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44 Powerful Instructional Strategies Examples for Every Classroom

So many ways to help students learn!

Looking for some new ways to teach and learn in your classroom? This roundup of instructional strategies examples includes methods that will appeal to all learners and work for any teacher.

What are instructional strategies?

In the simplest of terms, instructional strategies are the methods teachers use to achieve learning objectives. In other words, pretty much every learning activity you can think of is an example of an instructional strategy. They’re also known as teaching strategies and learning strategies.

The more instructional strategies a teacher has in their tool kit, the more they’re able to reach all of their students. Different types of learners respond better to various strategies, and some topics are best taught with one strategy over another. Usually, teachers use a wide array of strategies across a single lesson. This gives all students a chance to play to their strengths and ensures they have a deeper connection to the material.

There are a lot of different ways of looking at instructional strategies. One of the most common breaks them into five basic types. It’s important to remember that many learning activities fall into more than one of these categories, and teachers rarely use one type of strategy alone. The key is to know when a strategy can be most effective, for the learners or for the learning objective. Here’s a closer look at the five basic types, with instructional strategies examples for each.

Direct Instruction Instructional Strategies Examples

Direct instruction can also be called “teacher-led instruction,” and it’s exactly what it sounds like. The teacher provides the information, while the students watch, listen, and learn. Students may participate by answering questions asked by the teacher or practicing a skill under their supervision. This is a very traditional form of teaching, and one that can be highly effective when you need to provide information or teach specific skills.

This method gets a lot of flack these days for being “boring” or “old-fashioned.” It’s true that you don’t want it to be your only instructional strategy, but short lectures are still very effective learning tools. This type of direct instruction is perfect for imparting specific detailed information or teaching a step-by-step process. And lectures don’t have to be boring—just look at the success of TED Talks .

Didactic Questioning

These are often paired with other direct instruction methods like lecturing. The teacher asks questions to determine student understanding of the material. They’re often questions that start with “who,” “what,” “where,” and “when.”

Demonstration

In this direct instruction method, students watch as a teacher demonstrates an action or skill. This might be seeing a teacher solving a math problem step-by-step, or watching them demonstrate proper handwriting on the whiteboard. Usually, this is followed by having students do hands-on practice or activities in a similar manner.

Drill & Practice

If you’ve ever used flash cards to help kids practice math facts or had your whole class chant the spelling of a word out loud, you’ve used drill & practice. It’s another one of those traditional instructional strategies examples. When kids need to memorize specific information or master a step-by-step skill, drill & practice really works.

Indirect Instruction Instructional Strategies Examples

This form of instruction is learner-led and helps develop higher-order thinking skills. Teachers guide and support, but students drive the learning through reading, research, asking questions, formulating ideas and opinions, and more. This method isn’t ideal when you need to teach detailed information or a step-by-step process. Instead, use it to develop critical thinking skills , especially when more than one solution or opinion is valid.

Problem-Solving

In this indirect learning method, students work their way through a problem to find a solution. Along the way, they must develop the knowledge to understand the problem and use creative thinking to solve it. STEM challenges are terrific examples of problem-solving instructional strategies.

Project-Based Learning

When kids participate in true project-based learning, they’re learning through indirect and experiential strategies. As they work to find solutions to a real-world problem, they develop critical thinking skills and learn by research, trial and error, collaboration, and other experiences.

Learn more: What Is Project-Based Learning?

Concept Mapping

Students use concept maps to break down a subject into its main points and draw connections between these points. They brainstorm the big-picture ideas, then draw lines to connect terms, details, and more to help them visualize the topic.

Case Studies

When you think of case studies, law school is probably the first thing that jumps to mind. But this method works at any age, for a variety of topics. This indirect learning method teaches students to use material to draw conclusions, make connections, and advance their existing knowledge.

Reading for Meaning

This is different than learning to read. Instead, it’s when students use texts (print or digital) to learn about a topic. This traditional strategy works best when students already have strong reading comprehension skills. Try our free reading comprehension bundle to give students the ability to get the most out of reading for meaning.

Flipped Classroom

In a flipped classroom, students read texts or watch prerecorded lectures at home. Classroom time is used for deeper learning activities, like discussions, labs, and one-on-one time for teachers and students.

Learn more: What Is a Flipped Classroom?

Experiential Learning Instructional Strategies Examples

In experiential learning, students learn by doing. Rather than following a set of instructions or listening to a lecture, they dive right into an activity or experience. Once again, the teacher is a guide, there to answer questions and gently keep learning on track if necessary. At the end, and often throughout, the learners reflect on their experience, drawing conclusions about the skills and knowledge they’ve gained. Experiential learning values the process over the product.

Science Experiments

This is experiential learning at its best. Hands-on experiments let kids learn to establish expectations, create sound methodology, draw conclusions, and more.

Learn more: Hundreds of science experiment ideas for kids and teens

Field Trips

Heading out into the real world gives kids a chance to learn indirectly, through experiences. They may see concepts they already know put into practice or learn new information or skills from the world around them.

Learn more: The Big List of PreK-12 Field Trip Ideas

Games and Gamification

Teachers have long known that playing games is a fun (and sometimes sneaky) way to get kids to learn. You can use specially designed educational games for any subject. Plus, regular board games often involve a lot of indirect learning about math, reading, critical thinking, and more.

Learn more: Classic Classroom Games and Best Online Educational Games

Service Learning

This is another instructional strategies example that takes students out into the real world. It often involves problem-solving skills and gives kids the opportunity for meaningful social-emotional learning.

Learn more: What Is Service Learning?

Interactive Instruction Instructional Strategies Examples

As you might guess, this strategy is all about interaction between the learners and often the teacher. The focus is on discussion and sharing. Students hear other viewpoints, talk things out, and help each other learn and understand the material. Teachers can be a part of these discussions, or they can oversee smaller groups or pairings and help guide the interactions as needed. Interactive instruction helps students develop interpersonal skills like listening and observation.

Peer Instruction

It’s often said the best way to learn something is to teach it to others. Studies into the so-called “ protégé effect ” seem to prove it too. In order to teach, you first must understand the information yourself. Then, you have to find ways to share it with others—sometimes more than one way. This deepens your connection to the material, and it sticks with you much longer. Try having peers instruct one another in your classroom, and see the magic in action.

Reciprocal Teaching

This method is specifically used in reading instruction, as a cooperative learning strategy. Groups of students take turns acting as the teacher, helping students predict, clarify, question, and summarize. Teachers model the process initially, then observe and guide only as needed.

Some teachers shy away from debate in the classroom, afraid it will become too adversarial. But learning to discuss and defend various points of view is an important life skill. Debates teach students to research their topic, make informed choices, and argue effectively using facts instead of emotion.

Learn more: High School Debate Topics To Challenge Every Student

Class or Small-Group Discussion

Class, small-group, and pair discussions are all excellent interactive instructional strategies examples. As students discuss a topic, they clarify their own thinking and learn from the experiences and opinions of others. Of course, in addition to learning about the topic itself, they’re also developing valuable active listening and collaboration skills.

Learn more: Strategies To Improve Classroom Discussions

Socratic Seminar and Fishbowl

Take your classroom discussions one step further with the fishbowl method. A small group of students sits in the middle of the class. They discuss and debate a topic, while their classmates listen silently and make notes. Eventually, the teacher opens the discussion to the whole class, who offer feedback and present their own assertions and challenges.

Learn more: How I Use Fishbowl Discussions To Engage Every Student

Brainstorming

Rather than having a teacher provide examples to explain a topic or solve a problem, students do the work themselves. Remember the one rule of brainstorming: Every idea is welcome. Ensure everyone gets a chance to participate, and form diverse groups to generate lots of unique ideas.

Role-Playing

Role-playing is sort of like a simulation but less intense. It’s perfect for practicing soft skills and focusing on social-emotional learning . Put a twist on this strategy by having students model bad interactions as well as good ones and then discussing the difference.

Think-Pair-Share

This structured discussion technique is simple: First, students think about a question posed by the teacher. Pair students up, and let them talk about their answer. Finally open it up to whole-class discussion. This helps kids participate in discussions in a low-key way and gives them a chance to “practice” before they talk in front of the whole class.

Learn more: Think-Pair-Share and Fun Alternatives

Independent Learning Instructional Strategies Examples

Also called independent study, this form of learning is almost entirely student-led. Teachers take a backseat role, providing materials, answering questions, and guiding or supervising. It’s an excellent way to allow students to dive deep into topics that really interest them, or to encourage learning at a pace that’s comfortable for each student.

Learning Centers

Foster independent learning strategies with centers just for math, writing, reading, and more. Provide a variety of activities, and let kids choose how they spend their time. They often learn better from activities they enjoy.

Learn more: The Big List of K-2 Literacy Centers

Computer-Based Instruction

Once a rarity, now a daily fact of life, computer-based instruction lets students work independently. They can go at their own pace, repeating sections without feeling like they’re holding up the class. Teach students good computer skills at a young age so you’ll feel comfortable knowing they’re focusing on the work and doing it safely.

Writing an essay encourages kids to clarify and organize their thinking. Written communication has become more important in recent years, so being able to write clearly and concisely is a skill every kid needs. This independent instructional strategy has stood the test of time for good reason.

Learn more: The Big List of Essay Topics for High School

Research Projects

Here’s another oldie-but-goodie! When kids work independently to research and present on a topic, their learning is all up to them. They set the pace, choose a focus, and learn how to plan and meet deadlines. This is often a chance for them to show off their creativity and personality too.

Personal journals give kids a chance to reflect and think critically on topics. Whether responding to teacher prompts or simply recording their daily thoughts and experiences, this independent learning method strengthens writing and intrapersonal skills.

Learn more: The Benefits of Journaling in the Classroom

Play-Based Learning

In play-based learning programs, children learn by exploring their own interests. Teachers identify and help students pursue their interests by asking questions, creating play opportunities, and encouraging students to expand their play.

Learn more: What Is Play-Based Learning?

More Instructional Strategies Examples

Don’t be afraid to try new strategies from time to time—you just might find a new favorite! Here are some of the most common instructional strategies examples.

Simulations

This strategy combines experiential, interactive, and indirect learning all in one. The teacher sets up a simulation of a real-world activity or experience. Students take on roles and participate in the exercise, using existing skills and knowledge or developing new ones along the way. At the end, the class reflects separately and together on what happened and what they learned.

Storytelling

Ever since Aesop’s fables, we’ve been using storytelling as a way to teach. Stories grab students’ attention right from the start and keep them engaged throughout the learning process. Real-life stories and fiction both work equally well, depending on the situation.

Learn more: Teaching as Storytelling

Scaffolding

Scaffolding is defined as breaking learning into bite-sized chunks so students can more easily tackle complex material. It builds on old ideas and connects them to new ones. An educator models or demonstrates how to solve a problem, then steps back and encourages the students to solve the problem independently. Scaffolding teaching gives students the support they need by breaking learning into achievable sizes while they progress toward understanding and independence.

Learn more: What Is Scaffolding in Education?

Spaced Repetition

Often paired with direct or independent instruction, spaced repetition is a method where students are asked to recall certain information or skills at increasingly longer intervals. For instance, the day after discussing the causes of the American Civil War in class, the teacher might return to the topic and ask students to list the causes. The following week, the teacher asks them once again, and then a few weeks after that. Spaced repetition helps make knowledge stick, and it is especially useful when it’s not something students practice each day but will need to know in the long term (such as for a final exam).

Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers are a way of organizing information visually to help students understand and remember it. A good organizer simplifies complex information and lays it out in a way that makes it easier for a learner to digest. Graphic organizers may include text and images, and they help students make connections in a meaningful way.

Learn more: Graphic Organizers 101: Why and How To Use Them

Jigsaw combines group learning with peer teaching. Students are assigned to “home groups.” Within that group, each student is given a specialized topic to learn about. They join up with other students who were given the same topic, then research, discuss, and become experts. Finally, students return to their home group and teach the other members about the topic they specialized in.

Multidisciplinary Instruction

As the name implies, this instructional strategy approaches a topic using techniques and aspects from multiple disciplines, helping students explore it more thoroughly from a variety of viewpoints. For instance, to learn more about a solar eclipse, students might explore scientific explanations, research the history of eclipses, read literature related to the topic, and calculate angles, temperatures, and more.

Interdisciplinary Instruction

This instructional strategy takes multidisciplinary instruction a step further, using it to synthesize information and viewpoints from a variety of disciplines to tackle issues and problems. Imagine a group of students who want to come up with ways to improve multicultural relations at their school. They might approach the topic by researching statistical information about the school population, learning more about the various cultures and their history, and talking with students, teachers, and more. Then, they use the information they’ve uncovered to present possible solutions.

Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated instruction means tailoring your teaching so all students, regardless of their ability, can learn the classroom material. Teachers can customize the content, process, product, and learning environment to help all students succeed. There are lots of differentiated instructional strategies to help educators accommodate various learning styles, backgrounds, and more.

Learn more: What Is Differentiated Instruction?

