essay on the rise of christianity

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The History Hit Miscellany of Facts, Figures and Fascinating Finds

The Growth of Christianity in the Roman Empire

Colin Ricketts

09 aug 2018.

This educational video is a visual version of this article and presented by Artificial Intelligence (AI). Please see our AI ethics and diversity policy for more information on how we use AI and select presenters on our website.

The Rome of today is no longer the centre of a great empire. It is still globally important though, with more than one billion people looking to it as the centre of the Roman Catholic faith.

It’s not a coincidence that the capital of the Roman Empire became the centre of Roman Catholicism; Rome’s eventual adoption of Christianity, after centuries of indifference and periodic persecution, gave the new faith enormous reach.

Saint Peter was killed in Nero’s persecution of Christians following the Great Fire of 64 AD ; but by 319 AD, Emperor Constantine was building the church that was to become St Peter’s Basilica over his grave.

Religion in Rome

Since its foundation, Ancient Rome was a deeply religious society and religious and political office often went hand in hand. Julius Caesar was Pontifex Maximums, the highest priest, before he was elected as Consul, the highest Republican political role.

The Romans worshipped a large collection of gods , some of them borrowed from the Ancient Greeks, and their capital was full of temples where by sacrifice, ritual and festival the favour of these deities was sought.

Wedding of Zeus and Hera on an antique fresco from Pompeii. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Julius Caesar approached god-like status at the height of his powers and was deified after his death. His successor Augustus encouraged this practice. And although this apotheosis to divine status happened after death, the Emperor became a god to many Romans, an idea Christians were to later find highly offensive.

As Rome grew it encountered new religions, tolerating most and incorporating some into Roman life. Some, however, were singled out for persecution, usually for their ‘un-Roman’ nature. The cult of Bacchus, a Roman incarnation of the Greek god of wine, was repressed for its supposed orgies, and the Celtic Druids were all but wiped out by the Roman military, reportedly for their human sacrifices.

Jews were also persecuted, particularly after Rome’s long and bloody conquest of Judea.

Christianity in the Empire

Christianity was born in the Roman Empire. Jesus Christ was executed by Roman authorities in Jerusalem, a city in a Roman province.

His disciples set about spreading the word of this new religion with remarkable success in the crowded cities of the Empire.

Early persecutions of Christians were probably carried out at the whim of provincial governors and there was also occasional mob violence. Christians’ refusal to sacrifice to Roman gods could be seen as a cause of bad luck for a community, who might petition for official action.

The first – and most famous – great persecution was the work of Emperor Nero . Nero was already unpopular by the time of the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. With rumours that the Emperor himself was behind the fire circulating, Nero picked on a convenient scapegoat and many Christians were arrested and executed.

‘Triumph of Faith’ by Eugene Thirion (19th century) depicts Christian martyrs in the time of Nero. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

It wasn’t until the reign of the Emperor Decius in 250 AD that Christians were again put under Empire-wide official sanction. Decius ordered every inhabitant of the Empire to make a sacrifice in front of Roman officials. The edict may not have had specific anti-Christian intent, but many Christians did refuse to go through the ritual and were tortured and killed as a result. The law was repealed in 261 AD.

Diocletian, the head of the four-man Tetrarch, instituted similar persecutions in a series of edicts from 303 AD, calls that were enforced in the Eastern Empire with particular enthusiasm.

The ‘conversion’

The apparent ‘conversion’ to Christianity of Constantine, Diocletian’s immediate successor in the Western Empire, is seen as the great turning point for Christianity in the Empire.

Persecution had ended before Constantine’s reported miraculous vision and adoption of the cross at the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 AD. He did, however, issue the Edict of Milan in 313, allowing Christians and Romans of all faiths ‘liberty to follow that mode of religion which to each of them appeared best.’

Christians were allowed to take part in Roman civic life and Constantine’s new eastern capital, Constantinople, contained Christian churches alongside pagan temples.

Constantine’s vision and the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in a 9th-century Byzantine manuscript. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The extent of Constantine’s conversion is still not clear. He gave money and land to the Christians and founded churches himself, but also patronised other religions. He wrote to Christians to tell them that he owed his success to their faith, but he remained Pontifex Maximus until his death. His deathbed baptism by Pope Sylvester is only recorded by Christian writers long after the event.

After Constantine, Emperors either tolerated or embraced Christianity, which continued to grow in popularity, until in 380 AD Emperor Theodosius I made it the official state religion of the Roman Empire.

Theodosius’ Edict of Thessalonica was designed as the final word on controversies within the early church. He – along with his joint rulers Gratian, and Valentinian II – set in stone the idea of an equal Holy Trinity of Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Those ‘foolish madmen’ who did not accept this new orthodoxy – as many Christians didn’t – were to be punished as the Emperor saw fit.

The old pagan religions were now suppressed and sometimes persecuted.

Rome was in decline, but becoming part of its fabric was still a massive boost for this growing religion, now called the Catholic Church. Many of the Barbarians who are credited with ending the Empire in fact wanted nothing more than to be Roman, which increasingly came to mean converting to Christianity.

While the Emperors of Rome would have their day, some of the Empire’s strengths were to survive in a church led by the Bishop of Rome.

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How Did Christianity Spread: Origins, Expansion, and Impact 

Christianity spread gradually over the course of several centuries and through a combination of various factors and events. From the original teachings of Jesus Christ and those of his apostles to early Christian communities, the influence of the Roman Empire, missionary work, and the foundation of churches and monasteries, many factors contributed to the spreading of now one of the world’s most popular religions.

Table of Contents

How Did Christianity Spread? What Led to the Rise of Christianity?

There are multiple factors and influences that contributed to the spreading of Christianity and its growth, such as encompassing the teachings of Jesus, the formation of early Christian communities, and the enduring legacy of martyrdom and persecution. These elements provide insights into the remarkable ascent of Christianity and its profound global influence.

The Life and Teachings of Jesus

The life and teachings of Jesus serve as the foundation of Christianity. Jesus, born in Bethlehem and raised in Nazareth[4], embarked on a ministry that profoundly impacted his followers. His teachings encompassed a wide range of topics, including morality, spirituality, love, forgiveness, and the kingdom of God. Through his parables, such as the Good Samaritan, the Prodigal Son, and the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus communicated profound moral and ethical lessons that challenged the prevailing social norms of the time . He emphasized the importance of loving one’s neighbor, caring for the marginalized, and treating others with compassion and empathy[7]. Jesus’ teachings went beyond mere religious observance, calling for a personal relationship with God and the transformation of one’s inner being. His authority and wisdom were evident in his ability to heal the sick, perform miracles, and engage in deep theological discussions with religious leaders, captivating audiences with his profound insights.

Crucifixion and Resurrection

The crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus form the central pillars of Christian belief. Jesus’ crucifixion took place in Jerusalem, where he was condemned to death by the Roman authorities. This form of execution was exceptionally brutal, involving the nailing or binding of a person to a wooden cross. Christians believe that Jesus willingly endured this horrific death as a sacrifice to atone for humanity’s sins[4]. The crucifixion represents Jesus’ ultimate act of love and redemption, bearing the weight of humanity’s transgressions. However, the story does not end there. According to Christian belief, Jesus conquered death through his resurrection. On the third day after his crucifixion, Jesus rose from the dead, appearing to his followers and solidifying their conviction in his divine nature and mission. The resurrection is seen as a victory over sin and death, offering hope to believers and affirming the promise of eternal life.

Formation of Early Christian Communities

Following Jesus’ death and resurrection, early Christian communities began to emerge. The Twelve Apostles[3], chosen by Jesus during his ministry, played a crucial role in the formation and leadership of these communities. They were entrusted with carrying forward Jesus’ teachings and establishing the early Church. The apostles provided spiritual guidance, settled disputes, and fostered unity among believers. They were witnesses to Jesus’ life, teachings, crucifixion, and resurrection[6], making them instrumental in preserving the authenticity of the Christian message. The early Christian communities were characterized by a strong sense of communal living, shared resources, and collective worship. Believers supported one another, pooling their possessions to meet the needs of the community. They gathered for worship, prayer, and the breaking of bread, creating a bond that transcended societal divisions and fostered a distinct identity as followers of Jesus Christ.

Martyrdom and Persecution 

The rise of Christianity was accompanied by periods of intense persecution, particularly under the Roman Empire . Early Christians faced hostility and persecution for various reasons. They refused to worship the Roman emperors as a deity[1], considering it a direct violation of their monotheistic faith. Moreover, their refusal to participate in pagan rituals and practices, which were integral to the social fabric of the time, further alienated them from mainstream society. Many Christians endured persecution, imprisonment, and even death for their unwavering commitment to their faith. These individuals, known as martyrs, became powerful symbols of Christian devotion and sacrifice. Their steadfastness in the face of adversity inspired awe and admiration among fellow believers, solidifying their resolve and dedication to the Christian movement. The martyrdom [2] of early Christians served to strengthen the resolve of believers, propagate the faith, and exemplify the transformative power of a personal relationship with Jesus Christ.

How Did Christianity Spread to the US? 

European colonization and christianization.

The arrival of European explorers and settlers in the Americas brought Christianity to the region. Spanish expeditions led by Christopher Columbus, Juan Ponce de León, and Hernando de Soto introduced Catholicism to areas such as Florida and the Southwest[2]. Catholic missionaries, including Franciscans and Jesuits, played a crucial role in the Christianization of Native American communities. They established missions and schools to teach Christianity, often blending indigenous traditions with Catholic rituals[3]. The Spanish Crown saw the conversion of indigenous peoples as a means of solidifying their control over the territories and fostering cultural assimilation.

READ MORE: Who Discovered America: The First People Who Reached the Americas

Similarly, English colonists, particularly the Pilgrims and Puritans, played a vital role in spreading Christianity. Seeking religious freedom, these groups settled primarily in New England. They established communities centered around congregational churches and strict adherence to biblical teachings [4]. The Puritans aimed to create a godly society based on their interpretation of Christianity. Their emphasis on personal piety, moral codes, and communal religious practices influenced the development of a distinct religious identity in New England.

Puritan Settlers and the Great Awakening

The settlement of Puritans in the 17th century[3] significantly impacted the spread of Christianity in the US. Their commitment to religious reform and adherence to biblical principles shaped the social, political, and religious landscape of New England. Puritan communities fostered strong religious discipline, combining church and state authority to enforce moral codes. They believed in the idea of a “covenant” with God, wherein obedience to God’s laws would ensure prosperity and divine favor[7].

The Great Awakening, an 18th-century religious revival, further fueled the growth of Christianity in the American colonies[7]. It was characterized by passionate sermons, emotional conversions, and fervent religious experiences. Prominent preachers like Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield drew large crowds with their compelling oratory. The Great Awakening emphasized the importance of personal salvation and a direct, emotional connection with God. It challenged the established religious order and encouraged individuals to actively seek spiritual transformation. The revival sparked renewed religious fervor, leading to the formation of new churches[2], the spread of evangelicalism, and the rise of itinerant preachers.

Influence of Evangelical Revival 

The 19th century witnessed the influence of evangelical revivals in spreading Christianity across the United States. Influential figures like Charles Finney and Dwight L. Moody led these revivals, which aimed to revive religious faith and promote personal conversion experiences. Revival meetings, often held in temporary camp structures, drew large crowds and created an atmosphere of religious fervor. These gatherings featured passionate preaching, heartfelt prayer[7], and emotional expressions of faith. The revivals sought to awaken individuals to their need for salvation, encourage moral reform, and inspire active engagement in evangelism and missionary work. They played a vital role in shaping the religious landscape of the United States, leading to the establishment of new churches, the growth of existing denominations, and the formation of Christian institutions[3].

