propel you into a fulfilling and successful creative career. 

Many colleges and universities ask art students to write an Artist Statement as part of their applications. Writing an Artist Statement can be tricky, especially if you’re applying as an undergraduate. You are likely a teenager, and it’s very possible that you have not yet had to define what you do and make yet. 

If you choose to pursue art as a career, you will have to continuously convey what your art means to you, who your influences are, and why you create your art. So, this is the perfect time to start thinking critically about what you want to say. After all, you may need to memorize an elevator pitch for your art one day.

Here are some prompts to get your brainstorming off the ground:

• Why did you start making art? What inspired you to act on your creative instincts? 
• What do you like to make and what’s your preferred medium? What are your favorite tools?
• Which artists have inspired you? Who do you hope to emulate (if anyone)?
• What is your process like? How have you honed your process over the years?
• Is there a particular piece of art or museum that ignites your curiosity or passion?
• What, generally speaking, is your art about? Or what does it seek to address? What is the overarching theme? What are you trying to say?

These don’t have to be static answers, of course; they will change over your evolving life as an artist, but now is the time to try to pin down a basic explanation of what your art means to you, what it addresses, and why you want to spend the rest of your life immersed in it.

The artist statement can be super challenging, but also ridiculously fun! You get to ponder your inspiration, motivations, and instincts. Heck, this exercise might even spark an idea for a new project!

Ultimately, like with all written components of your application, it’s integral to be highly specific and use personal details to bring your statement to life. We’re wishing you luck and inspiration!

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Category: Admissions , advice , Uncategorized

Tags: art school , art school admissions , art school applications , artist statement

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Essays About Art: Top 5 Examples and 9 Prompts

Essays about art inspire beauty and creativity; see our top essay picks and prompts to aid you.

Art is an umbrella term for various activities that use human imagination and talents. 

The products from these activities incite powerful feelings as artists convey their ideas, expertise, and experience through art. Examples of art include painting, sculpture, photography, literature, installations, dance, and music.

Art is also a significant part of human history. We learn a lot from the arts regarding what living in a period is like, what events influenced the elements in the artwork, and what led to art’s progress to today.

To help you create an excellent essay about art, we prepared five examples that you can look at:

1. Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists? by Linda Nochlin

2. what is art by writer faith, 3. my art taught me… by christine nishiyama, 4. animals and art by ron padgett, 5. the value of art by anonymous on arthistoryproject.com, 1. art that i won’t forget, 2. unconventional arts, 3. art: past and present, 4. my life as an artist, 5. art histories of different cultures, 6. comparing two art pieces, 7. create a reflection essay on a work of art, 8. conduct a visual analysis of an artwork, 9. art period or artist history.

“But in actuality, as we all know, things as they are and as they have been, in the arts as in a hundred other areas, are stultifying, oppressive, and discouraging to all those, women among them, who did not have the good fortune to be born white, preferably middle class, and above all, male. The fault lies not in our stars, our hormones, our menstrual cycles, or our empty internal spaces, but in our institutions and our education–education understood to include everything that happens to us from the moment we enter this world…”

Nochlin goes in-depth to point out women’s part in art history. She focuses on unjust opportunities presented to women compared to their male peers, labeling it the “Woman Problem.” This problem demands a reinterpretation of the situation’s nature and the need for radical change. She persuades women to see themselves as equal subjects deserving of comparable achievements men receive.

Throughout her essay, she delves into the institutional barriers that prevented women from reaching the heights of famous male art icons.

“Art is the use of skill and imagination in the creation of aesthetic objects that can be shared with others. It involves the arranging of elements in a way that appeals to the senses or emotions and acts as a means of communication with the viewer as it represents the thoughts of the artist.”

The author defines art as a medium to connect with others and an action. She focuses on Jamaican art and the feelings it invokes. She introduces Osmond Watson, whose philosophy includes uplifting the masses and making people aware of their beauty – he explains one of his works, “Peace and Love.” 

“But I’ve felt this way before, especially with my art. And my experience with artmaking has taught me how to get through periods of struggle. My art has taught me to accept where I am today… My art has taught me that whatever marks I make on the page are good enough… My art has taught me that the way through struggle is to acknowledge, accept and share my struggle.”

Nishiyama starts her essay by describing how writing makes her feel. She feels pressured to create something “great” after her maternity leave, causing her to struggle. She says she pens essays to process her experiences as an artist and human, learning alongside the reader. She ends her piece by acknowledging her feelings and using her art to accept them.

“I was saying that sometimes I feel sorry for wild animals, out there in the dark, looking for something to eat while in fear of being eaten. And they have no ballet companies or art museums. Animals of course are not aware of their lack of cultural activities, and therefore do not regret their absence.”

Padgett recounts telling his wife how he thinks it’s unfortunate for animals not to have cultural activities, therefore, can’t appreciate art. He shares the genetic mapping of humans being 99% chimpanzees and is curious about the 1% that makes him human and lets him treasure art. His essay piques readers’ minds, making them interested in how art elevates human life through summoning admiration from lines and colors.

“One of the first questions raised when talking about art is simple — why should we care? Art, especially in the contemporary era, is easy to dismiss as a selfish pastime for people who have too much time on their hands. Creating art doesn’t cure disease, build roads, or feed the poor.”

Because art can easily be dismissed as a pastime, the author lists why it’s precious. It includes exercising creativity, materials used, historical connection, and religious value. 

Check out our best essay checkers to ensure you have a top-notch essay.

9 Prompts on Essays About Art

After knowing more about art, below are easy prompts you can use for your art essay:

Is there an art piece that caught your attention because of its origin? First, talk about it and briefly summarize its backstory in your essay. Then, explain why it’s something that made an impact on you. For example, you can write about the Mona Lisa and her mysterious smile – or is she smiling? You can also put theories on what could have happened while Leonardo da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa.

Rather than focusing on mainstream arts like ballet and painting, focus your essay on unconventional art or something that defies usual pieces, such as avant-garde art. Then, share what you think of this type of art and measure it against other mediums.

How did art change over the centuries? Explain the differences between ancient and modern art and include the factors that resulted in these changes.

Are you an artist? Share your creative process and objectives if you draw, sing, dance, etc. How do you plan to be better at your craft? What is your ultimate goal?

To do this prompt, pick two countries or cultures with contrasting art styles. A great example is Chinese versus European arts. Center your essay on a category, such as landscape paintings. Tell your readers the different elements these cultures consider. What is the basis of their art? What influences their art during that specific period?

Like the previous prompt, write an essay about similar pieces, such as books, folktales, or paintings. You can also compare original and remake versions of movies, broadway musicals, etc.

Pick a piece you want to know more about, then share what you learned through your essay. What did the art make you feel? If you followed creating art, like pottery, write about the step-by-step process, from clay to glazing.

Visual analysis is a way to understand art centered around what the eyes can process. It includes elements like texture, color, line, and scale. For this prompt, find a painting or statue and describe what you see in your essay.

Since art is a broad topic, you can narrow your research by choosing only the most significant moments in art history. For instance, if you pick English art, you can divide each art period by century or by a king’s ruling time. You can also select an artist and discuss their pieces, their art’s backstory, and how it relates to their life at the time.

If you are interested in learning more, check out our essay writing tips !

Maria Caballero is a freelance writer who has been writing since high school. She believes that to be a writer doesn't only refer to excellent syntax and semantics but also knowing how to weave words together to communicate to any reader effectively.

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The Art of the College Essay Paperback – May 22, 2014

• Print length 146 pages
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• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Oneiric Press; First Edition (May 22, 2014)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 146 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0991214935
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Gabrielle glancy.