Culturally Responsive Teaching

Culturally responsive teaching is based on the understanding that we learn best when we can connect with the material. For culturally responsive teachers, that means weaving their students’ various experiences, customs, communication styles, and perspectives throughout the learning process.

Learn more: What Is Culturally Responsive Teaching?

Response to Intervention

Response to Intervention, or RTI, is a way to identify and support students who need extra academic or behavioral help to succeed in school. It’s a tiered approach with various “levels” students move through depending on how much support they need.

Learn more: What Is Response to Intervention?

Inquiry-Based Learning

Inquiry-based learning means tailoring your curriculum to what your students are interested in rather than having a set agenda that you can’t veer from—it means letting children’s curiosity take the lead and then guiding that interest to explore, research, and reflect upon their own learning.

Learn more: What Is Inquiry-Based Learning?

Growth Mindset

Growth mindset is key for learners. They must be open to new ideas and processes and believe they can learn anything with enough effort. It sounds simplistic, but when students really embrace the concept, it can be a real game-changer. Teachers can encourage a growth mindset by using instructional strategies that allow students to learn from their mistakes, rather than punishing them for those mistakes.

Learn more: Growth Mindset vs. Fixed Mindset and 25 Growth Mindset Activities

Blended Learning

This strategy combines face-to-face classroom learning with online learning, in a mix of self-paced independent learning and direct instruction. It’s incredibly common in today’s schools, where most students spend at least part of their day completing self-paced lessons and activities via online technology. Students may also complete their online instructional time at home.

Asynchronous (Self-Paced) Learning

This fancy term really just describes strategies that allow each student to work at their own pace using a flexible schedule. This method became a necessity during the days of COVID lockdowns, as families did their best to let multiple children share one device. All students in an asynchronous class setting learn the same material using the same activities, but do so on their own timetable.

Learn more: Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Learning

Essential Questions

Essential questions are the big-picture questions that inspire inquiry and discussion. Teachers give students a list of several essential questions to consider as they begin a unit or topic. As they dive deeper into the information, teachers ask more specific essential questions to help kids make connections to the “essential” points of a text or subject.

Learn more: Questions That Set a Purpose for Reading

How do I choose the right instructional strategies for my classroom?

When it comes to choosing instructional strategies, there are several things to consider:

• Learning objectives: What will students be able to do as a result of this lesson or activity? If you are teaching specific skills or detailed information, a direct approach may be best. When you want students to develop their own methods of understanding, consider experiential learning. To encourage critical thinking skills, try indirect or interactive instruction.
• Assessments : How will you be measuring whether students have met the learning objectives? The strategies you use should prepare them to succeed. For instance, if you’re teaching spelling, direct instruction is often the best method, since drill-and-practice simulates the experience of taking a spelling test.
• Learning styles : What types of learners do you need to accommodate? Most classrooms (and most students) respond best to a mix of instructional strategies. Those who have difficulty speaking in class might not benefit as much from interactive learning, and students who have trouble staying on task might struggle with independent learning.
• Learning environment: Every classroom looks different, and the environment can vary day by day. Perhaps it’s testing week for other grades in your school, so you need to keep things quieter in your classroom. This probably isn’t the time for experiments or lots of loud discussions. Some activities simply aren’t practical indoors, and the weather might not allow you to take learning outside.

Come discuss instructional strategies and ask for advice in the We Are Teachers HELPLINE group on Facebook !

Plus, check out the things the best instructional coaches do, according to teachers ..

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Center for Teaching

Teaching problem solving.

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Tips and Techniques

Expert vs. novice problem solvers, communicate.

• Have students  identify specific problems, difficulties, or confusions . Don’t waste time working through problems that students already understand.
• If students are unable to articulate their concerns, determine where they are having trouble by  asking them to identify the specific concepts or principles associated with the problem.
• In a one-on-one tutoring session, ask the student to  work his/her problem out loud . This slows down the thinking process, making it more accurate and allowing you to access understanding.
• When working with larger groups you can ask students to provide a written “two-column solution.” Have students write up their solution to a problem by putting all their calculations in one column and all of their reasoning (in complete sentences) in the other column. This helps them to think critically about their own problem solving and helps you to more easily identify where they may be having problems. Two-Column Solution (Math) Two-Column Solution (Physics)

Encourage Independence

• Model the problem solving process rather than just giving students the answer. As you work through the problem, consider how a novice might struggle with the concepts and make your thinking clear
• Have students work through problems on their own. Ask directing questions or give helpful suggestions, but  provide only minimal assistance and only when needed to overcome obstacles.
• Don’t fear  group work ! Students can frequently help each other, and talking about a problem helps them think more critically about the steps needed to solve the problem. Additionally, group work helps students realize that problems often have multiple solution strategies, some that might be more effective than others

Be sensitive

• Frequently, when working problems, students are unsure of themselves. This lack of confidence may hamper their learning. It is important to recognize this when students come to us for help, and to give each student some feeling of mastery. Do this by providing  positive reinforcement to let students know when they have mastered a new concept or skill.

Encourage Thoroughness and Patience

• Try to communicate that  the process is more important than the answer so that the student learns that it is OK to not have an instant solution. This is learned through your acceptance of his/her pace of doing things, through your refusal to let anxiety pressure you into giving the right answer, and through your example of problem solving through a step-by step process.

Experts (teachers) in a particular field are often so fluent in solving problems from that field that they can find it difficult to articulate the problem solving principles and strategies they use to novices (students) in their field because these principles and strategies are second nature to the expert. To teach students problem solving skills,  a teacher should be aware of principles and strategies of good problem solving in his or her discipline .

The mathematician George Polya captured the problem solving principles and strategies he used in his discipline in the book  How to Solve It: A New Aspect of Mathematical Method (Princeton University Press, 1957). The book includes  a summary of Polya’s problem solving heuristic as well as advice on the teaching of problem solving.

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Teaching problem solving

Strategies for teaching problem solving apply across disciplines and instructional contexts. First, introduce the problem and explain how people in your discipline generally make sense of the given information. Then, explain how to apply these approaches to solve the problem.

Introducing the problem

Explaining how people in your discipline understand and interpret these types of problems can help students develop the skills they need to understand the problem (and find a solution). After introducing how you would go about solving a problem, you could then ask students to:

• frame the problem in their own words
• define key terms and concepts
• determine statements that accurately represent the givens of a problem
• identify analogous problems
• determine what information is needed to solve the problem

Working on solutions

In the solution phase, one develops and then implements a coherent plan for solving the problem. As you help students with this phase, you might ask them to:

• identify the general model or procedure they have in mind for solving the problem
• set sub-goals for solving the problem
• identify necessary operations and steps
• draw conclusions
• carry out necessary operations

You can help students tackle a problem effectively by asking them to:

• systematically explain each step and its rationale
• explain how they would approach solving the problem
• help you solve the problem by posing questions at key points in the process
• work together in small groups (3 to 5 students) to solve the problem and then have the solution presented to the rest of the class (either by you or by a student in the group)

In all cases, the more you get the students to articulate their own understandings of the problem and potential solutions, the more you can help them develop their expertise in approaching problems in your discipline.

Teaching Problem-Solving Skills

Many instructors design opportunities for students to solve “problems”. But are their students solving true problems or merely participating in practice exercises? The former stresses critical thinking and decision­ making skills whereas the latter requires only the application of previously learned procedures.

Problem solving is often broadly defined as "the ability to understand the environment, identify complex problems, review related information to develop, evaluate strategies and implement solutions to build the desired outcome" (Fissore, C. et al, 2021). True problem solving is the process of applying a method – not known in advance – to a problem that is subject to a specific set of conditions and that the problem solver has not seen before, in order to obtain a satisfactory solution.

Below you will find some basic principles for teaching problem solving and one model to implement in your classroom teaching.

Principles for teaching problem solving

• Model a useful problem-solving method . Problem solving can be difficult and sometimes tedious. Show students how to be patient and persistent, and how to follow a structured method, such as Woods’ model described below. Articulate your method as you use it so students see the connections.
• Teach within a specific context . Teach problem-solving skills in the context in which they will be used by students (e.g., mole fraction calculations in a chemistry course). Use real-life problems in explanations, examples, and exams. Do not teach problem solving as an independent, abstract skill.
• Help students understand the problem . In order to solve problems, students need to define the end goal. This step is crucial to successful learning of problem-solving skills. If you succeed at helping students answer the questions “what?” and “why?”, finding the answer to “how?” will be easier.
• Take enough time . When planning a lecture/tutorial, budget enough time for: understanding the problem and defining the goal (both individually and as a class); dealing with questions from you and your students; making, finding, and fixing mistakes; and solving entire problems in a single session.
• Ask questions and make suggestions . Ask students to predict “what would happen if …” or explain why something happened. This will help them to develop analytical and deductive thinking skills. Also, ask questions and make suggestions about strategies to encourage students to reflect on the problem-solving strategies that they use.
• Link errors to misconceptions . Use errors as evidence of misconceptions, not carelessness or random guessing. Make an effort to isolate the misconception and correct it, then teach students to do this by themselves. We can all learn from mistakes.

Woods’ problem-solving model

Define the problem.

• The system . Have students identify the system under study (e.g., a metal bridge subject to certain forces) by interpreting the information provided in the problem statement. Drawing a diagram is a great way to do this.
• Known(s) and concepts . List what is known about the problem, and identify the knowledge needed to understand (and eventually) solve it.
• Unknown(s) . Once you have a list of knowns, identifying the unknown(s) becomes simpler. One unknown is generally the answer to the problem, but there may be other unknowns. Be sure that students understand what they are expected to find.
• Units and symbols . One key aspect in problem solving is teaching students how to select, interpret, and use units and symbols. Emphasize the use of units whenever applicable. Develop a habit of using appropriate units and symbols yourself at all times.
• Constraints . All problems have some stated or implied constraints. Teach students to look for the words "only", "must", "neglect", or "assume" to help identify the constraints.
• Criteria for success . Help students consider, from the beginning, what a logical type of answer would be. What characteristics will it possess? For example, a quantitative problem will require an answer in some form of numerical units (e.g., $/kg product, square cm, etc.) while an optimization problem requires an answer in the form of either a numerical maximum or minimum.

Think about it

• “Let it simmer”.  Use this stage to ponder the problem. Ideally, students will develop a mental image of the problem at hand during this stage.
• Identify specific pieces of knowledge . Students need to determine by themselves the required background knowledge from illustrations, examples and problems covered in the course.
• Collect information . Encourage students to collect pertinent information such as conversion factors, constants, and tables needed to solve the problem.

Plan a solution

• Consider possible strategies . Often, the type of solution will be determined by the type of problem. Some common problem-solving strategies are: compute; simplify; use an equation; make a model, diagram, table, or chart; or work backwards.
• Choose the best strategy . Help students to choose the best strategy by reminding them again what they are required to find or calculate.

Carry out the plan

• Be patient . Most problems are not solved quickly or on the first attempt. In other cases, executing the solution may be the easiest step.
• Be persistent . If a plan does not work immediately, do not let students get discouraged. Encourage them to try a different strategy and keep trying.

Encourage students to reflect. Once a solution has been reached, students should ask themselves the following questions:

• Does the answer make sense?
• Does it fit with the criteria established in step 1?
• Did I answer the question(s)?
• What did I learn by doing this?
• Could I have done the problem another way?

If you would like support applying these tips to your own teaching, CTE staff members are here to help.  View the  CTE Support  page to find the most relevant staff member to contact. 

• Fissore, C., Marchisio, M., Roman, F., & Sacchet, M. (2021). Development of problem solving skills with Maple in higher education. In: Corless, R.M., Gerhard, J., Kotsireas, I.S. (eds) Maple in Mathematics Education and Research. MC 2020. Communications in Computer and Information Science, vol 1414. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81698-8_15
• Foshay, R., & Kirkley, J. (1998). Principles for Teaching Problem Solving. TRO Learning Inc., Edina MN.  (PDF) Principles for Teaching Problem Solving (researchgate.net)
• Hayes, J.R. (1989). The Complete Problem Solver. 2nd Edition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Woods, D.R., Wright, J.D., Hoffman, T.W., Swartman, R.K., Doig, I.D. (1975). Teaching Problem solving Skills.
• Engineering Education. Vol 1, No. 1. p. 238. Washington, DC: The American Society for Engineering Education.

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Classroom Q&A

With larry ferlazzo.

In this EdWeek blog, an experiment in knowledge-gathering, Ferlazzo will address readers’ questions on classroom management, ELL instruction, lesson planning, and other issues facing teachers. Send your questions to [email protected]. Read more from this blog.

Eight Instructional Strategies for Promoting Critical Thinking

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(This is the first post in a three-part series.)

The new question-of-the-week is:

What is critical thinking and how can we integrate it into the classroom?

This three-part series will explore what critical thinking is, if it can be specifically taught and, if so, how can teachers do so in their classrooms.

Today’s guests are Dara Laws Savage, Patrick Brown, Meg Riordan, Ph.D., and Dr. PJ Caposey. Dara, Patrick, and Meg were also guests on my 10-minute BAM! Radio Show . You can also find a list of, and links to, previous shows here.