Denominational Expansion and Diversity

As the United States experienced significant growth and attracted immigrants from different parts of the world, the religious landscape became increasingly diverse. Protestant denominations expanded their reach across the country through missionary efforts, church planting, and the establishment of educational institutions[5]. Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, and Episcopalians were among the prominent Protestant denominations that saw considerable growth during this period. Baptists[7], with their emphasis on individual liberty and believer’s baptism, established congregations throughout the country, particularly in the South. Methodists[6], known for their circuit-riding preachers and emphasis on personal piety, experienced rapid expansion across urban and rural areas. Presbyterians[7], with their strong Calvinist roots, established churches and educational institutions, contributing to the intellectual development of their followers. Episcopalians[7], influenced by Anglican traditions, maintained a significant presence, especially among the colonial elite.

The Catholic Church also witnessed significant growth in the United States, primarily fueled by immigration. The arrival of Irish, Italian, and other European Catholic immigrants in the 19th and early 20th centuries brought a surge in the Catholic population and the establishment of numerous parishes, schools, and social service organizations[3]. The Catholic Church played a vital role in providing spiritual and social support to immigrant communities, helping them preserve their cultural identity while integrating into American society.

The United States also became a hub for diverse Christian denominations originating from different parts of the world. Orthodox Christian churches, including the Greek Orthodox and Russian Orthodox, established congregations, reflecting the religious heritage of immigrant populations from Eastern Europe and the Middle East[2]. Protestant denominations such as the Lutheran Church and the Reformed Church found followers among European immigrants, each bringing their distinct theological and liturgical traditions. Eastern Christian communities, such as the Maronite Catholics and the Coptic Orthodox[6], maintained their religious traditions and established churches in the United States, adding to the rich tapestry of Christian diversity.

The Power of Calvinism: Fueling the Spread of Christianity

Calvinism and its powering factors worked synergistically, creating a fertile ground for the growth and impact of Christianity in various parts of the world. Calvinism’s influence extended beyond theological circles, leaving a lasting legacy in the history of Christianity and shaping the development of Christian traditions globally.

Theological Clarity and Doctrinal Precision

Calvinism’s theological clarity and emphasis on doctrinal precision were instrumental in the spread of Christianity. The system provided a comprehensive framework for believers to understand and articulate their faith. Concepts like predestination, the sovereignty of God, and the depravity of humankind offered a coherent and intellectually robust understanding of Christianity. This theological clarity not only attracted followers within Calvinist circles but also appealed to those seeking a well-defined and structured belief system.

Missionary Zeal and Global Expansion

Calvinism demonstrated remarkable missionary zeal, driving believers to actively engage in spreading Christianity worldwide. Calvinist communities established missionary organizations and sent missionaries to various parts of the world, including Africa, Asia, and the Americas. These missionaries were motivated by their faith and conviction to share the Gospel with unreached populations. Their efforts resulted in the establishment of Reformed churches, the conversion of individuals, and the growth of Christianity in new territories.

Educational Emphasis

Education played a significant role in the spread of Calvinism and Christianity. Calvinist communities placed a strong emphasis on education, establishing schools, colleges, and universities. These institutions provided believers with intellectual and theological training, equipping them to engage in evangelistic activities and effectively communicate their faith. The emphasis on education fostered a culture of intellectual engagement, critical thinking, and theological literacy among Calvinist followers. This educated cadre of believers played a vital role in advancing the spread of Christianity through their knowledge, skills, and ability to engage with diverse audiences.

Sociopolitical Influence

Calvinism’s teachings had a profound impact on the social and political landscape, contributing to the spread of Christianity. The emphasis on individual responsibility, moral values, and the worth of every individual influenced societies in profound ways. Calvinist principles played a role in shaping political systems that promoted religious freedom, tolerance, and social justice. The sociopolitical influence of Calvinism created an environment conducive to the growth of Christianity, allowing believers to freely practice and share their faith.

Reformed Church Networks

The establishment of Reformed churches and their organizational structures facilitated the spread of Calvinism and Christianity. Reformed churches provided a network for believers to connect, collaborate, and support each other in their evangelistic endeavors. The sense of community within these churches strengthened the spread of Christianity as believers worked together to share the Gospel and disciple new converts. The establishment of denominational structures also provided a framework for theological training, leadership development, and the coordination of missionary efforts.

How Christianity Spread Throughout Europe?

Early Christian Missionaries

The spread of Christianity throughout Europe was initiated by early Christian missionaries who embarked on arduous journeys to bring the message of Jesus Christ to new lands. These missionaries, such as Paul the Apostle and other disciples, traveled extensively, often enduring significant hardships, to establish communities of believers and spread the teachings of Christianity. They faced cultural and linguistic challenges as they encountered diverse populations[1], adapting their approach to effectively communicate the Gospel. Despite persecution and resistance, their unwavering dedication and commitment to their mission laid the foundation for the growth and expansion of Christianity across Europe.

Conversion of the Roman Empire

One of the pivotal factors in the spread of Christianity throughout Europe was the conversion of the Roman Empire. The conversion of Emperor Constantine to Christianity in the 4th century CE marked a significant turning point. With the Edict of Milan in 313 CE[3], Christianity was officially tolerated, and it eventually became the favored religion of the empire. This shift in imperial support provided Christians with a level of legitimacy and allowed for the construction of churches, the spread of Christian teachings, and the conversion of a substantial portion of the Roman population. The influence of Christianity expanded as it became intertwined with the political and cultural fabric of the empire.

Christianization of Barbarian Kingdoms

Following the decline of the Roman Empire, Europe witnessed the migration and establishment of various barbarian kingdoms[1]. These kingdoms, including the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Franks, gradually embraced Christianity through a process known as Christianization. Christian missionaries played a crucial role in this process, entering these territories and working to convert their rulers and populations. They adapted their approach to resonate with the values and beliefs of these societies, incorporating elements of local customs and traditions into Christian practices. The conversion of these Barbarian kingdoms not only spread Christianity geographically but also influenced the culture, laws, and governance of these societies. Christian principles began to shape the legal systems and moral frameworks of these kingdoms, impacting their social structures and practices[5].

Role of Monasticism and Monastic Centers

Monasticism played a significant role in the spread of Christianity throughout Europe. Monastic communities, such as those established by Saint Benedict of Nursia[3], emerged as centers of religious devotion, scholarship, and missionary activity. Monasteries served as educational institutions, preserving and disseminating knowledge, including theological teachings, classical texts, and practical skills. Monastic centers also became hubs for missionary efforts, sending out monks and nuns to evangelize and establish new Christian communities in distant regions. These monastic networks provided a framework for the organized spread of Christianity, with monastic orders playing pivotal roles in the conversion and Christianization of various regions in Europe. Monasticism also influenced the development of art, architecture, agriculture, and healthcare, contributing to the overall cultural and societal transformation brought about by Christianity[4].

Who Spread Christianity? 

The apostles and early disciples.

The initial spread of Christianity can be attributed to the apostles and early disciples of Jesus Christ. After the death and resurrection of Jesus, these devoted followers began proclaiming the Gospel message. Peter, one of the prominent apostles, played a crucial role in spreading Christianity to Jewish communities. James, the brother of Jesus, served as a key leader in the early Christian movement in Jerusalem[3]. John, another apostle, played a significant role in establishing Christian communities and authoring important biblical texts. These early disciples, empowered by the Holy Spirit, fearlessly shared the teachings of Jesus, attracting converts and establishing the foundation of the early Christian Church.

Paul the Apostle and Missionary Journeys

Paul the Apostle, formerly known as Saul, made remarkable contributions to the spread of Christianity through his missionary journeys. Following his conversion on the road to Damascus, Paul became one of the most influential figures in the early Christian movement. He embarked on several missionary journeys, traveling throughout the Roman Empire to establish new Christian communities. Paul’s journeys took him to cities such as Antioch, Ephesus, Corinth, and Rome , where he preached the Gospel, established churches, and wrote letters to these communities[5]. His teachings focused on the reconciling power of Jesus’ death and resurrection and the inclusive nature of Christianity, welcoming both Jews and Gentiles into the faith. Paul’s efforts significantly contributed to expanding Christianity beyond its Jewish roots and developing a distinct Gentile Christian identity.

Byzantine Missionaries

During the Byzantine Empire, Christianity continued to spread through the efforts of Byzantine missionaries. These missionaries, often associated with monastic communities, ventured into new territories to convert and establish Christian communities. One notable example is the mission of Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century. These brothers, known as the “Apostles to the Slavs,” developed the Cyrillic alphabet and translated religious texts into Slavic languages. This translation work enabled the dissemination of Christian teachings in regions like Bulgaria, Serbia, and Russia, and laid the foundation for the Christianization of the Slavic peoples. The Byzantine missionaries played a vital role in spreading Orthodox Christianity and establishing its influence in Eastern Europe[5].

Medieval and Modern Missionaries 

During the medieval period and beyond, Christianity continued to spread through the efforts of numerous missionaries. The Catholic Church, through orders like the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits, played a central role in sending missionaries to various parts of the world[5].

Catholic missionaries 

Notable Catholic missionaries include Francis Xavier, who traveled to India, Japan, and other parts of Asia, and Matteo Ricci, who ventured to China. These missionaries faced immense challenges, encountering different cultures, languages, and religious beliefs. They adapted their approaches, learned local languages, and engaged in dialogue with indigenous peoples[1]. Their efforts resulted in the establishment of Christian communities and the integration of Christianity with local customs and traditions.

Protestant missionaries

In more recent times, Protestant missionaries have played a significant role in spreading Christianity globally. Particularly during the colonial era, Protestant missionaries from various denominations ventured to Africa, the Americas, Asia, and the Pacific Islands[4]. They established schools, hospitals, and churches, and engaged in evangelistic activities. These missionaries sought to bring the message of Christianity to indigenous peoples and often faced significant cultural, linguistic, and societal barriers. Their work contributed to the growth of Protestant Christianity worldwide.

The work of missionaries in translating and preserving religious texts, such as the Bible, into local languages has been instrumental in enabling people to access and understand Christian teachings[1]. They also played a significant role in the development of indigenous Christian expressions, blending elements of local culture and traditions with Christian beliefs and practices.

Furthermore, missionaries contributed to the development of educational institutions, establishing schools and universities that provided education and literacy to communities. They promoted the importance of knowledge, critical thinking, and intellectual growth, fostering advancements in various fields and disciplines.

When Did Christianity Spread?

Early christian era .

The spread of Christianity can be traced back to the early Christian era, specifically after the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ in the 1st century AD[5]. Following these events, the apostles and early disciples embarked on missionary journeys, spreading the teachings of Jesus throughout the Eastern Mediterranean region. The early Christian communities emerged primarily in cities such as Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. Despite facing persecution and challenges, the message of Christianity spread among Jewish communities, Gentiles, and various ethnic groups, attracting followers and establishing the foundation of the early Christian Church[2].

Spread During the Roman Empire

The expansion of Christianity accelerated during the Roman Empire, particularly in the 4th century AD. Christianity gained significant traction under the patronage of Emperor Constantine, who issued the Edict of Milan in 313 AD[2], granting religious tolerance and freedom to Christians. The subsequent conversion of Constantine to Christianity and the adoption of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire by Emperor Theodosius I in 380 AD marked pivotal moments in the spread of the faith. The imperial support provided resources and protection, leading to the construction of churches, the establishment of Christian theological and educational institutions, and the conversion of a considerable portion of the Roman population to Christianity[2].

Medieval Expansion and Conversion

During the Middle Ages, Christianity continued to spread, both geographically and among diverse populations. The conversion of barbarian kingdoms in Europe played a crucial role in expanding Christianity’s influence. Missionaries, such as St. Patrick in Ireland, St. Augustine of Canterbury in England , and Cyril and Methodius in Eastern Europe, ventured into pagan territories, preaching the Gospel and establishing Christian communities[2]. Additionally, the Crusades, which took place from the 11th to the 13th centuries, resulted in encounters between Christians and Muslims, leading to cultural and religious exchanges. While the Crusades were primarily military campaigns, they inadvertently facilitated the spread of Christianity to regions such as the Holy Land, the Eastern Mediterranean, and even parts of Eastern Europe.

