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Case Study-Based Learning

Enhancing learning through immediate application.

By the Mind Tools Content Team

If you've ever tried to learn a new concept, you probably appreciate that "knowing" is different from "doing." When you have an opportunity to apply your knowledge, the lesson typically becomes much more real.

Adults often learn differently from children, and we have different motivations for learning. Typically, we learn new skills because we want to. We recognize the need to learn and grow, and we usually need – or want – to apply our newfound knowledge soon after we've learned it.

A popular theory of adult learning is andragogy (the art and science of leading man, or adults), as opposed to the better-known pedagogy (the art and science of leading children). Malcolm Knowles , a professor of adult education, was considered the father of andragogy, which is based on four key observations of adult learners:

• Adults learn best if they know why they're learning something.
• Adults often learn best through experience.
• Adults tend to view learning as an opportunity to solve problems.
• Adults learn best when the topic is relevant to them and immediately applicable.

This means that you'll get the best results with adults when they're fully involved in the learning experience. Give an adult an opportunity to practice and work with a new skill, and you have a solid foundation for high-quality learning that the person will likely retain over time.

So, how can you best use these adult learning principles in your training and development efforts? Case studies provide an excellent way of practicing and applying new concepts. As such, they're very useful tools in adult learning, and it's important to understand how to get the maximum value from them.

What Is a Case Study?

Case studies are a form of problem-based learning, where you present a situation that needs a resolution. A typical business case study is a detailed account, or story, of what happened in a particular company, industry, or project over a set period of time.

The learner is given details about the situation, often in a historical context. The key players are introduced. Objectives and challenges are outlined. This is followed by specific examples and data, which the learner then uses to analyze the situation, determine what happened, and make recommendations.

The depth of a case depends on the lesson being taught. A case study can be two pages, 20 pages, or more. A good case study makes the reader think critically about the information presented, and then develop a thorough assessment of the situation, leading to a well-thought-out solution or recommendation.

Why Use a Case Study?

Case studies are a great way to improve a learning experience, because they get the learner involved, and encourage immediate use of newly acquired skills.

They differ from lectures or assigned readings because they require participation and deliberate application of a broad range of skills. For example, if you study financial analysis through straightforward learning methods, you may have to calculate and understand a long list of financial ratios (don't worry if you don't know what these are). Likewise, you may be given a set of financial statements to complete a ratio analysis. But until you put the exercise into context, you may not really know why you're doing the analysis.

With a case study, however, you might explore whether a bank should provide financing to a borrower, or whether a company is about to make a good acquisition. Suddenly, the act of calculating ratios becomes secondary – it's more important to understand what the ratios tell you. This is how case studies can make the difference between knowing what to do, and knowing how, when, and why to do it.

Then, what really separates case studies from other practical forms of learning – like scenarios and simulations – is the ability to compare the learner's recommendations with what actually happened. When you know what really happened, it's much easier to evaluate the "correctness" of the answers given.

When to Use a Case Study

As you can see, case studies are powerful and effective training tools. They also work best with practical, applied training, so make sure you use them appropriately.

Remember these tips:

• Case studies tend to focus on why and how to apply a skill or concept, not on remembering facts and details. Use case studies when understanding the concept is more important than memorizing correct responses.
• Case studies are great team-building opportunities. When a team gets together to solve a case, they'll have to work through different opinions, methods, and perspectives.
• Use case studies to build problem-solving skills, particularly those that are valuable when applied, but are likely to be used infrequently. This helps people get practice with these skills that they might not otherwise get.
• Case studies can be used to evaluate past problem solving. People can be asked what they'd do in that situation, and think about what could have been done differently.

Ensuring Maximum Value From Case Studies

The first thing to remember is that you already need to have enough theoretical knowledge to handle the questions and challenges in the case study. Otherwise, it can be like trying to solve a puzzle with some of the pieces missing.

Here are some additional tips for how to approach a case study. Depending on the exact nature of the case, some tips will be more relevant than others.

• Read the case at least three times before you start any analysis. Case studies usually have lots of details, and it's easy to miss something in your first, or even second, reading.
• Once you're thoroughly familiar with the case, note the facts. Identify which are relevant to the tasks you've been assigned. In a good case study, there are often many more facts than you need for your analysis.
• If the case contains large amounts of data, analyze this data for relevant trends. For example, have sales dropped steadily, or was there an unexpected high or low point?
• If the case involves a description of a company's history, find the key events, and consider how they may have impacted the current situation.
• Consider using techniques like SWOT analysis and Porter's Five Forces Analysis to understand the organization's strategic position.
• Stay with the facts when you draw conclusions. These include facts given in the case as well as established facts about the environmental context. Don't rely on personal opinions when you put together your answers.

Writing a Case Study

You may have to write a case study yourself. These are complex documents that take a while to research and compile. The quality of the case study influences the quality of the analysis. Here are some tips if you want to write your own:

• Write your case study as a structured story. The goal is to capture an interesting situation or challenge and then bring it to life with words and information. You want the reader to feel a part of what's happening.
• Present information so that a "right" answer isn't obvious. The goal is to develop the learner's ability to analyze and assess, not necessarily to make the same decision as the people in the actual case.
• Do background research to fully understand what happened and why. You may need to talk to key stakeholders to get their perspectives as well.
• Determine the key challenge. What needs to be resolved? The case study should focus on one main question or issue.
• Define the context. Talk about significant events leading up to the situation. What organizational factors are important for understanding the problem and assessing what should be done? Include cultural factors where possible.
• Identify key decision makers and stakeholders. Describe their roles and perspectives, as well as their motivations and interests.
• Make sure that you provide the right data to allow people to reach appropriate conclusions.
• Make sure that you have permission to use any information you include.

A typical case study structure includes these elements:

• Executive summary. Define the objective, and state the key challenge.
• Opening paragraph. Capture the reader's interest.
• Scope. Describe the background, context, approach, and issues involved.
• Presentation of facts. Develop an objective picture of what's happening.
• Description of key issues. Present viewpoints, decisions, and interests of key parties.

Because case studies have proved to be such effective teaching tools, many are already written. Some excellent sources of free cases are The Times 100 , CasePlace.org , and Schroeder & Schroeder Inc . You can often search for cases by topic or industry. These cases are expertly prepared, based mostly on real situations, and used extensively in business schools to teach management concepts.

Case studies are a great way to improve learning and training. They provide learners with an opportunity to solve a problem by applying what they know.

There are no unpleasant consequences for getting it "wrong," and cases give learners a much better understanding of what they really know and what they need to practice.

Case studies can be used in many ways, as team-building tools, and for skill development. You can write your own case study, but a large number are already prepared. Given the enormous benefits of practical learning applications like this, case studies are definitely something to consider adding to your next training session.

Knowles, M. (1973). 'The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species [online].' Available here .

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Case-based learning.

Case-based learning (CBL) is an established approach used across disciplines where students apply their knowledge to real-world scenarios, promoting higher levels of cognition (see Bloom’s Taxonomy ). In CBL classrooms, students typically work in groups on case studies, stories involving one or more characters and/or scenarios.  The cases present a disciplinary problem or problems for which students devise solutions under the guidance of the instructor. CBL has a strong history of successful implementation in medical, law, and business schools, and is increasingly used within undergraduate education, particularly within pre-professional majors and the sciences (Herreid, 1994). This method involves guided inquiry and is grounded in constructivism whereby students form new meanings by interacting with their knowledge and the environment (Lee, 2012).

There are a number of benefits to using CBL in the classroom. In a review of the literature, Williams (2005) describes how CBL: utilizes collaborative learning, facilitates the integration of learning, develops students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to learn, encourages learner self-reflection and critical reflection, allows for scientific inquiry, integrates knowledge and practice, and supports the development of a variety of learning skills.

CBL has several defining characteristics, including versatility, storytelling power, and efficient self-guided learning.  In a systematic analysis of 104 articles in health professions education, CBL was found to be utilized in courses with less than 50 to over 1000 students (Thistlethwaite et al., 2012). In these classrooms, group sizes ranged from 1 to 30, with most consisting of 2 to 15 students.  Instructors varied in the proportion of time they implemented CBL in the classroom, ranging from one case spanning two hours of classroom time, to year-long case-based courses. These findings demonstrate that instructors use CBL in a variety of ways in their classrooms.

The stories that comprise the framework of case studies are also a key component to CBL’s effectiveness. Jonassen and Hernandez-Serrano (2002, p.66) describe how storytelling:

Is a method of negotiating and renegotiating meanings that allows us to enter into other’s realms of meaning through messages they utter in their stories,

Helps us find our place in a culture,

Allows us to explicate and to interpret, and

Facilitates the attainment of vicarious experience by helping us to distinguish the positive models to emulate from the negative model.

Neurochemically, listening to stories can activate oxytocin, a hormone that increases one’s sensitivity to social cues, resulting in more empathy, generosity, compassion and trustworthiness (Zak, 2013; Kosfeld et al., 2005). The stories within case studies serve as a means by which learners form new understandings through characters and/or scenarios.

CBL is often described in conjunction or in comparison with problem-based learning (PBL). While the lines are often confusingly blurred within the literature, in the most conservative of definitions, the features distinguishing the two approaches include that PBL involves open rather than guided inquiry, is less structured, and the instructor plays a more passive role. In PBL multiple solutions to the problem may exit, but the problem is often initially not well-defined. PBL also has a stronger emphasis on developing self-directed learning. The choice between implementing CBL versus PBL is highly dependent on the goals and context of the instruction.  For example, in a comparison of PBL and CBL approaches during a curricular shift at two medical schools, students and faculty preferred CBL to PBL (Srinivasan et al., 2007). Students perceived CBL to be a more efficient process and more clinically applicable. However, in another context, PBL might be the favored approach.

In a review of the effectiveness of CBL in health profession education, Thistlethwaite et al. (2012), found several benefits:

Students enjoyed the method and thought it enhanced their learning,

Instructors liked how CBL engaged students in learning,

CBL seemed to facilitate small group learning, but the authors could not distinguish between whether it was the case itself or the small group learning that occurred as facilitated by the case.

Other studies have also reported on the effectiveness of CBL in achieving learning outcomes (Bonney, 2015; Breslin, 2008; Herreid, 2013; Krain, 2016). These findings suggest that CBL is a vehicle of engagement for instruction, and facilitates an environment whereby students can construct knowledge.

Science – Students are given a scenario to which they apply their basic science knowledge and problem-solving skills to help them solve the case. One example within the biological sciences is two brothers who have a family history of a genetic illness. They each have mutations within a particular sequence in their DNA. Students work through the case and draw conclusions about the biological impacts of these mutations using basic science. Sample cases: You are Not the Mother of Your Children ; Organic Chemisty and Your Cellphone: Organic Light-Emitting Diodes ;   A Light on Physics: F-Number and Exposure Time

Medicine – Medical or pre-health students read about a patient presenting with specific symptoms. Students decide which questions are important to ask the patient in their medical history, how long they have experienced such symptoms, etc. The case unfolds and students use clinical reasoning, propose relevant tests, develop a differential diagnoses and a plan of treatment. Sample cases: The Case of the Crying Baby: Surgical vs. Medical Management ; The Plan: Ethics and Physician Assisted Suicide ; The Haemophilus Vaccine: A Victory for Immunologic Engineering

Public Health – A case study describes a pandemic of a deadly infectious disease. Students work through the case to identify Patient Zero, the person who was the first to spread the disease, and how that individual became infected.  Sample cases: The Protective Parent ; The Elusive Tuberculosis Case: The CDC and Andrew Speaker ; Credible Voice: WHO-Beijing and the SARS Crisis

Law – A case study presents a legal dilemma for which students use problem solving to decide the best way to advise and defend a client. Students are presented information that changes during the case.  Sample cases: Mortgage Crisis Call (abstract) ; The Case of the Unpaid Interns (abstract) ; Police-Community Dialogue (abstract)

Business – Students work on a case study that presents the history of a business success or failure. They apply business principles learned in the classroom and assess why the venture was successful or not. Sample cases: SELCO-Determining a path forward ; Project Masiluleke: Texting and Testing to Fight HIV/AIDS in South Africa ; Mayo Clinic: Design Thinking in Healthcare

Humanities - Students consider a case that presents a theater facing financial and management difficulties. They apply business and theater principles learned in the classroom to the case, working together to create solutions for the theater. Sample cases: David Geffen School of Drama

Recommendations

Finding and Writing Cases

Consider utilizing or adapting open access cases - The availability of open resources and databases containing cases that instructors can download makes this approach even more accessible in the classroom. Two examples of open databases are the Case Center on Public Leadership and Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Case Program , which focus on government, leadership and public policy case studies.

• Consider writing original cases - In the event that an instructor is unable to find open access cases relevant to their course learning objectives, they may choose to write their own. See the following resources on case writing: Cooking with Betty Crocker: A Recipe for Case Writing ; The Way of Flesch: The Art of Writing Readable Cases ;   Twixt Fact and Fiction: A Case Writer’s Dilemma ; And All That Jazz: An Essay Extolling the Virtues of Writing Case Teaching Notes .

Implementing Cases

Take baby steps if new to CBL - While entire courses and curricula may involve case-based learning, instructors who desire to implement on a smaller-scale can integrate a single case into their class, and increase the number of cases utilized over time as desired.

Use cases in classes that are small, medium or large - Cases can be scaled to any course size. In large classes with stadium seating, students can work with peers nearby, while in small classes with more flexible seating arrangements, teams can move their chairs closer together. CBL can introduce more noise (and energy) in the classroom to which an instructor often quickly becomes accustomed. Further, students can be asked to work on cases outside of class, and wrap up discussion during the next class meeting.