You might also be interested in The Best Resources On Teaching & Learning Critical Thinking In The Classroom .

Current Events

Dara Laws Savage is an English teacher at the Early College High School at Delaware State University, where she serves as a teacher and instructional coach and lead mentor. Dara has been teaching for 25 years (career preparation, English, photography, yearbook, newspaper, and graphic design) and has presented nationally on project-based learning and technology integration:

There is so much going on right now and there is an overload of information for us to process. Did you ever stop to think how our students are processing current events? They see news feeds, hear news reports, and scan photos and posts, but are they truly thinking about what they are hearing and seeing?

I tell my students that my job is not to give them answers but to teach them how to think about what they read and hear. So what is critical thinking and how can we integrate it into the classroom? There are just as many definitions of critical thinking as there are people trying to define it. However, the Critical Think Consortium focuses on the tools to create a thinking-based classroom rather than a definition: “Shape the climate to support thinking, create opportunities for thinking, build capacity to think, provide guidance to inform thinking.” Using these four criteria and pairing them with current events, teachers easily create learning spaces that thrive on thinking and keep students engaged.

One successful technique I use is the FIRE Write. Students are given a quote, a paragraph, an excerpt, or a photo from the headlines. Students are asked to F ocus and respond to the selection for three minutes. Next, students are asked to I dentify a phrase or section of the photo and write for two minutes. Third, students are asked to R eframe their response around a specific word, phrase, or section within their previous selection. Finally, students E xchange their thoughts with a classmate. Within the exchange, students also talk about how the selection connects to what we are covering in class.

There was a controversial Pepsi ad in 2017 involving Kylie Jenner and a protest with a police presence. The imagery in the photo was strikingly similar to a photo that went viral with a young lady standing opposite a police line. Using that image from a current event engaged my students and gave them the opportunity to critically think about events of the time.

Here are the two photos and a student response:

F - Focus on both photos and respond for three minutes

In the first picture, you see a strong and courageous black female, bravely standing in front of two officers in protest. She is risking her life to do so. Iesha Evans is simply proving to the world she does NOT mean less because she is black … and yet officers are there to stop her. She did not step down. In the picture below, you see Kendall Jenner handing a police officer a Pepsi. Maybe this wouldn’t be a big deal, except this was Pepsi’s weak, pathetic, and outrageous excuse of a commercial that belittles the whole movement of people fighting for their lives.

I - Identify a word or phrase, underline it, then write about it for two minutes

A white, privileged female in place of a fighting black woman was asking for trouble. A struggle we are continuously fighting every day, and they make a mockery of it. “I know what will work! Here Mr. Police Officer! Drink some Pepsi!” As if. Pepsi made a fool of themselves, and now their already dwindling fan base continues to ever shrink smaller.

R - Reframe your thoughts by choosing a different word, then write about that for one minute

You don’t know privilege until it’s gone. You don’t know privilege while it’s there—but you can and will be made accountable and aware. Don’t use it for evil. You are not stupid. Use it to do something. Kendall could’ve NOT done the commercial. Kendall could’ve released another commercial standing behind a black woman. Anything!

Exchange - Remember to discuss how this connects to our school song project and our previous discussions?

This connects two ways - 1) We want to convey a strong message. Be powerful. Show who we are. And Pepsi definitely tried. … Which leads to the second connection. 2) Not mess up and offend anyone, as had the one alma mater had been linked to black minstrels. We want to be amazing, but we have to be smart and careful and make sure we include everyone who goes to our school and everyone who may go to our school.

As a final step, students read and annotate the full article and compare it to their initial response.

Using current events and critical-thinking strategies like FIRE writing helps create a learning space where thinking is the goal rather than a score on a multiple-choice assessment. Critical-thinking skills can cross over to any of students’ other courses and into life outside the classroom. After all, we as teachers want to help the whole student be successful, and critical thinking is an important part of navigating life after they leave our classrooms.

‘Before-Explore-Explain’

Patrick Brown is the executive director of STEM and CTE for the Fort Zumwalt school district in Missouri and an experienced educator and author :

Planning for critical thinking focuses on teaching the most crucial science concepts, practices, and logical-thinking skills as well as the best use of instructional time. One way to ensure that lessons maintain a focus on critical thinking is to focus on the instructional sequence used to teach.

Explore-before-explain teaching is all about promoting critical thinking for learners to better prepare students for the reality of their world. What having an explore-before-explain mindset means is that in our planning, we prioritize giving students firsthand experiences with data, allow students to construct evidence-based claims that focus on conceptual understanding, and challenge students to discuss and think about the why behind phenomena.

Just think of the critical thinking that has to occur for students to construct a scientific claim. 1) They need the opportunity to collect data, analyze it, and determine how to make sense of what the data may mean. 2) With data in hand, students can begin thinking about the validity and reliability of their experience and information collected. 3) They can consider what differences, if any, they might have if they completed the investigation again. 4) They can scrutinize outlying data points for they may be an artifact of a true difference that merits further exploration of a misstep in the procedure, measuring device, or measurement. All of these intellectual activities help them form more robust understanding and are evidence of their critical thinking.

In explore-before-explain teaching, all of these hard critical-thinking tasks come before teacher explanations of content. Whether we use discovery experiences, problem-based learning, and or inquiry-based activities, strategies that are geared toward helping students construct understanding promote critical thinking because students learn content by doing the practices valued in the field to generate knowledge.

An Issue of Equity

Meg Riordan, Ph.D., is the chief learning officer at The Possible Project, an out-of-school program that collaborates with youth to build entrepreneurial skills and mindsets and provides pathways to careers and long-term economic prosperity. She has been in the field of education for over 25 years as a middle and high school teacher, school coach, college professor, regional director of N.Y.C. Outward Bound Schools, and director of external research with EL Education:

Although critical thinking often defies straightforward definition, most in the education field agree it consists of several components: reasoning, problem-solving, and decisionmaking, plus analysis and evaluation of information, such that multiple sides of an issue can be explored. It also includes dispositions and “the willingness to apply critical-thinking principles, rather than fall back on existing unexamined beliefs, or simply believe what you’re told by authority figures.”

Despite variation in definitions, critical thinking is nonetheless promoted as an essential outcome of students’ learning—we want to see students and adults demonstrate it across all fields, professions, and in their personal lives. Yet there is simultaneously a rationing of opportunities in schools for students of color, students from under-resourced communities, and other historically marginalized groups to deeply learn and practice critical thinking.

For example, many of our most underserved students often spend class time filling out worksheets, promoting high compliance but low engagement, inquiry, critical thinking, or creation of new ideas. At a time in our world when college and careers are critical for participation in society and the global, knowledge-based economy, far too many students struggle within classrooms and schools that reinforce low-expectations and inequity.

If educators aim to prepare all students for an ever-evolving marketplace and develop skills that will be valued no matter what tomorrow’s jobs are, then we must move critical thinking to the forefront of classroom experiences. And educators must design learning to cultivate it.

So, what does that really look like?

Unpack and define critical thinking

To understand critical thinking, educators need to first unpack and define its components. What exactly are we looking for when we speak about reasoning or exploring multiple perspectives on an issue? How does problem-solving show up in English, math, science, art, or other disciplines—and how is it assessed? At Two Rivers, an EL Education school, the faculty identified five constructs of critical thinking, defined each, and created rubrics to generate a shared picture of quality for teachers and students. The rubrics were then adapted across grade levels to indicate students’ learning progressions.

At Avenues World School, critical thinking is one of the Avenues World Elements and is an enduring outcome embedded in students’ early experiences through 12th grade. For instance, a kindergarten student may be expected to “identify cause and effect in familiar contexts,” while an 8th grader should demonstrate the ability to “seek out sufficient evidence before accepting a claim as true,” “identify bias in claims and evidence,” and “reconsider strongly held points of view in light of new evidence.”

When faculty and students embrace a common vision of what critical thinking looks and sounds like and how it is assessed, educators can then explicitly design learning experiences that call for students to employ critical-thinking skills. This kind of work must occur across all schools and programs, especially those serving large numbers of students of color. As Linda Darling-Hammond asserts , “Schools that serve large numbers of students of color are least likely to offer the kind of curriculum needed to ... help students attain the [critical-thinking] skills needed in a knowledge work economy. ”

So, what can it look like to create those kinds of learning experiences?

Designing experiences for critical thinking

After defining a shared understanding of “what” critical thinking is and “how” it shows up across multiple disciplines and grade levels, it is essential to create learning experiences that impel students to cultivate, practice, and apply these skills. There are several levers that offer pathways for teachers to promote critical thinking in lessons:

1.Choose Compelling Topics: Keep it relevant

A key Common Core State Standard asks for students to “write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.” That might not sound exciting or culturally relevant. But a learning experience designed for a 12th grade humanities class engaged learners in a compelling topic— policing in America —to analyze and evaluate multiple texts (including primary sources) and share the reasoning for their perspectives through discussion and writing. Students grappled with ideas and their beliefs and employed deep critical-thinking skills to develop arguments for their claims. Embedding critical-thinking skills in curriculum that students care about and connect with can ignite powerful learning experiences.

2. Make Local Connections: Keep it real

At The Possible Project , an out-of-school-time program designed to promote entrepreneurial skills and mindsets, students in a recent summer online program (modified from in-person due to COVID-19) explored the impact of COVID-19 on their communities and local BIPOC-owned businesses. They learned interviewing skills through a partnership with Everyday Boston , conducted virtual interviews with entrepreneurs, evaluated information from their interviews and local data, and examined their previously held beliefs. They created blog posts and videos to reflect on their learning and consider how their mindsets had changed as a result of the experience. In this way, we can design powerful community-based learning and invite students into productive struggle with multiple perspectives.

3. Create Authentic Projects: Keep it rigorous

At Big Picture Learning schools, students engage in internship-based learning experiences as a central part of their schooling. Their school-based adviser and internship-based mentor support them in developing real-world projects that promote deeper learning and critical-thinking skills. Such authentic experiences teach “young people to be thinkers, to be curious, to get from curiosity to creation … and it helps students design a learning experience that answers their questions, [providing an] opportunity to communicate it to a larger audience—a major indicator of postsecondary success.” Even in a remote environment, we can design projects that ask more of students than rote memorization and that spark critical thinking.

Our call to action is this: As educators, we need to make opportunities for critical thinking available not only to the affluent or those fortunate enough to be placed in advanced courses. The tools are available, let’s use them. Let’s interrogate our current curriculum and design learning experiences that engage all students in real, relevant, and rigorous experiences that require critical thinking and prepare them for promising postsecondary pathways.

Critical Thinking & Student Engagement

Dr. PJ Caposey is an award-winning educator, keynote speaker, consultant, and author of seven books who currently serves as the superintendent of schools for the award-winning Meridian CUSD 223 in northwest Illinois. You can find PJ on most social-media platforms as MCUSDSupe:

When I start my keynote on student engagement, I invite two people up on stage and give them each five paper balls to shoot at a garbage can also conveniently placed on stage. Contestant One shoots their shot, and the audience gives approval. Four out of 5 is a heckuva score. Then just before Contestant Two shoots, I blindfold them and start moving the garbage can back and forth. I usually try to ensure that they can at least make one of their shots. Nobody is successful in this unfair environment.

I thank them and send them back to their seats and then explain that this little activity was akin to student engagement. While we all know we want student engagement, we are shooting at different targets. More importantly, for teachers, it is near impossible for them to hit a target that is moving and that they cannot see.

Within the world of education and particularly as educational leaders, we have failed to simplify what student engagement looks like, and it is impossible to define or articulate what student engagement looks like if we cannot clearly articulate what critical thinking is and looks like in a classroom. Because, simply, without critical thought, there is no engagement.

The good news here is that critical thought has been defined and placed into taxonomies for decades already. This is not something new and not something that needs to be redefined. I am a Bloom’s person, but there is nothing wrong with DOK or some of the other taxonomies, either. To be precise, I am a huge fan of Daggett’s Rigor and Relevance Framework. I have used that as a core element of my practice for years, and it has shaped who I am as an instructional leader.

So, in order to explain critical thought, a teacher or a leader must familiarize themselves with these tried and true taxonomies. Easy, right? Yes, sort of. The issue is not understanding what critical thought is; it is the ability to integrate it into the classrooms. In order to do so, there are a four key steps every educator must take.

• Integrating critical thought/rigor into a lesson does not happen by chance, it happens by design. Planning for critical thought and engagement is much different from planning for a traditional lesson. In order to plan for kids to think critically, you have to provide a base of knowledge and excellent prompts to allow them to explore their own thinking in order to analyze, evaluate, or synthesize information.
• SIDE NOTE – Bloom’s verbs are a great way to start when writing objectives, but true planning will take you deeper than this.

QUESTIONING

• If the questions and prompts given in a classroom have correct answers or if the teacher ends up answering their own questions, the lesson will lack critical thought and rigor.
• Script five questions forcing higher-order thought prior to every lesson. Experienced teachers may not feel they need this, but it helps to create an effective habit.
• If lessons are rigorous and assessments are not, students will do well on their assessments, and that may not be an accurate representation of the knowledge and skills they have mastered. If lessons are easy and assessments are rigorous, the exact opposite will happen. When deciding to increase critical thought, it must happen in all three phases of the game: planning, instruction, and assessment.