Global Missionary Movements

From the 15th century onward, global missionary movements played a significant role in spreading Christianity to various parts of the world. The Age of Exploration and Colonization opened up opportunities for European Christian missionaries to venture into Africa, the Americas, Asia, and the Pacific Islands[4]. The Catholic Church, as well as Protestant denominations, sent missionaries to these regions with the aim of converting indigenous peoples and establishing Christian communities. Notable examples include the efforts of Catholic missionaries in Latin America, the Jesuit missions in China and Japan[6], and the Protestant missionary activities in Africa and India. These movements led to the establishment of Christian churches, the translation of religious texts into local languages, and the integration of Christianity with local customs and traditions.

Who Spread Christianity in Rome?

The spread of Christianity in Rome was a complex process influenced by various factors and individuals who played significant roles in its establishment and growth.

Early Christian Communities in Rome 

The presence of early Christian communities in Rome was instrumental in the initial spread of Christianity. These communities likely emerged during the early years of the Christian movement through the efforts of Christian travelers, merchants, and Jewish converts to Christianity. These small Christian communities operated discreetly, gathering in private homes for worship and fellowship[6]. The early Christians faced periods of persecution under Roman authorities, as Christianity was not yet recognized as a legal religion. However, despite these challenges, the Christian faith continued to spread among the diverse population of Rome.

Influence of Paul the Apostle

One of the most influential figures in the spread of Christianity in Rome was Paul the Apostle, also known as St. Paul. Paul’s significant impact on Christianity can be attributed to his missionary journeys and epistles (letters) addressed to various Christian communities. According to biblical accounts, Paul traveled to Rome as a prisoner, but even in his captivity, he continued to spread the Gospel message and teach about Jesus Christ[3]. His teachings emphasized the reconciling power of Jesus’ death and resurrection, highlighting the core message of salvation through faith in Christ. Paul’s writings and teachings helped shape the early Christian theology in Rome and contributed to the growth and development of the Christian community.

Emperor Constantine and the Conversion of Rome

The conversion of Emperor Constantine to Christianity in the early 4th century AD played a pivotal role in the spread of Christianity in Rome. Constantine’s conversion was influenced by a vision he had before a significant battle, which he interpreted as a sign from the Christian God[1]. He emerged victorious in the battle and subsequently issued the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, granting religious tolerance to Christians and ending the persecutions they faced. Constantine’s conversion and the subsequent shift in Roman policies towards Christianity allowed the faith to flourish openly. Christianity gained imperial favor and protection, leading to the construction of grand basilicas and the establishment of Christian institutions in Rome.

Role of Roman Bishops (Papacy)

The role of the Roman bishops, particularly those who occupied the position of the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, was crucial in the spread and establishment of Christianity in Rome. The emergence of the Papacy as a central authority within the Christian Church gave the Bishop of Rome significant influence and authority[1]. As Rome was the political and cultural center of the Roman Empire, the Bishop of Rome became an influential figure in both religious and secular affairs. The Pope provided leadership, guidance, and pastoral care to the growing Christian community in Rome. The Papacy played a key role in doctrinal matters, such as the formulation of creeds and the resolution of theological disputes, which helped shape the development of Christianity in Rome and beyond.

In addition to these key factors and individuals, the devotion and commitment of early Roman Christians cannot be overlooked. The faith and witness of ordinary believers, who lived out their Christian convictions even in the face of persecution, played a significant role in attracting others to the faith and fostering its growth within the city[6].

Was Christianity Spread by Force? 

It is essential to acknowledge that isolated incidents of forced conversions or coercion occurred throughout history, but they were not representative of the overall spread of Christianity. The primary means of spreading Christianity involved voluntary conversions, the influence of missionaries, the appeal of Christian teachings, and the personal choices of individuals. Christianity’s growth and influence can be attributed to the transformative power of its message, the dedication of its followers, and its resonance with the spiritual and intellectual needs of people across different societies and cultures[7].

Throughout history, the spread of Christianity has been influenced by various factors, and while instances of forced conversion and coercion have occurred, they do not represent the primary means by which Christianity spread[5].

Early Christian Persecution

During the early years of Christianity, followers of the faith faced severe persecution from the Roman Empire. Emperors such as Nero and Diocletian implemented policies aimed at suppressing Christianity, leading to the martyrdom of many Christians[5]. These persecutions included public executions, imprisonment, confiscation of property, and the destruction of Christian texts and places of worship. Despite the hostile environment, early Christians remained steadfast in their beliefs, and their commitment to the faith played a significant role in its resilience and eventual growth[1]. However, it is important to note that the spread of Christianity during this period was primarily driven by the voluntary conversion of individuals who found solace and hope in the Christian message rather than through forced means.

Forced Conversion During the Crusades 

The Crusades, a series of military campaigns initiated by Christian European powers in the 11th to 13th centuries, aimed to reclaim holy sites in the Middle East from Muslim control. While the Crusades were motivated by a combination of religious, economic, and political factors, including the desire to expand Christian influence[4], forced conversion was not the central objective. While there were instances of violence and coercion, particularly during the capture of Jerusalem in the First Crusade, the Crusades were complex endeavors shaped by a range of factors. The primary goals were often territorial gains, political influence, and securing trade routes, rather than widespread forced conversions.

Coercion and the Spanish Inquisition 

The Spanish Inquisition, established in the late 15th century, sought to combat heresy and maintain religious orthodoxy within Spain[1]. While the Inquisition did employ coercive measures, including torture and execution, to enforce religious conformity and eliminate perceived threats to Catholic orthodoxy, the primary focus was not the spread of Christianity itself. The Inquisition primarily targeted individuals suspected of heresy, including Jews, Muslims, and non-Catholic Christians[5], aiming to eliminate religious dissent and promote Catholic unity within Spain. It is important to note that the Inquisition was a product of its time, reflecting the religious tensions, political aspirations, and cultural context of 15th-century Spain.

Where Did Christianity Originate From? 

The convergence of these factors—Judea’s religious and cultural heritage, the life and ministry of Jesus, the emergence of early Christian communities, and the influences of Jewish tradition and Hellenistic culture—gave rise to Christianity as a distinct and transformative religious movement[5]. From its humble beginnings, Christianity rapidly spread across the Eastern Mediterranean and beyond, transcending cultural and geographic boundaries. The message of Jesus, along with the dedication and missionary efforts of early Christian communities, played a pivotal role in the expansion of the faith.

Understanding the origins of Christianity provides valuable insights into the historical[5] context and foundational beliefs of the faith. The early developments in Judea and the Eastern Mediterranean set the stage for Christianity’s growth and subsequent impact on the world, shaping the course of religious and cultural history.

Roots in Judea and Ancient Israel

Christianity traces its roots to the region of Judea, which was part of the ancient Israelite kingdom. Located in the Eastern Mediterranean, Judea was a land deeply influenced by Jewish religious and cultural practices[1]. The ancient Israelites, under the covenant with God, worshipped Yahweh as the one true God and adhered to the laws and teachings of the Hebrew scriptures. The theological and cultural foundation established by Judaism laid the groundwork for the emergence of Christianity.

READ MORE: Ancient Civilizations Timeline: The Complete List from Aboriginals to Incans

Life and Ministry of Jesus 

The life and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth serve as the cornerstone of Christianity. Born in Bethlehem and raised in Nazareth, Jesus embarked on a transformative mission in his early thirties, preaching a message of love, compassion, and forgiveness. He performed miracles, taught in parables, and challenged religious and societal norms of the time. Jesus’ teachings focused on the arrival of the Kingdom of God, the importance of faith, and the need for repentance. His life, sacrificial death on the cross, and resurrection became the central events that shaped the core beliefs of Christianity[6].

Early Christian Communities in the Eastern Mediterranean 

Following the death and resurrection of Jesus, early Christian communities began to form in the Eastern Mediterranean region. These communities initially comprised Jewish converts who recognized Jesus as the long-awaited Messiah promised in Jewish scriptures. These early Christians continued to observe Jewish customs while embracing the teachings of Jesus[2]. The Jerusalem Church, led by Jesus’ disciples and later James, the brother of Jesus, played a crucial role in nurturing and expanding these early Christian communities. As the movement grew, it spread to cities such as Antioch, Alexandria, and Ephesus, establishing a network of communities connected by their faith in Jesus Christ[2].

READ MORE: The Lighthouse of Alexandria: One of the Seven Wonders

Influence of Jewish Tradition and Hellenistic Culture

The origins of Christianity were shaped by both Jewish tradition and the broader Hellenistic culture prevalent in the Eastern Mediterranean during that time. Jewish tradition provided the religious and cultural context within which Jesus and his followers operated. The Hebrew scriptures, including the Torah, Psalms, and Prophets[5], were foundational texts that Jesus drew upon to articulate his teachings. Furthermore, the concept of the Messiah, deeply rooted in Jewish tradition, became central to the Christian belief in Jesus as the Anointed One. On the other hand, the Hellenistic culture, infused with the Greek language, philosophy, and thought, had a significant influence on the early Christian movement. The Greek language became the lingua franca of the Eastern Mediterranean[6], facilitating the spread of Christian ideas and enabling communication among diverse cultural groups.

Looking Forward

The study of Christianity’s history and its spread provides us with valuable insights into the development and impact of one of the world’s major religions. It highlights the transformative power of faith, the role of influential leaders and communities, and the interplay between religion, culture, and politics. Understanding the origins and growth of Christianity helps us appreciate the diversity of religious beliefs and traditions across different regions and provides a historical context for interfaith dialogue and cooperation in today’s globalized world.

Furthermore, the historical journey of Christianity reminds us of the importance of religious freedom, tolerance, and respect for diverse beliefs. It teaches us to appreciate the contributions of various cultures and traditions in shaping our societies. Christianity’s message of love, compassion, and social justice continues to inspire individuals and communities worldwide to work towards a more just and equitable world.

In our present world, the knowledge gained from studying the rise and spread of Christianity encourages us to foster understanding and dialogue among different religious and cultural groups. It reminds us of the need for empathy, compassion, and mutual respect in our interactions with others. By learning from the historical experiences of Christianity, we can strive for peaceful coexistence, promote interfaith harmony, and work towards common goals of human dignity, social justice, and global solidarity.

• Bartlett, R. (2010). The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization, and Cultural Change, 950-1350. Penguin Books.
• Chadwick, H. (1993). The Early Church. Penguin Books.
• Duffy, E. (2006). Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes. Yale University Press.
• Gonzalez, J. L. (2010). The Story of Christianity: Volume 1: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation. HarperOne.
• MacCulloch, D. (2010). Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years. Penguin Books.
• Noll, M. A. (2013). Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity. Baker Academic.
• Pelikan, J. (2013). The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine, Vol. 1: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600). University of Chicago Press.

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World history

Course: world history   >   unit 2.

• Early Christianity
• The spread of Christianity

Christianity in the Roman Empire

• The Council of Nicaea
• Judaism and Christianity key terms
• Context: Judaism and Christianity
• Early Judaism and Early Christianity
• Christianity developed in the province of Judea out of Jewish tradition in the first century CE, spread through the Roman Empire, and eventually became its official religion
• Christianity was influenced by the historical contexts in which it developed

Beginnings of Christianity

Christianity and rome.

• (Choice A)   Christianity was fully formed as a new religion at this time A Christianity was fully formed as a new religion at this time
• (Choice B)   Christianity was still not clearly defined at this time B Christianity was still not clearly defined at this time
• (Choice C)   Christianity was well-established as a major religion in the Roman Empire C Christianity was well-established as a major religion in the Roman Empire

Rome becomes Christian

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The Rise of Christianity: A Summary of Rodney Stark’s Proposal

More by trevin.

When we as Christians consider the coming of Christ and the rise of Christianity, we tend to focus on the spiritual forces at work – the powerful preaching of the gospel, the apostles’ martyrdom for the faith, and the evangelistic attraction of the early church’s common life together.

Today, I’m going to summarize the case Stark makes for the rise of Christianity and then tomorrow, I’ll offer some points of application for our churches.

Rodney Stark wisely begins his book by acknowledging the helpfulness and also the limitations of social science.