Encourage collaborative work - Cases present an opportunity for students to work together to solve cases which the historical literature supports as beneficial to student learning (Bruffee, 1993). Allow students to work in groups to answer case questions.

Form diverse teams as feasible - When students work within diverse teams they can be exposed to a variety of perspectives that can help them solve the case. Depending on the context of the course, priorities, and the background information gathered about the students enrolled in the class, instructors may choose to organize student groups to allow for diversity in factors such as current course grades, gender, race/ethnicity, personality, among other items.  

Use stable teams as appropriate - If CBL is a large component of the course, a research-supported practice is to keep teams together long enough to go through the stages of group development: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning (Tuckman, 1965).

Walk around to guide groups - In CBL instructors serve as facilitators of student learning. Walking around allows the instructor to monitor student progress as well as identify and support any groups that may be struggling. Teaching assistants can also play a valuable role in supporting groups.

Interrupt strategically - Only every so often, for conversation in large group discussion of the case, especially when students appear confused on key concepts. An effective practice to help students meet case learning goals is to guide them as a whole group when the class is ready. This may include selecting a few student groups to present answers to discussion questions to the entire class, asking the class a question relevant to the case using polling software, and/or performing a mini-lesson on an area that appears to be confusing among students.  

Assess student learning in multiple ways - Students can be assessed informally by asking groups to report back answers to various case questions. This practice also helps students stay on task, and keeps them accountable. Cases can also be included on exams using related scenarios where students are asked to apply their knowledge.

Barrows HS. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: a brief overview. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 68, 3-12.  

Bonney KM. (2015). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains. Journal of Microbiology and Biology Education, 16(1): 21-28.

Breslin M, Buchanan, R. (2008) On the Case Study Method of Research and Teaching in Design.  Design Issues, 24(1), 36-40.

Bruffee KS. (1993). Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence, and authority of knowledge. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.

Herreid CF. (2013). Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science, edited by Clyde Freeman Herreid. Originally published in 2006 by the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA); reprinted by the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS) in 2013.

Herreid CH. (1994). Case studies in science: A novel method of science education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 23(4), 221–229.

Jonassen DH and Hernandez-Serrano J. (2002). Case-based reasoning and instructional design: Using stories to support problem solving. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 50(2), 65-77.  

Kosfeld M, Heinrichs M, Zak PJ, Fischbacher U, Fehr E. (2005). Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature, 435, 673-676.

Krain M. (2016) Putting the learning in case learning? The effects of case-based approaches on student knowledge, attitudes, and engagement. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 27(2), 131-153.

Lee V. (2012). What is Inquiry-Guided Learning?  New Directions for Learning, 129:5-14.

Nkhoma M, Sriratanaviriyakul N. (2017). Using case method to enrich students’ learning outcomes. Active Learning in Higher Education, 18(1):37-50.

Srinivasan et al. (2007). Comparing problem-based learning with case-based learning: Effects of a major curricular shift at two institutions. Academic Medicine, 82(1): 74-82.

Thistlethwaite JE et al. (2012). The effectiveness of case-based learning in health professional education. A BEME systematic review: BEME Guide No. 23.  Medical Teacher, 34, e421-e444.

Tuckman B. (1965). Development sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63(6), 384-99.

Williams B. (2005). Case-based learning - a review of the literature: is there scope for this educational paradigm in prehospital education? Emerg Med, 22, 577-581.

Zak, PJ (2013). How Stories Change the Brain. Retrieved from: https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_stories_change_brain

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• What is Case-Based Learning? Meaning, Examples, Applications

Case-based learning is a teaching method in which learners are presented with real or hypothetical cases that simulate real-life scenarios to solve them. It enables students to identify the root cause of a problem, and explore various solutions using their knowledge and skills from lessons and research to select the best solution.

Using the case-based learning approach allows students to fine-tune their problem-solving and critical-thinking skills to develop authentic solutions and recommendations to real-life problems. This allows students to solve real-world problems rather than simply memorize answers.

This learning method is also very flexible, as it can be used in both physical and virtual classes. It also has many applications including reviewing legal arguments, business case studies, medical treatments, and more.

What is Case-Based Learning?

Case-based learning, also known as the case method, teaches and assesses students by simulating real-life scenarios. It helps students in acquiring relevant knowledge by posing hypothetical or even real-world problems for them to solve.

Case-based learning enables the understanding of complex problems through the use of previous solutions and optimized recommendations. It’s an effective learning method because it helps students develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

It also helps students in developing their research and collaboration skills to solve new and complex problems. Case-based learning is commonly used in professional fields such as medicine, law, business, engineering, and journalism.

Case studies are typically done in groups or as a class, but educators may occasionally allow students to choose case studies individually.

Why Use Case-Based Learning?

The case-based learning method is a highly recommended teaching method because it allows students to apply classroom and research knowledge and skills to solve real-world problems. Here are the major benefits of using case-based learning:

Authenticity

Learning from real cases helps students understand how their knowledge can be applied to real problems, which makes their learning experience more meaningful.

Students are more likely to solve problems from their perspectives because they are learning from real-life scenarios, which allows them to apply their critical thinking and creativity skills.

Problem-Solving

Using case studies requires students to analyze the scenarios critically and come up with authentic solutions. The process of studying the cases and applying their knowledge and skills to solve the given problem requires students to leverage their critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

When students practice problem-solving skills through case studies regularly they improve their ability to process information quickly and come up with efficient solutions to similar problems. This skill is especially useful in most professional fields because it allows you to deal with unforeseen circumstances and provide appropriate solutions on the spot.

Transferability

Case-based learning allows students to apply their knowledge and skills from lessons, assignments, and assessments to solve new and unfamiliar problems. This makes their knowledge and skills transferable; they can easily adapt to a new environment effectively.

Collaboration

Case studies often include group work, which allows students to practice teamwork and help them develop collaboration skills. Knowing how to collaborate effectively within and across teams is one of the most important soft skills professionals need to build and run organizations effectively.

It also allows students to learn important life skills they can adopt in real-life scenarios.

Flexibility

Case-based learning requires students to provide authentic solutions; the solution is frequently adaptable; it can be used to solve more than one case. It also allows for more flexible learning experiences, such as e-learning and hybrid learning.

What Is the Purpose of a Case Study in Education?

The primary goal of using case studies in learning is to provide students with the opportunity to apply their knowledge and skills to solve real-world problems. They are often used in professions that require adaptable solutions, such as healthcare, law, business, and engineering.

Case-based learning can take place at all levels of education, from primary to tertiary. Starting this type of learning earlier allows students to quickly hone their problem-solving, critical thinking, and creativity skills, which will become muscle memory when they become professionals.

Here are other goals educators achieve with case studies:

• Build students’ problem-solving and critical-thinking skills
• Foster students’ Collaboration skills
• Equip students to solve real-life problems
• Help students develop transferable skills and knowledge to solve new problems.

Teaching Strategies for Case-Based Learning

Case-based learning is only effective when it is used correctly to help students develop problem-solving and analytical skills. Here are some tips for creating an effective case-based learning experience:

Introduce the Case

The first step in creating a successful case-based learning experience is to introduce the case study into the classroom. Be the first to provide information about the case to your students; this helps them understand the context of the case study and where to apply the knowledge and skills gained from it.

Incorporating case studies into relevant lessons is an excellent way to introduce them. For example, if you want to do a case study on the effect of brand voice, include how to create a great brand voice in a lesson plan.

Ask Guiding Questions

When presenting case studies to students, include guiding questions that capture the purpose of the case study. This will direct their critical thinking toward the knowledge and skills you want them to gain from the case study.

Guiding questions also help students avoid being overburdened with information they don’t need, which can lead to intellectual fatigue.

Encourage Teamwork

Group assignments help students develop collaboration skills, which will help them understand how to navigate team collaborations in their future fields. It also allows them to brainstorm multiple ideas at once and analyze them to see if they are feasible solutions.

Provide Feedback

When students present their solutions and recommendations, provide feedback on their approach to help them solve future problems more effectively. Giving students feedback allows them to continuously hone their problem-solving skills while following guiding instructions.

Foster Classroom Discussions

Group discussions and general classroom discussions provide students with different perspectives on how people solve problems. It also enables them to identify what they could do better to achieve a more optimized solution.

Classroom discussion also helps to engage students by allowing them to share their thoughts and provide feedback on what they have learned from the case study.

Encourage Reflection

Encourage students to think about what they learned from the case study and how they will apply what they learned to solve future problems.

What Are the Advantages of Case-Based Learning?

Active learning.

Case-based learning motivates students to apply their knowledge and skills to develop solutions and recommendations. It also encourages students to participate in group discussions which promote both inside and outside classroom collaboration.

As a result, rather than passively listening in class, students are actively learning and looking for ways to use the information to determine authentic solutions to the problem.

Relevant Knowledge

Another major benefit of case studies is that they help students in developing industry and real-world relevant skills and knowledge. The case studies about real-life problems provide students with perspectives on the problems they can expect in their fields in the future and how to deal with them.

Students can focus on acquiring the skills and knowledge that will help them understand real-world cases and how to solve them. 

Traditional learning methods, on the other hand,  provide students with a wealth of information and limited guidelines for problem-solving. Students may become confused and unable to achieve the lesson’s goal if they are overwhelmed by the volume of information.

Personalized Learning Experience

Case-based learning allows students to learn at their pace, gain relevant skills, and experiment with different problem-solving strategies. This allows students to investigate problem solutions from their point of view, making their learning experience more engaging.

It also allows students to delve deeply into topics that interest them during case studies to come up with unique solutions to the given problem. This strengthens students’ research skills, which will likely come in handy in their future careers.

Develop Students’ Communication Skills

Higher knowledge retention rates.

Most students passively learn with traditional learning, making it difficult for students to recall complex and unfamiliar concepts. Case-based learning, on the other hand, encourages students to actively participate in class, research, and collaborate with their peers, resulting in a more personalized and active learning experience.

The likelihood of students forgetting skills and information acquired through personalized learning is much lower than when they are simply passively listening in class.

What Are the Disadvantages of Case-Based Learning?

While case-based learning is an excellent teaching style that helps students develop the skills they need to be exceptional in their professional fields, it does have some drawbacks. The following are some of the disadvantages of using case-based learning:

Time and Resource Intensive

Of course, all teaching methods necessitate time and resources, but case-based learning necessitates even more from educators. Unlike traditional teaching methods, educators must spend more time preparing course materials, selecting relevant case studies, grouping students, holding discussions, and more.

Limited Scope

Case-based learning has the edge of focusing on relevant cases, which narrows students’ knowledge and skills. However, this has a disadvantage in that students only cover very specific aspects of a topic and end up knowing nothing about other equally important aspects.

Student Readiness

While the goal of case-based learning is to help students fine-tune their problem-solving and critical thinking skills without swamping them with information, it can backfire if the students aren’t ready for authentic cases and assessments.

So, before assigning real-life cases educators must ensure that their students are well-developed enough to understand concepts and their relevance in real-life.

Group Dynamics

Case-based learning encourages teamwork, which allows students to get answers faster and practice their interpersonal and collaborative skills. But if the group dynamic isn’t working because, for example, the managers are inactive and work is delegated to a small number of group members, the group tasks may end up slowing down the students.

Applications of Case-Based Learning

Business education.

 Business students often use case studies to analyze real-world problems and solutions.

Law Education

Case studies are often used in law to help students understand legal cases and how to prepare legal arguments.

Healthcare students use case studies to understand patient conditions and develop the best course of treatment.

Professional Development

Case-based learning is a highly effective method for teaching professionals new and relevant skills. They are already familiar with real-world problems; case-based learning allows them to carefully review these cases and find effective solutions that will help them excel in their field.

Examples of Case Based Learning in Education

1. medical treatment.

Medical students are studying the case of a patient with a rare medical condition. The supervisor gives the medical students a list of symptoms, history, and genetic predispositions that could cause the condition and asks them to diagnose the patient and recommend a treatment plan.

2. Environmental Engineering 

Students are given a case study of a fictional town that suffers from severe air pollution as a result of CO2 emissions from a nearby cement factory; the town also has a large kaolin deposit. The students are to create kaolin adsorbents to capture CO2.

3. Education

A college education professor gives students a case study of a school that has been struggling with low student achievement for three years. The students must determine what happened in the last three years to cause the low performance and how to develop a strategy to improve the student’s performance.

Case-based learning is a teaching and learning method that helps students develop problem-solving and critical thinking skills to solve real-world problems. It can be used in various fields, including business, law, healthcare, and education.

Although case-based earning is flexible and helpful to students in developing the skills they need to be professionals, it can be resource-intensive and time-consuming for educators.

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5 Benefits of Learning Through the Case Study Method

• 28 Nov 2023

While several factors make HBS Online unique —including a global Community and real-world outcomes —active learning through the case study method rises to the top.

In a 2023 City Square Associates survey, 74 percent of HBS Online learners who also took a course from another provider said HBS Online’s case method and real-world examples were better by comparison.

Here’s a primer on the case method, five benefits you could gain, and how to experience it for yourself.

Access your free e-book today.

What Is the Harvard Business School Case Study Method?

The case study method , or case method , is a learning technique in which you’re presented with a real-world business challenge and asked how you’d solve it. After working through it yourself and with peers, you’re told how the scenario played out.

HBS pioneered the case method in 1922. Shortly before, in 1921, the first case was written.

“How do you go into an ambiguous situation and get to the bottom of it?” says HBS Professor Jan Rivkin, former senior associate dean and chair of HBS's master of business administration (MBA) program, in a video about the case method . “That skill—the skill of figuring out a course of inquiry to choose a course of action—that skill is as relevant today as it was in 1921.”