TALK TIME / CONTROL

• To increase rigor, the teacher must DO LESS. This feels counterintuitive but is accurate. Rigorous lessons involving tons of critical thought must allow for students to work on their own, collaborate with peers, and connect their ideas. This cannot happen in a silent room except for the teacher talking. In order to increase rigor, decrease talk time and become comfortable with less control. Asking questions and giving prompts that lead to no true correct answer also means less control. This is a tough ask for some teachers. Explained differently, if you assign one assignment and get 30 very similar products, you have most likely assigned a low-rigor recipe. If you assign one assignment and get multiple varied products, then the students have had a chance to think deeply, and you have successfully integrated critical thought into your classroom.

Thanks to Dara, Patrick, Meg, and PJ for their contributions!

Please feel free to leave a comment with your reactions to the topic or directly to anything that has been said in this post.

Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at [email protected] . When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it’s selected or if you’d prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind.

You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo .

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Evan Glazer (University of Georgia)

Editor’s Note: Dr. Glazer chose to use the term Problem-based Instruction and Inquiry, but my reading and other references to this chapter also use the term Problem-based Learning. The reader can assume the terms are equivalent.

Description

• Problem-based inquiry is an effort to challenge students to address real-world problems and resolve realistic dilemmas.

Such problems create opportunities for meaningful activities that engage students in problem solving and higher-ordered thinking in authentic settings. Many textbooks attempt to promote these skills through contrived settings without relevance to students’ lives or interests. A notorious algebra problem concerns the time at which two railway trains will pass each other:

Two trains leave different stations headed toward each other. Station A is 500 miles west of Station B. Train A leaves station A at 12:00 pm traveling toward Station B at a rate of 60 miles per hour. Train B leaves Station B at 2:30 pm for Station A at a rate of 45 miles per hour. At what time will the trains meet?

Reading this question, one might respond, “Who cares?”, or, “Why do we need to know this?” Such questions have created substantial anxiety among students and have, perhaps, even been the cause of nightmares. Critics would argue that classic “story problems” leave a lasting impression of meaningless efforts to confuse and torment students, as if they have come from hell’s library. Problem-based inquiry, on the other hand, intends to engage students in relevant, realistic problems.

Several changes would need to be made in the above problem to promote problem-based inquiry. It would first have to be acknowledged that the trains are not, in fact, traveling at constant rates when they are in motion; negotiating curves or changing tracks at high speeds can result in accidents.

Further, all of the information about the problem cannot be presented to the learner at the outset; that is, some ambiguity must exist in the context so that students have an opportunity to engage in a problem-solving activity. In addition, the situation should involve a meaningful scenario. Suppose that a person intends to catch a connecting train at the second station and requires a time-efficient itinerary? What if we are not given data about the trains, but instead, the outcome of a particular event, such as an accident?

Why should we use problem-based inquiry to help students learn?

The American educational system has been criticized for having an underachieving curriculum that leads students to memorize and regurgitate facts that do not apply to their lives (Martin, 1987; Paul, 1993). Many claim that the traditional classroom environment, with its orderly conduct and didactic teaching methods in which the teacher dispenses information, has greatly inhibited students’ opportunities to think critically (Dossey et al., 1988; Goodlad, 1984; Wood, 1987). Problem-based inquiry is an attempt to overcome these obstacles and confront the concerns presented by the National Assessment of Educational Progress:

If an unfriendly foreign power had attempted to impose on America the mediocre educational performance that exists today, we might well have viewed it as an act of war. We have, in effect, been committing an act of unthinking, unilateral educational disarmament. (A Nation at Risk, 1983)

Problem-based inquiry emphasizes learning as a process that involves problem solving and critical thinking in situated contexts. It provides opportunities to address broader learning goals that focus on preparing students for active and responsible citizenship. Students gain experience in tackling realistic problems, and emphasis is placed on using communication, cooperation, and resources to formulate ideas and develop reasoning skills.

What is a framework for a problem-based inquiry?

Situated cognition, constructivism, social learning, and communities of practice are assumed theories of learning and cognition in problem-based inquiry environments. These theories have common themes about the context and the process of learning and are often associated.

Characteristics

Some common characteristics in problem-based learning models:

Activity is grounded in a general question about a problem that has multiple possible answers and methods for addressing the question. Each problem has a general question that guides the overall task followed by ill-structured problems or questions that are generated throughout the problem-solving process. That is, to address the larger question, students must derive and investigate smaller problems or questions that relate to the findings and implications of the broader goal. The problems or questions thus created are most likely new to the students and lack known definitive methods or answers that have been predetermined by the teacher.

Learning is student-centered; the teacher acts as facilitator. In essence, the teacher creates an environment where students take ownership in the direction and content of their learning.

Students work collaboratively towards addressing the general question . All of the students work together to attain the shared goal of producing a solution to the problem. Consequently, the groups co-depend on each other’s performance and contributions in order to make their own advances in reasoning toward answering the research questions and the overall problem.

Learning is driven by the context of the problem and is not bound by an established curriculum. In this environment, students determine what and how much they need to learn in order to accomplish a specific task. Consequently, acquired information and learned concepts and strategies are tied directly to the context of the learning situation. Learning is not confined to a preset curriculum. Creation of a final product is not a necessary requirement of all problem-based inquiry models.

Project-based learning models most often include this type of product as an integral part of the learning process, because learning is expected to occur primarily in the act of creating something. Unlike problem based inquiry models, project-based learning does not necessarily address a real-world problem, nor does it focus on providing argumentation for resolution of an issue.

In a problem-based inquiry setting, there is greater emphasis on problem-solving, analysis, resolution, and explanation of an authentic dilemma. Sometimes this analysis and explanation is represented in the form of a project, but it can also take the form of verbal debate and written summary.

Instructional models and applications

• There is no single method for designing problem-based inquiry learning environments.

Various techniques have been used to generate the problem and stimulate learning. Promoting student-ownership, using a particular medium to focus attention, telling stories, simulating and recreating events, and utilizing resources and data on the Internet are among them. The instructional model, problem based learning will be discussed next with attention to instructional strategies and practical examples.

Problem-Based Learning

• Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional strategy in which students actively resolve complex problems in realistic situations.

It can be used to teach individual lessons, units, or even entire curricula. PBL is often approached in a team environment with emphasis on building skills related to consensual decision making, dialogue and discussion, team maintenance, conflict management, and team leadership. While the fundamental approach of problem solving in situated environments has been used throughout the history of schooling, the term PBL did not appear until the 1970s and was devised as an alternative approach to medical education.

In most medical programs, students initially take a series of fact intensive courses in biology and anatomy and then participate in a field experience as a medical resident in a hospital or clinic. However, Barrows reported that, unfortunately, medical residents frequently had difficulty applying knowledge from their classroom experiences in work-related, problem-solving situations. He argued that the classical framework of learning medical knowledge first in classrooms through studying and testing was too passive and removed from context to take on meaning.

Consequently, PBL was first seen as a medical field immersion experience whereby students learned about their medical specialty through direct engagement in realistic problems and gradual apprenticeship in natural or simulated settings. Problem solving is emphasized as an initial area of learning and development in PBL medical programs more so than memorizing a series of facts outside their natural context.

In addition to the field of medicine, PBL is used in many areas of education and training. In academic courses, PBL is used as a tool to help students understand the utility of a particular concept or study. For example, students may learn about recycling and materials as they determine methods that will reduce the county landfill problem.

In addition, alternative education programs have been created with a PBL emphasis to help at-risk students learn in a different way through partnerships with local businesses and government. In vocational education, PBL experiences often emphasize participation in natural settings.

For example, students in architecture address the problem of designing homes for impoverished areas. Many of the residents need safe housing and cannot afford to purchase typical homes. Consequently, students learn about architectural design and resolving the problem as they construct homes made from recycled materials. In business and the military, simulations are used as a means of instruction in PBL. The affective and physiological stress associated with warfare can influence strategic planning, so PBL in military settings promotes the use of “war games” as a tactic for facing authentic crises.

In business settings, simulations of “what if” scenarios are used to train managers in various strategies and problem-solving approaches to conflict resolution. In both military and business settings, the simulation is a tool that provides an opportunity to not only address realistic problems but to learn from mistakes in a more forgiving way than in an authentic context.

Designing the learning environment

The following elements are commonly associated with PBL activities.

Problem generation: The problems must address concepts and principles relevant to the content domain. Problems are not investigated by students solely for problem solving experiences but as a means of understanding the subject area. Some PBL activities incorporate multidisciplinary approaches, assuming the teacher can provide and coordinate needed resources such as additional content, instructional support, and other teachers. In addition, the problems must relate to real issues that are present in society or students’ lives. Contrived scenarios detract from the perceived usefulness of a concept.

Problem presentation: Students must “own” the problem, either by creating or selecting it. Ownership also implies that their contributions affect the outcome of solving the problem. Thus, more than one solution and more than one method of achieving a solution to the problem are often possible. Furthermore, ownership means that students take responsibility for representing and communicating their work in a unique way.

Predetermined formats of problem structure and analysis towards resolution are not recommended; however, the problem should be presented such that the information in the problem does not call attention to critical factors in the case that will lead to immediate resolution. Ownership also suggests that students will ask further questions, reveal further information, and synthesize critical factors throughout the problem-solving process.

Teacher role: Teachers act primarily as cognitive coaches by facilitating learning and modeling higher order thinking and meta cognitive skills. As facilitators, teachers give students control over how they learn and provide support and structure in the direction of their learning. They help the class create a common framework of expectations using tools such as general guidelines and time lines.

As cognitive modelers, teachers think aloud about strategies and questions that influence how students manage the progress of their learning and accomplish group tasks. In addition, teachers continually question students about the concepts they are learning in the context of the problem in order to probe their understanding, challenge their thinking, and help them deepen or extend their ideas.

Student role: Students first define or select an ill-structured problem that has no obvious solution. They develop alternative hypotheses to resolve the problem and discuss and negotiate their conjectures in a group. Next, they access, evaluate, and utilize data from a variety of available sources to support or refute their hypotheses. They may alter, develop, or synthesize hypotheses in light of new information. Finally, they develop clearly stated solutions that fit the problem and its inherent conditions, based upon information and reasoning to support their arguments. Solutions can be in the form of essays, presentations, or projects.

Maine School Engages Kids With Problem-Solving Challenges (11:37)

https://youtu.be/i17F-b5GG94

[PBS NewsHour].(2013, May 6). Maine School Engages Kids with Problem Solving Challenges. [Video File]. Retrieve from https://youtu.be/i17F-b5GG94

Special correspondent John Tulenko of Leaning Matters reports on a public middle school in Portland, Maine that is taking a different approach to teaching students. Teachers have swapped traditional curriculum for an unusually comprehensive science curriculum that emphasizes problem-solving, with a little help from some robots.

Effectiveness of Problem and Inquiry-based learning.

Why does inquiry-based learning only have an effect size of 0.31 when it is an approach to learning that seems to engage students and teachers so readily in the process of learning?

When is the right and wrong time to introduce inquiry and problem based learning?

Watch video from John Hattie on inquiry and problem-based learning, (2:11 minutes).

[Corwin]. (2015, Nov. 9). John Hattie on inquiry-based learning. [Video File]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/YUooOYbgSUg.

Glazer, E. (2010) Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching, and Technology, Global Text, Michael Orey. (Chapter 14) Attribution CC 3.0. Retrieved from https://textbookequity.org/Textbooks/Orey_Emerging_Perspectives_Learning.pdf

Instructional Methods, Strategies and Technologies to Meet the Needs of All Learners Copyright © 2017 by Evan Glazer (University of Georgia) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Problem Solving in STEM

Solving problems is a key component of many science, math, and engineering classes.  If a goal of a class is for students to emerge with the ability to solve new kinds of problems or to use new problem-solving techniques, then students need numerous opportunities to develop the skills necessary to approach and answer different types of problems.  Problem solving during section or class allows students to develop their confidence in these skills under your guidance, better preparing them to succeed on their homework and exams. This page offers advice about strategies for facilitating problem solving during class.

How do I decide which problems to cover in section or class?

In-class problem solving should reinforce the major concepts from the class and provide the opportunity for theoretical concepts to become more concrete. If students have a problem set for homework, then in-class problem solving should prepare students for the types of problems that they will see on their homework. You may wish to include some simpler problems both in the interest of time and to help students gain confidence, but it is ideal if the complexity of at least some of the in-class problems mirrors the level of difficulty of the homework. You may also want to ask your students ahead of time which skills or concepts they find confusing, and include some problems that are directly targeted to their concerns.

You have given your students a problem to solve in class. What are some strategies to work through it?