“No sacrilege is entailed in the search to understand human actions in human terms. Moreover, I do not reduce the rise of Christianity to purely ‘material’ or social factors” (4).

Nowhere is Stark seeking to deny the Christian belief that God was at work in the beginning of the Christian movement. Instead, he wants to examine the means by which this rapid growth occurred. He believes social science will put an end to some of the common, persistent myths about Christianity’s rapid growth.

For example, examining the constant rate of growth of Christian believers, Stark questions the often-assumed link between Constantine’s conversion and the Roman Empire having a Christian majority.

“Constantine’s conversion would better be seen as a response to the massive exponential wave in progress, not as its cause” (10).

Why Does a Religious Movement Grow?

So what factors are at play in the rapid rise of a religious movement? There are certain social dynamics that must be examined.

• Networks of family and friends play a huge role in conversion. Stark sees conversion as being more likely when “people have or develop   stronger attachments to members of the group than they have to nonmembers” (18).
• Stark also notes that “new religious movements mainly draw their converts from the ranks of the religiously inactive and discontented, and those affiliated with the most accommodated (worldly) religious communities” (19).  
• The implication of this migration from one religious affiliation to another is that the middle and privileged classes are more inclined to convert than the lowest classes. “New religions must always make their way in the market openings left them by weaknesses in the conventional religion(s) of a society,” Stark writes, and “religious skepticism is most prevalent among the more privileged” (37). Why is this the case? Stark believes the class of people most likely to understand the new religion and see the need for its beliefs will be the most economically privileged (39).

Christianity and Judaism

Stark’s sociological study of the rise of early Christianity would be incomplete without an in depth treatment of the relationship between Judaism and the early church. Rather than seeing the relationship as inherently hostile, Stark makes the case for an intertwined Jewish and Christian identity, as large numbers of Jews converted to Christianity from the first to the fifth centuries (49).   To make this case, Stark spends an entire chapter sketching the reasons why scholars have assumed a low rate of conversion among faithful Jews. Then, in light of new sociological findings, Stark counters the conventional wisdom and makes the case that large numbers did indeed convert peacefully.

Chaos and the Need for Stability

Another role in the burgeoning Christian movement was played by social crises, brought in the wake of disastrous plagues or in the common chaos of urban life. During the early centuries of Christian growth, a series of natural disasters (including earthquakes and epidemics) disrupted the Roman Empire. Stark believes “Christianity offered a much more satisfactory account of why these terrible times had fallen upon humanity, and it projected a hopeful, even enthusiastic, portrait of the future” (74). These explanations helped Christians cope with the disasters, which in turn helped Christians survive at higher rates than pagans.

Furthermore, the massive numbers of those who died disrupted the normal social bonds that would have attached people to their families and neighbors. Because Christians were more likely to survive the plagues, pagans found new friendships with Christians whose faith would have been appealing in the midst of such turmoil (75).

Stark also points out the chaos associated with urban living during this period of history. Life in the city was one of disease, misery and fear, providing Christians with the opportunity not only to imagine a better world in the distant future but also solutions for present-day problems (149).

The Role of Godly Women

Another factor in the rise of early Christianity centers on the role of women in the early church. Because of Christianity’s prohibition of infanticide and abortion, Christian families were more likely to raise up daughters in the faith. High rates of intermarriage between Christian women and pagan men brought about “secondary” conversions to Christianity, not to mention the likelihood of children being brought up in the church (95).

What about the Martyrs?

Christian historians often point to the testimony of the martyrs as a major reason for the rise of Christianity. Stark does not discount the role of martyrdom, but he puts it into perspective.

For example, he counters the irrationalist vision of martyrdom that sees persecuted people as clinging so tightly to their personal faith they make irrational choices that lead to their demise. Stark believes the martyrs saw their sacrifice as the best choice, given their belief in the rewards they would gain in return (167). Likewise, “martyrs are the most credible exponents of the value of a religion, and this is especially true if there is a voluntary aspect to their martyrdom” (174). But Stark also counters the common Christian perspective by showing how the number of martyrs was never very large, and the persecutions that took place broke out intermittently and never focused on all Christians everywhere.

What do you think?

Tomorrow, I’ll offer some points of application for today’s church. Right now, I’m curious as to which of these contributions to the rise of early Christianity surprises you. Do you agree or disagree with Stark’s analysis?

Trevin Wax is vice president of research and resource development at the North American Mission Board and a visiting professor at Cedarville University. A former missionary to Romania, Trevin is a regular columnist at The Gospel Coalition and has contributed to The Washington Post , Religion News Service , World , and Christianity Today . He has taught courses on mission and ministry at Wheaton College and has lectured on Christianity and culture at Oxford University. He is a founding editor of The Gospel Project, has served as publisher for the Christian Standard Bible, and is the author of multiple books, including The Thrill of Orthodoxy , The Multi-Directional Leader , Rethink Your Self , This Is Our Time , and Gospel Centered Teaching . His podcast is Reconstructing Faith . He and his wife, Corina, have three children. You can follow him on Twitter or Facebook , or receive his columns via email .

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The Rise of Christianity: A Sociologist Reconsiders History, by Rodney Stark. A Review Essay

1997, Sociology of Religion

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History of Christianity Essay

Introduction, the history of christianity and the major changes in its practices, works cited.

Christianity is one of the world religions. The Christian practices have been changing throughout their history. The social and historic events influenced the Church and the Church influenced the political process in many countries as well. There were certain reasons for the changes in the Christian practices as well as the certain direction of these changes depending on the context.

The history of the Christian religion began in the period of the disintegration of the Greek-Roman Empire. That period was also characterized by the religious instability. In the early stages of its development, the Christianity was represented by the separate communities consisted of primarily the poor people.

At that time the development of Christianity was based on the common idea of the virtue and compassion which united the people and gave them the hope for the achievement of happiness and freedom. “Traditional Christian beliefs include the belief in the one and only true God, who is one being and exists as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and the belief that Jesus is the divine and human Messiah sent to the save the world” (“Christianity” n.pag.).

The view of Christianity on the education and work can be found in the words of Abba Arsenius, one of the Desert Fathers. Abba Arsenius mentioned that we essentially got nothing from secular education but rather acquired virtue by hard work (Ward 9).

The Christians believed that the labor and hard work were vital for being saved. They considered the laziness as a sin and encouraged everyone in the community working and making their own contribution to the community well-being. The work was thought to be a virtue as Abba Arsenius said.

In the II century, the wealthy people began actively join the Christians. At that time, the complete break-up of the Christianity with Judaism occurred. First of all, the Christians rejected the Old Testament. Secondly, the Church organization had been developing at that time. Undoubtedly, these facts contributed to the first changes in the Christian practices. The Bible including the chapters from the Old Testament as well as New Testament became the sacred text of the Christians.

The sacred texts were considered the guidelines for right doing and the faithful life. In the Sayings of Desert Fathers , we can find what Abba Anthony said on how we could please God. He mentioned three most important rules which the Christians should follow including the acting in accordance to the testimony of the holy Scriptures (Ward 7).

Abbey Anthony also mentioned the crucial Christian philosophical teaching of the importance of repentance of the sins and taking the blame for own sins before God (Ward 7). The practice of confession had been based on this teaching.

“Many Christians have testified to dramatic, miraculous cures, and missionaries and theologians have often pointed to them as evidence of the power of Christian faith and the truth of Christian doctrine” (Porterfield 4). However, the persecution and tortures influenced the rise in the social significance of the Christian religion.

Answering the question of Rusticus, perfect of Rome, on what is dogma Justin Martyr said, “That according to which we worship the God of the Christians, whom we reckon to be one from the beginning, the maker and fashioner of the whole creation, visible and invisible; and the Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, who had also been preached beforehand by the prophets as about to be present with the race of men, the herald of salvation and teacher of good disciples” (Richardson & Pick 306).

These words showed the strong faith to God of Justin Martyr and they represented the central philosophy of Christianity.

The extraordinary success of Christianity as a world religion can be attributed, in part, to its social practice of building families out of strangers (Porterfield 6). The family played a substantial role in the Christian beliefs and teachings. The value which the Christians gave to the family and the importance of the unity of people explained the formation of the Christian communities. They associated the communities with the kind of social peace related to the harmony of the human body (Porterfield 6).

The changes that occurred in Christian practices were also connected with the historic times, the events happening in the history of mankind, and the world perception of people at that period. The interpretation of Bible had also been changing. Very often the political leaders tried to use the text to achieve their own purposes and tried to misinterpret the original text.

And sometimes event the representatives of the Church itself manipulated the sacred text and used their authority to promote their own decisions and to gain the benefits from the social conflicts. Undoubtedly, such kind of actions was contrary to what the Christian religion thought. That is why we should interpret the original text from both the basic postulates and teaching of Christianity and from the reality of the world in which we live.

“The notion that we read the New Testament exactly as the early Christians did, without any weight of tradition coloring our interpretation, is an illusion. It is also a dangerous illusion, for it tends to absolutize our interpretation, confusing it with the Word of God” (Gonsalez 17).

“Jewish life and culture in the first 70 years of the first century centered in the Second Temple, one of the many massive public works projects of Herod the Great” (Astle n.pag.). A lot of people went to the temple in order to make a ritual animal sacrifices which were considered to be one of the important practices at that time (Astle n.pag.).

Pilgrimage is one of the important Christian practices the roots of which can be found in the first century AD when the first pilgrims appeared in the Christian communities. “Pilgrimage is as much a part of the ongoing drama of European history as are wars, revolutions, the rise and fall of empires, industrialization, and urbanization.

Pilgrimages have influenced and been affected by developments in the arts, sciences, literature, and philosophy” (Nolan & Nolan 3). Communities supported the Christian belief in the supremacy of love, peace, and virtue as the highest values (Gill 11).

“Understanding the centrality of Temple worship to first-century Jewish life makes it more plausible that Jesus’ family would have made a pilgrimage to the Temple to offer the prescribed animal sacrifice of thanksgiving for his birth, as described in Luke 2:25-40” (Astle n.pag.).

The scholars argue that there were the substantial differences in the philosophical life of the Christians and non-Christians (Clark 75). In particular, Christianity was accessible for everyone and the poor often adhere to it. In contrast to many other philosophies, it did not differentiated people on the basis of their education as well (Clark 75). “Philosophers were expected to live simply, but not to abandon their wealth or status” (Clark 75).

The philosophic views and the world perception of the Christians changed throughout the history. The early Christians lived waiting for the Last Judgment. In this respect, the material side of life seemed to them far less important than to the Christians of the future generations. The early Christians had the strong faith to God and all of their hopes and wishes were addressed to the God.

In order to sum up all above mentioned, it should be said that the Christian practices had been changing during the history. These changes were caused by the certain social and historic reasons. The social transformations influenced the attitude of people to the Christian postulates.

The Christian teachings can be found in the sacred texts, the Sayings of the Desert Fathers, and in the life of martyrs and saints. Nowadays, the Christianity is represented by three main branches each of which has its own practices which are based on certain teachings of Christianity and which reject some early postulates of the Church.

Overall, the Christianity is one of the world religions and its development is an ongoing process. Despite the inherent stability of the views and traditions, the Christian church adjusts its norms and ethics in accordance with the changes in the way of life of people, their needs and challenges which the modern environment creates. They reflect the progress of the mankind development.

Astle, Cynthia. How the Jews Lived in Jesus’ Time . n.d. Ancienthistory. Web.

Clark, Gillian. Christianity and Roman Society , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Print.

Gill, Robin. Churchgoing and Christian Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Print.

Gonsalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity , San Francisco: HarperCollins Publishers, 2010. Print.

Nolan, Mary Lee, and S. Nolan. Christian Pilgrimage in Modern Western Europe , Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. Print.

Porterfield, Amanda. Healing in the History of Christianity , New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Print.

Richardson, Ernest and Bernhard Pick. The Ante-Nicene Fathers: The apostolic fathers. Justin Martyr. Irenaeus , New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1985. Print.