Originally developed for the in-person MBA classroom, HBS Online adapted the case method into an engaging, interactive online learning experience in 2014.

In HBS Online courses , you learn about each case from the business professional who experienced it. After reviewing their videos, you’re prompted to take their perspective and explain how you’d handle their situation.

You then get to read peers’ responses, “star” them, and comment to further the discussion. Afterward, you learn how the professional handled it and their key takeaways.

HBS Online’s adaptation of the case method incorporates the famed HBS “cold call,” in which you’re called on at random to make a decision without time to prepare.

“Learning came to life!” said Sheneka Balogun , chief administration officer and chief of staff at LeMoyne-Owen College, of her experience taking the Credential of Readiness (CORe) program . “The videos from the professors, the interactive cold calls where you were randomly selected to participate, and the case studies that enhanced and often captured the essence of objectives and learning goals were all embedded in each module. This made learning fun, engaging, and student-friendly.”

If you’re considering taking a course that leverages the case study method, here are five benefits you could experience.

5 Benefits of Learning Through Case Studies

1. take new perspectives.

The case method prompts you to consider a scenario from another person’s perspective. To work through the situation and come up with a solution, you must consider their circumstances, limitations, risk tolerance, stakeholders, resources, and potential consequences to assess how to respond.

Taking on new perspectives not only can help you navigate your own challenges but also others’. Putting yourself in someone else’s situation to understand their motivations and needs can go a long way when collaborating with stakeholders.

2. Hone Your Decision-Making Skills

Another skill you can build is the ability to make decisions effectively . The case study method forces you to use limited information to decide how to handle a problem—just like in the real world.

Throughout your career, you’ll need to make difficult decisions with incomplete or imperfect information—and sometimes, you won’t feel qualified to do so. Learning through the case method allows you to practice this skill in a low-stakes environment. When facing a real challenge, you’ll be better prepared to think quickly, collaborate with others, and present and defend your solution.

3. Become More Open-Minded

As you collaborate with peers on responses, it becomes clear that not everyone solves problems the same way. Exposing yourself to various approaches and perspectives can help you become a more open-minded professional.

When you’re part of a diverse group of learners from around the world, your experiences, cultures, and backgrounds contribute to a range of opinions on each case.

On the HBS Online course platform, you’re prompted to view and comment on others’ responses, and discussion is encouraged. This practice of considering others’ perspectives can make you more receptive in your career.

“You’d be surprised at how much you can learn from your peers,” said Ratnaditya Jonnalagadda , a software engineer who took CORe.

In addition to interacting with peers in the course platform, Jonnalagadda was part of the HBS Online Community , where he networked with other professionals and continued discussions sparked by course content.

“You get to understand your peers better, and students share examples of businesses implementing a concept from a module you just learned,” Jonnalagadda said. “It’s a very good way to cement the concepts in one's mind.”

4. Enhance Your Curiosity

One byproduct of taking on different perspectives is that it enables you to picture yourself in various roles, industries, and business functions.

“Each case offers an opportunity for students to see what resonates with them, what excites them, what bores them, which role they could imagine inhabiting in their careers,” says former HBS Dean Nitin Nohria in the Harvard Business Review . “Cases stimulate curiosity about the range of opportunities in the world and the many ways that students can make a difference as leaders.”

Through the case method, you can “try on” roles you may not have considered and feel more prepared to change or advance your career .

5. Build Your Self-Confidence

Finally, learning through the case study method can build your confidence. Each time you assume a business leader’s perspective, aim to solve a new challenge, and express and defend your opinions and decisions to peers, you prepare to do the same in your career.

According to a 2022 City Square Associates survey , 84 percent of HBS Online learners report feeling more confident making business decisions after taking a course.

“Self-confidence is difficult to teach or coach, but the case study method seems to instill it in people,” Nohria says in the Harvard Business Review . “There may well be other ways of learning these meta-skills, such as the repeated experience gained through practice or guidance from a gifted coach. However, under the direction of a masterful teacher, the case method can engage students and help them develop powerful meta-skills like no other form of teaching.”

How to Experience the Case Study Method

If the case method seems like a good fit for your learning style, experience it for yourself by taking an HBS Online course. Offerings span seven subject areas, including:

• Business essentials
• Leadership and management
• Entrepreneurship and innovation
• Finance and accounting
• Business in society

No matter which course or credential program you choose, you’ll examine case studies from real business professionals, work through their challenges alongside peers, and gain valuable insights to apply to your career.

Are you interested in discovering how HBS Online can help advance your career? Explore our course catalog and download our free guide —complete with interactive workbook sections—to determine if online learning is right for you and which course to take.

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Professor of Business Administration, Distinguished University Service Professor, and former dean of Harvard Business School.

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Case Method Teaching and Learning

What is the case method? How can the case method be used to engage learners? What are some strategies for getting started? This guide helps instructors answer these questions by providing an overview of the case method while highlighting learner-centered and digitally-enhanced approaches to teaching with the case method. The guide also offers tips to instructors as they get started with the case method and additional references and resources.

On this page:

What is case method teaching.

• Case Method at Columbia

Why use the Case Method?

Case method teaching approaches, how do i get started.

• Additional Resources

The CTL is here to help!

For support with implementing a case method approach in your course, email [email protected] to schedule your 1-1 consultation .

Cite this resource: Columbia Center for Teaching and Learning (2019). Case Method Teaching and Learning. Columbia University. Retrieved from [today’s date] from https://ctl.columbia.edu/resources-and-technology/resources/case-method/  

Case method 1 teaching is an active form of instruction that focuses on a case and involves students learning by doing 2 3 . Cases are real or invented stories 4  that include “an educational message” or recount events, problems, dilemmas, theoretical or conceptual issue that requires analysis and/or decision-making.

Case-based teaching simulates real world situations and asks students to actively grapple with complex problems 5 6 This method of instruction is used across disciplines to promote learning, and is common in law, business, medicine, among other fields. See Table 1 below for a few types of cases and the learning they promote.

Table 1: Types of cases and the learning they promote.

For a more complete list, see Case Types & Teaching Methods: A Classification Scheme from the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science.

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Case Method Teaching and Learning at Columbia

The case method is actively used in classrooms across Columbia, at the Morningside campus in the School of International and Public Affairs (SIPA), the School of Business, Arts and Sciences, among others, and at Columbia University Irving Medical campus.

Faculty Spotlight:

Professor Mary Ann Price on Using Case Study Method to Place Pre-Med Students in Real-Life Scenarios

Read more  

Professor De Pinho on Using the Case Method in the Mailman Core

Case method teaching has been found to improve student learning, to increase students’ perception of learning gains, and to meet learning objectives 8 9 . Faculty have noted the instructional benefits of cases including greater student engagement in their learning 10 , deeper student understanding of concepts, stronger critical thinking skills, and an ability to make connections across content areas and view an issue from multiple perspectives 11 . 

Through case-based learning, students are the ones asking questions about the case, doing the problem-solving, interacting with and learning from their peers, “unpacking” the case, analyzing the case, and summarizing the case. They learn how to work with limited information and ambiguity, think in professional or disciplinary ways, and ask themselves “what would I do if I were in this specific situation?”

The case method bridges theory to practice, and promotes the development of skills including: communication, active listening, critical thinking, decision-making, and metacognitive skills 12 , as students apply course content knowledge, reflect on what they know and their approach to analyzing, and make sense of a case. 

Though the case method has historical roots as an instructor-centered approach that uses the Socratic dialogue and cold-calling, it is possible to take a more learner-centered approach in which students take on roles and tasks traditionally left to the instructor. 

Cases are often used as “vehicles for classroom discussion” 13 . Students should be encouraged to take ownership of their learning from a case. Discussion-based approaches engage students in thinking and communicating about a case. Instructors can set up a case activity in which students are the ones doing the work of “asking questions, summarizing content, generating hypotheses, proposing theories, or offering critical analyses” 14 . 

The role of the instructor is to share a case or ask students to share or create a case to use in class, set expectations, provide instructions, and assign students roles in the discussion. Student roles in a case discussion can include: 

• discussion “starters” get the conversation started with a question or posing the questions that their peers came up with; 
• facilitators listen actively, validate the contributions of peers, ask follow-up questions, draw connections, refocus the conversation as needed; 
• recorders take-notes of the main points of the discussion, record on the board, upload to CourseWorks, or type and project on the screen; and 
• discussion “wrappers” lead a summary of the main points of the discussion. 

Prior to the case discussion, instructors can model case analysis and the types of questions students should ask, co-create discussion guidelines with students, and ask for students to submit discussion questions. During the discussion, the instructor can keep time, intervene as necessary (however the students should be doing the talking), and pause the discussion for a debrief and to ask students to reflect on what and how they learned from the case activity. 

Note: case discussions can be enhanced using technology. Live discussions can occur via video-conferencing (e.g., using Zoom ) or asynchronous discussions can occur using the Discussions tool in CourseWorks (Canvas) .

Table 2 includes a few interactive case method approaches. Regardless of the approach selected, it is important to create a learning environment in which students feel comfortable participating in a case activity and learning from one another. See below for tips on supporting student in how to learn from a case in the “getting started” section and how to create a supportive learning environment in the Guide for Inclusive Teaching at Columbia . 

Table 2. Strategies for Engaging Students in Case-Based Learning

Approaches to case teaching should be informed by course learning objectives, and can be adapted for small, large, hybrid, and online classes. Instructional technology can be used in various ways to deliver, facilitate, and assess the case method. For instance, an online module can be created in CourseWorks (Canvas) to structure the delivery of the case, allow students to work at their own pace, engage all learners, even those reluctant to speak up in class, and assess understanding of a case and student learning. Modules can include text, embedded media (e.g., using Panopto or Mediathread ) curated by the instructor, online discussion, and assessments. Students can be asked to read a case and/or watch a short video, respond to quiz questions and receive immediate feedback, post questions to a discussion, and share resources. 

For more information about options for incorporating educational technology to your course, please contact your Learning Designer .

To ensure that students are learning from the case approach, ask them to pause and reflect on what and how they learned from the case. Time to reflect  builds your students’ metacognition, and when these reflections are collected they provides you with insights about the effectiveness of your approach in promoting student learning.

Well designed case-based learning experiences: 1) motivate student involvement, 2) have students doing the work, 3) help students develop knowledge and skills, and 4) have students learning from each other.  

Designing a case-based learning experience should center around the learning objectives for a course. The following points focus on intentional design. 

Identify learning objectives, determine scope, and anticipate challenges. 

• Why use the case method in your course? How will it promote student learning differently than other approaches? 
• What are the learning objectives that need to be met by the case method? What knowledge should students apply and skills should they practice? 
• What is the scope of the case? (a brief activity in a single class session to a semester-long case-based course; if new to case method, start small with a single case). 
• What challenges do you anticipate (e.g., student preparation and prior experiences with case learning, discomfort with discussion, peer-to-peer learning, managing discussion) and how will you plan for these in your design? 
• If you are asking students to use transferable skills for the case method (e.g., teamwork, digital literacy) make them explicit. 

Determine how you will know if the learning objectives were met and develop a plan for evaluating the effectiveness of the case method to inform future case teaching. 

• What assessments and criteria will you use to evaluate student work or participation in case discussion? 
• How will you evaluate the effectiveness of the case method? What feedback will you collect from students? 
• How might you leverage technology for assessment purposes? For example, could you quiz students about the case online before class, accept assignment submissions online, use audience response systems (e.g., PollEverywhere) for formative assessment during class? 

Select an existing case, create your own, or encourage students to bring course-relevant cases, and prepare for its delivery

• Where will the case method fit into the course learning sequence? 
• Is the case at the appropriate level of complexity? Is it inclusive, culturally relevant, and relatable to students? 
• What materials and preparation will be needed to present the case to students? (e.g., readings, audiovisual materials, set up a module in CourseWorks). 

Plan for the case discussion and an active role for students

• What will your role be in facilitating case-based learning? How will you model case analysis for your students? (e.g., present a short case and demo your approach and the process of case learning) (Davis, 2009). 
• What discussion guidelines will you use that include your students’ input? 
• How will you encourage students to ask and answer questions, summarize their work, take notes, and debrief the case? 
• If students will be working in groups, how will groups form? What size will the groups be? What instructions will they be given? How will you ensure that everyone participates? What will they need to submit? Can technology be leveraged for any of these areas? 
• Have you considered students of varied cognitive and physical abilities and how they might participate in the activities/discussions, including those that involve technology? 

Student preparation and expectations

• How will you communicate about the case method approach to your students? When will you articulate the purpose of case-based learning and expectations of student engagement? What information about case-based learning and expectations will be included in the syllabus?
• What preparation and/or assignment(s) will students complete in order to learn from the case? (e.g., read the case prior to class, watch a case video prior to class, post to a CourseWorks discussion, submit a brief memo, complete a short writing assignment to check students’ understanding of a case, take on a specific role, prepare to present a critique during in-class discussion).

Andersen, E. and Schiano, B. (2014). Teaching with Cases: A Practical Guide . Harvard Business Press. 

Bonney, K. M. (2015). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains†. Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education , 16 (1), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v16i1.846

Davis, B.G. (2009). Chapter 24: Case Studies. In Tools for Teaching. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. 

Garvin, D.A. (2003). Making the Case: Professional Education for the world of practice. Harvard Magazine. September-October 2003, Volume 106, Number 1, 56-107.

Golich, V.L. (2000). The ABCs of Case Teaching. International Studies Perspectives. 1, 11-29. 

Golich, V.L.; Boyer, M; Franko, P.; and Lamy, S. (2000). The ABCs of Case Teaching. Pew Case Studies in International Affairs. Institute for the Study of Diplomacy. 