• Try to give your students a chance to grapple with the problems as much as possible.  Offering them the chance to do the problem themselves allows them to learn from their mistakes in the presence of your expertise as their teacher. (If time is limited, they may not be able to get all the way through multi-step problems, in which case it can help to prioritize giving them a chance to tackle the most challenging steps.)
• When you do want to teach by solving the problem yourself at the board, talk through the logic of how you choose to apply certain approaches to solve certain problems.  This way you can externalize the type of thinking you hope your students internalize when they solve similar problems themselves.
• Start by setting up the problem on the board (e.g you might write down key variables and equations; draw a figure illustrating the question).  Ask students to start solving the problem, either independently or in small groups.  As they are working on the problem, walk around to hear what they are saying and see what they are writing down. If several students seem stuck, it might be a good to collect the whole class again to clarify any confusion.  After students have made progress, bring the everyone back together and have students guide you as to what to write on the board.
• It can help to first ask students to work on the problem by themselves for a minute, and then get into small groups to work on the problem collaboratively.
• If you have ample board space, have students work in small groups at the board while solving the problem.  That way you can monitor their progress by standing back and watching what they put up on the board.
• If you have several problems you would like to have the students practice, but not enough time for everyone to do all of them, you can assign different groups of students to work on different – but related - problems.

When do you want students to work in groups to solve problems?

• Don’t ask students to work in groups for straightforward problems that most students could solve independently in a short amount of time.
• Do have students work in groups for thought-provoking problems, where students will benefit from meaningful collaboration.
• Even in cases where you plan to have students work in groups, it can be useful to give students some time to work on their own before collaborating with others.  This ensures that every student engages with the problem and is ready to contribute to a discussion.

What are some benefits of having students work in groups?

• Students bring different strengths, different knowledge, and different ideas for how to solve a problem; collaboration can help students work through problems that are more challenging than they might be able to tackle on their own.
• In working in a group, students might consider multiple ways to approach a problem, thus enriching their repertoire of strategies.
• Students who think they understand the material will gain a deeper understanding by explaining concepts to their peers.

What are some strategies for helping students to form groups?  

• Instruct students to work with the person (or people) sitting next to them.
• Count off.  (e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4; all the 1’s find each other and form a group, etc)
• Hand out playing cards; students need to find the person with the same number card. (There are many variants to this.  For example, you can print pictures of images that go together [rain and umbrella]; each person gets a card and needs to find their partner[s].)
• Based on what you know about the students, assign groups in advance. List the groups on the board.
• Note: Always have students take the time to introduce themselves to each other in a new group.

What should you do while your students are working on problems?

• Walk around and talk to students. Observing their work gives you a sense of what people understand and what they are struggling with. Answer students’ questions, and ask them questions that lead in a productive direction if they are stuck.
• If you discover that many people have the same question—or that someone has a misunderstanding that others might have—you might stop everyone and discuss a key idea with the entire class.

After students work on a problem during class, what are strategies to have them share their answers and their thinking?

• Ask for volunteers to share answers. Depending on the nature of the problem, student might provide answers verbally or by writing on the board. As a variant, for questions where a variety of answers are relevant, ask for at least three volunteers before anyone shares their ideas.
• Use online polling software for students to respond to a multiple-choice question anonymously.
• If students are working in groups, assign reporters ahead of time. For example, the person with the next birthday could be responsible for sharing their group’s work with the class.
• Cold call. To reduce student anxiety about cold calling, it can help to identify students who seem to have the correct answer as you were walking around the class and checking in on their progress solving the assigned problem. You may even want to warn the student ahead of time: "This is a great answer! Do you mind if I call on you when we come back together as a class?"
• Have students write an answer on a notecard that they turn in to you.  If your goal is to understand whether students in general solved a problem correctly, the notecards could be submitted anonymously; if you wish to assess individual students’ work, you would want to ask students to put their names on their notecard.  
• Use a jigsaw strategy, where you rearrange groups such that each new group is comprised of people who came from different initial groups and had solved different problems.  Students now are responsible for teaching the other students in their new group how to solve their problem.
• Have a representative from each group explain their problem to the class.
• Have a representative from each group draw or write the answer on the board.

What happens if a student gives a wrong answer?

• Ask for their reasoning so that you can understand where they went wrong.
• Ask if anyone else has other ideas. You can also ask this sometimes when an answer is right.
• Cultivate an environment where it’s okay to be wrong. Emphasize that you are all learning together, and that you learn through making mistakes.
• Do make sure that you clarify what the correct answer is before moving on.
• Once the correct answer is given, go through some answer-checking techniques that can distinguish between correct and incorrect answers. This can help prepare students to verify their future work.

How can you make your classroom inclusive?

• The goal is that everyone is thinking, talking, and sharing their ideas, and that everyone feels valued and respected. Use a variety of teaching strategies (independent work and group work; allow students to talk to each other before they talk to the class). Create an environment where it is normal to struggle and make mistakes.
• See Kimberly Tanner’s article on strategies to promoste student engagement and cultivate classroom equity. 

A few final notes…

• Make sure that you have worked all of the problems and also thought about alternative approaches to solving them.
• Board work matters. You should have a plan beforehand of what you will write on the board, where, when, what needs to be added, and what can be erased when. If students are going to write their answers on the board, you need to also have a plan for making sure that everyone gets to the correct answer. Students will copy what is on the board and use it as their notes for later study, so correct and logical information must be written there.

For more information...

Tipsheet: Problem Solving in STEM Sections

Tanner, K. D. (2013). Structure matters: twenty-one teaching strategies to promote student engagement and cultivate classroom equity . CBE-Life Sciences Education, 12(3), 322-331.

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College Minor: Everything You Need to Know

14 fascinating teacher interview questions for principals, tips for success if you have a master’s degree and can’t find a job, 14 ways young teachers can get that professional look, which teacher supplies are worth the splurge, 8 business books every teacher should read, conditional admission: everything you need to know, college majors: everything you need to know, 7 things principals can do to make a teacher observation valuable, 3 easy teacher outfits to tackle parent-teacher conferences, strategies and methods to teach students problem solving and critical thinking skills.

The ability to problem solve and think critically are two of the most important skills that PreK-12 students can learn. Why? Because students need these skills to succeed in their academics and in life in general. It allows them to find a solution to issues and complex situations that are thrown there way, even if this is the first time they are faced with the predicament.

Okay, we know that these are essential skills that are also difficult to master. So how can we teach our students problem solve and think critically? I am glad you asked. In this piece will list and discuss strategies and methods that you can use to teach your students to do just that.

• Direct Analogy Method

A method of problem-solving in which a problem is compared to similar problems in nature or other settings, providing solutions that could potentially be applied.

• Attribute Listing

A technique used to encourage creative thinking in which the parts of a subject, problem, or task are listed, and then ways to change those component parts are examined.

• Attribute Modifying

A technique used to encourage creative thinking in which the parts of a subject, problem, or task are listed, and then options for changing or improving each part are considered.

• Attribute Transferring

A technique used to encourage creative thinking in which the parts of a subject, problem or task listed and then the problem solver uses analogies to other contexts to generate and consider potential solutions.

• Morphological Synthesis

A technique used to encourage creative problem solving which extends on attribute transferring. A matrix is created, listing concrete attributes along the x-axis, and the ideas from a second attribute along with the y-axis, yielding a long list of idea combinations.

SCAMPER stands for Substitute, Combine, Adapt, Modify-Magnify-Minify, Put to other uses, and Reverse or Rearrange. It is an idea checklist for solving design problems.

• Direct Analogy

A problem-solving technique in which an individual is asked to consider the ways problems of this type are solved in nature.

• Personal Analogy

A problem-solving technique in which an individual is challenged to become part of the problem to view it from a new perspective and identify possible solutions.

• Fantasy Analogy

A problem-solving process in which participants are asked to consider outlandish, fantastic or bizarre solutions which may lead to original and ground-breaking ideas.

• Symbolic Analogy

A problem-solving technique in which participants are challenged to generate a two-word phrase related to the design problem being considered and that appears self-contradictory. The process of brainstorming this phrase can stimulate design ideas.

• Implementation Charting

An activity in which problem solvers are asked to identify the next steps to implement their creative ideas. This step follows the idea generation stage and the narrowing of ideas to one or more feasible solutions. The process helps participants to view implementation as a viable next step.

• Thinking Skills

Skills aimed at aiding students to be critical, logical, and evaluative thinkers. They include analysis, comparison, classification, synthesis, generalization, discrimination, inference, planning, predicting, and identifying cause-effect relationships.

Can you think of any additional problems solving techniques that teachers use to improve their student’s problem-solving skills?

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Discipline-Based Education Research: Understanding and Improving Learning in Undergraduate Science and Engineering (2012)

Chapter: 6 instructional strategies.

Instructional Strategies

In addition to the strategies described in Chapters 4 and 5 to promote conceptual change and improve students’ problem solving and use of representations, scientists and engineers want to provide the most effective overall learning experiences to help students acquire greater expertise in their disciplines. To some extent, those experiences are constrained by institutional context. Undergraduate lecture halls and laboratories provide much of the infrastructure for teaching students in science and engineering. One compelling question is how best to use those resources. An undergraduate course may be structured around traditional lectures offered two or three times weekly along with a laboratory experience. Some scientists and engineers want to explore alternatives to this traditional format. If they were to depart from the lecture-plus laboratory format, then according to discipline-based education research (DBER), which teaching options are most promising? More importantly, which options are backed by evidence for their effectiveness in fostering student learning?

A significant portion of DBER focuses on measuring the impact of instructional strategies on student learning and understanding. In this chapter, we summarize that research, discussing the three most common settings for undergraduate instruction—the classroom, the laboratory, and the field—and the effects of instructional strategies on different student groups.

OVERVIEW OF DISCIPLINE-BASED EDUCATION RESEARCH ON INSTRUCTION

As stated in Chapter 1 , two long-term goals of DBER are to help identify and measure appropriate learning objectives and instructional approaches that advance students toward those objectives, and identify approaches to make science and engineering education broad and inclusive. This research is motivated, in part, by ongoing concerns that undergraduate science and engineering courses are not providing students with high-quality learning experiences or attracting students into science and engineering degrees (President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, 2012). Indeed, a seminal three-year, multicampus survey examined the reasons undergraduate students switch from science, mathematics, and engineering majors to nonscience majors (Seymour and Hewitt, 1997). The survey revealed that nearly 50 percent of undergraduates who began in science and engineering shifted to other majors. Their reasons for doing so were complex and numerous, but pedagogy ranked high among their concerns. In fact, poor faculty pedagogy was identified as a concern for 83 percent of all science, mathematics, and engineering students. Forty-two percent of white students cited poor pedagogy as the primary factor in their decision to shift majors, compared with 21 percent of non-Asian students of color, who tended to blame themselves and suffered a substantial loss of confidence in leaving the sciences (Seymour and Hewitt, 1997).

Recognizing these challenges, many institutions are working to identify effective approaches to improve undergraduate science and engineering education (Association of American Universities, 2011). DBER, by systematically investigating learning and teaching in science and engineering and providing a robust evidence base for new practices, is playing a critical role in these efforts.

Research Focus

Most DBER studies on instructional strategies are predicated on the assumption that students must build their own understanding in a discipline by applying its methods and principles, either individually or in groups (Piaget, 1978; Vygotsky, 1978). Consequently, with some variations, these studies typically examine student-centered approaches to learning, often comparing the extent to which student-centered classes are more effective than traditional lectures in promoting students’ understanding of course content.

A student-centered instructional approach places less emphasis on transmitting factual information from the instructor, and is consistent with the shift in models of learning from information acquisition (mid-1900s) to knowledge construction (late 1900s) (Mayer, 2010). This approach includes

•   more time spent engaging students in active learning during class;

•   frequent formative assessment to provide feedback to students and the instructor on students’ levels of conceptual understanding; and

•   in some cases, attention to students’ metacognitive strategies as they strive to master the course material.

The extent to which DBER on instructional practices is explicitly grounded in broader research on how students learn varies widely. The committee’s analysis revealed that either implicitly or explicitly, the principle of active learning has had the greatest influence on DBER scholars and their studies. With a deep history in cognitive and educational psychology, this principle specifies that meaningful learning requires students to select, organize, and integrate information, either independently or in groups (Jacoby, 1978; Mayer, 2011; National Research Council, 1999). In addition, the framework of cognitive apprenticeship drives many instructional reforms in physics and thus can help to explain research findings about the success of those reforms. As described in Chapter 5 , cognitive apprenticeship is based on the idea that complex skills depend on an interlocking set of experiences and instruction whose efficacy, in turn, depend on the learner and the community of practitioners with whom the learner interacts (Brown, Collins, and Duguid, 1989; Yerushalmi et al., 2007).

Although some DBER is guided by learning theories and principles, reports of DBER studies are typically organized around instructional setting. Following that convention, we organize our synthesis of DBER on instruction by setting—classroom, laboratory, and field—before considering the effects of instructional strategies on different groups.

Most of the available research on instruction is conducted in introductory courses. Sample sizes range from tens of students to several hundred students. The preponderance of this research is conducted in the context of a single course or laboratory—often by the instructor of that course, and sometimes comparing outcomes across multiple sections of that course. Fewer studies are conducted across multiple courses or multiple institutions.