Gabrielle Glancy is an award-winning essayist, novelist and poet. Author of Vera, a novel, I'm Already Disturbed Please Come In (January 2015), which was named by The Advocate as one of the top 30 books you may have missed in 2015, The Art of the College Essay and Best College Essays 2014 (of which she was the editor.) Her work has appeared in The New Yorker, The American Poetry Review, The Paris Review and many other journals and anthologies. She is also one of the translators of the acclaimed French writer, Marguerite Duras.

Former Admissions Director, Series Editor of Best College Essays, and published in The New Yorker, New Vision Learning's Gabrielle Glancy has been in the business of helping students realize their dreams for almost thirty years. With a knack for knowing just the right formula to help high school students succeed where they have struggled and get in where they want to go, she is one of the foremost professionals in her field. Headquartered in California and New York, Gabrielle Glancy is well known all around the world for her college admissions expertise.

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How to Write Cornell’s Essay for The Arts and Science College

This article was written based on the information and opinions presented by Vinay Bhaskara and Mariana Goldlust in a CollegeVine livestream. You can watch the full livestream for more info. 

What’s Covered:

What makes this prompt unique, choosing a topic, be specific.

Cornell University’s essay prompt for the College of Arts and Sciences asks students to respond to the following question:

Students in Arts and Sciences embrace the opportunity to delve into multifaceted academic interests, embodying in 21st century terms Ezra Cornell’s ‘any person … any study’ founding vision. Tell us about the areas of study you are excited to explore, and specifically why you wish to pursue them in our College. (650 words)

In this article, we will walk through what makes this prompt unique from other similar essay prompts as well as how to approach writing your response. For more information on Cornell’s other supplemental essays, check out our posts on how to write the Cornell University essays .

This prompt is interesting in particular because it is more nuanced than a standard academic interest prompt, which is one of the four main types of college essay prompts. Students are asked to write about the areas of study, not just one area of study, that they are excited to explore through the College of Arts and Sciences at Cornell.

Typically, essay prompts like this ask students to elaborate upon just one discipline that they are interested in and why they want to pursue it at a particular college. As a result, the word count is often shorter as well, since you are generally discussing one area in particular. In contrast, the subtle difference in this prompt allows and encourages students to write about multiple areas of study. Another key point is that this reflects Cornell’s interdisciplinary approach within the College of Arts and Sciences. 

When responding to this essay prompt, applicants should think about connecting a diverse set of their own interests to a more singular, overarching goal. Furthermore, this goal should be something that they are interested in working towards while at Cornell. The mention of founding vision “any person … any study” represents the emphasis the school puts on allowing students to explore new and exciting connections between various subjects. 

One way that you can go about starting this essay is by thinking about how your academic interests relate to your present experiences, involvements, or extracurriculars. By reflecting deeply on your interests and conveying your passions, you will highlight your intellectual curiosity while telling the admissions officers more about who you are and what matters to you. 

One of the most important things to keep in mind when responding to this prompt is that specificity matters. This essay is already focused on one individual college within Cornell University, so applicants need to demonstrate in detail why they are interested in this particular program.

Including specific details about courses, professors, and programs can help you show the admissions committee that you have thoroughly done your research. This is important because it tells the admissions officers that you are genuinely interested in their school and that you have goals and interests that align with the unique offerings of the College of Arts and Sciences at Cornell.

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Student Stories: “What do you write, my lord? Words, words, words.”

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Katy Payne   she/her 360-764-0201

Editor’s Note: OSPI aims to elevate the authentic experiences of the students in Washington’s K–12 public schools. This story was written by a Washington state high school student participating in  OSPI’s Student Stories Program . The author’s opinions, beliefs, and viewpoints do not necessarily reflect those of OSPI, and publication of this story does not constitute OSPI’s approval or endorsement of its contents. With questions, please contact OSPI’s Communications team at [email protected].

I’ve been thinking a lot about writing lately. I can’t seem to escape it. I doubt there will ever come a time in my life again where I do nearly as much writing as I have been this past month. College application essays, AP Literature essays, scholarship applications, my summer job application, and my OSPI blogs. With each keystroke, each new sequence of syllables, I think more and more about the practice as a whole.

Last year I hated my writing. Any jumble of words produced by this mind and these hands was, to me, the worst thing I’d ever read. This was because last year I had to completely rewire the way I had always thought about writing. For so long I had been able to get through my English classes by relying solely on a single process. Five paragraphs: outlining intro, body example #1, body example #2, body example #3, topped off with a conclusion reiterating everything I’ve already said. It was a formula that had worked for so many years, even through two honors English language arts classes. Come my junior year, however, it became clear that this was no longer going to cut it. Megan, meet AP English Language and Composition.

Although there was a good deal of non-fiction reading, AP Lang was primarily a composition class over anything else. The first thing I learned when I walked through those doors was that a five paragraph essay was too formulaic, and such predictability leads to essays that can be boring reads. I learned the hard way that an essay should flow, it should have as many body paragraphs as the idea needs to be properly communicated, and each paragraph should build on or somehow connect to the last.

I hated this new process, I thought. In reality, I hated learning it. It contradicted everything that made sense to my brain, the way I was taught to write. The organized system I knew, I found comfort in, wasn’t satisfactory anymore. Sure, the introduction and conclusion still stand, but most of the essay was thrown out the window.

I often wondered why writing was taught the way it is in the first place if, to be successful in their writing as high schoolers and beyond, a student must relearn to write. The simple answer is that it is the easiest way for young students to begin to grasp longer forms of writing, which makes a lot of sense. I’ve never found this answer to be fully satisfactory though, as it doesn’t answer my second underlying question: Why do we still lack a more substantive transition to the writing demanded of us later on? Now seems like the moment in which I introduce an end-all be-all solution, but I’m not sure there is one. I have no expertise other than being a student in the public school system for the past 13 years, and as a result have only known one method of long-term English language arts education.

As such, I can only offer an idea: More exposure. Throughout nearly all my English education we read books, not essays (even though essays are what we are expected to write). By no means am I saying that children should read fewer books, though. Books are incredible works of art, and reading provides us with so many benefits. What I am saying, however, is that I believe providing essays to middle schoolers as reading materials in addition to longer works like novels could help bridge the gap between the five paragraph essay and more creative, flowing works. If children learn by imitation, how are we supposed to imitate something we’ve never seen?

In terms of expectations, I felt that the transition from a formulaic essay to something more thoughtful and advanced was expected of me from the moment I signed up for an AP English class. In terms of my skill and progression, the transition took about three months of taking AP Lang. In an ideal world, though, I wouldn’t have been under expectations for those few months; I would have crossed that bridge somewhere before my junior year of high school. In reality I believe I was able to cross that bridge so quickly in part due to the pressure of College Board expectations, but primarily due to the sheer number of essays we read in class. Consider the Lobster by David Foster Wallace, Politics and the English Language by George Orwell, The Owl Has Flown by Sven Birkerts, Seeing by Annie Dillard, and so many more. We also annotated essays of varying scores from actual college students, and listened to speeches like David Foster Wallace’s This is Water . By the end of my first semester in AP Lang, I felt so thoroughly exposed to short-form literature that I could use the techniques I observed in these works and confidently apply them to my own essays, effectively bridging the previously mentioned “gap.”

The way we write influences the way we think, and, by extension, the way we communicate and interact with those around us. As such, I believe we need to begin to think about English language arts education as a path, in which each step builds on the last and leads to the next, more than we currently do.