Heath, J. (2015). Teaching & Writing Cases: A Practical Guide. The Case Center, UK. 

Herreid, C.F. (2011). Case Study Teaching. New Directions for Teaching and Learning. No. 128, Winder 2011, 31 – 40. 

Herreid, C.F. (2007). Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science . National Science Teachers Association. Available as an ebook through Columbia Libraries. 

Herreid, C.F. (2006). “Clicker” Cases: Introducing Case Study Teaching Into Large Classrooms. Journal of College Science Teaching. Oct 2006, 36(2). https://search.proquest.com/docview/200323718?pq-origsite=gscholar  

Krain, M. (2016). Putting the Learning in Case Learning? The Effects of Case-Based Approaches on Student Knowledge, Attitudes, and Engagement. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching. 27(2), 131-153. 

Lundberg, K.O. (Ed.). (2011). Our Digital Future: Boardrooms and Newsrooms. Knight Case Studies Initiative. 

Popil, I. (2011). Promotion of critical thinking by using case studies as teaching method. Nurse Education Today, 31(2), 204–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2010.06.002

Schiano, B. and Andersen, E. (2017). Teaching with Cases Online . Harvard Business Publishing. 

Thistlethwaite, JE; Davies, D.; Ekeocha, S.; Kidd, J.M.; MacDougall, C.; Matthews, P.; Purkis, J.; Clay D. (2012). The effectiveness of case-based learning in health professional education: A BEME systematic review . Medical Teacher. 2012; 34(6): e421-44. 

Yadav, A.; Lundeberg, M.; DeSchryver, M.; Dirkin, K.; Schiller, N.A.; Maier, K. and Herreid, C.F. (2007). Teaching Science with Case Studies: A National Survey of Faculty Perceptions of the Benefits and Challenges of Using Cases. Journal of College Science Teaching; Sept/Oct 2007; 37(1). 

Weimer, M. (2013). Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass.

Additional resources 

Teaching with Cases , Harvard Kennedy School of Government. 

Features “what is a teaching case?” video that defines a teaching case, and provides documents to help students prepare for case learning, Common case teaching challenges and solutions, tips for teaching with cases. 

Promoting excellence and innovation in case method teaching: Teaching by the Case Method , Christensen Center for Teaching & Learning. Harvard Business School. 

National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science . University of Buffalo. 

A collection of peer-reviewed STEM cases to teach scientific concepts and content, promote process skills and critical thinking. The Center welcomes case submissions. Case classification scheme of case types and teaching methods:

• Different types of cases: analysis case, dilemma/decision case, directed case, interrupted case, clicker case, a flipped case, a laboratory case. 
• Different types of teaching methods: problem-based learning, discussion, debate, intimate debate, public hearing, trial, jigsaw, role-play. 

Columbia Resources

Resources available to support your use of case method: The University hosts a number of case collections including: the Case Consortium (a collection of free cases in the fields of journalism, public policy, public health, and other disciplines that include teaching and learning resources; SIPA’s Picker Case Collection (audiovisual case studies on public sector innovation, filmed around the world and involving SIPA student teams in producing the cases); and Columbia Business School CaseWorks , which develops teaching cases and materials for use in Columbia Business School classrooms.

Center for Teaching and Learning

The Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL) offers a variety of programs and services for instructors at Columbia. The CTL can provide customized support as you plan to use the case method approach through implementation. Schedule a one-on-one consultation. 

Office of the Provost

The Hybrid Learning Course Redesign grant program from the Office of the Provost provides support for faculty who are developing innovative and technology-enhanced pedagogy and learning strategies in the classroom. In addition to funding, faculty awardees receive support from CTL staff as they redesign, deliver, and evaluate their hybrid courses.

The Start Small! Mini-Grant provides support to faculty who are interested in experimenting with one new pedagogical strategy or tool. Faculty awardees receive funds and CTL support for a one-semester period.

Explore our teaching resources.

• Blended Learning
• Contemplative Pedagogy
• Inclusive Teaching Guide
• FAQ for Teaching Assistants
• Metacognition

CTL resources and technology for you.

• Overview of all CTL Resources and Technology
• The origins of this method can be traced to Harvard University where in 1870 the Law School began using cases to teach students how to think like lawyers using real court decisions. This was followed by the Business School in 1920 (Garvin, 2003). These professional schools recognized that lecture mode of instruction was insufficient to teach critical professional skills, and that active learning would better prepare learners for their professional lives. ↩
• Golich, V.L. (2000). The ABCs of Case Teaching. International Studies Perspectives. 1, 11-29. ↩
• Herreid, C.F. (2007). Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science . National Science Teachers Association. Available as an ebook through Columbia Libraries. ↩
• Davis, B.G. (2009). Chapter 24: Case Studies. In Tools for Teaching. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. ↩
• Andersen, E. and Schiano, B. (2014). Teaching with Cases: A Practical Guide . Harvard Business Press. ↩
• Lundberg, K.O. (Ed.). (2011). Our Digital Future: Boardrooms and Newsrooms. Knight Case Studies Initiative. ↩
• Heath, J. (2015). Teaching & Writing Cases: A Practical Guide. The Case Center, UK. ↩
• Bonney, K. M. (2015). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains†. Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education , 16 (1), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v16i1.846 ↩
• Krain, M. (2016). Putting the Learning in Case Learning? The Effects of Case-Based Approaches on Student Knowledge, Attitudes, and Engagement. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching. 27(2), 131-153. ↩
• Thistlethwaite, JE; Davies, D.; Ekeocha, S.; Kidd, J.M.; MacDougall, C.; Matthews, P.; Purkis, J.; Clay D. (2012). The effectiveness of case-based learning in health professional education: A BEME systematic review . Medical Teacher. 2012; 34(6): e421-44. ↩
• Yadav, A.; Lundeberg, M.; DeSchryver, M.; Dirkin, K.; Schiller, N.A.; Maier, K. and Herreid, C.F. (2007). Teaching Science with Case Studies: A National Survey of Faculty Perceptions of the Benefits and Challenges of Using Cases. Journal of College Science Teaching; Sept/Oct 2007; 37(1). ↩
• Popil, I. (2011). Promotion of critical thinking by using case studies as teaching method. Nurse Education Today, 31(2), 204–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2010.06.002 ↩
• Weimer, M. (2013). Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. ↩
• Herreid, C.F. (2006). “Clicker” Cases: Introducing Case Study Teaching Into Large Classrooms. Journal of College Science Teaching. Oct 2006, 36(2). https://search.proquest.com/docview/200323718?pq-origsite=gscholar ↩

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Making Learning Relevant With Case Studies

The open-ended problems presented in case studies give students work that feels connected to their lives.

To prepare students for jobs that haven’t been created yet, we need to teach them how to be great problem solvers so that they’ll be ready for anything. One way to do this is by teaching content and skills using real-world case studies, a learning model that’s focused on reflection during the problem-solving process. It’s similar to project-based learning, but PBL is more focused on students creating a product.

Case studies have been used for years by businesses, law and medical schools, physicians on rounds, and artists critiquing work. Like other forms of problem-based learning, case studies can be accessible for every age group, both in one subject and in interdisciplinary work.

You can get started with case studies by tackling relatable questions like these with your students:

• How can we limit food waste in the cafeteria?
• How can we get our school to recycle and compost waste? (Or, if you want to be more complex, how can our school reduce its carbon footprint?)
• How can we improve school attendance?
• How can we reduce the number of people who get sick at school during cold and flu season?

Addressing questions like these leads students to identify topics they need to learn more about. In researching the first question, for example, students may see that they need to research food chains and nutrition. Students often ask, reasonably, why they need to learn something, or when they’ll use their knowledge in the future. Learning is most successful for students when the content and skills they’re studying are relevant, and case studies offer one way to create that sense of relevance.

Teaching With Case Studies

Ultimately, a case study is simply an interesting problem with many correct answers. What does case study work look like in classrooms? Teachers generally start by having students read the case or watch a video that summarizes the case. Students then work in small groups or individually to solve the case study. Teachers set milestones defining what students should accomplish to help them manage their time.

During the case study learning process, student assessment of learning should be focused on reflection. Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick’s Learning and Leading With Habits of Mind gives several examples of what this reflection can look like in a classroom: 

Journaling: At the end of each work period, have students write an entry summarizing what they worked on, what worked well, what didn’t, and why. Sentence starters and clear rubrics or guidelines will help students be successful. At the end of a case study project, as Costa and Kallick write, it’s helpful to have students “select significant learnings, envision how they could apply these learnings to future situations, and commit to an action plan to consciously modify their behaviors.”

Interviews: While working on a case study, students can interview each other about their progress and learning. Teachers can interview students individually or in small groups to assess their learning process and their progress.

Student discussion: Discussions can be unstructured—students can talk about what they worked on that day in a think-pair-share or as a full class—or structured, using Socratic seminars or fishbowl discussions. If your class is tackling a case study in small groups, create a second set of small groups with a representative from each of the case study groups so that the groups can share their learning.

4 Tips for Setting Up a Case Study

1. Identify a problem to investigate: This should be something accessible and relevant to students’ lives. The problem should also be challenging and complex enough to yield multiple solutions with many layers.

2. Give context: Think of this step as a movie preview or book summary. Hook the learners to help them understand just enough about the problem to want to learn more.

3. Have a clear rubric: Giving structure to your definition of quality group work and products will lead to stronger end products. You may be able to have your learners help build these definitions.

4. Provide structures for presenting solutions: The amount of scaffolding you build in depends on your students’ skill level and development. A case study product can be something like several pieces of evidence of students collaborating to solve the case study, and ultimately presenting their solution with a detailed slide deck or an essay—you can scaffold this by providing specified headings for the sections of the essay.

Problem-Based Teaching Resources

There are many high-quality, peer-reviewed resources that are open source and easily accessible online.

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science at the University at Buffalo built an online collection of more than 800 cases that cover topics ranging from biochemistry to economics. There are resources for middle and high school students.
• Models of Excellence , a project maintained by EL Education and the Harvard Graduate School of Education, has examples of great problem- and project-based tasks—and corresponding exemplary student work—for grades pre-K to 12.
• The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning at Purdue University is an open-source journal that publishes examples of problem-based learning in K–12 and post-secondary classrooms.
• The Tech Edvocate has a list of websites and tools related to problem-based learning.

In their book Problems as Possibilities , Linda Torp and Sara Sage write that at the elementary school level, students particularly appreciate how they feel that they are taken seriously when solving case studies. At the middle school level, “researchers stress the importance of relating middle school curriculum to issues of student concern and interest.” And high schoolers, they write, find the case study method “beneficial in preparing them for their future.”

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• Case Based Learning

What is the case method?

In case-based learning, students learn to interact with and manipulate basic foundational knowledge by working with situations resembling specific real-world scenarios.

How does it work?

Case studies encourage students to use critical thinking skills to identify and narrow an issue, develop and evaluate alternatives, and offer a solution.  In fact, Nkhoma (2016), who studied the value of developing case-based learning activities based on Bloom’s Taxonomy of thinking skills, suggests that this approach encourages deep learning through critical thinking:

Sherfield (2004) confirms this, asserting that working through case studies can begin to build and expand these six critical thinking strategies:

• Emotional restraint
• Questioning
• Distinguishing fact from fiction
• Searching for ambiguity

What makes a good case?

Case-based learning can focus on anything from a one-sentence physics word problem to a textbook-sized nursing case or a semester-long case in a law course.  Though we often assume that a case is a “problem,” Ellet (2007) suggests that most cases entail one of four types of situations:

• Evaluations
• What are the facts you know about the case?
• What are some logical assumptions you can make about the case?
• What are the problems involved in the case as you see it?
• What is the root problem (the main issue)?
• What do you estimate is the cause of the root problem?
• What are the reasons that the root problem exists?
• What is the solution to the problem?
• Are there any moral or ethical considerations to your solution?
• What are the real-world implications for this case?
• How might the lives of the people in the case study be changed because of your proposed solution?
• Where in your world (campus/town/country) might a problem like this occur?
• Where could someone get help with this problem?
• What personal advice would you give to the person or people concerned?

Adapted from Sherfield’s Case Studies for the First Year (2004)

Some faculty buy prepared cases from publishers, but many create their own based on their unique course needs.  When introducing case-based learning to students, be sure to offer a series of guidelines or questions to prompt deep thinking.  One option is to provide a scenario followed by questions; for example, questions designed for a first year experience problem might include these:

Before you begin, take a look at what others are doing with cases in your field.  Pre-made case studies are available from various publishers, and you can find case-study templates online.

• Choose scenarios carefully
• Tell a story from beginning to end, including many details
• Create real-life characters and use quotes when possible
• Write clearly and concisely and format the writing simply
• Ask students to reflect on their learning—perhaps identifying connections between the lesson and specific course learning outcomes—after working a case

Additional Resources

• Barnes, Louis B. et al. Teaching and the Case Method , 3 rd (1994). Harvard, 1994.
• Campoy, Renee. Case Study Analysis in the Classroom: Becoming a Reflective Teacher . Sage Publications, 2005.
• Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook . Harvard, 2007.
• Herreid, Clyde Freeman, ed. Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science . NSTA, 2007.
• Herreid, Clyde Freeman, et al. Science Stories: Using Case Studies to Teach Critical Thinking . NSTA, 2012.
• Nkhoma, M., Lam, et al. Developing case-based learning activities based on the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy . Proceedings of Informing Science & IT Education Conference (In SITE) 2016, 85-93. 2016.
• Rolls, Geoff. Classic Case Studies in Psychology , 3 rd Hodder Education, Bookpoint, 2014.
• Sherfield, Robert M., et al. Case Studies for the First Year . Pearson, 2004.
• Shulman, Judith H., ed. Case Methods in Teacher Education . Teacher’s College, 1992.