Many studies use pre- and post-tests of student knowledge (often with a comparison or control group) to assess some measure of learning gains for one course, typically lasting one semester. These gains often are measured with concept inventories developed for aspects of the discipline or other specialized assessments (see Chapter 4 for a discussion of concept inventories), or with course assignments or exams. Fewer studies measure longer-term gains, or other outcomes such as student attitudes and motivation to study the discipline.

INSTRUCTION IN THE CLASSROOM SETTING

Understandably, most DBER on instructional strategies centers on the classroom setting. The reviews of DBER commissioned for this study (Bailey, 2011; Dirks, 2011; Docktor and Mestre, 2011; Piburn, Kraft, and Pacheco, 2011; Svinicki, 2011; Towns and Kraft, 2011), along with other syntheses (e.g., Allen and Tanner, 2009; Hake, 1998; Handelsman, Miller, and Pfund, 2007; Prince, 2004; Ruiz-Primo et al. 2011; Smith et al., 2005; Wood, 2009) consistently support the view that adopting various student-centered approaches to classroom instruction at the undergraduate level can improve students’ learning relative to lectures that do not include student participation. A limited amount of research suggests that even incremental changes toward more student-centered approaches can enhance students’ learning (Derting and Ebert-May, 2010; Knight and Wood, 2005).

Research from the different fields of DBER reveals some nuances and variations on this theme, which we explore in this section. We have organized this discussion by instructional strategy rather than by discipline because these strategies in themselves are not discipline-specific, and most are implemented in similar learning environments. We include discipline-specific discussions under each strategy where that research was available.

Making Lectures More Interactive

Most undergraduate science and engineering classes are taught in a lecture format. Although traditional lectures can be effective for some students (Schwartz and Bransford, 1998), instructors have a variety of options at their disposal to make lectures more interactive and enhance their effectiveness. These options range in scope and complexity from slight modifications of instructional practice—such as beginning a lecture with a challenging question for students to keep in mind—to devoting most of the instructional time to collaborative problem solving. Research on making lectures more interactive is a significant focus of DBER. Overall, the committee has characterized the strength of the evidence on making lectures more interactive as strong because of the high degree to which the findings converge, albeit from many studies that were conducted in the context of a single course using a wide variety of measurement tools. This section discusses several options for making lectures and small discussion groups more interactive. Most of these approaches involve enhancing or refining—rather than completely eliminating—the lecture format.

Encouraging Student Participation

Interactive lectures involve students in learning the material, often requiring them to think and apply the content that is covered during class. Several

geoscience education research studies have examined the effectiveness of interactive lectures. One study (Clary and Wandersee, 2007) tested a model of integrated, thematic instruction in the introductory geology lecture. Students in the experimental condition did an in-lecture “mini-lab” with petrified wood and discussed their observations in on-line discussion groups. Pre-test/post-test application of a researcher-developed survey showed statistically greater gains in the experimental group than in two control groups. Other research examining the use of ConcepTests (short, formative assessments of a single concept), Venn diagrams constructed with student input, and analysis of geologic images during lecture has shown significant differences between control and experimental groups; students who experienced the interactive strategies earned higher exam scores (McConnell, Steer, and Owens, 2003).

Interactive lecture demonstrations are another strategy for encouraging student participation. With this approach, students (1) make predictions about the outcome of a physical demonstration that the instructor conducts in class, (2) explain this prediction with peers and then with the class, (3) observe the event, and (4) compare their observations to their predictions (Sokoloff and Thornton, 2004). Some research on interactive lecture demonstrations indicates that they can improve students’ understanding of foundational physics concepts as measured by the Force and Motion Conceptual Evaluation (Sokoloff and Thornton, 1997). Other research suggests that the prediction phase (consistent with conceptual-change models) is particularly important to the success of an interactive lecture demonstration (Crouch et al., 2004). Similarly, chemistry education research shows that students who were allowed to work in small groups to make predictions about lecture demonstrations showed significant improvements on tests over students who merely observed demonstrations (Bowen and Phelps, 1997).

Another approach is to adapt lectures based on student responses to pre-class or in-class work. The most familiar pre-lecture method is Just-in-Time Teaching. With this approach, students read and answer questions or solve homework problems before class and submit their work to the instructor electronically, with enough time for the instructor to modify the lecture to target student weaknesses or accommodate their interests (Novak, 1999). A moderate amount of evidence suggests that Just-in-Time Teaching is effective in teaching some physics concepts, such as Newton’s Third Law (Formica, Easley, and Spraker, 2010), and is associated with positive attitudes about introductory geology (Linneman and Plake, 2006; Luo, 2008). In biology, Just-in-Time Teaching has been associated with improved student preparation for classes and more effective study habits; students also preferred this format to traditional lectures (Marrs and Novak, 2004).

Other versions of pre-lecture assignments have been associated with gains in student learning. As one example, Multimedia Learning Modules have been associated with improved course performance in physics (Stelzer

et al., 2009). In a large introductory biology course for majors, students who participated in Learn Before Lecture (a simpler approach than Just-in-Time Teaching) performed significantly better than students in traditional courses on Learn Before Lecture-related exam questions, but not on other questions (Moravec et al., 2010).

Although arguably less common, approaches that involve real-time adjustment of instruction also appear to have the potential to improve student learning and performance. In a quasi-experimental study in the geosciences, students in interactive courses were given brief introductory lectures followed by formative assessments that triggered immediate feedback and adjustment of instruction. These students showed a substantial improvement in Geoscience Concept Inventory scores (McConnell et al., 2006).

Audience response systems (“clickers”) are a different approach to encouraging greater student participation in large-enrollment courses. Clickers are small handheld devices that allow students to send information (typically their response to a multiple choice question provided by the instructor) to a receiver, which tabulates the classroom results and displays the information to the instructor. The value of clickers for in-class formative assessment has been debated. Some biology instructors have reported high student approval and enhanced learning using clickers (e.g., Smith et al., 2009; Wood, 2004), while others have found them less useful and have discontinued their use (Caldwell, 2007). Research in chemistry and astronomy suggests that learning gains are only associated with applications of clickers that incorporate socially mediated learning techniques, such as those discussed in the next section (Len, 2007; MacArthur and Jones, 2008). Overall, the research on clickers indicates that technology itself does not improve outcomes, but how the technology is used matters more (e.g., Caldwell, 2007; Keller et al., 2007; Lasry, 2008).

Regarding clickers—as regarding instruction more broadly—DBER has not yet systematically used learning theory principles to examine whether certain strategies are more effective for different populations of students, or analyzed the conditions under which those strategies are successfully implemented. However, several authors have offered suggestions for best practices with clicker technology (Beatty et al., 2006; Caldwell, 2007; Smith et al., 2009; Wieman et al., 2008), including posing formative assessment questions at higher cognitive levels and socially mediated conditions for learning such as allowing students to discuss their responses in groups before the correct answer is revealed.

Involving Students in Collaborative Activities

Many transformed courses (i.e., courses in which instructors are using student-centered approaches) incorporate in-class activities where

students collaborate with each other. Consistent with research from science education and educational psychology, DBER has shown that these activities enhance the effectiveness of student-centered learning over traditional instruction (e.g., Armstrong, Chang, and Brickman, 2007; Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1998; Smith et al., 2009, 2011; Springer, Stanne, and Donovan, 1999). Moreover, collaborative learning has been shown to improve student retention of content knowledge (Cortright et al., 2003; Rao, Collins, and DiCarlo, 2002; Wright and Boggs, 2002). However, it is important to remember that collaborative learning is not inherently effective, and this approach can be implemented ineffectively (Slavin, Hurley, and Chamberlain, 2003). In this vein, DBER does not yet provide conclusive evidence about the conditions under which these strategies are effective, and for which students.

Think-Pair-Share is a straightforward form of in-class collaborative activity—widely used in K-12 education—that is also referred to as informal cooperative learning (Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 2011; Smith, 2000). With this approach, the instructor poses a question, often one that has many possible answers; asks students to formulate answers, share their answers, and discuss the question with their group; elicits answers again; and engages in a class-wide discussion. The use of informal groups in this way has been associated with improvements in a variety of outcomes, including achievement, critical thinking and higher-level reasoning, students’ understanding of others’ perspectives, and attitudes about their fellow students, instructors, and the subject matter at hand (Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 2007, 1998; Smith et al., 2005). Instructors adapt Think-Pair-Share in various ways. Some geoscience education researchers have followed brief introductory lectures with interactive sessions during which students discussed ideas in groups and completed worksheets based on the misconceptions literature. On average, students who participated in the interactive sessions scored higher on tests than students who received only lecture, even when taught by the same instructor during the same semester (Kortz, Smay, and Murray, 2008).

In chemistry, a number of initiatives that stress socially mediated learning have been widely adopted and adapted. In POGIL (Process-Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning), 1 students work together in small groups on guided inquiry activities to learning content and science practices. PLTL (Peer Led Team Learning) 2 uses peer-team leaders in out-of-class team problem-solving sessions. Both POGIL and PLTL have developed large communities of practice, and there is some evidence that they can improve student outcomes. One mixed-methods study reported significantly improved

__________________

1 For more information, see http://www.pogil.org [accessed April 13, 2012].

2 For more information, see http://www.pltl.org [accessed April 13, 2012].

outcomes for organic chemistry students in PLTL sections on all course exams and finals, compared with students who learned through traditional lecture courses (Tien, Roth, and Kampmeier, 2002). Other studies have shown that a combination of PLTL and POGIL improved test scores for a cohort of students in general chemistry (Lewis and Lewis, 2005). However, much more research remains to be done to investigate how these pedagogies can best be implemented, how different student populations are affected, and how the fidelity of implementation—that is, the extent to which the experience as implemented follows the intended design—affects outcomes.

To explore the common view that group learning is pragmatically impossible in large-enrollment courses, some astronomy education researchers created and systematically studied a series of collaborative group activities modified specifically for large-enrollment courses known as ASTRO 101. We have characterized the strength of this evidence as limited because relatively few studies exist and the results have not been independently replicated. Studies of these activities reveal that students can learn more when collaborative group activities are added to traditional lecture and that they enjoy the collaborative learning experience more than traditional courses (Adams and Slater, 1998, 2002; Skala, Slater, and Adams, 2000). In addition, female-only learning groups performed better than heterogeneous groups in these activities (Adams et al., 2002). Survey responses, course evaluations, and exam performance in large-enrollment (600 students) oceanography courses have also revealed an increased interest in science as well as improvements in subject-matter learning, information recall, analytical skills, and quantitative reasoning for students who were taught with cooperative learning and collaborative assessments (Yuretich et al., 2001).

In addition to being used in large lectures, collaborative activities also are used to make smaller discussion sections more interactive. In physics, Cooperative Group Problem Solving requires students to work in formal, structured groups on specifically designed tasks called context-rich problems (Heller and Heller, 2000; Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992). The design of this highly structured approach is based on research on cooperative learning, a popular method in K-12 education (Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec, 1990; Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991). A limited amount of evidence at the undergraduate level suggests that this approach can contribute to improved conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills (Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992; Heller, Keith, and Anderson, 1992; Hollabaugh, 1995) (see Box 6-1 for a description of other collaborative models used in physics in which a key feature is changing the learning space). Findings from a study in chemistry also indicated that cooperative group problem solving improved students’ problem-solving abilities by about 10 percent, and that this improvement was retained when students returned to individual problem-solving activities (Cooper et al., 2008). In that study, the only students who did not benefit

BOX 6-1 Changing the Learning Space: Some Examples from Physics

Several physics education reforms have involved redesigning the learning space. Based on the model of cognitive apprenticeship (see Chapter 5 ), these redesigns also involve dramatic changes to the way physics is taught, reducing the amount of lecturing and often integrating laboratory and lecture. Some examples include the following:

Workshop Physics . Developed at Dickinson College, Workshop Physics taught university physics entirely within the laboratory, using the latest computer technology. Students preferred workshop courses, and students in these courses generally outperformed students in traditional courses on conceptual exams but not in problem solving (Laws, 1991, 2004).

Studio Physics. Developed at Rensselaer, Studio Physics redesigned teaching spaces to accommodate an integrated lecture/laboratory course. Early studies showed little improvement in students’ conceptual understanding or problem-solving skills, despite the popularity of the innovation. Later implementations, which added research-based curricula, resulted in improved learning of content over traditional courses (Cummings et al., 1999; Sorensen et al., 2006) but not always improvements in problem solving (Hoellwarth, Moelter, and Knight, 2005).

SCALE-UP . Developed at North Carolina State University, the Student-Centered Active Learning Environment for Undergraduate Programs (SCALE-UP) begins with a redesign of the classroom. Each room holds approximately 100 students, with round tables that accommodate 3 laptops and 9 students, whiteboards on several walls, and multiple computer projectors and screens so every student has a view. Students engage in hands-on activities and with computer simulations, work collaboratively on problems, and conduct hypothesis-driven experiments. SCALE-UP students have better scores on problem-solving exams and concept tests, slightly better attitudes about science, and less attrition than students in traditional courses (Beichner et al., 2007; Gaffney et al., 2008).

from this activity were students with the lowest scores on a logical thinking test who were paired with students of similar ability.