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It is difficult to assess Margarita Tupitsyn’s new book,  Moscow Vanguard Art, 1922–1992 , because of its strong spirit of partisanship. It covers wide historical ground and brings in a lot of new material gathered from primary sources, but it is also unabashedly selective, its choices circumscribed by the author’s personal history. A well-known art historian and curator of Russian and Soviet avant-garde art, Tupitsyn belongs to the generation of intellectuals who came of age during the period of stagnation and decline of the Soviet Union. The history she narrates belongs to this period fully and inextricably. Her important contribution to the field is to be one of the first and most consistent specialists to write about the formerly marginal subject of Russian and Soviet art, which has come to the attention of mainstream art history in the West only in the past fifty years. The author’s personal participation in this history forms an important part of the book and contributes to its strengths and weaknesses. Beginning in the 1970s, she was first a participant and later an organizer of the key events and exhibitions described in her book. Thus, her narration comes not only from her vast knowledge of history and theoretical literature, but also from her own experience. This personal element is reflected in the fact that Tupitsyn writes only about artists from Moscow, Russia’s capital and its largest and most developed city, where she was born and raised and socialized with many of the artists she describes in her book. This focus is a positive aspect of the book, as the author narrows down the topic to what she knows best. Tupitsyn’s decision to embrace “vanguard” art under a wide chronological umbrella is more problematic because she traces a direct parallel between the avant-garde of the early 1920s and experiments conducted by Moscow artists after Stalin’s death during the Khrushchev and Brezhnev eras. Tupitsyn talks about art in terms of its accepting or, the contrary, confronting the dominant political structure. This argument makes sense within an oppositional framework of a “left” versus “right” political struggle, but it dismisses a “gray” area in-between, which may be most interesting of all in the realm of aesthetics as it questions and often negates the polar divisions. In this sense, Tupitsyn’s reading of “vanguard” art is limited by its insertion into this oppositional structure.

As an actual participant of the many events she chronicles, Tupitsyn certainly has a story to tell. The book captures this story vividly, documenting it with numerous illustrations and photographs, some featuring the author herself. In the introduction to the book, she explains some of her choices by referencing her interest in the particularity of a “milieu” surrounding the artist, “with its perpetual mechanism of conversing” (1). Tupitsyn’s story is connected with the tradition of experimental and political art or “art in context,” which, she explains, demonstrably veers away from the concept of aesthetic purity propagated by Clement Greenberg in particular. Bearing in mind the specificity of Tupitsyn’s point of view, the book uncovers layers of history from published and unpublished sources. As a counterbalance to her personal involvement in the history she writes, Tupitsyn aptly quotes liberal philosophers, cultural critics, and art historians from Ernst Bloch to Michel Foucault and her teacher Rosalind Krauss to make or amplify her argument about the experimental nature of avant-garde thinking and production and its continuity through generations of Moscow artists.

The book has seven chapters, roughly a chapter per decade of the narrated history. The first two cover the decades before World War II, before the author’s lifetime. Tupitsyn begins with a story of an ideological and personal rivalry between Kazimir Malevich, the leading painter of nonobjective art, and a certain Evgeny Katsman, his brother-in-law, who turned out to be among the leading propagandists of conservative visual culture, later endorsed by Stalin and the officially supported Academy of Arts. Tupitsyn weaves an intricate narrative based on Katsman’s diaries, which reads almost like a detective novel. It reveals Katsman as a man ruthless in his attempts to destroy his rival both in art and in life, going as far as meeting with Stalin personally to plead the cause against the avant-garde. Tupitsyn makes Katsman’s diary a foil against which she develops her story of the foundation and functioning of such conservative artistic collectives as AKhRR (Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia) and Malevich, the protagonist of the avant-garde’s fight against the reactionary tendencies exemplified by the ideology propagated by Katsman. In this chapter, she touches on the key issues of this standoff: the debate about the teaching tendencies in VKhUTEMAS (Higher Artistic-Technical Workshops); the progressive role of Anatoly Lunacharsky, who promoted avant-gardists in the early 1920s; and the government support behind Die Erste Russische Ausstellung in Berlin in 1922, to which apparently only “left” artists were invited. It was interesting to learn, for example, that AKhRR was founded as a reaction to this exclusion as well as a means to associate with the Wanderers, an established group of nineteenth-century realist painters whose agenda, Tupitsyn insists, was much more progressive in its day than that of AKhRR. Tupitsyn’s listings of AKhRR’s exhibitions and her detailed chronicling of its confrontations with theoreticians affiliated with LEF (Left Front of the Arts) is helpful in reminding the reader of the fundamental difference between the approaches of the “right” and the “left” artistic factions: the rear guard aspired to study the conditions of people’s everyday lives and “depict [them] naturalistically,” while the avant-garde “imagined the proletariat not as subject of art, but as its participatory force” (11). This formulation of the pivotal ideological difference between the conservative and the progressive factions in Soviet art touches on the question of the conservatives’ idealization, the progressives’ utopia, and the loss of the reality principle in both camps. Tupitsyn weaves in the stories about other artists, such as Vladimir Tatlin, Alexander Rodchenko, and El Lissitzky, but in her choosing the Malevich-Katsman rivalry as the guiding thread of her argument, she creates a structure resembling that of a phallic, pre-oedipal standoff. In this dualistic confrontation, the raging competitors need each other in order to release their aggression against one another, but in fact the enemy they fight is invincible, because without it, their existence would be devoid of sense. This penchant toward analyzing art from the political perspective of the fight of the “left” against the “right” without giving the issues of aesthetics any consideration makes Tupitsyn argue against a growing interest of Western scholars in a comprehensive study of Socialist Realism, which she raises in the second chapter of her book.

In line with other histories of Soviet nonconformist art, Tupitsyn locates the possibility for a continuation of the spirit of the avant-garde with the death of Stalin, the concomitant end of terror, and the onset of Khrushchev’s thaw. The period from the 1940s to the 1950s is associated for the author with the resurgent interest of the Moscow artists in abstraction. In chapter 3, the author traces the development of this line of artistic thought in the work of Vladimir Nemukhin, Lydia Masterkova, Vladimir Yankilevsky, among others, including such relatively unknown names in the West as Vladimir Slepian and Mikhail Chernyshov. Artists doing three-dimensional work in open air, such as Francisco Infante, Lev Nussberg, and his Movement Group are also included, as well as early works by Ilya Kabakov and Erik Bulatov. Kabakov and Bulatov are well-known artists who resurface in subsequent chapters dedicated chiefly to performance and immigrant art from the 1970s and continuing through the 1980s and 1990s. While developing a convincing chronology of key exhibitions and events that spurred the development of the underground art scene, Tupitsyn excludes several notable names. In the section on abstractionists, important artists, such as Mikhail Shvartsman, are absent, for example. In the section on immigrant art in New York, a recently deceased Leonid Lamm is missing. This is especially surprising because Tupistyn worked with Lamm, having included him in her Sots Art exhibition at the New Museum in 1986, and authored essays and even a book about him. The reader is left guessing about the criteria of the author’s selection. The book has an index, but at times the page numbers do not correspond to the exact mention of a name, as is the case with the group Medical Hermeneutics.

Tupistyn’s book continues an impressive series of her publications, produced in the course of more than thirty-five years. She has always been a strong voice of support for the kind of art she writes about—politically involved and outspoken—which in many ways reflects her own personality. Perhaps partisanship in writing histories is not necessarily a bad thing; in fact, nowadays it may be impossible to write a good history without taking sides and making clear which ideology you support. In this particular book, however, the author pushes this principle to its limit, making the reader wonder what is missing as a result of the personal choices she made.

Natasha Kurchanova Independent Art Historian

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Movie Reviews

Tv/streaming, collections, great movies, chaz's journal, contributors, art college 1994.

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It’s weirdly funny to see a year mentioned in the title of “Art College 1994,” an animated Chinese college dorm rom-com about young people and their greatest loves, themselves. You could easily imagine this feature-length cartoon taking place in another time or place without losing much of either its specificity or universality. Swap out a Nirvana poster or a multi-tiered tape-deck stereo, and you’ll still have an unsentimental and quietly unsparing portrait of idealistic undergrads at a pivotal moment when they start to realize how small they are in the world that awaits them after graduation.