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Case-Based Learning

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• Claus Andreas Foss Rosenstand 2  

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Case-based learning (CBL) is a pedagogical concept, where work method , problem , and discipline are identified by the learner (or learners) through the learning process. Case-based learning is oriented toward a case, which from different perspectives generates different and equally correct problems. Case-based learning is about choosing, deciding priorities, and combining different disciplines, and as such is best practiced in a multidisciplinary context.

Theoretical Background

Back in the early 1990s, the term case-based learning was often synonymous with case-based reasoning, which means reasoning based on remembering previous experiences (e.g., Kolodner 1993 ). This understanding of case-based learning was based on machine learning.

Today, case-based learning is usually emphasized as a special kind of problem-based learning. However, the first clear definition, with a systematic distinction and inclusive relation to problem-based learning, solution-based...

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Kjærulff, U. B., Rosenstand, C. A. F., Stage, J., & Vetner, M. (2008). Case-based learning (CBL) – A new pedagogical approach to multidisciplinary studies. In F. Fink (Ed.), 36th SEFI Annual Conference 2008 – Quality Assessment, Employability and Innovation . Denmark: Sense Publisher. (CD media and Google Scholar).

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Kolodner, J. L. (Ed.). (1993). Case-based learning . Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Rosenstand, C. (2008). Innovation som situation – Flerfaglighed som pædagogisk forudsætning for innovation [Innovation as situation – Multidisciplinarity as pedagogical precondition for innovation]. In J. Stolt & C. Vintergaard (Eds.), Tværfaglighed & Entrepreneurship [Multidisciplinarity & Entrepreneurship] . Copenhagen: IDEA København og Øresund Entrepreneurship Academy.

Qvortup, L. (2003). The hyper complex society . New York: Peter Lang.

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Department of Communication and Psychology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark

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Norbert M. Seel

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Rosenstand, C.A.F. (2012). Case-Based Learning. In: Seel, N.M. (eds) Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_812

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Using Case Studies to Teach

Why Use Cases?

Many students are more inductive than deductive reasoners, which means that they learn better from examples than from logical development starting with basic principles. The use of case studies can therefore be a very effective classroom technique.

Case studies are have long been used in business schools, law schools, medical schools and the social sciences, but they can be used in any discipline when instructors want students to explore how what they have learned applies to real world situations. Cases come in many formats, from a simple “What would you do in this situation?” question to a detailed description of a situation with accompanying data to analyze. Whether to use a simple scenario-type case or a complex detailed one depends on your course objectives.

Most case assignments require students to answer an open-ended question or develop a solution to an open-ended problem with multiple potential solutions. Requirements can range from a one-paragraph answer to a fully developed group action plan, proposal or decision.

Common Case Elements

Most “full-blown” cases have these common elements:

• A decision-maker who is grappling with some question or problem that needs to be solved.
• A description of the problem’s context (a law, an industry, a family).
• Supporting data, which can range from data tables to links to URLs, quoted statements or testimony, supporting documents, images, video, or audio.

Case assignments can be done individually or in teams so that the students can brainstorm solutions and share the work load.

The following discussion of this topic incorporates material presented by Robb Dixon of the School of Management and Rob Schadt of the School of Public Health at CEIT workshops. Professor Dixon also provided some written comments that the discussion incorporates.

Advantages to the use of case studies in class

A major advantage of teaching with case studies is that the students are actively engaged in figuring out the principles by abstracting from the examples. This develops their skills in:

• Problem solving
• Analytical tools, quantitative and/or qualitative, depending on the case
• Decision making in complex situations
• Coping with ambiguities

Guidelines for using case studies in class

In the most straightforward application, the presentation of the case study establishes a framework for analysis. It is helpful if the statement of the case provides enough information for the students to figure out solutions and then to identify how to apply those solutions in other similar situations. Instructors may choose to use several cases so that students can identify both the similarities and differences among the cases.

Depending on the course objectives, the instructor may encourage students to follow a systematic approach to their analysis.  For example:

• What is the issue?
• What is the goal of the analysis?
• What is the context of the problem?
• What key facts should be considered?
• What alternatives are available to the decision-maker?
• What would you recommend — and why?

An innovative approach to case analysis might be to have students  role-play the part of the people involved in the case. This not only actively engages students, but forces them to really understand the perspectives of the case characters. Videos or even field trips showing the venue in which the case is situated can help students to visualize the situation that they need to analyze.

Accompanying Readings

Case studies can be especially effective if they are paired with a reading assignment that introduces or explains a concept or analytical method that applies to the case. The amount of emphasis placed on the use of the reading during the case discussion depends on the complexity of the concept or method. If it is straightforward, the focus of the discussion can be placed on the use of the analytical results. If the method is more complex, the instructor may need to walk students through its application and the interpretation of the results.

Leading the Case Discussion and Evaluating Performance

Decision cases are more interesting than descriptive ones. In order to start the discussion in class, the instructor can start with an easy, noncontroversial question that all the students should be able to answer readily. However, some of the best case discussions start by forcing the students to take a stand. Some instructors will ask a student to do a formal “open” of the case, outlining his or her entire analysis.  Others may choose to guide discussion with questions that move students from problem identification to solutions.  A skilled instructor steers questions and discussion to keep the class on track and moving at a reasonable pace.

In order to motivate the students to complete the assignment before class as well as to stimulate attentiveness during the class, the instructor should grade the participation—quantity and especially quality—during the discussion of the case. This might be a simple check, check-plus, check-minus or zero. The instructor should involve as many students as possible. In order to engage all the students, the instructor can divide them into groups, give each group several minutes to discuss how to answer a question related to the case, and then ask a randomly selected person in each group to present the group’s answer and reasoning. Random selection can be accomplished through rolling of dice, shuffled index cards, each with one student’s name, a spinning wheel, etc.

Tips on the Penn State U. website: http://tlt.its.psu.edu/suggestions/cases/

If you are interested in using this technique in a science course, there is a good website on use of case studies in the sciences at the University of Buffalo.

Dunne, D. and Brooks, K. (2004) Teaching with Cases (Halifax, NS: Society for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education), ISBN 0-7703-8924-4 (Can be ordered at http://www.bookstore.uwo.ca/ at a cost of $15.00)

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• Facilitation Guide

Case-Based Collaborative Learning

Learning conceptual material in the abstract works for some students. For others, traditional lectures and textbook learning can be alienating. By contrast, Case-Based Collaborative Learning (CBCL) provides a structured, student-centered approach to learning challenging material within realistic scenarios from the field. In the CBCL classroom, students identify and wrestle with concepts as they appear in reality. In the true-to-life, well-crafted case, these concepts may be buried amid relevant and/or irrelevant details. In the field, concepts rarely surface in “textbook” form, and problems of practice are increasingly confronted by teams of professionals who bring different levels of expertise to a given situation. Accordingly, Case-Based Collaborative Learning presents student groups with relevant field-specific puzzles and affords them a clear structure for solving these puzzles. Students work through complex material together, apply the concepts they gleaned individually the night before, and reach new understandings as a group. 

How do we craft cases and structure students’ experiences of them in a way that avoids straightforward answers, invites debate, and encourages collaboration? Given that cases are likely to stimulate many questions from students, how do we help them to progress in a case without quelling their curiosity and enthusiasm? How do we foster safe learning environments that value students’ diverse academic backgrounds and afford them the flexibility to wrestle with course material in context? In these videos, featured instructor Dr. Barbara Cockrill discusses her approach and strategies for using case-based collaborative learning with first-year medical students.

Using Cases in the Case-Based Collaborative Learning Classroom

Circulating the Room During Small Group Case Discussions

Designing a Case-Based Collaborative Learning Case

Sharing Relevant Experiences from the Field

Structuring the Case Discussion

Moving Class Forward While Honoring Curiosity Spurred by the Case

Experiencing the Case as a Student Team

Channeling Expertise in the Room to Enhance the Case

What does the research say.

• Merseth provides the historical context behind the case-based teaching method ( 1991 ) 
• The benefits of working in groups are due to pooled knowledge, opportunities for explanation and argumentation, a decrease in memory load, and increased opportunities for observational learning ( Nokes-Malach et al., 2015 ) 
• Research conducted by Krain confirms increased recall and deeper theoretical and conceptual understanding among students when using case-based materials in a pre- and post-test ( 2016 )
• Instructor scaffolding is critical for effective case-based learning ( Ramaekers et al., 2011 )
• Further Print Resources
• Further Online Resources

Kolodner, J. (2014). Case-based reasoning . Morgan Kaufmann.

Kolodner offers an extensive examination of case-based reasoning and its use in the classroom

Barkley, Elizabeth F., K. Patricia Cross, and Claire H. Major. (2014). Collaborative learning techniques: A handbook for college faculty. John Wiley & Sons.

Barkley, Cross, and Major provide a broad overview of student-centered collaborative learning activities for the classroom

The Case Center contains a large repository of cases from many disciplines for the higher education setting

This comprehensive resource on “The ABCs of Case Teaching” provides helpful tips for planning and “running” your case .

Harvard Medical School provides a rubric to self-assess your own CBCL facilitation, or collaborate with colleagues to conduct peer observations and evaluations.

Suggested Next Page: Case Teaching

What is the Case Study Method?

Overview Dropdown up

Overview dropdown down, celebrating 100 years of the case method at hbs.

The 2021-2022 academic year marks the 100-year anniversary of the introduction of the case method at Harvard Business School. Today, the HBS case method is employed in the HBS MBA program, in Executive Education programs, and in dozens of other business schools around the world. As Dean Srikant Datar's says, the case method has withstood the test of time.

Case Discussion Preparation Details Expand All Collapse All

In self-reflection in self-reflection dropdown down, in a small group setting in a small group setting dropdown down, in the classroom in the classroom dropdown down, beyond the classroom beyond the classroom dropdown down, how the case method creates value dropdown up, how the case method creates value dropdown down, in self-reflection, in a small group setting, in the classroom, beyond the classroom.

How Cases Unfold In the Classroom

How cases unfold in the classroom dropdown up, how cases unfold in the classroom dropdown down, preparation guidelines expand all collapse all, read the professor's assignment or discussion questions read the professor's assignment or discussion questions dropdown down, read the first few paragraphs and then skim the case read the first few paragraphs and then skim the case dropdown down, reread the case, underline text, and make margin notes reread the case, underline text, and make margin notes dropdown down, note the key problems on a pad of paper and go through the case again note the key problems on a pad of paper and go through the case again dropdown down, how to prepare for case discussions dropdown up, how to prepare for case discussions dropdown down, read the professor's assignment or discussion questions, read the first few paragraphs and then skim the case, reread the case, underline text, and make margin notes, note the key problems on a pad of paper and go through the case again, case study best practices expand all collapse all, prepare prepare dropdown down, discuss discuss dropdown down, participate participate dropdown down, relate relate dropdown down, apply apply dropdown down, note note dropdown down, understand understand dropdown down, case study best practices dropdown up, case study best practices dropdown down, participate, what can i expect on the first day dropdown down.

Most programs begin with registration, followed by an opening session and a dinner. If your travel plans necessitate late arrival, please be sure to notify us so that alternate registration arrangements can be made for you. Please note the following about registration:

HBS campus programs – Registration takes place in the Chao Center.

India programs – Registration takes place outside the classroom.

Other off-campus programs – Registration takes place in the designated facility.

What happens in class if nobody talks? Dropdown down

Professors are here to push everyone to learn, but not to embarrass anyone. If the class is quiet, they'll often ask a participant with experience in the industry in which the case is set to speak first. This is done well in advance so that person can come to class prepared to share. Trust the process. The more open you are, the more willing you’ll be to engage, and the more alive the classroom will become.

Does everyone take part in "role-playing"? Dropdown down

Professors often encourage participants to take opposing sides and then debate the issues, often taking the perspective of the case protagonists or key decision makers in the case.

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• Instructional Strategies

Case-Based Learning

What is case-based learning.

Using a case-based approach engages students in discussion of specific scenarios that resemble or typically are real-world examples. This method is learner-centered with intense interaction between participants as they build their knowledge and work together as a group to examine the case. The instructor's role is that of a facilitator while the students collaboratively analyze and address problems and resolve questions that have no single right answer.

Clyde Freeman Herreid provides eleven basic rules for case-based learning.

• Tells a story.
• Focuses on an interest-arousing issue.
• Set in the past five years
• Creates empathy with the central characters.
• Includes quotations. There is no better way to understand a situation and to gain empathy for the characters
• Relevant to the reader.
• Must have pedagogic utility.
• Conflict provoking.
• Decision forcing.
• Has generality.

Why Use Case-Based Learning?

To provide students with a relevant opportunity to see theory in practice. Real world or authentic contexts expose students to viewpoints from multiple sources and see why people may want different outcomes. Students can also see how a decision will impact different participants, both positively and negatively.

To require students to analyze data in order to reach a conclusion. Since many assignments are open-ended, students can practice choosing appropriate analytic techniques as well. Instructors who use case-based learning say that their students are more engaged, interested, and involved in the class.

To develop analytic, communicative and collaborative skills along with content knowledge. In their effort to find solutions and reach decisions through discussion, students sort out factual data, apply analytic tools, articulate issues, reflect on their relevant experiences, and draw conclusions they can relate to new situations. In the process, they acquire substantive knowledge and develop analytic, collaborative, and communication skills.

Many faculty also use case studies in their curriculum to teach content, connect students with real life data, or provide opportunities for students to put themselves in the decision maker's shoes.

Teaching Strategies for Case-Based Learning

By bringing real world problems into student learning, cases invite active participation and innovative solutions to problems as they work together to reach a judgment, decision, recommendation, prediction or other concrete outcome.