Teasing apart the benefits of collaborative group versus individual problem-solving practice is difficult, as is following changes in problem-solving ability over time, particularly in large classes. Some recent work has been done on the development and validation of tools for comparing collaborative and individual problem-solving strategies in large (60-100 students) biochemistry courses, with students discussing ill-defined problems in small online groups (Anderson, Mitchell, and Osgood, 2008), and then working through individual electronic exams based on similar, but not identical, problems (Anderson et al., 2011).

Other Instructional Strategies

Some DBER exists on other popular instructional strategies that are not necessarily interactive. We have characterized the strength of conclusions that can be drawn from this evidence as limited because relatively few studies exist and the findings across disciplines are contradictory. For example, in traditional and student-centered classes alike, analogies and explanatory models are widely used pedagogical tools to help students see similarities between what they already know and unfamiliar, often abstract concepts (Clement, 2008). Some physics education research suggests that use of analogies during instruction of electromagnetic waves helped students generate inferences, and that students taught with the help of analogies outperformed students who were taught traditionally (Podolefsky and Finkelstein, 2006, 2007a). Further research indicates that blending multiple analogies to convey wave concepts can lead to better student reasoning than using single analogies or standard abstract representations (Podolefsky and Finkelstein, 2007b). A possible explanation for this finding is that using multiple analogies may have helped learners to see the general pattern across the separate analogies (Gentner and Colhoun, 2010), rather than becoming overly attached to the specific features of any one analogy. This result echoes findings from cognitive science that multiple analogies facilitate problem solving because they help solvers to construct a general schema for the common underlying solution procedure (Catrambone and Holyoak, 1989; Gick and Holyoak, 1983; Novick and Holyoak, 1991; Ross and Kennedy, 1990).

In contrast to findings from physics education research, a series of chemistry education research studies identifies the challenges of using analogies for college students who had successfully completed at least one biochemistry course (Orgill and Bodner, 2004, 2006, 2007). In those studies, faculty used analogies to identify similar features between the already-known concept and the concept to be learned, with the goal of facilitating the transfer of knowledge from one setting to another. However,

the instructors often did not identify where the analogy broke down or failed to be useful. As a result, students overgeneralized the features of the known situation, thinking that all features were represented in the target. This overgeneralization impaired student learning.

Another approach in teaching science and engineering is to present abstract concepts and then follow them with a specific worked example (sometimes called a “touchstone example”) to illustrate how the concepts are applied to solve problems. With this approach, students’ understanding of the concept often becomes conflated with the particulars of the example that is used. As a result, students may have difficulty separating the solution from the specifics of a particular problem, which may limit their ability to apply knowledge of the concept in other settings. This phenomenon is known as the “specificity effect” and has been demonstrated in several physics education research studies (Mestre et al., 2009) as well as basic studies in cognitive science.

Supplementing Instruction with Tutorials

The tutorial approach is a common instructional innovation in physics and astronomy, and represents a significant area of research and development for physics and astronomy education research. With a tutorial approach, instructors are provided with a classroom-ready tool to target a specific concept, elicit and confront tenacious student misconceptions, create learning opportunities, and provide formative feedback to students.

The University of Washington physics education research group has developed several Tutorials in Introductory Physics (McDermott and Shaffer, 2002), and numerous studies have demonstrated that these tutorials significantly improve student understanding of the targeted concepts and of scientific reasoning more generally (see review by Docktor and Mestre, 2011, for a detailed listing of relevant publications). The success of the University of Washington tutorials has inspired other research groups to create and evaluate tutorial-style learning interventions (e.g., Elby, 2001; Steinberg, Wittmann, and Redish, 1997; Wittmann, Steinberg, and Redish, 2004, 2005). In physics, these adaptations are predominantly used in a recitation or discussion section.

Astronomy education researchers have successfully modified the tutorial approach to be used in a lecture classroom environment. For example, Lecture-Tutorials for Introductory Astronomy (Prather et al., 2004, 2007) is a widely used series of short-duration, highly focused, highly structured learning activities. Instructors lead students through a purposeful sequence of carefully constructed questions designed to move the learner toward a more expert-like understanding. Several studies have shown that the lecture-tutorial approach is more effective than lecture-dominated courses

in improving students’ understanding in astronomy (Alexander, 2005; Bailey and Nagamine, 2009; Lopresto, 2010; Lopresto and Murrell, 2009). One study of multiple introductory science courses across multiple institutions revealed that adaptations of the astronomy approach for introductory geoscience courses improved students’ test scores in those courses (Kortz, Smay, and Murray, 2008).

INSTRUCTION IN THE LABORATORY SETTING

Learning science and engineering takes place not just in classrooms, but also in laboratories 3 and in the field. Well-designed laboratories can help students to develop competence with scientific practices such as experimental design; argumentation; formulation of scientific questions; and use of discipline-specific equipment such as pipettes, microscopes, and volumetric glassware. However, laboratories that are designed primarily to reinforce lecture material do not necessarily deepen undergraduate students’ understanding of the concepts covered in lecture (Elliott, Stewart, and Lagowski, 2008; Herrington and Nakhleh, 2003; Hofstein and Lunetta, 1982; Kirschner and Meester, 1988 Lazarowitz and Tamir, 1994; White, 1996). Indeed, a 2004 review of more than 20 years of research on laboratory instruction found “sparse data from carefully designed and conducted studies” to support the widely held belief that laboratory learning is essential for understanding science (Hofstein and Lunetta, 2004, p. 46).

Relatively few DBER studies focus on the laboratory environment. We have characterized the strength of evidence as moderate in physics because the research base includes a combination of smaller-scale studies (e.g., a single course or section) and studies that have been conducted across multiple courses or institutions, with general convergence of findings. In chemistry, engineering, biology, the geosciences, and astronomy, the strength of the conclusions that can be drawn from this research is limited.

One of the criticisms of traditional laboratory manuals is that they do not reflect what scientists actually do: develop hypotheses, design and conduct experiments, make decisions about measurement error versus equipment sensitivity, and report their findings. Several reformed physics

3 It was beyond the scope of this committee’s charge to define what constitutes a laboratory course (see National Research Council [2006] for a definition of laboratory experiences for K-12 education). Recognizing the wide range of laboratory experiences—and the variations within and across disciplines—in this report, we describe what is commonly practiced in each discipline by using the operational definitions of laboratory employed in the research we reviewed.

curricula include laboratory experiences that are aligned with scientific practices (see, for example, Investigative Science Learning Environment [Etkina and Van Heuvelen, 2007], Physics by Inquiry [McDermott et al., 1996a, 1996b)], and Modeling Instruction [Brewe, 2008]). In these laboratory exercises, students record observations, develop and test explanations, refine existing models, and build and refine their own causal models through experimentation.

Studies of specific curricular innovations show that these types of laboratories are more effective than traditional laboratories for developing students’ ability to design experiments, collect and analyze data, and engage in more authentic scientific communication (Etkina et al., 2006, 2010; Karelina and Etkina, 2007). These laboratories also contribute to positive attitudes about introductory physics, as measured by the Colorado Learning Attitudes about Science Survey (Brewe, Kramer, and O’Brien, 2009), in contrast to most other introductory physics courses (Redish, Steinberg, and Saul, 1998). A limited amount of evidence suggests that some of these benefits may extend beyond the laboratory setting. For example, one study showed that the skills learned in a reformed physics laboratory can transfer to novel tasks in biology (Etkina et al., 2010). In another study, students in a reformed laboratory outperformed their peers from traditional laboratories on course exam problems (Thacker et al., 1994).

Some physics education research has examined the use of technology in the laboratory setting. One curriculum, RealTime Physics Active Learning Laboratories , targets known misconceptions by using microcomputer-based technologies to instantly analyze formative data and provide immediate feedback to the student. Studies of RealTime Physics show gains on the Force Motion Concept Inventory (Sokoloff and Thornton, 1997) over traditional laboratories, although the value of the instantaneous feedback on improving students’ learning is debated (Beichner, 1990; Brasell, 1987; Brungardt and Zollman, 1995). A limited amount of evidence also suggests that video-based laboratories, where students either create their own videos of motion in the laboratory or use provided videos such as a space-shuttle launch and then analyze the videos using specific software programs, can improve students’ understanding of kinematics and kinematics graphs (Beichner, 1996). In addition, interactive computer simulations of physical phenomena can lead to improved student performance on laboratory reports, exam questions, and performance tasks (e.g., assembling real circuits) over traditional instruction (Finkelstein et al., 2005).

The chemistry laboratory is where the properties and reactions between chemicals become visible, and where chemists extrapolate the properties of

compounds to their molecular structure. For chemistry faculty, the laboratory is integral to learning chemistry. Given the expense of laboratory instruction, however, the question of whether students can learn chemistry without laboratories is asked with increasing frequency by department chairs and faculty administrators.

Despite its importance in the curriculum, the role of the chemistry laboratory in student learning has gone largely unexamined. The research that has been done has investigated faculty goals for laboratory learning, the role of graduate students as teaching assistants in the laboratory, experiments to restructure the laboratory with an inquiry focus, and students’ interactions with instrumentation in the laboratory.

An interview study of chemistry faculty revealed that faculty goals vary for connecting laboratory to lecture, promoting students’ critical thinking, providing experiences with experimental design, and teaching students about uncertainty in measurement (Bruck, Towns, and Bretz, 2010). Research on students’ experiences in general chemistry (Miller et al., 2004) and analytical chemistry (Malina and Nakhleh, 2003) suggests that such variation can influence students’ views of laboratory learning. Depending on how faculty members structure the laboratory experiment and assess student learning, students can view instruments simply as objects, without any knowledge of their internal workings, or as useful tools for collecting evidence about the behavior of molecules and their properties.

Domin (1999) has characterized inquiry in chemistry laboratories as ranging from deductive experiences (“explain, then experiment”) to inductive experiments (“experiment, then explain”). To explore learning along this continuum, Jalil (2006) designed a laboratory course with both kinds of experiments, finding that although students initially preferred deductive experiments, they eventually came to value the inductive approach because the experiments provided them with knowledge for subsequent learning in lecture. Although the label “inquiry” is often synonymous with inductive experiments, one analysis (Fay et al., 2007) found that neither commercially published laboratory manuals nor peer-reviewed manuscripts that self-identify as “inquiry” score very high on Lederman’s rubric of scientific inquiry, which was designed to assess the level of scientific inquiry occurring in high-school science classrooms. This research has been extended to other disciplines with similar results (Whitson et al., 2008).

Regarding the effect of laboratories on learning, emerging evidence suggests that students in an open-ended, problem-based laboratory format improve their problem-solving skills (Sandi-Urena et al., 2011, in press). The science writing heuristic—which combines an instructional technique to improve the flow of activities during an experiment with an alternative format for writing laboratory reports—is another approach to improve student learning. Research has shown that students who were taught by

teaching assistants who implemented the science writing heuristic appropriately showed significant improvements on their lecture exam scores (Rudd, Greenbowe, and Hand, 2007). In contrast, traditional laboratories that confirm the knowledge students may already possess do not appear to increase their understanding or retention (Gabel, 1999; Hart et al., 2000; Hofstein and Mamlok-Naaman, 2007).

Biology education research studies on instruction in the laboratory setting typically examine the outcomes of inquiry-based laboratories, often in comparison to traditional laboratories. The design of inquiry-based laboratories is based on the concept of the learning cycle, in which students pose questions, confront their misconceptions, develop hypotheses, and design experiments to test them (Johnson and Lawson, 1998; Lawson, 1988). In the best of these laboratories, students answer research questions using online datasets (e.g., genomic sequence data) (Shaffer et al., 2010) or even contribute to such datasets by isolating and characterizing previously undiscovered life forms (e.g., Hanauer et al., 2006). This work can lead to research publications with students as co-authors (e.g., Hatfull et al., 2010).

Although the committee has characterized the strength of the findings as limited, the evidence from biology education research suggests that when compared with traditional laboratory exercises, inquiry-based laboratories can improve students’ learning and their short-term retention of biology content (Halme et al., 2006; Lord and Orkwiszewski, 2006; Rissing and Cogan, 2009; Simmons et al., 2008). Inquiry-based laboratories also can improve students’ competency with science practices and confidence in their ability to do science (Brickman et al., 2009), and may increase retention of students in the major (Seymour et al., 2004). It is not clear, however, whether inquiry-based laboratories are more effective in dispelling common misconceptions on such topics as the nature of cellular respiration and the origins of plant biomass.

As one example of an inquiry-based laboratory, the Genomics Education Partnership used the Classroom Undergraduate Research Experience and pre- and post-test assessments to evaluate the impact of an authentic Drosophila genome annotation project on learning in 472 students at 46 participating institutions (Shaffer et al., 2010). The experimental design allowed for comparisons in knowledge gains between students who identified elements on the genome and engaged in more extensive characterization and students who only identified elements on the genome. For the latter group, pre- and post-test scores were the same. In contrast, the post-test scores of students who engaged in both tasks were nearly twice as high as their pre-test scores. This effort stands out in the biology education research

literature because of the scale of the study and the range of institutions involved.