Director/co-writer Liu Jian ’s affection for his impulsive young characters adds a welcome variation to the usual pre-graduation coming-of-age story’s concerns for life after college. It’s funny because it’s true, and not only to its young subjects’ inconstant values. These art students, like most art students, take themselves too seriously and also live in a beautiful oasis that fosters tendencies that, to anyone else, must seem indulgent. “Art College 1994” is unassumingly sweet because it’s about young people and their eternal quest for freedom and self-expression, mostly inside their own navels.

“Art College 1994” is a time capsule about that shimmering moment in time when you think you know exactly what you’re talking about without knowing much at all. Liu (“ Have a Nice Day ”) shows an unusual patience and fascination with his characters, whose overlapping stories tend to meander more than they progress. There’s some intrigue about who will go where after school and who’s dating whom, making fair weather partners out of musical students Hao Lili (Zhuo Dongyu) and Gao Hong (Papi) and fine arts majors Zhifei (Shaoxing) and Xiaojun ( Dong Zijian ). There’s also a frequently rotated cast of supporting characters who receive and project their own ideas back at these four core main protagonists.

Liu focuses more on his characters’ academic setting since his blinkered twenty-somethings only think they know what they want and only on their own vaguely personal terms. Jokes about the art world and its young, impressionable supporters abound. Some are more amusing than laugh-aloud funny, though even that makes sense since most people in this movie don’t seem to have an outdoor voice.

A museum curator’s “manifesto” is greeted with shrugs—“I know every word here, but I don’t understand a thing.” A bemused student teases a well-traveled artist from Taiwan (renowned filmmaker Jia Zhangke ) with a quasi-Daoist question—“Is the moon more beautiful abroad?”—and is instantly shut down by an embarrassed administrator: “Please don’t bring up things unrelated to today’s topic.” Art is burned for freedom and portfolios’ sake, and love matches are pursued and rescinded with startling regularity. Also, really, you’re engaged to him —you, so soon??

“Art College 1994” doesn’t build momentum so much as it floats along with its characters, fixating on contextualizing details on both the movie’s depopulated sound design and mostly music-light score. The ambient noises you hear on the soundtrack tend to stand out given the “social realist” design that’s become central to Liu’s now-signature visual style. Human characters move haltingly across ostentatiously designed background screens full of eye-catching ornamental details. It’s not naturalistic but rather stylized in a mannered way that feels true to this kind of story’s nature as a snapshot of students who drink too much, philosophize more than they understand, and prop up their choices with quotes from Fyodor Dostoevsky , James Joyce , and Pablo Picasso. They think about “traditional art” and how to make new art, either by combining old media or maybe burning it all to the ground (“I’ve already come up with a title [for an exhibition]. 'Flame of Ideas!'”).

The bitter edge to “Art College 1994”’s humor is also undercut significantly by its matter-of-fact poetry and arthouse-friendly toggling back-and-forth between impressionistic details. Look at this ceiling's rafters, then join Yingjun in bed as he stares up at nothing. The movie’s music cuts short, mid-space-out. Soon, we’ll join Yinjun again as he trudges around campus at night, hands in his pockets, headphones on, and a melody of crickets on the soundtrack. Then it’s off to the Casablanca Club and its marquee’s flickering purple and green flickering halogen bulbs, which crackle on the soundtrack like a bug zapper.

“Art College 1994” isn’t really nostalgic because it vividly depicts what it’s like to be young and only responsible for yourself, with no frame of reference but your own narrow, constantly fussed-over headspace. It’s a rare coming-of-age story that acknowledges that, yes, life was beautiful when you were younger and more passionate about your future, if only because of a confluence of timing and circumstances that happen to involve you, and not often as a main subject.

Simon Abrams

Simon Abrams is a native New Yorker and freelance film critic whose work has been featured in  The New York Times ,  Vanity Fair ,  The Village Voice,  and elsewhere.

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Marx and Engels On Literature and Art

Source : Marx Engels On Literature and Art . Progress Publishers. Moscow 1976; Transcribed : by Andy Blunden .

This volume offers the reader a selection of both excerpts and complete works and letters by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, giving their views on art and its place in society. Though it contains far from all that was written by the founders of scientific communism on this subject, it will nevertheless acquaint the reader with Marx’s and Engels’ most important ideas about artistic work.

Karl Marx and Frederick Engels had an excellent knowledge of world art and truly loved literature, classical music, and painting. In their youth both Marx and Engels wrote poetry; in fact Engels at one time seriously contemplated becoming a poet.

They were well acquainted not only with classical literature, but also with the works of less prominent and even of little known writers both among their contemporaries and those who lived and worked in more distant times. They admired Aeschylus, Shakespeare, Dickens, Fielding, Goethe, Heine, Cervantes, Balzac, Dante, Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov, and mentioned many other less famous people who had also made their mark in the history of literature. They also displayed a great love for popular art, for the epics of various nations and other types of folklore: songs, tales, fables and proverbs.

Marx and Engels made extensive use of the treasures of world literature in their own works., Their repeated references to literary and mythological figures, and use of aphorisms, comparisons and direct quotations, masterfully woven into their works, are a distinctive feature of their style. The writings of Marx and Engels are notable not only for profundity of content, but also for their exceptional artistic merits. Wilhelm Liebknecht gave high praise to Marx’s style, citing his The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte as an example. “If ever hatred, scorn and passionate love of liberty were expressed in burning, devastating, lofty words,” wrote Liebknecht, “it is in The Eighteenth Brumaire, which combines the indignant severity of a Tacitus with the deadly satire of a Juvenal and the holy wrath of a Dante. Style here is the stilus that it was of old in the hand of the Romans, a sharp stiletto, used to write and to stab. Style is a dagger which strikes unerringly at the heart” ( Reminiscences of Marx and Engels , Moscow, 1956, p. 57).

Marx and Engels used artistic imagery to express their thoughts more forcefully and vividly in their journalistic and polemical works, and even in their fundamental theoretical works such as Capital and Anti-D�hring. Marx’s pamphlet Herr Vogt, directed against Karl Vogt who was slandering the proletarian party, is one of the most striking examples. The biting sarcasm of this pamphlet is particularly effective due to the author’s skilful use of works by classical writers such as Virgil, Plautus, and Persius, by the medieval German poets Gottfried von Strassburg and Wolfram von Eschenbach, and also by such classics of world literature as Balzac, Dickens, Schiller and Heine.

Their superb knowledge of world art helped Marx and Engels to elaborate genuinely scientific aesthetic principles. The founders of scientific communism were thus not only able to answer the complex aesthetic questions of the previous age, but also to elaborate a fundamentally new system of aesthetic science. They did so only as a result of the great revolutionary upheaval they had brought about in philosophy by creating dialectical and historical materialism and laying down the foundations for the materialist conception of history. Though Marx and Engels have left no major writings on art, their views in this field, when collected together, form a harmonious whole which is a logical extension of their scientific and revolutionary Weltanschauung. They explained the nature of art and its paths of development, its tasks in society and social aims. Marxist aesthetics, like the whole teaching of Marx and Engels, are subordinated to the struggle for the communist reorganisation of society.

When developing their theory of aesthetics, Marx and Engels naturally based themselves on the achievements of their predecessors. But the main aesthetic problems — and above all the problem of the relationship between art and reality — were solved by them in a fundamentally new way, on the basis of materialist dialectics. Idealist aesthetics considered art as a reproduction of the ideal, standing over and* above actual reality. The origin of any art form, its development, flowering, and decay, all remained incomprehensible to the art theoreticians and historians of the pre-Marxian period, inasmuch as they studied these in isolation from man’s social existence.