The Campus Instructional Consulting unit at Indiana University has created a great resource for case-based learning. The following is from their website which we have permission to use.

Formats for Cases

• “Finished” cases based on facts: for analysis only, since the solution is indicated or alternate solutions are suggested.
• “Unfinished” open-ended cases: the results are not yet clear (either because the case has not come to a factual conclusion in real life, or because the instructor has eliminated the final facts.) Students must predict, make choices and offer suggestions that will affect the outcome.
• Fictional cases: entirely written by the instructor—can be open-ended or finished. Cautionary note: the case must be both complex enough to mimic reality, yet not have so many “red herrings” as to obscure the goal of the exercise.
• Original documents: news articles, reports with data and statistics, summaries, excerpts from historical writings, artifacts, literary passages, video and audio recordings, ethnographies, etc. With the right questions, these can become problem-solving opportunities. Comparison between two original documents related to the same topic or theme is a strong strategy for encouraging both analysis and synthesis. This gives the opportunity for presenting more than one side of an argument, making the conflicts more complex.

Managing a Case Assignment

• Design discussions for small groups. 3-6 students are an ideal group size for setting up a discussion on a case.
• Design the narrative or situation such that it requires participants to reach a judgment, decision, recommendation, prediction or other concrete outcome. If possible, require each group to reach a consensus on the decision requested.
• Structure the discussion. The instructor should provide a series of written questions to guide small group discussion. Pay careful attention to the sequencing of the questions. Early questions might ask participants to make observations about the facts of the case. Later questions could ask for comparisons, contrasts, and analyses of competing observations or hypotheses. Final questions might ask students to take a position on the matter. The purpose of these questions is to stimulate, guide or prod (but not dictate) participants’ observations and analyses. The questions should be impossible to answer with a simple yes or no.
• Debrief the discussion to compare group responses. Help the whole class interprets and understand the implications of their solutions.
• Allow groups to work without instructor interference. The instructor must be comfortable with ambiguity and with adopting the non-traditional roles of witness and resource, rather than authority.

Designing Case Study Questions

Cases can be more or less “directed” by the kinds of questions asked. These kinds of questions can be appended to any case, or could be a handout for participants unfamiliar with case studies on how to approach one.

• What is the situation—what do you actually know about it from reading the case? (Distinguishes between fact and assumptions under critical understanding)
• What issues are at stake? (Opportunity for linking to theoretical readings)
• What questions do you have—what information do you still need? Where/how could you find it?
• What problem(s) need to be solved? (Opportunity to discuss communication versus conflict, gaps between assumptions, sides of the argument)
• What are all the possible options? What are the pros/cons of each option?
• What are the underlying assumptions for [person X] in the case—where do you see them?
• What criteria should you use when choosing an option? What does that mean about your assumptions?

Managing Discussion and Debate Effectively

• Delay the problem-solving part until the rest of the discussion has had time to develop. Start with expository questions to clarify the facts, then move to analysis, and finally to evaluation, judgment, and recommendations.
• Shift points of view: “Now that we’ve seen it from [W’s] standpoint, what’s happening here from [Y’s] standpoint?” What evidence would support Y’s position? What are the dynamics between the two positions?
• Shift levels of abstraction: if the answer to the question above is “It’s just a bad situation for her,” quotations help: When [Y] says “_____,” what are her assumptions? Or seek more concrete explanations: Why does she hold this point of view?”
• Ask for benefits/disadvantages of a position; for all sides.
• Shift time frame— not just to “What’s next?” but also to “How could this situation have been different?” What could have been done earlier to head off this conflict and turn it into a productive conversation? Is it too late to fix this? What are possible leverage points for a more productive discussion? What good can come of the existing situation?
• Shift to another context: We see how a person who thinks X would see the situation. How would a person who thinks Y see it? We see what happened in the Johannesburg news, how could this be handled in [your town/province]? How might [insert person, organization] address this problem?
• Follow-up questions: “What do you mean by ___?” Or, “Could you clarify what you said about ___?” (even if it was a pretty clear statement—this gives students time for thinking, developing different views, and exploration in more depth). Or “How would you square that observation with what [name of person] pointed out?”
• Point out and acknowledge differences in discussion— “that’s an interesting difference from what Sam just said, Sarah. Let’s look at where the differences lie.” (let sides clarify their points before moving on).

Herreid, C. F. (2007). Start with a story: The case study method of teaching college science. NSTA Press.

Select Books available through the Queen's Library

Crosling, G. & Webb, G. (2002). Supporting Student Learning: Case Studies, Experience and Practice from Higher Education. London: Kogan Page

Edwards, H., Smith, B., & Webb, G. (Eds.) (2001). Lecturing: Case Studies, Experience and Practice. London: Kogan Page.

Ellington, H. & Earl, S. (1998). Using Games, Simulations and Interactive Case Studies. Birmingham: Staff and Educational Development Association

Wassermann, S. (1994). Introduction to Case Method Teaching: A Guide to the Galaxy. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University.

Online Articles

Bieron, J. & Dinan, F. (1999). Case Studies Across a Science Curriculum. Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Canisius College in Buffalo, NY.

Walters. M. R. (1999). Case-stimulated learning within endocrine physiology lectures: An approach applicable to other disciplines. Advances in Physiology Education, 276, 74-78.

Websites and Online Case Collections

The Center for Teaching Excellence at the University of Medicine and Dentistry in New Jersey offers a wide variety of references including 21 links to case repositories in the Health Sciences.

The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science provides an award-winning library of over 410 cases and case materials while promoting the development and dissemination of innovative materials and sound educational practices for case teaching in the sciences.

Houghton and Mifflin provide an excellent resource for students including on analyzing and writing the case.

What Is Case-Based Learning?

There’s a famous case study that’s taught as an example of how good customer service should operate. The story goes…

There’s a famous case study that’s taught as an example of how good customer service should operate.

The story goes like this: a man calls up General Motors, or GM, to complain that his car doesn’t start every time he goes to buy vanilla ice cream. At first, they ignore it as a prank call. After repeated complaints, however, GM sends out an engineer. A detailed investigation begins and indeed, every time the man stops for vanilla ice cream, the car fails to start. With all other flavors it’s fine. After ruling out other mechanical issues, the engineer discovers the real problem is that thanks to how the store is designed, the driver returns to the car faster after buying vanilla ice cream than he does after purchasing other flavors. The complaint is genuine, but the cause is not the car’s hatred for vanilla ice cream, but in the vapor lock that forms in the engine but doesn’t get time to clear out because of his quick return!

This is an oft-quoted case study, and with good reason. It’s an interesting puzzle. It grabs the imagination. It shows how even the most absurd-seeming complaints can have a basis in reality.

This is one of the many examples of case-based learning.

What Is Case-based Learning?

How to use case-based learning, disadvantages of case-based learning.

Theoretical instruction can be dull—but it doesn’t have to be. One way teachers can make information and knowledge come alive is case-based learning.

Case study based learning is a kind of experiential approach allowing learners to apply academic principles and theories to real-life situations, giving them a greater understanding of what they’re being taught. Cases are usually written as stories that illustrate how general principles apply to specific situations. It’s often applied to management or policy discussions, but can be used in any field.

In education, case-based learning is often applied to teach management and business courses. They expose students to real-world business scenarios to teach them various management approaches. Case-based learning allows students to see how principles and theories play out in real-life situations. It gives a greater depth of understanding about what’s being taught than just reading the theory. ( https://mclaneedgers.com/ )

Here are some features of case-based learning:

Students develop skills and insights that apply to a wide variety of situations when they learn from real-world stories and examples.

Case study based learning allows students to learn at their own pace and then work together when necessary. It can be used in a wide variety of settings—business and education, for learners both young and old.

Promotes Discussion

Case-based learning develops communication skills as students need to analyze what they’ve read and articulate it verbally or in writing.

Broad Application

A case-based learning model is a generic approach that can apply to any content. Instructors need to think about how the cases will be used and who’ll create them to get the most out of it.

Educators have used case-based learning for many years and studies have shown it can improve information retention. But that doesn’t mean it’s without drawbacks.

Finally, let’s take a quick look at where case-based learning may be less effective:

Testing Is Tough

A case-based approach does not lend itself to standardized grading. It facilitates dialogue between faculty and students. Sometimes learners might submit analytical pieces in writing. But these formats are hard to assess objectively as is the need with standardized tests.

Quality Is Important

The usefulness of a case study is linked to how the teacher presents it. If students are to draw the proper conclusion, it’s important that instructors are familiar with the organizations being discussed and can lead them to the correct insights.

Calls For Accuracy

Another criticism of a case-based approach is that they’re often developed or written by outsiders and don’t take into account the unique needs of individual organizations. If someone with no grasp of the ground realities of the situation writes the case study, then the inferences they make may also be misleading.

Experiential approaches are essential in modern education. The Harappa  Inspiring Faculty Program  provides experienced teachers and professors a refresher on the core abilities they need in the classroom of today. Instructional design, course planning and confident presentation are just some of the must-have Thrive Skills they’ll learn. The blended course has over 30 hours of learning time and is held over a 15-week period. Teachers of today need to inspire as much as they instruct and this program will help them do just that.

Explore Harappa Diaries to learn more about topics such as Learner-Centered Approach , Meaning Of Microlearning , Self-Directed Learning and Multimodal Learning that will help organizations tap into their employee’s potential.

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Case studies.

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Case studies are stories that are used as a teaching tool to show the application of a theory or concept to real situations. Dependent on the goal they are meant to fulfill, cases can be fact-driven and deductive where there is a correct answer, or they can be context driven where multiple solutions are possible. Various disciplines have employed case studies, including humanities, social sciences, sciences, engineering, law, business, and medicine. Good cases generally have the following features: they tell a good story, are recent, include dialogue, create empathy with the main characters, are relevant to the reader, serve a teaching function, require a dilemma to be solved, and have generality.

Instructors can create their own cases or can find cases that already exist. The following are some things to keep in mind when creating a case:

• What do you want students to learn from the discussion of the case?
• What do they already know that applies to the case?
• What are the issues that may be raised in discussion?
• How will the case and discussion be introduced?
• What preparation is expected of students? (Do they need to read the case ahead of time? Do research? Write anything?)
• What directions do you need to provide students regarding what they are supposed to do and accomplish?
• Do you need to divide students into groups or will they discuss as the whole class?
• Are you going to use role-playing or facilitators or record keepers? If so, how?
• What are the opening questions?
• How much time is needed for students to discuss the case?
• What concepts are to be applied/extracted during the discussion?
• How will you evaluate students?

To find other cases that already exist, try the following websites:

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science , University of Buffalo. SUNY-Buffalo maintains this set of links to other case studies on the web in disciplines ranging from engineering and ethics to sociology and business
• A Journal of Teaching Cases in Public Administration and Public Policy , University of Washington

For more information:

• World Association for Case Method Research and Application

Book Review :  Teaching and the Case Method , 3rd ed., vols. 1 and 2, by Louis Barnes, C. Roland (Chris) Christensen, and Abby Hansen. Harvard Business School Press, 1994; 333 pp. (vol 1), 412 pp. (vol 2).

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The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

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Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

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Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Assessment Types

• Critical Review
• Literature Review
• Presentations

What is a case study?

In a case study you will be provided with a real-world scenario or asked to research or create your own. Case studies give you the opportunity to put into practice what you are learning. You are required to analyse the case using what you have learned in class as well as theories and concepts. This may include analysing what an organisation did well, what the failed to do or did poorly and giving recommendations on the case

How do I structure it?

Just like an essay a case study usually includes an introduction, body paragraphs and a conclusion. However, it is common to use headings and subheadings to guide the reader. It is important to use your marking criteria to determine what exactly you need to include. There is usually a paragraph on the background of the case. The main part of the assignment will involve you applying the concepts and theories you have learnt about to the case study. This means that you will be referencing research and theory to support your ideas.

Common Headings

What kind of language do I use?

What Does a Case Study Look Like?

Adapted From: Mistri, I. U., Badge, A., & Shahu, S. (2023). Enhancing patient safety culture in hospitals. Cureus , 15 (12), Article e 51159 . https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.51159   

                                            Safety in Healthcare

Tips for Case Studies

Make sure your support your analysis with references and theory. This means including in-text citations to show where you got your ideas from. You want to be citing credible authors to show your analysis is based on the ideas of experts in your field. The textbook and assigned readings are a good place to start.

Further Resources

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• Next: Literature Review >>
• Last Updated: May 10, 2024 4:43 PM
• URL: https://eca.libguides.com/assessments

• Open access
• Published: 10 May 2024

“So we brought these players together”: a qualitative study of educators’ experiences to analyze the challenges of creating an e-learning program for neuropalliative care

• Julia Bu 1 ,
• Susan DeSanto-Madeya 2 ,
• Mara Lugassy 3 ,
• Jessica Besbris 4 ,
• Sarah Bublitz   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3258-543X 5 ,
• Neha M. Kramer 6 ,
• Roop Gursahani   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6092-1595 7 ,
• Winnie Lau 8 ,
• Estella Kim 9 ,
• John Y. Rhee 10 &
• Piret Paal   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1341-3248 11 , 12  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  524 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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In recent years, the subspecialty of neuropalliative care has emerged with the goal of improving the quality of life of patients suffering from neurological disease, though gaps remain in neuropalliative care education and training. E-learning has been described as a way to deliver interactive and facilitated lower-cost learning to address global gaps in medical care. We describe here the development of a novel, international, hybrid, and asynchronous curriculum with both self-paced modules and class-based lectures on neuropalliative care topics designed for the neurologist interested in palliative care, the palliative care physician interested in caring for neurological patients, and any other physician or advanced care providers interested in neuropalliative care.