Ward, Sister Benedicta. Selections From The Sayings of the Desert Fathers: The Alphabetical Collection. 2 nd ed. , London: Oxford University Press, 1981. Print.

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1. IvyPanda . "History of Christianity." January 6, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/christianity/.

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The Origin of Christianity

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The Rise of Christianity

By: Stenly   •  Essay  •  546 Words  •  November 27, 2009  •  1,303 Views

Essay title: The Rise of Christianity

Stark argues that, contrary to popular belief, Christianity was a movement not of the lower classes and the oppressed, but of the upper and middle classes in the cities and of Hellenized Jews. Stark also discusses the exponential nature of the growth of religion, and why therefore the speed of the rise of Christianity is not as miraculous as might thought to be. He argues that, contrary to commonly-held belief, the Christian mission to Judaism was successful, and outlasted both the destruction of Jerusalem and the Bar Kochba rebellion; that two hardly-noted plagues in 165 and 251 A.D. were keystones in Christian growth and that the conversion of women to Christianity was likewise a major factor in the hold that the disciples of Christ took into the solid rock face of the pagan Roman Empire.

Stark argues that during the 19th century when the Jews were emancipated it caused a religious crisis for the Jews. Who then seized the opportunity for a citizenship that their new emancipation caused. Hundreds of thousands of European Jews became socially marginal which would cause a large marginal to convert to Christianity. Since there were such large numbers that converted within city limits, if the Diaspora Jews had found out more and known about this new opportunity there would have been a larger number convert to Christianity than there was.

Stark points to a number of advantages that Christianity had over paganism, to explain its growth: Christians were more likely to survive in times of plague, due to their care of the sick; Christian populations grew faster, due to the prohibition of abortion, infanticide and birth control; in Christianity women outnumbered men, while in Paganism men outnumbered women, leading to a high rate of secondary conversion. Stark's basic thesis is that ultimately Christianity triumphed over Paganism because it offered its followers an enhanced and at times longer life.

The conversation to Christianity by the unhappy people was caused by

The Rise Of Christianity Essay

Christianity is a faith that developed from within Judaism and in which there is belief in merely one God. Christianity spread easy but steadily in the Roman Empire.

The rise of Christianity was a powerful beginning. Teachings from Jesus, what Christianity had to offer, the persecution of Christians, and Constantine accepting Christianity were factors that led to the rise and success of Christianity.

Rome took control of the Judaic Kingdom in A.D. 6 and made it portion of the Roman Empire. A few Jews, nevertheless, believed that they would one time once more be freed. Many Jews believed that God would direct a savior known as the Messiah who would reconstruct the Judaic Kingdom. That Messiah was named Jesus Christ. Jesus was born sometime around 6-4 B.C. , in the town of Bethlehem in Judea. Jesus was a public curate ; many of Jesus ‘s instructions came from Judaic traditions. Jesus went from town to town and distribute his instructions and thoughts to people.

He ignored the fact of wealth and position and cared more that his instructions had a particular entreaty peculiarly to the hapless. Jesus taught people that God had a personal relationship with each human being. He taught that people should love God, their neighbours, their enemies, and even themselves. He said, “ Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the Earth. ” Even though Jesus was going more popular, it was his decease and Resurrection that led people to believe that he was the Messiah. The Grecian word Christos means Messiah or savior and the word Christianity comes from the word “ Christ.

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The Rise Of Christianity

Christian religion spread because it embraced all people and gave hope to the powerless. Christianity offered a personal relationship with God. This particularly appealed to the hapless because there was no cost to follow the faith. With other faiths, people had to do forfeits to be portion of that faith. Forfeits cost money which the hapless could non afford. However, with Christianity, the hapless were able to follow their faith without giving up anything or paying for forfeits.

Christian religion was besides successful in distributing because it promised ageless life after decease. This appealed to many people. Other faiths promised merely as many old ages in the hereafter as a individual had lived. For illustration, if a individual lived for 70 old ages, they would merely acquire 70 old ages of goodness in his hereafter. In Christianity, it did non count how long you lived or the sort of life you led. God would forgive a individual ‘s wickednesss and he would still acquire illustriousness in his ageless hereafter.

Although Christianity was turning, the Roman Leaders became angry with Christians for non idolizing the Roman Gods. Christians refused to believe in any other Gods but their God. Roman swayers had more and more Christians persecuted as the Pax Romana crumbled. The swayers had the Christians exiled, imprisoned, and even executed for non believing in the Roman Gods. Some swayers even used the Christians as whipping boies. Regardless of the persecution of the followings, Christianity became a powerful force. Those people who were persecuted by the Romans were considered sufferer or people who were willing to give their lives for a belief or cause.

Constantine, the Roman Emperor, was contending three challengers for leading of Rome. Before the conflict, Constantine prayed for aid. He claimed that he saw an image of a cross, the symbol of Christianity. He so ordered craftsmans to paint the Christian symbol on his soldiers ‘ shields. Flavius valerius constantinus and his ground forces were winning in the conflict. Constantine so credited his success largely to the aid of the Christian God. Constantine now accepted Christianity, so he announced an terminal to the persecution of the Christians. He so wanted Christianity to be one of the faiths approved by the emperor. Christianity continued to turn strongly. Later Emperor Theodosius declared Christianity the official faith of the Empire.

Overall, the rise of Christianity was successful because it had so much to offer to people. There came good wagess that other faiths did non hold. It was free to follow Christianity ; other faiths made people sacrifice or wage. Since more Christians were persecuted, more people recognized what those people were contending for. The Christians were non traveling to allow some other swayers tell them what to believe and what non to believe. Even though Christians were persecuted for non idolizing the Roman Gods, those people sacrificed their lives to demo other people what their beliefs were and what their faith was. In the terminal, Christianity was successful because the emperor Theodosius made Christianity the Empire ‘s official faith.

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The rise of christianity

Published Date: 23 Mar 2015

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The Rise of Christianity

The rise of Christianity during the Roman time was owed to all kinds of events and people. The Romans had conquered Judah and the Jews around 63 B.C. Jesus Christ, also known as the Messiah, was a savior believed to come to restore the kingdom of the Jews. Jesus didn't begin teaching his beliefs when he was a child, in fact he started when he was about 30 years old. Jesus' teachings are known as Christianity. His teachings were to love everyone, including your enemies, hoping that they would be loved by God and to pray for them so God would forgive them. Jesus believed that there was only one God that controlled everything. His teachings included rules about respect for others and Gods Laws, called the Ten Commandments. The Ten Commandments told people not to steal, not to kill, or do things that hurt others. In fact, some of the Ten Commandments were parts of Hammurabi's Code, which made them very familiar to His followers. He taught that God cared for each human as a friend and that each was as special as the other. This meant that slaves and their masters were equal to each other in the eyes of God. Jesus taught that God was an element that you could actually talk to without making a sacrifice in a Temple. You could pray or wish without a sacrifice, and you could do it anywhere. Jesus told that God promised an afterlife, known as Heaven, for people that followed God's will and asked for forgiveness from God for all their sins. Christianity's spread also owed to the twelve followers of Jesus, called disciples, or Apostles, who spread the word of Jesus Christ all over the nation. Jesus proved to many observers that he was the Messiah. The proof was the miracles that he did, like multiplying the bread and fish, and walking on water. Another reason that Christianity spread was that the poor were not judged by their wealth. The poor and the rich were blessed all the same.

After sometime, Jesus Christ was a concern to the Roman government because he was defying the authority of Rome by attracting large crowds to hear his messages. Even though Jesus was Jewish, Jewish priests didn't believe that he was the Messiah, and so they did not support him either. Then the Romans decided to crucify Jesus, putting him on a cross with nails in the palms of his hands, to punish Him for breaking laws. After seven hours of pain on the cross, Jesus died. Three days after He was placed in a tomb, He rose from the dead and talked to the disciples, telling them to continue spreading the word of God, then rose to Heaven. Because of this miracle of rising from the dead, more and more people began to believe in Jesus Christ as the Messiah and in His teachings. Still the Roman rulers did not believe that Jesus was the Messiah. After His death, some of the disciples wrote about and talked about Jesus' miracles in life. Years after His death, a new follower came along whose name was Paul. Paul communicated the word of God by writing letters called Epistles, for followers and believers to learn about how Jesus died for others sins. One more thing that helped Christianity spread was Pax Romana, which let people travel all over the Roman Empire, and so they could spread their beliefs in new places. Translating their beliefs into other languages that were used, like Latin and Greek meant that their message was spread all over the Roman Empire.

Roman rulers had a problem with other religions because other religions were attracting masses of people to not obey Roman ideas. After a few centuries they started to persecute people of Christianity. Some were killed by burning, by crucifying, or by wild animals and gladiators in Roman coliseums. It did not stop Christianity from growing because people still believed in God and in Heaven as a reward for being good. In some time, a Roman emperor named Constantine declared Christianity as the official religion of the Empire. This meant that Christianity was spreading with the growth of the Empire, into new places where it had not been heard of before.

From humble beginnings as the message of one person to the official religion of the Roman Empire, Christianity grew during Roman expansion. From Jesus and his followers spreading the word of God and beyond his crucifixion, Christianity continued to gain popularity and spread even though the punishments were so dangerous that people lost their lives for their beliefs.

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Flaws of Greek Mythology

This essay about the modern reverence for ancient Greek gods explores whether this fascination can be considered worship. It traces the transition from traditional religious practices to the gods’ roles in contemporary culture and spirituality. The essay discusses the decline of these practices with the rise of Christianity, and their resurgence through the neopagan movement, Hellenismos, which seeks authenticity in its revival of ancient rituals. Additionally, it highlights the gods’ enduring influence in popular culture, where their myths are integrated into literature, film, and language, serving both as entertainment and moral examination. The essay concludes that while traditional worship has waned, the gods remain a potent force culturally and spiritually, continuously reshaping their legacy to fit modern contexts.

How it works

The ancient Greek gods, once central to daily life in Greece, continue to spark the imaginations of people worldwide. Despite the onset of modernity, these deities, characterized by their distinct personalities and human-like flaws, maintain a unique form of reverence and fascination. But does this interest qualify as worship in the traditional sense? The answer is nuanced, reflecting both historical continuity and cultural evolution.

Traditional worship of Greek gods peaked in antiquity, with temples dedicated to figures like Zeus, Athena, and Apollo dotting the landscape, and rituals and festivals marking the calendar.

However, the rise of Christianity dramatically altered the religious landscape of Europe, leading to a decline in the active worship of these deities. Yet, this was not a complete erasure. The myths survived, preserved through art, literature, and later, academic study, ensuring that the gods never truly faded from collective memory.

In contemporary times, the revival of interest in these gods is often linked to the neopagan movement, specifically Hellenismos, which seeks to reconstruct ancient Greek religious practices. Followers of Hellenismos aim to practice their faith as authentically as possible, using ancient texts and archaeological findings to guide their rituals and beliefs. This revival is not merely a cultural phenomenon but a religious identity for its practitioners, who number in the thousands worldwide, including in Greece where the government officially recognized Hellenism as a religion in 2017.

Outside of religious practice, the influence of Greek mythology is pervasive in modern culture. It surfaces in literature, movies, and television shows. Characters like Hercules and Achilles have become archetypes, and terms such as “Achilles’ heel” and “Pandora’s box” have permeated everyday language. This widespread cultural presence speaks to a form of secular “worship,” where reverence for these ancient figures is expressed not through traditional rituals but through continuous engagement with their stories.

Moreover, the philosophical and ethical underpinnings of these myths provide contemporary relevance. The tales of Greek mythology, rich with themes of human struggle, power, and morality, offer timeless reflections on the human condition. In this sense, the gods serve as vessels for storytelling and moral examination, revered not in temples with incense and offerings, but in debates, discussions, and analyses.

Thus, while the active worship of Greek gods in the ancient sense is limited, their presence in modern society is undeniable. Whether through religious revivalism or cultural engagement, the gods of Olympus continue to be celebrated, their stories resonating across centuries. This enduring legacy is perhaps the truest form of worship: one that transcends the confines of ritual and finds a home in the collective human spirit, continuously adapting to meet the spiritual and cultural needs of each new generation.