Marx and Engels considered it absolutely impossible to understand art and literature proceeding only from their internal laws of development. In their opinion, the essence, origin, development, and social role of art could only be understood through analysis of the social system as a whole, within which the economic factor — the development, of productive forces in complex interaction with production relations — plays the decisive role. Thus art, as defined by Marx and Engels, is one of the forms of social consciousness and it therefore follows that the reasons for its changes should be sought in the social existence of men.

Marx and Engels revealed the social nature of art and its development in the course of history and showed that in a society with class antagonisms it was influenced by class ‘contradictions and by the politics and ideologies of particular classes.

Marx and Engels gave a materialist explanation of the origin of the aesthetic sense itself. They noted that man’s artistic abilities, his capacity for perceiving the world aesthetically, for comprehending its beauty and for creating works of art appeared as a result of the long development of human society and were the product of man’s labour. As early as in his Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 , Marx pointed to the role of labour in the development of man’s capacity to perceive and reproduce the beautiful and to form objects also “in accordance with the laws of beauty” (Marx and Engels, Collected Works, Vol. 3, Moscow, 1975, p. 277).

This idea was later developed by Engels in his work Dialectics of Nature, in which he noted that efforts of toil “have given the human hand the high degree of perfection required to conjure into being the pictures of a Raphael, the statues of a Thorwaldsen, the music of a Paganini” (see pp. 128-29 of this book). Thus both Marx and Engels emphasise that man’s aesthetic sense is not an inborn, but a socially-acquired quality.

The founders of Marxism extended their dialectical view of the nature of human thought to analysis of artistic creativity. In examining the development of art together with that of the material world and the history of society, they noted that the content and forms of art were not established firmly once and for all, but that they inevitably developed and changed according to definite laws along with the development of the material world and of human society. Each historical period has inherent aesthetic ideals and produces works of art corresponding to its particular character and unrepeatable under other conditions. Comparing, for example, the works of Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci and Titian, Marx and Engels emphasised that “Raphael’s works of art depended on the flourishing of Rome at that time, which occurred under Florentine influence, while the works of Leonardo depended on the state of things in Florence, and the works of Titian, at a later period, depended on the totally different development of Venice” (p. 177).

The fact that the level of development of society and its social structure determine the content of artistic works and the prevalence of any particular literary or artistic genre was seen by Marx as the main reason that art in different periods never repeats itself and, in particular, that there was no possibility to create the mythology or epic poetry similar to those of the ancient Greeks under the conditions of the nineteenth century. “Is the conception of nature and of social relations which underlies Greek imagination and therefore Greek (art),” wrote Marx, “possible when there are self-acting mules, railways, locomotives and electric telegraphs?” (p. 83).

It goes without saying that Marxism has a far from open-and-shut understanding of the relations between the forms of social consciousness (and of art in particular) and their economic basis. For Marx and Engels, any social formation constituted a complex and dynamic system of interacting elements, each influencing the other — a system in which the economic factor is the determining one only in the final analysis. They were in no way inclined to qualify art as a passive product of the economic system. On the contrary, they emphasised that the various forms of social consciousness — including, of course, artistic creation — actively influence the social reality from which they emerge.

As if to forestall sociological vulgarisations of the problems of artistic creation, Marx and Engels drew attention to the fact that social life and the ideology of particular classes are reflected in art in a far from mechanistic manner. Artistic creativity is subordinate to the general laws of social development but, being a special form of consciousness, has its own distinctive features and specific patterns.

One of art’s distinctive features is its relative independence as it develops. The fact that works of art are connected historically with particular social structures does not mean that they lose their significance when these social structures disappear. On this point Marx cites the art and epic poetry of the ancient Greeks which “still give us aesthetic pleasure and are in certain respects regarded as a standard and unattainable ideal” (p. 84). He also provides a profound explanation for this phenomenon: Greek art reflected the naive and at the same time healthy, normal perception of reality characteristic of mankind in those early stages of its development, the period of its childhood; it reflected the striving for “natural veracity,” with its unique attractiveness and special charm for all (p. 84).

This example expresses an important Marxist aesthetic principle: in looking at works of art as basically reflections of particular social conditions and relationships, it is imperative also to see the features that make the lasting value of these works.

Marx and Engels considered as another particular feature of art the fact that its periods of upsurge do not automatically coincide with social progress in other fields, including that of material production. Thus Marx wrote in the Introduction to his Economic Manuscripts of 1857-1858: “ As regards art, it is well known that some of its peaks by no means correspond to the general development of society; nor do they therefore to the material substructure” (p. 82 of this book). Marx and Engels saw the reason for this imbalance between the development of art and of society as a whole in the fact that the spiritual culture of any period is determined not only by the level of development of material production — the “material basis” of society — but also by the character of the social relations peculiar to that period. In other words, such factors as the specific character of social relations, the degree of development of class antagonisms and the existence in any period of specific conditions for the development of man’s individuality, all have an important bearing on art, determining its nature and development.

As far as capitalist society is concerned, this imbalance, according to Marx and Engels, must be considered as an expression of capitalism’s fundamental contradiction, the contradiction between the social nature of production and the private form of appropriation. From his analysis of the contradictions of capitalism, Marx draws a conclusion which is of extraordinary importance for aesthetics, namely that “capitalist production is hostile to certain branches of spiritual production, for example, art and poetry” (p. 141). This proposition in no way denies the development of literature and art under capitalism, but means that the very nature of the capitalist system of exploitation is in profound contradiction with the humanist ideals which inspire genuine artists. The more conscious artists are of the contradiction, between their ideals and the capitalist reality, the louder and clearer do their works (often despite the class origin of the very author) protest against the inhumanity of capitalist relations. Bourgeois society’s hostility towards art begets, even in bourgeois literature, criticism of capitalism in one form or another, with capitalist reality being depicted as one filled with tragic collisions. This, in Marx’s and Engels’ opinion, is a dialectical feature of the development of art under capitalism. It is for this very reason that bourgeois society has produced Shakespeare, Goethe, Balzac and other writers of genius who were capable of rising above their epoch and class environment and condemning with immense artistic power the vices of the capitalist system of exploitation.

In their works, Marx and, Engels set forth a number of profound ideas on the class nature of art in a society of antagonisms. They showed that even great writers, who were able, often despite their own class positions, to give a true and vivid picture of real life, were, in a class society, pressured by the ideas and interests of the ruling classes and frequently made serious concessions to these in their works. Taking Goethe, Schiller, Balzac, and other writers as examples, Marx and Engels found that the contradictions peculiar to them were not the result of purely individual features of their psychological make-up, but an ideological reflection of real contradictions in the life of society.

The founders of Marxism emphasised that art was an important weapon in the ideological struggle between classes. It could reinforce just as it could undermine the power of the exploiters, could serve to defend class oppression or, on the contrary, contribute to the education and development of the consciousness of the toiling masses, bringing them closer to victory over their oppressors. Marx and Engels therefore called for a clear distinction to be made between progressive and reactionary phenomena in feudal and bourgeois culture and put forward the principle of the Party approach to art that it be evaluated from the position of the revolutionary class.

While showing that a link existed between art and the class struggle, Marx and Engels always fought against attempts to schematise this problem. They pointed out that classes were not static and unchangeable but that class interrelationships changed in the course of history, the role of the classes in the life of society undergoing complex metamorphoses. Thus, in the period of struggle against feudalism, the bourgeoisie was able to create considerable spiritual values, but having come to power as a result of the anti-feudal revolutions, it gradually began to reject the very weapon it had itself forged in the struggle against feudalism. The bourgeoisie accomplishes this break with its revolutionary past when a new force appears on the historical arena — the proletariat. Under these conditions, attempts by individual members of the bourgeois intelligentsia, in particular cultural and artistic figures, to gain a deeper understanding of reality, to go beyond the framework of bourgeois relations and express their protest against these in some art form, inevitably lead them to conflicts with official bourgeois society and to their departure from bourgeois positions.