The course consisted of 12 modules, one per every four weeks, beginning July 2022. Each module is based on a case and relevant topics. Course content was divided into three streams (Neurology Basics, Palliative Care Basics, and Neuropalliative Care Essentials) of which two were optional and one was mandatory, and consisted of classroom sessions, webinars, and an in-person skills session. Evaluation of learners consisted of multiple choice questions and written assignments for each module. Evaluation of the course was based on semi-structured qualitative interviews conducted with both educator and learner, the latter of which will be published separately. Audio files were transcribed and underwent thematic analysis. For the discussion of the results, Khan’s e-learning framework was used.

Ten of the 12 participating educators were interviewed. Of the educators, three identified as mid-career and seven as senior faculty, ranging from six to 33 years of experience. Nine of ten reported an academic affiliation and all reported association with a teaching hospital. Themes identified from the educators’ evaluations were: bridging the global gap, getting everybody on board, defining the educational scope, investing extensive hours of voluntary time and resources, benefiting within and beyond the curriculum, understanding the learner’s experience, creating a community of shared learning, adapting future teaching and learning strategies, and envisioning long term sustainability.

Conclusions

The first year of a novel, international, hybrid, and asynchronous neuropalliative care curriculum has been completed, and its educators have described both successes and avenues for improvement. Further research is planned to assess this curriculum from the learner perspective.

Peer Review reports

Though international humanitarian organizations consider palliative care an international public health priority [ 1 ], there is a large unmet global need for palliative care that is projected to grow wider in the coming years [ 2 ]. While models of palliative care originally focused on patients with cancer, the subspecialty of neuropalliative care developed to meet the unique needs of patients and caregivers suffering from neurological disease [ 3 ], as these patients uniquely face high symptom burden, functional decline, significant care giver needs, prognostic uncertainty, and complex decision making throughout the disease course [ 4 ]. Evidence has shown that implementation of palliative care improves patient and caregiver outcomes [ 3 ], as neuropalliative care strives to alleviate common sources of patient suffering by focusing on clear and compassionate communication, physical and spiritual symptoms support, caregiver support, and advance care planning [ 3 ].

There is, however, no uniformly agreed-upon optimal international model of palliative care for patients living with neurological disease [ 5 ]. A roadmap was published in 2018 as a framework for palliative care development in resource limited countries [ 6 ]. Possible proposed models include integrative (a neurologist with a specialist palliative care provider), disease specific interdisciplinary clinics, community-based palliative care services, and/or a specialized neuropalliative care provider [ 7 ], though as of 2020, there were only 63 neurologists who had active board certification in Hospice and Palliative Medicine (N. Kramer, personal communication, March 22, 2021).

Often cited barriers for integrating neuropalliative care into practice include education gaps of not only clinicians, including neurologists, palliative care providers, and primary care providers, but also patients and communities [ 3 ]. An ideal skillset for a neuropalliative clinician includes effective communication skills, navigating complex patient centered decision-making, managing end-of-life symptoms, and providing treatment options and anticipatory guidance [ 5 ]. Various curricula have been developed to disseminate core palliative skills, with online education being particularly helpful in providing lower-cost education, addressing global gaps in available resources that often primarily affect low-to-middle income countries.

E-Learning has been described as an innovative approach for delivering a learner-centered, interactive, and facilitated learning environment to anyone, anyplace, anytime, by utilizing the attributes and resources of various digital technologies along with other forms of learning materials suited for open and distributed learning environments. However, success in an e-learning system involves a systematic process of planning, designing, evaluating, and implementing online learning environments where learning is actively fostered and supported [ 8 ]. These initiatives range from smartphone application-based or online curricula [ 9 ] to Youtube videos [ 10 ]. In US-based online curricula in both primary palliative care [ 11 ] and neurological subspecialty [ 12 ], participants self-reported positive increase in knowledge and competence. Earlier studies on e-learning curriculum toolkit development in neuropalliative care focused on specific diseases [ 13 ]. Further creative approaches are needed to meet the need for palliative care expertise globally, and no prior online curricula has focused on neuropalliative education specifically.

We describe here the development of a novel, international, hybrid, and asynchronous curriculum with both self-paced modules and class-based lectures on neuropalliative topics. The course was targeted at physicians and advanced practice providers: neurologists interested in palliative care, palliative care physicians interested in learning unique aspects of care for patients with neurological disease, and any other clinician or advanced practice providers wishing to learn about the intersection of neurology and palliative care. We discuss the structure of this curriculum and explore the educators’ experiences. Since work on palliative care curricula is chronically underfunded, this paper provides some “lessons learned” to help with the general organization of e-learning.

The overall objectives of the E-learning program

The overarching objectives for this year-long course were to:

Bridge educational gaps by:

teaching palliative care basics to neurologists and other non-palliative providers.

teaching neurology basics to palliative care providers and other non-neurologists.

Provide a comprehensive neuropalliative skill set that will enhance all participants’ clinical approach to people living with serious neurological conditions.

Create a repository of multimodal resources (e.g. webinars, readings, interactive sessions) for use during and after the course.

Bring together interdisciplinary professionals in neurology, palliative care, and neuropalliative care in a shared environment to foster collaboration and networking across disciplines.

Methods and curriculum description

The course consisted of 12 modules, one per every four weeks over a twelve month period, beginning July 2022. Course participants from a variety of professional backgrounds were invited to participate, including neurologists, neurosurgeons, palliative care providers, geriatricians, physiatrists, internists, intensivists, pediatricians, and advanced practice providers. The course offering was listed in Indian neurology and palliative care websites and communication groups, as well as the International Neuropalliative Care Society website. Thirty-nine clinicians and one advanced practice provider registered for the course. Course content was divided into three streams: Neurology Basics, Palliative Care Basics, and Neuropalliative Care Essentials. Learners were encouraged to explore the first two streams to fill foundational gaps based on their training background and practice specialty, and all were expected to participate in the neuropalliative stream. Topics and objectives for each stream can be found in Table  1 and supplemental Table 1 respectively. Each module was built around an exemplary case. Traditional, bottom-up neurological education, from basic science through clinical skills and then on to diseases, is unworkable for non-neurologists [ 14 ] and likely contributes to “ neurophobia” [ 15 ]. This course used a phenomenological approach to enable learners to fill neuropalliative care knowledge and skill gaps using clinical context and relevance. These strategies included pre-recorded webinars and readings, group and individual assignments, monthly flipped classroom interactive sessions, and summative assessments including multiple choice questions and reflective exercises. The flipped classroom consisted of a case presentation and additional materials to supplement the webinar content, with open discussion from learners and educators. Learners were asked to complete a post-course evaluation, the results and analysis of which will be published separately. Learners were expected to spend an average of 2–3 h per week on course work. In order to pass the course, learners were required to attend 80% of flipped classroom sessions, complete 80% of Neuropalliative Care Essentials webinars, receive an 80% pass rate on multiple choice questions, and submit written assignments for each module. Learners were also expected to attend an 8-hour in-person session focused on developing neuropalliative communication skills, with additional opportunity for networking across disciplines.

Evaluation of the E-learning program from the educators’ perspective

To evaluate the e-learning program, a two-stage evaluation strategy based on semi-structured qualitative interviews was proposed to explore the experiences of educators and learners. In this paper, we report on educator experiences.

A semi-structured interview guide was developed by the research team. The interview guide consisted of four main questions: (1) How was your personal experience in developing this online course? What went well? What were the biggest challenges that had to be overcome? (2) Do you think this online course is a good model for the development of palliative care among healthcare professionals, and why? (3) What parts of the course did you find particularly useful? And where do you think the course could be improved? (4) And finally, what is your personal opinion of this online course? Any wishes for the future? The interviews were conducted in English with a recognition that this was not the native language of all educators.

Twelve experts involved in the curriculum’s development were identified and invited via email to participate in the study. The invitation included a statement, the interview questions, the purpose of data collection, and an informed consent statement. An appointment was then made for the interview. Interviews were conducted by two researchers using online videoconferencing. Introductory interviews were conducted prior to audio and video recording.

Ethical approval

Interviews were conducted as a component of program evaluation. Participation in the evaluation process was voluntary. Verbal and written consent to record and use the data for research purposes was obtained from all participants before the video recording began.

Data analysis

The audio files were transcribed verbatim and prepared for thematic analysis using Excel. First, the researchers familiarized themselves with the verbatim transcripts. Second, codes were identified by highlighting units of meaning in the text and labeling them to describe their content. Third, patterns between codes were identified, and codes were grouped together to identify themes. The themes were reviewed by splitting, combining, discarding, or recreating themes to make them more useful and accurate. Finally, the final list of themes was transferred to Miro Board to formulate the final list of themes. The formulation was done by a research group that discussed what was meant by each theme and how it contributed to the understanding of the data.

Data synthesis

For the discussion of the results, Khan’s e-learning framework with eight dimensions was applied to this work [ 8 ]: institutional, management, technological, pedagogical, ethical, interface design, resource support, and evaluation, described further in results section.

Of 12 educators, 10 agreed to participate in the evaluation. These included six from palliative care and four from neurology/neuropalliative care backgrounds. One was a nonclinical researcher. Four were from the USA, five were from India, and one was from Europe. Of the educators, three identified as mid-career and seven as senior faculty, ranging from 6 to 33 years of experience. Nine of ten reported an academic affiliation and all reported association with a teaching hospital.

The themes identified were as follows: (1) Bridging the global gap; (2) Getting everybody on board; (3) Defining the educational scope; (4) Investing extensive hours of voluntary time and resources; (5) Benefiting within and beyond the curriculum; (6) Understanding the learner’s experience; (7) Creating a community of shared learning; (8) Adapting future teaching and learning strategies; and (9) Envisioning long term sustainability.

Bridging the global gap

Educators agreed there is a need for education and training in neuropalliative care, though they noted worldwide there are few palliative care courses or the courses are limited to specific health systems or diseases. Educators noted online education and training help to disseminate information to a larger community, as there will be a greater demand for palliative care course, and felt this course needs to continue being offered internationally in the future.

Getting everybody on board

Educators noted currently there is little research about palliative care education online and found developing and implementing an online course is a navigation of a complex landscape of policies and requirements which may be specific to institutions, healthcare systems, or countries. Additionally, when tailoring a course to meet the goals of an international community, they emphasized local guidelines, cultural norms and systems of medical practice to consider, and a big challenge to get such varied communities on board. For example, one educator noted that in India, views on patient autonomy may be different than the West, which is pertinent for the clinician teaching palliative care to understand.

“India… is a collectivist society… we as a culture have willingly surrendered a good portion of… our personal autonomy to our families. The golden rule is you treat me like you would like to be treated… But the platinum rule is that you treat me the way I would like to be treated.” (009).

Defining the educational scope

Educators noted that neuropalliative care is an innovative specialty-based model of palliative care, and found that though the entire project was ambitious, it was helpful to consider and develop basic knowledge and skills needed to deliver neuropalliative care.

“I think the stream that brought it all together, these key neuropalliative issues, you know, are really incredibly important to the goal of this course to really focus on specific elements of palliative care for neurological patients.” (003). “So first we talked about who this course is for? Is it for neurologists? Is it for palliative care specialists? Is it appropriate for both? And is it aimed at non-physicians? So we thought about the audience and the medium: should it be in person or virtual? Should it be a combination? These were the first steps.” (005).

One theme noted by educators was the challenge to focus this course on the specific elements of palliative care for people with neurological problems. The course needed to provide relevant education for both palliative care providers and neurologists, and emphasis was placed on complex decision making. To meet the learners’ expectations and make the course engaging, they noted course content needed to be adapted to answer local questions. For example, changes in content were made to make it appropriate for India:

“I think if I did my best, I would miss the mark, and I would miss the mark in many ways, because there are nuances in the discussion of advance care planning in India and other countries, there are nuances in policy, there are nuances in the care that is provided and available. So I think having a course that’s really practical and real-world will be helpful for providers. You know, it’s helpful to have people who are on the ground and really know these systems.” (002).

Investing extensive hours of voluntary time and resource

“ This is the most extensive course I have ever tried to create! ” (005).

Educators acknowledged the discussion began during the [Covid-19] pandemic and the contemplation period took more time than expected. Coordination of a large planning group was complex and meticulous. It took numerous long phone calls to understand how online learning works and several months to discuss the curriculum content.

“ So we brought these players together for different groups of people and found a common time. I think that was one of the biggest challenges in working together and creating something where everyone could come together. It was difficult, but the result was very positive because everyone was willing to put in the time that was required. ” (007).

Despite being pro-bono work, educators admired how many people volunteered to create this program and its content, bringing various resources together to provide a rich and interactive curriculum.

Benefiting within and beyond the curriculum

Educators described benefiting beyond the curriculum itself as being a part of the curriculum designers and learning from international colleagues.

“It’s a journey for me… because this is a first for me. I wasn’t earlier part of any other course module or development techniques.” (001).

Educators reflected that putting the curricula itself together allowed them to learn not only about neuropalliative care, but about what topics may be important to local practice.

“I’m 63, that’s not an age at which I’m going to go do a fellowship now… the best way to learn is to teach”. (006)

Understanding the learner’s experience

Educators noted understanding the audience is vital; the learners were all busy clinicians, and self-paced learning meant that not everyone came prepared. Educators reflected on this lack of engagement and suggested a more rigorous selection process for learners is needed for future offerings of the course. They believed as the goal of a curriculum is for learners to learn, learner engagement and retention of information is imperative. Educators reflected that learner feedback of the course is vital to course evaluation.

“Something that the group noticed was that the palliative care folks were much more engaged than the neurologists. So we really wanted to understand why that was and what we could improve for the neurologists to make it more interesting for them and make them feel like they could really benefit from this course.” (005).