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Opinion We have a radical democracy. Will Trump voters destroy it?

For some time, it was possible to believe that many voters could not see the threat Donald Trump poses to America’s liberal democracy, and many still profess not to see it. But now, a little more than six months from Election Day, it’s hard to believe they don’t. The warning signs are clear enough. Trump himself offers a new reason for concern almost every day. People may choose to ignore the warnings or persuade themselves not to worry, but they can see what we all see, and that should be enough.

Adapted from “Rebellion: How Antiliberalism is Tearing America Apart — Again” by Robert Kagan. Copyright © 2024 by Robert Kagan. Reprinted by permission of Penguin Random House. All Rights Reserved.

How to explain their willingness to support Trump despite the risk he poses to our system of government? The answer is not rapidly changing technology, widening inequality, unsuccessful foreign policies or unrest on university campuses but something much deeper and more fundamental. It is what the Founders worried about and Abraham Lincoln warned about: a decline in what they called public virtue. They feared it would be hard to sustain popular support for the revolutionary liberal principles of the Declaration of Independence, and they worried that the virtuous love of liberty and equality would in time give way to narrow, selfish interest. Although James Madison and his colleagues hoped to establish a government on the solid foundation of self-interest, even Madison acknowledged that no government by the people could be sustained if the people themselves did not have sufficient dedication to the liberal ideals of the Declaration. The people had to love liberty, not just for themselves but as an abstract ideal for all humans.

Americans are going down this route today because too many no longer care enough whether the system the Founders created survives and are ceding the ground to those, led by Trump, who actively seek to overthrow what so many of them call “the regime.” This “regime” they are referring to is the unique political system established by the Founders based on the principles of universal equality and natural rights. That, plain and simple, is what this election is about. “A republic if you can keep it,” Benjamin Franklin allegedly said of the government created by the Constitutional Convention in 1787. This is the year we may choose not to keep it.

A healthy republic would not be debating whether Trump and his followers seek the overthrow of the Founders’ system of liberal democracy. What more do people need to see than his well-documented attempt to prevent the peaceful transfer of power with the storming of the U.S. Capitol, the elaborate scheme to create false electoral slates in key states, the clear evidence that he bullied officials in some states to “find” more votes, and to persuade Vice President Mike Pence not to certify the legitimate results? What more do they need to know than that Trump continues to insist he won that election and celebrates as heroes and “patriots” the people who invaded the U.S. Capitol and smashed policemen’s faces with the stated aim of forcing Congress to negate the election results? As one 56-year-old Michigan woman present at the Capitol on Jan. 6 , 2021, explained: “We weren’t there to steal things. We weren’t there to do damage. We were just there to overthrow the government .”

Trump not only acknowledges his goals, past and present; he promises to do it again if he loses this year. For the third straight election, he is claiming that if he loses, then the vote will have been fraudulent. He has warned of uprisings, of “bedlam” and a “bloodbath,” and he has made clear that he will again be the promoter of this violence, just as he was on Jan. 6. Trump explicitly warned in 2020 that he would not accept the election results if he lost, and he didn’t. This year he is saying it again. Were there no other charges against him, no other reason to be concerned about his return to the presidency, this alone would be sufficient to oppose him. He does not respect and has never pledged to abide by the democratic processes established by the Constitution. On the contrary, he has explicitly promised to violate the Constitution when he deems it necessary. That by itself makes him a unique candidate in American history and should be disqualifying.

This kind of open challenge to our democracy was never meant to be addressed by the courts. As the Founders well understood, you don’t serve a subpoena to a would-be tyrant and tell him to lawyer up. Nor was it meant to be addressed by the normal processes of democratic elections. They knew, and feared, that a demagogue could capture the allegiance of enough voters to overthrow the system. That was why they gave Congress, and particularly the Senate, supposedly more immune from popular pressures, the power to impeach and remove presidents and to deny them the opportunity to run again — and not simply because they violated some law but because they posed a clear and present danger to the republic. After Trump’s attempt to overthrow the government in 2020, Congress had a chance to use the method prescribed by the Founders in precisely the circumstances they envisioned. But Senate Republicans, out of a combination of ambition and cowardice, refused to play the vital role the Founders envisioned for them. The result is that the nightmare feared by the Founders is one election away from becoming reality.

The problem with Trump is not that he has some carefully thought-out plan for seizing power, much less an elaborate ideological justification for doing so. (Others do have such plans and such justifications, including many of those who will populate his administration — more on that in a moment.) With Trump, everything is about him and his immediate needs. He will run roughshod over the laws and Constitution simply to get what he wants for himself, his family and his business interests. Americans know that if he is elected, he would abuse the justice system to go after his opponents. They know this because he says so. “I am your retribution!” he declares, and by “your” he means “my.” Americans know he would use his power as president to try to solve his financial problems. He did it as president and is doing it now as a presidential candidate . They know he would not respect the results of fair elections if he loses, which is the very definition of a tyrant.

So, why will so many vote for him anyway? For a significant segment of the Republican electorate, the white-hot core of the Trump movement, it is because they want to see the system overthrown. This should not come as a shock, for it is not a new phenomenon. On the contrary, it is as old as the republic. Historians have written about the “liberal tradition” in America, but there has from the beginning also been an anti-liberal tradition: large numbers of Americans determined to preserve preliberal traditions, hierarchies and beliefs against the secular liberal principles of the Declaration of Independence and Bill of Rights. The Founders based the republic on a radical set of principles and assertions about government: that all human beings were created equal in their possession of certain “natural rights” that government was bound to respect and to safeguard. These rights did not derive from religious belief but were “self-evident.” They were not granted by the Christian God, by the crown or even by the Constitution. They were inherent in what it meant to be human.

This is the central tenet of liberalism. Before the American Revolution no government had ever been founded on liberal principles, and the vast majority of human beings had never believed in these natural rights — certainly not the Christian church in either its Protestant or Roman Catholic versions nor Islam nor Judaism nor Hinduism nor Buddhism. People might be equal in the eyes of their god, but no government or religious institution had ever been based on the principle of equal rights. Not even the English system was based on this principle but rather on monarchy, a ruling aristocracy, and a contract between crown and subjects that was modified over the centuries but was not based on the principle of universal “natural” rights.

The Founders knew these ideas were radical, that they were inaugurating, in their own words, a novus ordo seclorum — a new order of the ages — that required a new way of thinking and acting. They knew, as well, that their own practices and those of 18th-century American society did not conform to their new revolutionary doctrines. They knew that slavery was contrary to the Declaration’s principles, though they permitted slavery to continue, hoping it would die a natural death. They knew that established churches were contrary to those principles because they impinged on that most important of rights, “freedom of conscience,” which was vital to the preservation of liberty, yet a number of states in the 18th and 19th centuries retained all kinds of religious tests for office. In short, they knew that a great many Americans did not in fact believe in the liberal principles of the Revolution. As Benjamin Rush, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, put it, “We have changed our forms of government, but it remains yet to effect a revolution in our principles, opinions and manners so as to accommodate them to the forms of government we have adopted.” They did not insist that citizens believe in those principles. One could be an American citizen whether one believed in the Declaration or not.

And a great many did not. Leaders of the slaveholding South called the Declaration “a most pernicious falsehood.” South Carolina’s John C. Calhoun called the very idea of equal rights a “false doctrine.” They believed in democracy, but only if it was an exclusively White democracy. When democracy turned against them in 1860, they rebelled and sought an exit from the system. That rebellion never ended. It has been weakened, suppressed — sometimes by force — and driven underground, but it has never gone away. Although the South was militarily defeated and deprived of its special advantages in the Constitution, its hostility to the Founders’ liberalism did not abate. As Southern writer W.J. Cash observed in 1941, if the war had “smashed the southern world,” it had nevertheless “left the essential southern mind and will … entirely unshaken” and Southerners themselves determined “to hold fast to their own, to maintain their divergences, to remain what they had been and were.” In 1956, almost a century after the Civil War, a fifth of Congress, almost all Democrats — signed the “Southern Manifesto” calling on states to refuse to obey the Supreme Court’s 1954 decision to end segregation in public schools. Nothing had changed. Are we so surprised that for many Americans, nothing has changed even today?

Nor has anti-liberalism only been about race. For more than a century after the Revolution, many if not most White Anglo-Saxon Protestants insisted that America was a Protestant nation. They did not believe Catholics possessed equal rights or should be treated as equals. The influential “second” Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s was anti-Catholic and anti-Jewish as well as anti-Black, which was why, unlike the original Klan, it flourished outside the South. Many regard today’s Christian nationalism as a fringe movement, but it has been a powerful and often dominant force throughout America’s history.

For two centuries, many White Americans have felt under siege by the Founders’ liberalism. They have been defeated in war and suppressed by threats of force, but more than that, they have been continually oppressed by a system designed by the Founders to preserve and strengthen liberalism against competing beliefs and hierarchies. Since World War II, the courts and the political system have pursued the Founders’ liberal goals with greater and greater fidelity, ending official segregation, driving religion from public schools, recognizing and defending the rights of women and minorities hitherto deprived of their “natural rights” because of religious, racial and ethnic discrimination. The hegemony of liberalism has expanded, just as Lincoln hoped it would, “constantly spreading and deepening its influence, and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people of colors everywhere.” Anti-liberal political scientist Patrick Deneen calls it “liberal totalitarianism,” and, apart from the hyperbole, he is right that liberalism has been steadily deepening and expanding under presidents of both parties since the 1940s.

The fury on the anti-liberal right against what is today called “wokeness” is nothing new. Anti-liberal movements in America, whether in defense of the White race or Christianity, and more often both together, have always claimed to be suffering under the expanding hegemony of liberalism. They have always claimed that a liberal government and society were depriving them of their “freedom” to live a life according to Christian teachings and were favoring various minority groups, especially Black people, at their expense. In the 1970s, influential theologian R.J. Rushdoony complained that the Christian in America had “no right to his identity” but was forced to recognize “all others and their ‘rights.’” And he was correct if a Christian’s “rights” included the right not only to lead a Christian life oneself but to impose that life on the entire society, or if a White person’s “freedom” included the freedom to preserve white primacy in society. In the 19th century, enslavers insisted they were deprived of their “freedom” to hold human beings as property; Southerners in the post-Reconstruction era insisted on their “freedom” to oppress Black citizens in their states.

Today, anti-liberals in American society are indeed deprived of their “freedom” to impose their religious and racial views on society, on public schools, on the public square and on the laws of the nation. What Christian nationalists call “liberal totalitarianism,” the Founders called “freedom of conscience.”

Six decades ago, people like Rushdoony were responding not to “woke” corporations or Black Lives Matter but to civil rights legislation. Today, anti-liberal conservatives complain about school curriculums that acknowledge the racism that has shaped America’s history, but even five decades ago, before the invention of “critical race theory,” anti-liberal White people such as Rushdoony insisted that the “white man” was being “systematically indoctrinated into believing he is guilty of enslaving and abusing the Negro.” Nor is it new that many White people feel that the demands of minority groups for both rights and respect have “gone too far” and it is they, the White people of America, who are suffering the worst discrimination. In the 1960s, surveys taken by the New York Times showed that majorities of White people believed even then that the civil rights movement had “gone too far,” that Blacks were receiving “everything on a silver platter” and the government was practicing “reverse discrimination” against White people. Liberalism is always going too far for many Americans — and certainly for anti-liberals. Anti-liberals these days complain about wokeness, therefore, but it is the liberal system of government bequeathed by the Founders, and the accompanying egalitarian spirit, that they are really objecting to, just as anti-liberals have since the founding of the nation. Many of Trump’s core supporters insist they are patriots, but whether they realize it or not, their allegiance is not to the Founders’ America but to an ethnoreligious definition of the nation that the Founders explicitly rejected.