Marx and Engels apply their dialectical and materialist theory of knowledge to analysis of art and literature. In their opinion, artistic creation is one of the ways of reflecting reality and, at the same time, of perceiving and apprehending it; it is also one of the strongest levers of influencing the spiritual development of humanity. This approach to art forms the basis of the materialist understanding of its social importance and prominent role in the progress of society.

Naturally enough, when examining literature and art, Marx and Engels concentrated their attention on the problem of realism — the most accurate depiction of reality in an artistic work.

They considered realism, as a trend in literature and a method of artistic creation, to be the supreme achievement of world art. Engels formulated what is generally recognised as the classical definition of realism. “Realism, to my mind,” he wrote, “implies, besides truth of detail, the truthful reproduction of typical characters under typical circumstances” (p. 90). Realistic representation, Marx and Engels emphasised, is by no means a mere copy of reality, but a way of penetrating into the very essence of a phenomenon, a method of artistic generalisation that makes it possible to disclose the typical traits of a particular age. This is what they valued in the work of the great realist writers such as Shakespeare, Cervantes, Goethe, Balzac, Pushkin and others. Marx described the English realists of the 19th century — Dickens, Thackeray, the Bront�s, and Gaskell — as a brilliant pleiad of novelists “whose graphic and eloquent pages have issued to the world more political and social truths than have been uttered by all the professional politicians, publicists and moralists put together” (p. 339). Engels developed a similar line of thought when analysing the works of the great French realist writer Balzac. Writing about the Com�die humaine, he noted that Balzac gave the reader “a most wonderfully realistic history of French society ... from which, even in economic details (for instance the re-arrangement of real and personal property after the Revolution) I have learned more than from all the professed historians, economists and statisticians of the period together” (p. 91).

Marx and Engels set out some very important ideas about realism in their letters to Lassalle in the spring of 1859, in which they sharply criticise his historical drama Franz von Sickingen dealing with the knights’ rebellion of 1522-23, on the eve of the Peasant War in Germany. These two letters are of great. significance because they contain a statement of the fundamental principles of Marxist aesthetics (pp. 98-107).

Marx’s and Engels’ demands on the artist include truthfulness of depiction, a concrete historical approach to the events described and personages with live and individual traits reflecting typical aspects of the character and psychology of the class milieu to which they belong. The author of genuinely realistic works communicates his ideas to the reader not by didactic philosophising, but by vivid images which affect the reader’s consciousness and feelings by their artistic expressiveness. Marx and Engels considered that Lassalle had carried even further some of the weaknesses in the artistic method of the great German poet and playwright Schiller — in particular his penchant for abstract rhetoric, which resulted in his heroes becoming abstract and one-dimensional declaimers of certain ideas. In this regard they preferred Shakespeare’s realism to Schiller’s method. Both pointed out to Lassalle that, in imitating Schiller, he was forgetting the importance for the realist writer to* combine depth of content and lofty ideals with efforts to achieve a Shakespearian ability to depict genuine passions and the multiple facets of the human character.

In their letters to Lassalle, Marx and Engels also touched upon the question of the links between literature and life, between literature and the’ present day. Marx by no means condemned Lassalle for his intention to draw an analogy between the events of the 16th century described in the play and the situation in the mid-19th century, and to bring out the truly tragic collision which “spelled the doom ... of the revolutionary party of 1848-1849” (p. 98). He saw the author’s mistake in his incorrect, idealistic interpretation of this collision, in the reduction of the reasons for it to the allegedly age-old abstract “tragedy of revolution,” which lacks any concrete historical or class content. Marx criticised Lassalle not for the political tendency of his drama, but for the fact that it was essentially mistaken from the point of view of the materialist conception of history and of the world outlook of the proletarian revolutionaries. Marx and Engels were highly critical of attempts to place literature above politics and of the theory of “art for art’s sake.” They insisted that the works of realist writers should reflect a progressive world outlook, be permeated with progressive ideas and deal with truly topical problems. It was in this sense that they welcomed tendentiousness in literature, interpreted as ideological and political partisanship. “I am by no means opposed to tendentious poetry as such,” wrote Engels to the German writer Minna Kautsky on November 26, 1885. ‘Aeschylus, the father of tragedy, and Aristophanes, the father of comedy, were highly partisan poets, Dante and Cervantes were so no less, and the best thing that can be said about Schiller’s Kabale und Liebe is that it represents the first German political problem drama. The modern Russians and Norwegians, who produce excellent novels, all write with a purpose” (p. 88). Marx and Engels were at the same time resolute opponents of stupid tendentiousness — bare-faced moralising, didacticism instead of artistic method, and abstract impersonations instead of live characters. They criticised the poets in the “Young Germany” literary movement for the artistic inferiority of their characters and attempts to make up for their lack of literary mastery with political arguments. Engels provides an apt definition of genuine tendentiousness in his letter to Minna Kautsky: “I think however that the purpose must become manifest from the situation and the action themselves without being expressly pointed out and that the author does not have to serve the reader on a platter the future historical resolution of the social conflicts which he describes” (p. 88).

Both Marx and Engels were deeply convinced that progressive literature had to reflect truthfully the deep-lying, vital processes of the day, to promulgate progressive ideas, and to defend the interests of the progressive forces in society. The modern term the Party spirit in literature expresses what they understood by this. They felt that the very quality that was lacking in Lassalle’s play — the organic unity of idea and artistry — was the sine qua non of genuinely realistic art.

In setting out the principles of materialist aesthetics and the fundamental and most general laws governing the development of art, the founders of scientific communism laid the basis of Marxist literary and art criticism and proposed the primary tenets of the materialist interpretation of the history of art and literature. In their works and correspondence, they threw new light on the most important questions of the historical and literary process and revealed such aspects in the works of both classical and contemporary writers which were beyond the comprehension of bourgeois literary historians. In the present collection, the reader will find Marx’s and Engels’ views of the artistic works of the most important ages in mankind’s history — their evaluation of art in ancient and medieval times, of Renaissance culture and literature, of literature in the period of the Enlightenment, and, finally, of the work of the romantic and realist writers of the 19th century. In addition, the reader will discover the attitude of the founders of Marxist aesthetics towards the main literary and artistic trends in general and their opinions on individual writers and other artists.

Marx’s and Engels’ view of ancient art has already been discussed briefly above. Let us now turn to their evaluation of the art of other ages.

Their genuinely scientific explanation of the specific features of the social system and culture of medieval times is of exceptional interest. Marx and Engels stripped away the romantic idealisation of the Middle Ages and, at the same time, demonstrated the inconsistency of the abstract view held by the Enlighteners that this was merely an age of social and cultural regression. They pointed out that the transition from slave-owning to feudal society was historically inevitable and showed that the establishment of the feudal mode of production was a step forward in the development of human society, compared to the reign of slavery which had preceded it. This enabled Marx and Engels to form a new approach to medieval culture and art and point out those features in them which reflected the progressive course of historical development. Engels wrote that “. . as a result of the intermingling of nations in the early Middle Ages new nationalities gradually developed” (Marx/Engels, Werke, Bd. 21, S. 395), the appearance of which was a prerequisite for further social and cultural development of mankind. Analysing various epic poems of the early Middle Ages such as the Elder Edda and other Icelandic and Irish sagas, Beowulf, the Lay of Hildebrand and the Chanson de Roland, Marx and Engels showed that they reflected the gradual transition from the earliest stages of the tribal system to new levels of social consciousness connected with the early period of the formation of European nationalities. The epic and national-heroic poetry of the Middle Ages is notable, as Engels pointed out, for characteristics which show their new cultural-historical and aesthetic quality, as compared with the classical epic poetry of the ancient world. The same also applies to the later lyric poetry of the feudal Middle Ages — the medieval romance lyrics, best exemplified by the works of the Provencal troubadours. In his The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State Engels wrote that “no such thing as individual sex love existed before the Middle Ages” (p. 215). For this reason, he said, the appearance and poetic glorification of individual love in the Middle Ages was a step forward compared to antiquity. Moreover, the medieval love poems influenced the following generations and prepared the ground for the flowering of poetry in the modern age.