Educators reflected that currently how this course impacted learner clinical practice is unknown. Though available feedback can be used to modify the course, reasons for learner attrition is also difficult to ascertain. Educators felt that for future iterations of the course, soliciting feedback from learners at the beginning and middle of the course may aid in these evaluation gaps.

Creating a community of shared learning

One theme that was reported by educators was that online learning is about building a community, so conversations between course participants are essential. One aim was to make this course a place for networking.

“You might want to divide the participants into small groups to do small projects together. That way they get to know a few others and have a chance to share ideas and set a goal. I also think that the monthly sessions at via zoom should be much more interactive so that the course participants have a lot more say. I think that would be a space for growth.” (004).

Educators reflected that content needs to become more concise to allow for synchronous online activities, regular check-ins about personal practice, and discussions about what was learned. Educators felt that small group assignments improve cross-country collaboration, and allowing time for discussion can foster teaching among learners, as practitioners may know more about the community and its needs than some educators.

Adapting future teaching and learning strategies

Educators identified that there is room for growth; questions abound for what teaching strategies need to be changed next course offering. Currently, the focus is on webinars. Educators felt the content could be consolidated by having some essential knowledge acquisition through self-directed learning and currently the course is very theoretical. They thought it may benefit from more practical cases specific to the clinician’s area of expertise, such as with inclusion of patient and family voices or with more skill development sessions. The bulk of the curriculum focused on current knowledge.

“Put them in break-out rooms, you know, and discuss face to face. That will enhance our learning. And then give them cases, break them up into groups of five, and show them how they could do it. Those kinds of discussions would show what they have learned over the last month. So we need to incorporate more of these skill-based sessions.” (007).

In terms of performance assessment, educators felt the MCQs should be replaced at least in part by practical tasks.

Envisioning long term sustainability

Educators noted in the first year, the goal was to create all the content and get the pilot course started. For subsequent iterations, educators posed questions to consider including: What happens next time? How can awareness be spread about the course? How can more participants attend the live sessions? A course is only helpful if learners complete the course. Would conferring a degree instead of a certificate improve participation? From the educator side, more comfort with the online curriculum is needed:

“I have some people who are known as educators, but they had a very hard time transitioning to online content and asynchronous content and building a community. If you’re not used to watching YouTube, you may have a hard time engaging with it.” (008).

The demand for palliative care for people with neurological disease and their caregivers is rising globally. Palliative care education and curricular development is central to improving access to high quality palliative care. Targeted initiatives to improve healthcare workers competencies in symptom control, communication, advance care planning are needed. Integrating palliative care into public health systems is important for the sustainability of palliative care around the world. The resources for planning and creating educational activities ‘ rest on the shoulders of champions ’ [ 16 ]; however the lack of explicit funding for creation and maintenance of such educational activities, such as e-learning programs, is a well-known barrier.

For the e-learning program described here, the educators’ evaluations indicate that the program is consistent with the mission of the International Neuropalliative Care Society (INPCS) to build an international neuropalliative care community. This course not only addresses common topics relevant to caring for patients with serious neurological conditions and their caregivers, but it also highlights the importance of multidisciplinary practice and integrative care and provides enhanced opportunities for interprofessional collaboration and education. All these components have been highlighted as priorities in the field of neuropalliative care [ 5 ].

There are some lessons to be learned from the educators’ evaluation of the e-learning program relevant to individuals designing a curriculum in a newly defined field, such as neuropalliative care. Khan’s E-Learning Framework with eight dimensions has been applied to this work: institutional, management, technological, pedagogical, ethical, interface design, resource support, and evaluation. All dimensions work to foster analysis and evaluation of every aspect of the e-learning design process [ 8 ]. This evaluation identified four main learning points, which are discussed below.

Allow spaces to learn from learners. Khan’s E-Learning Framework supports educators’ experiences that managing people, content, and the e-learning environment is time-consuming and largely a voluntary task that requires getting everyone on board. While curriculum developers may feel compelled to provide as much information as possible, socioeconomically and culturally familiar content may be more relevant to learners. Planning events in which learners can learn from each other through discussion and networking can also increase the amount of actionable information shared. Mindfulness of nurturing learning cultures whilst building global learning platforms cannot be overlooked [ 17 ]. A recent study proposed four dimensions that can be factors of convergence or divergence for learners: management of time and learning activities, management of the learning space, management of interpersonal relations, and style of communication [ 18 ]. Most importantly, online learning networks foster community growth [ 19 , 20 ] which benefits any new field. Neuropalliative care is a newly defined field with limited availability of evidence-based information. Available evidence is collected from certain populations, socioeconomic and cultural contexts, and therefore, entails little social and cultural diversity. Getting everyone on board means also adding learners’ voices to the curriculum via enabling spaces for exchange, reflection and obtaining new insights from learners [ 21 ].

Plan your e-learning as if there will not be a second time . The evaluation for e-learning and assessment of learners’ experiences was of concern, which is closely related to the pedagogical and ethical dimensions of e-learning programs. Educators clearly pointed out the monotony in teaching and assessment strategies, as well as the need for changes related to improving the collective learning experience, incorporating patient and caregiver voices, and providing workshops to improve practical skills. Although educators are well aware of the importance of such improvements, the enormous amount of volunteer work involved raises the question of whether educators would be motivated enough to work a second time, adding to concerns of long-term sustainability of such e-learning programs. At this time, similar to the seeds that grew this current project, the field of neuropalliative care relies on practitioners dedicated to the field to continue providing volunteer time to advance the field’s missions, including engaging new communities nationally and internationally [ 3 ]. As communities and professional organizations further realize the importance of neuropalliative care in holistically supporting patients with serious neurological disease, it is our hope that educational initiatives like this one continue to flourish.

Focus on learner progress, support, and professional gains throughout the process. The institutional dimension addresses administrative, academic affairs, and learner services issues related to e-learning. Different organizations may have different requirements, which can cause delays and interruptions in the process. In the current project, the different requirements were successfully brought together. The dimension of resource support of e-learning to promote meaningful learning was discussed by educators. As learners invest many hours in participating in e-learning programs, the return on investment must be clear. Successful self-directed learning requires commitment and guidance, and therefore, in order to provide the best care for people with neurological conditions, healthcare providers motivated to improve their knowledge and skills must be provided with sufficient learning time, financial support, and professional development. The E-learning module structure was chosen for this current endeavor to balance the motivation of learners with practical availability of time in a clinician’s work schedule for optional learning, though educators felt that certain key clinical skills of the palliative care toolkit such as communication skills are better practiced by live faculty-led sessions. Further work evaluating the learner’s perspectives is needed to elucidate the ideal balance of asynchronous modules vs. live sessions for neuropalliative skills, though the asynchronous module option, touted by this project’s educators as well as in prior literature [ 11 ], appears to remain the most practical way to deliver education to a busy and geographically diverse audience.

In terms of e-learning programs, the first step is to help learners determine their motivation for taking the course through screening. Recently novel approaches to predict learners’ success have been proposed [ 22 , 23 ]. Secondly, regular hands-on assignments and assessments can help motivate and focus learners. Finally, there is the question of whether a certificate is sufficient motivation or whether the course should lead to a degree that can be used to achieve subspecialization in neuropalliative care. An exploration of learners’ feedback from this educational endeavor will be published separately.

Be aware of your blind spots. The interface design, online support, and technology infrastructure were not discussed by educators involved, which suggests a knowledge gap in this area, and confirms the perception that online teaching needs new kinds of educators [ 24 ]. User friendliness and questions regarding learning infrastructure are important factors that enhance learners’ experience. Professional companies with better understanding of how e-learning functions should be involved from the beginning. In terms of evaluation, it has been indicated that the capability of monitoring and storing user traffic is useful to understand a learner’s behavior, proficiency, accumulated knowledge and learning curve [ 25 ], which can be considered for future iterations of this course.

Success factors in e-learning implementation effectiveness have been related to technology, learner, instructor, content, and institution support [ 26 ]. We describe here the educators’ reflections of designing and implementing an international e-learning program in neuropalliative care, highlighting their perceived successes such as bridging gaps in education, building international communities, themselves learning from experts outside the curriculum, as well as avenues for improvement such as in integrating technology [ 22 ] and questioning sustainability. Furthermore, analysis of learner evaluations will provide further insights to help understand how this e-learning program is perceived and its educational benefits from the learners’ perspective.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study. Copies of interview transcripts are available upon request from the first author.

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Bu, J., DeSanto-Madeya, S., Lugassy, M. et al. “So we brought these players together”: a qualitative study of educators’ experiences to analyze the challenges of creating an e-learning program for neuropalliative care. BMC Med Educ 24 , 524 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05437-8

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Houston’s flood problems offer lessons for cities trying to adapt to a changing climate

Professor Emeritus of Climate and Space Sciences and Engineering, University of Michigan

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Richard Rood receives funding from the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration and the National Science Foundation. He is a co-principal investigator at the Great Lakes Integrated Sciences and Assessment Center at the University of Michigan.

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Scenes from the Houston area looked like the aftermath of a hurricane in early May after a series of powerful storms flooded highways and neighborhoods and sent rivers over their banks north of the city.

Hundreds of people had to be rescued from homes, rooftops and cars, according to The Associated Press. Huntsville registered nearly 20 inches of rain from April 29 to May 4, 2024.

Floods are complex events, and they are about more than just heavy rain. Each community has its own unique geography and climate that can exacerbate flooding. On top of those risks, extreme downpours are becoming more common as global temperatures rise.

I work with a center at the University of Michigan that helps communities turn climate knowledge into projects that can reduce the harm of future climate disasters. Flooding events like the Houston area experienced provide case studies that can help cities everywhere manage the increasing risk.

Flood risks are rising

The first thing recent floods tell us is that the climate is changing.

In the past, it might have made sense to consider a flood a rare and random event – communities could just build back. But the statistical distribution of weather events and natural disasters is shifting.

What might have been a 1-in-500-years event may become a 1-in-100-years event , on the way to becoming a 1-in-50-years event. When Hurricane Harvey hit Texas in 2017, it delivered Houston’s third 500-year flood in the span of three years.

Basic physics points to the rising risks: Global greenhouse gas emissions are increasing global average temperatures. Warming leads to increasing precipitation and more intense downpours, and increased flood potential, particularly when storms hit on already saturated ground.

Communities aren’t prepared

Recent floods are also revealing vulnerabilities in how communities are designed and managed.

Pavement is a major contributor to urban flooding, because water cannot be absorbed and it runs off quickly. The Houston area’s frequent flooding illustrates the risks. Its impervious surfaces expanded by 386 square miles between 1997 and 2017, according to data collected by Rice University . More streets, parking lots and buildings meant more standing water with fewer places for rainwater to sink in.

If the infrastructure is well designed and maintained, flood damage can be greatly reduced. However, increasingly, researchers have found that the engineering specifications for drainage pipes and other infrastructure are no longer adequate to handle the increasing severity of storms and amounts of precipitation. This can lead to roads being washed out and communities being cut off . Failures in maintaining infrastructure, such as levees and storm drains, are a common contributor to flooding.

In the Houston area, reservoirs are also an essential part of flood management, and many were at capacity from persistent rain. This forced managers to release more water when the storms hit.

For a coastal metropolis such as the Houston-Galveston area, rapidly rising sea levels can also reduce the downstream capacity to manage water. These different factors compound to increase flooding risk and highlight the need to not only move water but to find safe places to store it.

The increasing risks affect not only engineering standards, but zoning laws that govern where homes can be built and building codes that describe minimum standards for safety, as well as permitting and environmental regulations.

By addressing these issues now, communities can anticipate and avoid damage rather than only reacting when it’s too late.

Four lessons from case studies

The many effects associated with flooding show why a holistic approach to planning for climate change is necessary, and what communities can learn from one another. For example, case studies show that:

Floods can damage resources that are essential in flood recovery, such as roads, bridges and hospitals . Considering future risks when determining where and how to build these resources enhances the ability to recover from future disasters . Jackson, Mississippi’s water treatment plant was knocked offline by flooding in 2022, leaving people without safe running water. Houston’s Texas Medical Center famously prepared to manage future flooding by installing floodgates, elevating backup generators and taking other steps after heavy damage during Tropical Storm Allison in 2001.

Flood damage does not occur in isolation. Downpours can trigger mudslides , make sewers more vulnerable and turn manufacturing facilities into toxic contamination risks . These can become broad-scale dangers, extending far beyond individual communities.

It is difficult for an individual or a community to take on even the technical aspects of flood preparation alone – there is too much interconnectedness. Protective measures like levees or channels might protect one neighborhood but worsen the flood risk downstream . Planners should identify the appropriate regional scale, such as the entire drainage basin of a creek or river, and form important relationships early in the planning process.

Natural disasters and the ways communities respond to them can also amplify disparities in wealth and resources. Social justice and ethical considerations need to be brought into planning at the beginning.

Learning to manage complexity

In communities that my colleagues and I have worked with , we have found an increasing awareness of the challenges of climate change and rising flood risks.

In most cases, local officials’ initial instinct has been to protect property and persist without changing where people live. However, that might only buy time for some areas before people will have little option but to move .

When they examine their vulnerabilities, many of these communities have started to recognize the interconnectedness of zoning, storm drains and parks that can absorb runoff, for example. They also begin to see the importance of engaging regional stakeholders to avoid fragmented efforts to adapt that could worsen conditions for neighboring areas.

This is an updated version of an article originally published Aug. 25, 2022 .

• Climate change
• Infrastructure
• Extreme weather
• Extreme rainfall
• Disaster mitigation
• Flash flooding

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