Some do realize it. The smartest and most honest of them know that if people truly want a “Christian America,” it can only come through “regime change,” by which they mean the “regime” created by the Founders. The Founders’ legacy is a “dead end,” writes Glenn Ellmers, a scholar at the Claremont Institute. The Constitution is a “Potemkin village.” According to Deneen and Harvard Law School’s Adrian Vermeule, the system established by the Founders to protect individual rights needs to be replaced with an alternative form of government. What they have in mind is a Christian commonwealth: a “culture that preserves and encourages order and continuity, and support for religious belief and institutions,” with legislation to “promote public morality, and forbid its intentional corruption,” a “forthright acknowledgment and renewal of the Christian roots of our civilization,” “public opportunities for prayers,” and a “revitalization of our public spaces to reflect a deeper belief that we are called to erect imitations of the beauty that awaits us in another Kingdom.”

These anti-liberal conservatives know that bringing such a commonwealth into being means jettisoning the Founders’ obsession with individual rights. The influential advocate of “conservative nationalism,” Yoram Hazony, wants Americans to abandon the Declaration in favor of a nationhood built on Protestantism and the Bible. America is a “ revolutionary nation ,” Sen. Josh Hawley (R-Mo.) insists, not because of the principles of the Declaration and not even because of the American Revolution itself, but “because we are the heirs of the revolution of the Bible” that began with “the founding of the nation of Israel.” There could hardly be a statement more at odds with the American Founders’ liberal, ecumenical vision.

Expressing a belief in God is no threat to the Founders’ system, but reshaping society in accord with Christian teachings is. To build the nation Hawley and Hazony imagine would require jettisoning not only the Declaration but also the Constitution, which was designed to protect the Declaration’s principles. The Christian commonwealth would not and could not be a democracy because the majority of people can’t be trusted to choose correctly. According to the Claremont Institute’s Ellmers, “most people living in the United States today — certainly more than half — are not Americans in any meaningful sense of the term.” They are a “zombie” or “human rodent” who lives “a shadow-life of timid conformity.” Only “the 75 million people who voted in the last election” for Trump are true Americans. Instead of trying to compete with Democrats in elections that don’t reflect the will of the people, Ellmers writes, “Why not just cut to the chase and skip the empty, meaningless process?” The “only road forward” is “overturning the existing post-American order.”

For these intellectuals, Trump is an imperfect if essential vehicle for the counterrevolution. A “deeply flawed narcissist” suffering from a “bombastic vanity,” as Deneen and Ellmers note, he has “lacked the discipline to target his creative/destructive tendencies effectively.” But this can be remedied. If Trump failed to accomplish the desired overthrow in his first term, Deneen argues, it was because he lacked “a capable leadership class.” Things will be different in his next term. What is needed, according to Deneen, is a “self-conscious aristoi,” a class of thinkers who understand “both the disease afflicting the nation, and the revolutionary medicine required for the cure,” who know how to turn populist “resentments into sustained policy.” Members of Deneen’s would-be new elite will, like Vladimir Lenin, place themselves at the vanguard of a populist revolution, acting “on behalf of the broad working class” while raising the consciousness of the “untutored” masses. Indeed, according to Harvard’s Vermeule, it will be necessary to impose the common good even against the people’s “own perceptions of what is best for them” — a most Leninist concept indeed.

The Christian commonwealth, then, would require a powerful executive freed from the Constitution’s liberal and democratic constraints. The new state, Vermeule wrote, with its “robust executive,” would “sear the liberal faith with hot irons,” wielding the “authority to curb the social and economic pretensions of the urban-gentry liberals.” The whiff of violence and oppression in such statements is intentional. The anti-liberal intellectuals understand that changing the liberal system will require far more than an election and a few legislative reforms.

Deneen and Vermeule are often dismissed as mere intellectual provocateurs, but their writings stand out because they have the courage to acknowledge that what they seek is incompatible with the Founders’ liberal system. While others conceal their views under a phony fidelity to American liberal principles or claim that what they want accords with the Founders’ true intent, Deneen, Vermeule and other anti-liberals acknowledge that the country they want, a country subservient to the Christian God, a country whose laws are based on the Bible, cannot be created absent the overthrow of the Founders’ liberal and defiantly secular system. Even a justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, Neil M. Gorsuch, speaks of the “so-called separation of church and state.” Anti-liberalism at the Supreme Court is nothing new, either.

And the anti-liberals know as well that this year may be their last chance to effect their counterrevolution. The percentage of the population made up of White people (let alone White Protestants) is steadily shrinking. Just as the anti-liberal conservatives of the pre-World War II years closed the immigration gates too late and were overwhelmed by a tide of non-Nordic peoples from Southern and Eastern Europe, so the immigration wave of largely non-White people since 1965 has brought the nation to the cusp of a non-White majority. The anti-liberals thus face the task of engineering the revolution with only a minority of the electorate committed to “regime change.”

Trump’s takeover of the Republican Party makes this possible. Trump is not a unique figure in American history. In each generation, anti-liberal forces have turned to the same breed of demagogue, the flouter of norms, the boorish trampler of liberal nostrums. William Buckley noted that the very “uncouthness” of George Wallace seemed to “account for his general popularity.” James Burnham marveled at how Joseph McCarthy’s “inept acts and ignorant words” had a “charismatic” quality that well expressed the fears and angers of his devoted followers.

What their critics saw as boorishness and malevolence, however, their followers saw as strength and defiance against a liberal system stacked against them. They were rebellious opponents of the system, “wreckers,” unabashedly anti-liberal in both thought and manner, and that is precisely what made them popular among a broad swath of White Americans who felt themselves losing ground in the culture and society — to Black people, Catholics, Jews and immigrants from non-Nordic countries. Today, exactly a century after the most overtly racist immigration restriction in American history, Trump once again calls for more immigrants from “nice” European countries, such as Denmark, Switzerland and Norway.

Trump did not just stumble into leadership of this movement of White rebellion. He summoned it. He made his debut as presidential aspirant on an unabashed white supremacist platform, championing the birther conspiracy that America’s first Black president was not in fact an American. Riding that issue alone, he catapulted to the front of the Republican pack, according to polls in 2011, before bowing out to continue his hit show, “The Apprentice.” Whether his debut as a white supremacist was opportunism or sprang from conviction hardly matters — it certainly has not mattered to his followers. The fact is, white supremacy has been his calling card, and millions have responded to it to the point where white nationalists have become the core of his movement. Many Christian nationalists already see him as a suffering Christ, and in this bizarre sense it is true that the prosecutions have “helped” him: The more adversity he faces, the more court battles he must wage, the more allegations that are slung at him, the more devoted they are to him.

No other group can be counted on for such absolute loyalty. While some Republicans wobble when asked if they would support Trump if convicted of a crime, White Christian Evangelicals overwhelmingly say they will support him no matter what. Trump needs that unshakable loyalty because he is fighting for his life. The thought that he might end up in jail has given him every reason to hew as closely as possible to the people who will stick with him even if he is convicted. These are also the people he will need to back him unconditionally in challenging the results of the election should he lose. If he wins, he will need them in what are sure to be titanic fights with Democrats and the legal system and to keep the Republican Party in line.

This is one reason Trump has so far shown no inclination to reach out beyond his base, to Nikki Haley voters, to more moderate suburban Republicans, to those who are made uncomfortable by his statements and actions. He may show flexibility on the important issue of abortion to secure his own election, but since clinching the nomination, he has only hardened his Christian nationalist message. His “poisoning the blood” campaign, his “dictator-for-a-day” comments, his release of the Trump Bible, his claim that, upon taking office, he will create “a new federal task force” to fight “anti-Christian bias to be led by a fully reformed Department of Justice,” are all aimed directly at his white Christian nationalist base without much concern for how millions of other Republican voters feel about it. Christians are “under siege,” he claims in hawking his Bible. “We must make America pray again.”

Besides, his hard tack toward white supremacy and Christian nationalism has cost him little among the broader Republican electorate.

Why not? Why is there so little resistance to Trump even as he commits ever more deeply to a Christian nationalist program for undoing the Founders’ liberal project?

For many, the answer is simply narrow self-interest, either a positive interest in supporting him or a negative interest in not opposing him or being seen to oppose him. This seems to be the answer for corporate America. Having first followed marketing data to appeal to the broadest cross-section of Americans by embracing communities only recently enjoying more of the full panoply of rights, businesses learned the hard way that Trump and his movement will not tolerate this and have mostly retreated to silence and neutrality. But they have also gone further, making clear as much as possible that they will not be a problem for him — either before he is elected or after.

This was the message JPMorgan Chase CEO Jamie Dimon sent, from Davos, Switzerland, of all places, early this year when he declared that Trump was “kind of right about NATO, kind of right about immigration,” that he “grew the economy quite well.” There is no reason to doubt that he spoke for many of the richest Americans and for other corporate leaders. There was no outcry among them that anyone could hear. The truth is, they have no financial reason to oppose Trump. They know that Trump’s White working-class followers don’t have to be paid off economically because most care chiefly about the culture wars. Trump can still cut taxes and reduce federal regulations and other obstacles to corporate profit. The rich and powerful will always have some purchase in a Trump administration if only because he needs and respects money and will want to make deals for himself and his family, as he did in a first term. Whatever moral or political qualms business leaders may have about Trump, the bottom line dictates that they get along with him, and if that means turning a blind eye to his unconstitutional actions — Dimon’s favorable recounting of Trump’s first term notably ignored his attempt to overthrow the government — then so be it.

We already know that little or no opposition will come from the Republican Party ecosystem. Among elected officials, the few willing to stand up to Trump have either been driven out of the party or are retiring so fast that they cannot even bear to finish out their terms. Those who remain have accepted Trump’s iron rule and therefore now have an interest in his success.

But what about the average Republican voter, the “normal” Republicans who happily voted for George W. Bush, John McCain and Mitt Romney? Do they not see the difference between those Republicans and Trump — or do they not care? They, too, may feel their narrow interests are served by a Trump victory, and although they may not be Christian nationalists themselves, their views as White Americans make them sympathetic to the complaints of the anti-liberals. They, too, may feel they — or their children — are at a disadvantage in a system dedicated to diversity and wokeness. Their annoyance with a liberalism that has “gone too far” makes them susceptible to Trump’s appeal, and, more importantly, unconcerned about the threat he poses. Left to their own devices, they would not be interested in overthrowing the regime. But neither are they inclined to stand in the way of those who are.

Are these voters and GOP power players right to believe that they, like Dimon, will be just fine in a system no longer faithful to the Founders’ liberal ideals? Perhaps so. They will not be the first to suffer from a shift back toward a 1920s America. White Americans tolerated the systematic oppression of Black people for a century after the Civil War. They tolerated violence in the South, injustice in the courtrooms, a Supreme Court that refused to recognize the equal rights of Black people, women and various minorities. Will they rise up against a second Trump term infused by Christian and white nationalism, or will they acquiesce in the gradual dismantling of the liberal gains of the past eight decades?

The shame is that many White people today seem to have conveniently forgotten how much they and their forebears have depended on the Founders’ liberalism to gain their present status as fully equal members of American society and to enjoy the freedoms that they take for granted.

Most White Republicans, after all, do not have the “legacy European” lineage that Tucker Carlson praises. They do not have ancestors who stepped off the Mayflower or fought in the Revolution. The ancestors of the great majority of “White” Americans today were not considered “White” when they first set foot on American shores. Irish Americans may no longer remember that the Thomas Nast cartoons of the late 19th century depicted the Irish as apelike creatures. Many Italian Americans may not recall that a riot made up of “New Orleans’ finest” lynched and murdered 11 Sicilian immigrants and were never charged.

Many Catholics seem to have forgotten that they were once the most despised group in America, such that one of the Founders, John Jay, wanted them excluded from citizenship altogether. Most White Americans were at one time members of despised immigrant groups. They were the victims of the very anti-liberalism they are now voting back into power. They climbed to equality using liberalism as their ladder, and now that they have reached their destination they would pull away the ladder and abandon liberalism. Having obtained their equality using the laws and institutions of liberalism, their passion for liberalism has faded.