Marx and Engels formulated and substantiated a new view of the Renaissance, one which differed radically from the views of earlier bourgeois cultural historians and also in many ways from those of contemporary and later bourgeois historiography. This new understanding of the basic historical meaning of the Renaissance in Western Europe was presented by Engels in its most developed form in 1875-76 in one of his versions for the Introduction to the Dialectics of Nature (pp. 251-53). Engels emphasised that, contrary to the traditional view of bourgeois science, the Renaissance must not be seen as merely an upheaval in the ideological and spiritual life of the times. The origins of this new age, he states, should be sought above all in the economic and political. changes that brought about the transition from the Middle Ages to modern times. Engels penetrated to the very essence of the phenomena which made possible the immense leap forward in the culture, literature and art of that period, some achievements of which remained unequal led even in the more mature bourgeois society. The art of the Renaissance, as Engels noted, developed not in a period of already settled bourgeois society but “in the midst of the general revolution” (Frederick Engels, Dialectics of Nature, Moscow, 1974, p. 21). Social relations were at that time in a state of constant flux and change and had not yet become, as they did in mature bourgeois society, a force which to a certain extent limited the development of personal initiative, talent and capabilities but, on the contrary, actively contributed to their development. Because of its revolutionary character this age, the one of “the greatest progressive revolution that mankind had so far experienced,” stated Engels, “called for giants and produced giants ... in power of thought, passion and character, in universality and learning.” This is why “the men who founded the modern rule of the bourgeoisie had anything but bourgeois limitations” (pp. 252-53).

Engels also noted that “the heroes of that time were not yet in thrall to the division of labour, the restricting effects of which, with its production one-sidedness, we so often notice in their successors” (p. 253). To clarify his idea, Engels described Leonardo da Vinci who “was not only a great painter but also a great mathematician, mechanic and engineer, to whom the most diverse branches of physics are indebted for important discoveries” and reviewed the work of Albrecht D�rer, a “painter, engraver, sculptor, and architect” and inventor of a fortification system. Engels also pointed to the great diversity of interests and erudition of other Renaissance figures (p. 253).

Marx’s and Engels’ evaluation of the Renaissance as an age of “the general revolution,” “the greatest progressive revolution,” explains the warm sympathy they felt for the “giants” of that age. They saw the great men of the Renaissance not just as outstanding scholars, artists, or poets, but, at the same time, as great revolutionaries in world science and culture.

Engels considered the most important trait of the heroes of the Renaissance to be that “they almost all live And pursue their activities in the midst of the contemporary movements, in the practical struggle; they take sides and join in the fight, one by speaking and writing, another with the sword, many with both” (p. 253). It is not difficult to see that this was also what Engels expected of the artists of the future. Referring to the ability of the people of the Renaissance to live by the interests of their time, to “take sides,” Engels emphasised those traits which lifted them above the level of the professionally narrow, armchair science of the bourgeoisie, and above the level of the 19th-century bourgeois writers and artists who preached “non-partisanship” and “pure art.” These traits brought the great men of the Renaissance closer to the ideals of socialist culture and of the revolutionary movement of the working class.

Marx and Engels considered Dante one of the great writers whose works announced the transition from the

Middle Ages to the Renaissance. They saw him as a poet and thinker of genius and, at the same time, as an inflexible warrior whose poetic works were infused with Party spirit (Marx and Engels, Collected Works, Vol. 6, Moscow! 1976, p. 271) and were inseparable from his political ideals and aspirations. According to Wilhelm Liebknecht, Marx knew the Divina Commedia almost by heart and would often declaim whole sections of it aloud. Marx’s “Introduction” to Capital in fact ends with the great Florentine’s proud words: “Go your own way, and let people say what they will!” The author of Capital placed Dante among his most beloved poets — Goethe, Aeschylus, and Shakespeare. Engels called Dante a person of “unequalled classic perfection” (p. 247) and “a colossal figure” (p. 248). Marx and Engels held the great Spanish writer Cervantes in high esteem too. Paul Lafargue noted that Marx set the author of Don Quixote, together with Balzac, “above all other novelists” (p. 439). Finally, Marx’s and Engels’ admiration for Shakespeare, one of their most beloved writers, is known to all. Both considered his plays with their far-ranging depiction of the life of his time and their immortal characters to be classical examples of realist drama. Lafargue wrote that Marx “made a detailed study” of Shakespeare’s works. “His whole family had a real cult for the great English dramatist” (p. 438). Engels shared his friend’s views on Shakespeare. On December 10, 1873, he wrote to Marx. “There is more life and reality in the first act of the Merry Wives than in all German literature” (p. 260).

The most important comment by the founders of scientific communism about classicism, the literary movement of the 17th-18th centuries, was made by Marx in a letter to Lassalle on July 22, 1861 (p. 269). On the basis of a materialist understanding of the development of culture, Marx in his letter rejected the unhistorical idea that classicism was the result of a misunderstanding of the laws of classical drama and of classical aesthetics, with their famous principle of the three unities. He pointed out that, though the theoreticians of classicism had misunderstood classical Greek drama and Aristotle’s Poetics, this was no accident or a misunderstanding of history, but a historical inevitability. Classicist playwrights “misunderstood” Aristotle because the “misunderstood” Aristotle corresponded exactly to their taste in art and their aesthetic requirements, formed by the specific social and cultural conditions of the time.

Unlike previous historians of culture who were unable to understand the class content of ideas, Marx and Engels uncovered the social, class-historical basis of the ideas of the 18th-century Enlightenment. They showed that the Enlightenment was not just a movement in social thought, but an ideological expression of the interests of the progressive bourgeoisie, which was rising up to struggle against feudal absolutism on the eve of the Great French Revolution.

Marx and Engels held in high esteem the heritage of the English and French 18th-century Enlighteners including their fiction and works on aesthetics. Their comprehensive analysis of the activity of the Enlighteners explains its close links with the life of society and the class struggle during the preparation for the French bourgeois revolution and draws a line between the moderately bourgeois and the democratic elements in their heritage.

Marx’s and Engels’ works and letters show that they had a superb knowledge of both English and French philosophical and economic literature and fiction of the age of the Enlightenment. They do not merely mention Defoe, Swift, Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, the Abb� Pr�vost, Beaumarchais, but give laconic and at the same time brilliantly profound and accurate evaluations of them, while also using their works to draw generalisations concerning the most important aspects of literary life in the age of the Enlightenment.

It should also be noted that Marx included Denis Diderot among his favourite writers. He delighted in Diderot’s novels, especially Le Neveu de Rameau, which he called a “unique masterpiece” (p. 279). Engels shared his friend’s

opinion on Diderot and wrote in 1886: “If ever anybody dedicated his whole life to the ‘enthusiasm for truth and justice’ — using this phrase in the good sense — it was Diderot, for instance” (p. 279).

Marx and Engels also wrote about the leading men of the Enlightenment in Germany — Lessing, Goethe, Schiller, Herder, Wieland. Revealing the economic and socio-political conditions in Germany, whose feudal division and reactionary small-power absolutist system had been hardened as a result of the Thirty Years’ War (1618-48), they showed that these conditions had made a definite mark on the ideas and feelings of the majority of the most prominent figures of the “great age of German literature” (p. 346). Together with the rebellious spirit and indignation at the social system of the time that were characteristic of German classical literature, it also reflected the feelings of the petty bourgeoisie (the predominating social stratum in Germany) whose inherent characteristic was admiration for and servility towards the powers that be. “Each of them was an Olympian Zeus in his own sphere,” Engels wrote about Goethe and Hegel, “yet neither of them ever quite freed himself from German Philistinism” (p. 349). In spotlighting not only the strong, but also the weaker points in Goethe, Schiller, and other German writers and thinkers of that period, Marx and Engels in no way sought to belittle their immense, world-wide importance. This is confirmed by Marx’s attitude towards Goethe, who, as already mentioned, was one of his most beloved poets. Contemporaries who knew Marx well stated that he was a constant reader of the great German poet’s works. In their writings and conversations, both Marx and Engels frequently quoted from Faust and other works by Goethe. In 1837 the young Marx, while still a student at Berlin University, wrote an epigram defending Goethe against the Lutheran pastor Pustkuchen, who was one of the leaders in the struggle of German reactionaries of the 1830s against the poet. Engels devoted one of his essays in literary criticism to an analysis of Goethe’s

work. This was “German Socialism in Verse and Prose” (pp. 361-74) in which he attacked the aesthetics of German philistine “true socialism.”

Marx’s and Engels’ analysis of West European romanticism is of great importance to the elaboration of a genuinely scientific history of literature. Considering romanticism a reflection of the age beginning after the Great French Revolution, of all its inherent social contradictions, they distinguished between revolutionary romanticism, which rejected capitalism and was striving towards the future, and romantic criticism of capitalism from the point of view of the past. They also differentiated between the romantic writers who idealised the pre-bourgeois social system: they valued those whose works concealed democratic and critical elements under a veneer of reactionary utopias and naive petty-bourgeois ideals, and criticised the reactionary romantics, whose sympathies for the past amounted to a defence of the interests of the nobility. Marx and Engels were especially fond of the ‘Works of such revolutionary romantics as Byron and Shelley.

Marx’s and Engels’ evaluation of the works of 19th-century realist writers has already been mentioned. Marx and Engels considered realist traditions to be the culmination of the whole of the previous literary process. Engels traced their development and enrichment in the works of Guy de Maupassant, of the creators of the Russian realist novel of the second half of the 19th century, and of Norway’s contemporary dramatists. Marx and Engels had a lively interest in Russia and attached great importance to the Russian revolutionary movement. To be better able to follow the development of the economic and social life of Russia, they both learnt Russian. They were well acquainted not only with socio-economic and journalistic writings in Russia, but also with the country’s fiction. They both read the works of Pushkin, Turgenev, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Chernyshevsky, and Dobrolyubov in Russian, while Marx also read Gogol, Nekrasov, and Lermontov in the original. Engels was also acquainted with English translations of the works of Lomonosov, Derzhavin, Khemnitser, Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, and Krylov. Marx and Engels thought Pushkin’s Eugene Onegin to be an amazingly accurate depiction of Russian life in the first half of the 19th century. Both were especially fond of Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov. Engels considered these revolutionary writers “two socialist Lessings” (p. 414) and Marx called Chernyshevsky a “great Russian scholar and critic” (p. 415), while comparing Dobrolyubov “as a writer to Lessing and Diderot” (p. 415).

Characteristic of Marx and Engels was their profoundly internationalist approach to literature and art. They paid equal attention to the art of all nations, European and non, European, large and small, believing that every people makes its own unique contribution to the treasure-house of world art and literature. Their interests included the development of art and literature in England, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Russia as well as the artistic and cultural treasures of the East or of such small countries as Ireland, Iceland, and Norway. judging by their notes, the ancient cultures of the indigenous inhabitants of the New World also came within their field of vision.

Marx and Engels had a special attitude towards the democratic and revolutionary poets and writers who were close to the proletariat. Throughout their lives, they strove to draw the best progressive writers of their time to the side of the socialist movement and to educate and temper them, while helping them to overcome the weaker aspects of their work. Marx and Engels actively contributed to the formation of a proletarian revolutionary trend in literature.

Marx’s influence on the work of the great German revolutionary poet Heinrich Heine was immense. They met in Paris in 1843. The prime of Heine’s political lyrics and satire comes in 1843-44, when he was in close and friendly contact with Marx. Marx’s influence on Heine is clear in such remarkable works as his poems The Silesian Loom Workers and Germany. A Winter Tale. All his life Marx admired Heine, who was one of the favourite poets in Marx’s family. Engels was in complete agreement with his friend’s sympathies and considered Heine to be “the most eminent of all living German poets” (p. 375). In their struggle against German reaction, Marx and Engels often quoted from Heine’s bitingly satirical poems. Marx’s and Engels’ ideological influence played an exceptional role in Heine’s development as an artist and helped him to realise that the communist revolution would inevitably be victorious.

Marx and Engels were close friends of the German poets Georg Weerth and Ferdinand Freiligrath, with whom they worked side by side on the Neue Rheinische Zeitung during the revolution of 1848-1849, Engels called Weerth “the German proletariat’s first and most important poet” (p. 402). After Weerth’s death, Marx and Engels carefully collected his literary works. In the 1880s Engels vigorously promoted these in the German Social-Democratic press.

It was only thanks to ‘Marx’s and Engels’ influence that Freiligrath became, in 1848-49, one of the classics of German revolutionary poetry. His poems written at that time are closely linked to Marx’s and Engels’ ideas and are his best. The care and attention Marx and Engels showed for Freiligrath is a good example of their attitude towards revolutionary poets and of how they tried to help them in their noble cause. When Marx recommended Freiligrath to his comrade Joseph Weydemeyer, in 1852, for work on the journal Revolution, he specially asked Weydemeyer to write a friendly, praising letter to the poet to encourage him. It is no coincidence that Freiligrath’s importance as a poet began to decline as soon as he moved away from Marx and Engels in the 1850s.

Marx and Engels had close links with many French and English revolutionary writers, in particular with the Chartist leader Ernest Jones. His best poems, written in the latter 1840s, show the influence of Marx’s and Engels’ ideas.

After Marx’s death, Engels continued in the 1880s and 1890s to keep careful track of the revolutionary writings of those English authors who were ideologically close to the English socialist movement. This can be seen from Engels’ letter to the writer Margaret Harkness (pp. 89-92) who had sent him her short story “A Poor Girl,” his numerous comments about the plays of the English socialist Edward Aveling, and his notes on the ideological development of a number of other writers.

Important statements by Engels on the subject of proletarian art can also be found in his letters written toward the end of his life to German Social-Democratic leaders.

In this way, Marx and Engels strove to foster a new type of writer and artist who, assimilating the finest traditions of classical literature, would take an active, creative part in the proletariat’s struggle for emancipation, proceeding from a broad understanding of the experiences and the tasks of the revolutionary struggle.

This collection also contains valuable statements by Marx and Engels on the flowering of art in the future communist society. The founders of Marxism saw the contradictions in the development of art under capitalism as a manifestation of the antagonistic nature of bourgeois society as a whole and considered the solution of these problems to be possible only after the proletarian revolution and the social reorganisation of society.

Marx and Engels showed brilliant foresight in anticipating the basic traits of the new, communist society. Communism is above all true freedom for the all-round and harmonious development of the individual. “The realm of freedom,” said Marx, ‘actually begins only where labour which is determined by necessity and mundane considerations ceases...” (p. 183).

Labour freed from exploitation becomes, under socialism, the source of all spiritual (and aesthetic) creativity. Marx and Engels point out that only given true economic, political, and spiritual freedom can man’s creative powers develop to the full and that only proletarian revolution offers unbounded opportunities of endless progress in the development of literature. The great historical mission of the proletariat consists in the communist rebuilding of the world. It was in the proletariat that Marx and Engels saw the social force which could change the world and provide for further progress not only in economics and politics, but also in culture, the force which would bring about the conditions required for the full realisation of mankind’s higher moral and aesthetic values.

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