The Founders understood, and feared, that the fervor for rights and liberalism that animated the Revolution might not last. Writing in 1781, two years before the end of the war, Thomas Jefferson predicted that once the war ended, “we shall be going down hill.” The people would return to their quotidian lives, forgetting their passionate concern for rights, intent only on “making money.” They might never again come together “to effect a due respect for their rights,” and so their government would stop being solicitous of their rights. Over a half-century later, Lincoln, in his famous Lyceum address, lamented that the original spirit of the Revolution had dissipated with time, leaving Americans with only the normal selfishness of human beings. The original “pillars of the temple of liberty” had “crumbled away.” A little over two decades later, the nation fell into civil war.

If the American system of government fails this year, it will not be because the institutions established by the Founders failed. It will not be because of new technologies or flaws in the Constitution. No system of government can protect against a determined tyrant. Only the people can. This year we will learn if they will.

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A Small Group in South Korea Has a Big Homophobic Agenda

By Raphael Rashid

Mr. Rashid has been a journalist in Seoul for 12 years. He is the author of “The Korea We Refuse to See,” published in Korean.

Since South Korean voters delivered a full-throated rebuke of their conservative president this month, a small but influential group has been on edge. It fears the more liberal opposition’s landslide in the April 10 parliamentary elections could signal the country’s wrongheaded move toward what they call a homosexual dictatorship .

Though South Korea projects a modern, diverse image through its gay - friendly global entertainment industry, as a nation it has long tolerated homophobia and other forms of discrimination. The country has no national law that explicitly prohibits unfair treatment based on race or ethnicity, language or sexual orientation. Alongside Japan and Turkey, it’s ranked among the least L.G.B.T.Q.-inclusive countries in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.

Now these prejudices are manifesting in a coordinated attack on young people’s rights. In a campaign orchestrated by South Korea’s powerful radical Christian lobby, anti-gay protesters have been working relentlessly to cancel a set of regional bylaws that protect schoolchildren and teenagers from discrimination on several grounds, including sexual orientation and gender identity.

The bylaws’ critics argue that the so-called student human rights ordinances overemphasize students’ rights and downplay the rights of teachers. But that’s just a smoke screen for their anti-gay agenda, which so far is proving effective. Votes to abolish two of the seven bylaws were passed last week, and the others face similar votes or are the target of abolition demands. The conservative campaign must be seen for what it is: part of a concerted effort to erase L.G.B.T.Q. visibility from schools and ultimately, South Korean society .

In recent years, South Korea’s L.G.B.T.Q. community has been subject to censorship , witch hunts and blame for the spread of Covid. Local officials have targeted Pride events, such as in Daegu, where last year the mayor ordered 500 civil servants to obstruct the festival. In Seoul, the mayor tacitly supported pushing Pride from its customary plaza after an anti-gay Christian group applied to hold an event in the same place on the same day. Lectures on gender equality have been canceled, queer films stopped from screening, books on sex education purged from libraries and plans to outlaw hate speech abandoned. Concerns about weakening and inadequate protections — raised in recent years by the United Nations , Human Rights Watch and South Korea’s own human rights commission — have been mostly ignored by successive governments.

In Seoul the Christian lobby’s messaging looms in the trucks blasting Bible verses while circling busy blocks and placards around shopping areas declaring “Homosexuality is sin.” Its most harmful achievement to date has been blocking the passage of a broad anti-discrimination law, which would provide protection to L.G.B.T.Q. people, women, people with disabilities and racial minorities. Since 2007, Christian campaigners have obstructed seven attempts to pass such legislation. Four more bills offering similar protections pending in the National Assembly will die if not passed before the Parliament session ends in May.

Officials repeatedly excuse the legislative stalemate under the pretext of insufficient social consensus, a phrase suggesting they haven’t reached agreement with enough segments of society. Yet South Koreans largely say they support equality legislation: A nationwide survey by the National Human Rights Commission in 2022 found 67 percent were in favor of the measure.

The Christian lobby’s members are mainly Protestant. They are well organized, wealthy and wield outsize influence in a majority secular country. Most but not all Korean Protestant denominations hold anti-gay views, including the major Presbyterian orders and the Methodist Church . High-profile pastors and strident groups like Anti-Homosexuality Christian Solidarity are loosely affiliated with church coalitions that have a direct line to politicians and pressure them to uphold a homophobic agenda.

That agenda has already had some big wins in the current government. In September 2022, President Yoon Suk Yeol’s Gender Equality Ministry overturned a plan that would have expanded the legal definition of “family” to include common-law couples, cohabitating households and foster families. Three months later, the Education Ministry decided to delete the terms “sexual minorities” and “gender equality” from the national school curriculum.

For years, the Christian lobby’s rallying cry has been centered on a bigoted conspiracy theory: that just talking about discrimination could bring South Korea under a homosexual dictatorship. In sermons, street banners and on Christian media and YouTube, they predict that young Koreans will be coaxed into embracing nonheteronormative identities, transforming the social order. Family structures would crumble, they warn; even fewer babies would be born in a country already recording the world’s lowest fertility rate. Gay relationships in the armed forces would jeopardize national security against North Korea, they say. And an ensuing AIDS epidemic would bankrupt the state.

Such prophecies appear to be part of an effort to stave off a larger crisis: South Korea’s waning interest in Christianity, which took off in the country after the Korean War — seen both as a beacon of hope that symbolized Western modernity and as an antidote to Communism. But Protestant denominations have splintered, and membership is declining. To create unity, extremist Protestants seem to be rallying around an invented enemy: L.G.B.T.Q. people and the laws that would protect them.

Churches say the proposals for equality legislation pose a genuine threat to their freedom of speech and religion. The United Christian Churches of Korea, one of the country’s largest coalitions of Protestant churches, maintains that any prospective anti-discrimination legislation would legitimize homosexuality, contrary to its interpretation of the Bible. “If such a law is enacted, it is certain that the activities of churches that teach the Bible will be restricted,” the coalition secretariat wrote in a translated email, “as it does not even allow criticism of homosexuality.”

The recent election results have sparked fresh concern among the Christian lobby that opposition lawmakers may push ahead with equality legislation, despite the fact that churches in which anti-gay preaching may occur are not included in the scope of any of the draft anti-discrimination bills. An editorial in Christian Daily on April 15 warned politicians against touching the issue: “No matter how overwhelming the majority party is, they could face backlash if they recklessly push out legislation that causes social chaos.”

Indeed, the lawmakers who have dared to advocate equality have endured text bombing , and related online message boards have been invaded by trolls .

It’s a worrying development not just for those who are directly affected by the Christian lobby’s anti-L.G.B.T.Q. crusade. As in other societies where homophobia is on the rise, the anti-equality campaign is a red flag for other minority groups. Foreigners, migrant workers , people with disabilities and North Korean defectors all lack unambiguous protection from discrimination under South Korean law.

“Anyone can be the next target,” said Heezy Yang, a queer artist and activist. “Fighting for equality is about protecting all of society.”

Raphael Rashid ( @koryodynasty ) has been a journalist in Seoul for 12 years. He is the author of “ The Korea We Refuse to See ,” published in Korean.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

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Is the unchurching of young people behind the strange new rise of antisemitism on campus?

It was a surprise to many that Jew-hatred is big on campuses these days. Explanations are few and far between about where the ugly idea comes from.

Is it about a belief that Jews have all the money and political power like the lunatic fringe, the Klan, and LaRouchies claim? Not that anyone but a weirdo (and Rep. Ilhan Omar) would embrace that. Those are the views of freaks.

The antisemitism now seen is of a more slippery variety, the kind that claims that Zionism is racism, Israelis are the 'real' Nazis, or Apartheid practitioners, and every bad act of other characters in recent history. Suddenly, and however improbable, it's now pinned on the Jews. Corollary to this are the claims among the campus elite that they don't hate Jews, only Zionists, a distinction without a difference, and a self-justification that falls apart increasingly frequently.

So what's happening? One thing is the basic jealousy factor which is often directed at Jews, whose Israel has made the desert bloom and is constantly a source of innovation and advances, as George Gilder and Eric Hoffer have noted in their previous work.

But John Dilulio at City Journal found something else :

  As the old saying goes, an explanation is the place where the mind comes to rest. But if we dig deeper, might we find an inverse relationship between religious commitments and anti-Semitism, such that a decline in religion begets a rise in anti-Semitism? A suggestive study released last year might lead one to consider that possibility. In “ From the Death of God to the Rise of Hitler ,” published in the Journal of Economic Literature , economists Sasha O. Becker and Hans-Joachim Voth subjected diverse datasets to cutting-edge statistical analyses to test whether Germans who lived in robustly Christian communities were more or less likely than otherwise comparable Germans to join the Nazi Party. if (publir_show_ads) { googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.pubads().addEventListener("slotRenderEnded", function(event) { if (event.slot.getSlotElementId() == "div-hre-Americanthinker---New-3028") { googletag.display("div-hre-Americanthinker---New-3028"); } }); }); } As Becker and Voth interpreted them, the results favored what they styled the “Shallow Christianity” theory: in places in which “the Christian Church only had shallow roots, the Nazis received higher electoral support and saw more party entry.” The “results,” they concluded, “suggest that Nazi support and Hitler’s startling appeal received an important boost from the spiritual ‘emptiness’ of large parts of the German population.”

He points out that it may seem a bit wrong, given that antisemitism has in the past been perfectly present in the Catholic Church, and certainly some Protestant churches. Martin Luther was pretty antisemitic, actually. Even Jews who converted to Christianity were exposed to untold abuse and cast out for it in earlier centuries, Dilulio noted. In recent times, there was that bad priest who broadcast hate-Jew sentiment on the radio ahead of World War II. I won't bother looking him up, may his name be forgotten, but he wasn't ancient history.

But the study of who turned Nazi cited above did make sense. Recall that Pope Benedict XIV, who demonstrated his contempt for Nazis by deserting forced conscription in their army as a teenager, was from Bavaria, the most devoutly Catholic part of Germany, and the least friendly state to Hitler.

A devout community like that could easily nurture many kids in its Catholic values which would have to preclude antisemitism, since those who read the Bible are distinctly aware that they are reading about Jews, and what's more, they would know that that same Bible says that God Himself says he will never abandon the Jews, so that's the Christian faith, too.

Recall that Hitler, waving his fist in a propaganda poster insisted that "you are either a Nazi or a Christian, you can't be both."

As Cardinal Dolan wrote in his Easter essay that appeared in the Wall Street Journal, people are attracted to Christianity by coming to church on Easter, because they long for community.

A corollary must be that without community, with miserable, deracinated youth of weak family ties and no social capital, antisemitism fills some kind of rage-filled void. We have certainly seen it in Middle Eastern communities where social capital is low and modernity is mystifying.

Dilulio also notes:

As Paul Johnson wrote in his History of the Jews (1988), it is to the Jews that “we owe the idea of equality before the law, both divine and human; of the sanctity of life and the dignity of the human person . . . of collective conscience and so of social responsibility . . . of peace as an abstract ideal . . . and many other items which constitute the basic moral furniture of the human mind.”

Anyone who's been deprived of community isn't going to value those things much except as a parody.

Perhaps that is what we are seeing on campuses now in the post-COVID isolated generation, too, a cellphone- and videogame- and social media reality that isn't much of a community. Combine it with lockdowns and the effect is disastrous because Jews are the center of all that is civilized in our world today, the values that make civilization possible.

And if that is a clue, then maybe the solution to this crisis of youth spewing antisemitism is to get them into churches of some kind. The Christian heritage is inseparable from the Jewish heritage and any fool who wants to argue with God about it is, well, a idiot. I always wonder what the fools spewing antisemitism are going to tell God with the Prophets at his side on Judgment Day. For them, there is no judgment day, of course, because they are unchurched. More and more, the lack of churching out there looks like a seedbed for a rebellion, not just against the Jewish faithgivers but against God Himself. That won't end well.

Image: Pixabay / Pixabay License

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