Engineering

Unique among DBER fields, engineering is an externally accredited practice-based profession. As a result, undergraduate engineering education involves developing technical competencies and preparing graduates for practice (Lynch et al., 2009). Engineering educators are therefore concerned with both affective and cognitive outcomes of laboratory experiences (Feisel and Rosa, 2005). Along these lines, recent efforts to develop inquiry-based engineering laboratories to foster student engagement seem promising (Kanter et al., 2003) although the research is in an early stage of development. However, the committee’s review revealed that a limited amount of research exists on how these laboratories affect students’ learning. A follow-up paper to a colloquy on the role of laboratory instruction in engineering noted “the lack of coherent learning objectives for laboratories and how this lack has limited the effectiveness of laboratories and hampered meaningful research in this area” (Feisel and Rosa, 2005, p. 121).

The Geosciences

As with the other fields of DBER, the laboratory is understudied in the geosciences. One study of an introductory geoscience laboratory showed that students who completed the optional laboratory in conjunction with an introductory-level, lecture-based course earned higher final exam scores than students who completed only the lecture course (Nelson et al., 2010). Students over age 25 benefitted much more from the laboratory than students of conventional college age. Older students who took the laboratory option performed 21 percent higher than older students in the lecture-only course, whereas college-age students performed about 3 percent higher than their lecture-only counterparts. Students over age 25 and of conventional college age had similar GPAs and course grades, on average.

A limited amount of research on the introductory astronomy laboratory suggests that online datasets might have some benefits for undergraduate students. For example, the highly structured task of repeatedly querying large online datasets can enhance students’ understanding of the nature of scientific inquiry (Slater, Slater, and Lyons, 2010; Slater, Slater, and Shaner, 2008). In addition, undergraduate students’ understanding of the difference between data and evidence can be enhanced when they are explicitly

taught to develop their own research questions and conduct investigations over the duration of a course (Lyons, 2011). One study has shown that this approach works equally well for students in face-to-face collaborative groups and individually in the relatively isolated environment of an internet-delivered astronomy course (Sibbernsen, 2010).

LEARNING IN THE FIELD SETTING

For some disciplines, learning in the field is just as important as learning in the classroom or laboratory. The geoscience curriculum, for example, has had field instruction at its core for more than a century (Mogk and Goodwin, 2012). Field learning in the geosciences encompasses a variety of activities, ranging in scale from a single outdoor class activity (perhaps with a duration of only an hour or two), to sustained individual or group projects, short- or long-term residence programs, capstone field camps at the undergraduate level, and group or individual field projects at the undergraduate or graduate level (Butler, 2008; Mogk and Goodwin, 2012; Whitmeyer, Mogk, and Pyle, 2009).

The geoscience education literature is replete with descriptions of instructional activities in the field. However, reports of the efficacy of these activities are largely observational and anecdotal. We have characterized the strength of this evidence as limited because few studies exist and they have typically been conducted in the context of a single field course. The available research measures a variety of outcomes, and suggests that field courses can positively affect the attitudes, career choices, and lower- and higher-order cognitive skills of student participants as measured by survey instruments designed to assess these outcomes (Huntoon, Bluth, and Kennedy, 2001); improve introductory students’ understanding of concepts in the geosciences as measured by the Geoscience Concept Inventory (Elkins and Elkins, 2007); and contribute to the development of teamwork, decision-making, autonomy, and interpersonal skills (Boyle et al., 2004; Stokes and Boyle, 2009). Several scoring rubrics are helping to standardize the assessment of learning outcomes in the field (e.g., Pyle, 2009).

Some studies have used GPS tracking devices to monitor students at work in the field. Building on the cognitive science field of naturalistic decision making (Klein et al., 1993; Lipshitz et al., 2001; Marshall, 1995; Zsambok and Klein, 1997), some geoscience education research has analyzed the navigational choices of students who were engaged in independent field work and correlated those choices with performance (Riggs, Balliet, and Lieder, 2009; Riggs, Lieder, and Balliet, 2009). That research reported an optimum amount of relocation and backtracking in field geology: too much retracing indicates confusion, and too little reoccupation of key areas appears to accompany a failure to recognize important geologic features.

EFFECTS OF INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES ON DIFFERENT STUDENT GROUPS

Most of the studies the committee reviewed were not designed to examine differences in terms of gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, or other student characteristics. However, physics education research has explored the impact of instructional innovations on females and minorities. For example, the positive impacts of SCALE-UP appear to be even greater for females and minorities (Beichner et al., 2007). In contrast, researchers studying the early implementation of Workshop Physics discovered that the attitudes of females about the course were significantly worse than males, and that females’ dissatisfaction arose from the alternative format of Workshop Physics , difficult laboratory partners, and time demands (Laws, Rosborough, and Poodry, 1999).

Some physics education researchers designed a course called Extended General Physics specifically for students whom they identified as likely to struggle with college physics. Enrollment in the course included nearly 70 percent females, and greater proportions of underrepresented minorities than traditional physics courses. Among other features, the course incorporated several student-centered pedagogies, including collaborative activities. Students in this course had a higher retention rate, higher grades, and better attitudes than their peers in the traditional section, and these differences were particularly pronounced for females and minorities. Moreover, students in Extended General Physics and traditional courses scored similarly on common exam questions, indicating that Extended General Physics was at least as rigorous as the traditional physics course (Etkina et al., 1999).

Along similar lines, a handful of biology education research studies suggest that first-year students from underrepresented groups perform better in biology courses that offer supplemental instruction (Barlow and Villarejo, 2004; Dirks and Cunningham, 2006; Matsui, Lui, and Kane, 2003). This effectiveness might be at least partially attributed to the cooperative learning that is typically included in supplemental instruction (Rath et al., 2007).

A few astronomy education research studies also have examined differences among males and females. One study showed that males outperform females on the Astronomy Diagnostic Test , leading the study’s authors to conclude that the concept inventories developed for astronomy (see Chapter 4 ) might have some inherent biases (Brogt et al., 2007; Hufnagel, 2002; Hufnagel et al., 2000). In a separate study, female students in ASTRO 101 started at lower achievement levels than their male counterparts, but the use of curriculum materials designed to improve quantitative reasoning skills closed those initial gaps (Hudgins et al., 2006).

SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS

•    Across the science and engineering disciplines in this study, DBER clearly indicates that student-centered instructional strategies can positively influence students’ learning, achievement, and knowledge retention, as compared with traditional instructional methods. DBER does not yet provide evidence on the relative effectiveness of different student-centered strategies, whether different strategies are differentially effective for learning different types of content, or the effectiveness of strategies for subgroups of learners.

•    Research on the use of various learning technologies suggests that technology can enhance students’ learning, retention of knowledge, and attitudes about science learning. However, the presence of learning technologies alone does not improve outcomes. Instead, those outcomes appear to depend on how the technology is used.

•    Despite the importance of laboratories in undergraduate science and engineering education, their role in student learning has largely gone unexamined . Research on learning in the field setting is similarly sparse .

DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Despite the preponderance of DBER on the benefits of student-centered instruction and of instruction that involves the use of technology, important gaps remain. With some exceptions, the studies the committee reviewed measure learning within the context of a single course. Multi-instructor, multi-institutional studies are needed to move beyond the idiosyncrasies of instructional approaches that work well only in the presence of certain instructors or with students who fit a particular profile. More work also is needed on large-scale projects such as POGIL, to better understand the conditions under which its materials are successfully implemented and provide insights into how the effective use of these materials and associated pedagogy can be reliably supported. Additional research examining the influence of student-centered instruction on other types of outcomes, such as declaring a major, retention in the major and pursuing further study also would be helpful. And finally, longitudinal studies are needed to gauge the effects of student-centered instruction on the long-term retention of conceptual knowledge and on the application of foundational skills and knowledge to progressively more challenging tasks.

Most of the research on instructional strategies has been conducted in introductory courses. Less evidence exists regarding the efficacy of different

instructional approaches in upper-division courses, although some has been conducted (see, for example, Chasteen and Pollack [2008] and Smith et al. [2011]). Within introductory courses it is unclear whether student-centered learning environments affect different student populations differently, because DBER scholars rarely compare the effects of a given strategy for different student populations. Populations of interest for future study include students who are underrepresented in science, including students for whom English is a second language, females, and ethnic/racial minorities. It also would be useful to explore the dimensions of overall science performance, quantitative skills, and spatial ability. Further study is needed on strategies to accommodate students with disabilities into the full suite of instructional opportunities, especially laboratory and field-based learning.

Across the disciplines in this study, the role of the laboratory class is poorly understood. It would be helpful for scientists, engineers, and DBER scholars to identify the most important outcomes of a well-designed laboratory course, then to design instruction specifically targeted at those outcomes and instruments for routinely assessing those outcomes. Future DBER might compare learning outcomes associated with different types of laboratory instruction (e.g., free-standing versus laboratory activities that are integrated into the main course) and compare outcomes in courses where laboratories are required, optional, or not offered. In addition, laboratory activities in which students conduct inquiry on large, professionally collected data sets (such as genomics data and geoscience datasets served by the U.S. Geological Survey, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and various university consortia) have grown in prominence in recent years (Hays et al., 2000), but have been little studied.

Additional research also is needed on field-based learning. Specifically, which types of field activities promote different kinds of learning and which teaching methods are most effective for different audiences, settings, expected learning outcomes, or types of field experiences? The research base is particularly sparse regarding the degree of scaffolding needed for different types of field activities, and which types of field projects are optimal for a given learning goal (Butler, 2008). Given the expense and logistical challenges of field-based instruction, it is important to identify which learning goals (if any) can only be achieved through field-based learning, and which (if any) could be achieved through laboratory or computer-based alternatives. These studies also should explore affective dimensions of field learning, including motivations to learn science and cultural and other barriers to learning.

In studying the efficacy of different instructional approaches, DBER scholars must take into account the time constraints of instructors. Future DBER studies might document the time associated with different

instructional approaches and explore which approaches are most efficient for supporting students’ learning in terms of faculty effort. At the same time, research into enhancing the effectiveness of graduate teaching assistants and paraprofessionals such as full-time laboratory instructors can explore ways to make student-centered instruction an economically viable approach, even at a time of shrinking funding for higher education.

The National Science Foundation funded a synthesis study on the status, contributions, and future direction of discipline-based education research (DBER) in physics, biological sciences, geosciences, and chemistry. DBER combines knowledge of teaching and learning with deep knowledge of discipline-specific science content. It describes the discipline-specific difficulties learners face and the specialized intellectual and instructional resources that can facilitate student understanding.

Discipline-Based Education Research is based on a 30-month study built on two workshops held in 2008 to explore evidence on promising practices in undergraduate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education. This book asks questions that are essential to advancing DBER and broadening its impact on undergraduate science teaching and learning. The book provides empirical research on undergraduate teaching and learning in the sciences, explores the extent to which this research currently influences undergraduate instruction, and identifies the intellectual and material resources required to further develop DBER.

Discipline-Based Education Research provides guidance for future DBER research. In addition, the findings and recommendations of this report may invite, if not assist, post-secondary institutions to increase interest and research activity in DBER and improve its quality and usefulness across all natural science disciples, as well as guide instruction and assessment across natural science courses to improve student learning. The book brings greater focus to issues of student attrition in the natural sciences that are related to the quality of instruction. Discipline-Based Education Research will be of interest to educators, policy makers, researchers, scholars, decision makers in universities, government agencies, curriculum developers, research sponsors, and education advocacy groups.

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• Teaching Tips

25 Effective Instructional Strategies For Educators

Engage, assess and motivate students with these 25 easy-to-use instructional strategies for any discipline

Christine Persaud

Instructional strategies refer to the techniques instructors use to deliver their lessons. Effective instructional strategies—also known as teaching strategies—help students become actively involved in the learning process. When done right, instructional strategies also support students in reaching their learning objectives. 

By reading the guide below ( our downloading this free list of instructional strategies ), you’ll gain a solid understanding of the various types of teaching strategies, why they’re important and how they can be applied to the learning process to benefit both professors and students.

In this guide, you’ll:

• Learn what instructional strategies are, and the various strategies educators can use to teach more effectively
• Gain a deeper understanding of how instructional strategies for teachers—including formal and informal assessments, case studies, debates, flipped classrooms and more—play into the overall student learning experience
• Get equipped to implement instructional strategies that are appropriate for your course in order to become more effective at teaching and engaging students
• Get access to a free instructional strategies list , packed with 25 easy-to-implement exercises for your next course

With this collection of teaching strategies, you’ll be ready to guide students towards success in any classroom setting. Plus, putting a few of these techniques into practice will ensure students come to class prepared to engage with the material, with their peers and with you.

Table of contents

• What are instructional strategies?
• What’s the difference between instructional strategies, teaching strategies, teaching techniques and teaching practices?
• Types of instructional or teaching strategies
• Active learning instructional strategies and teaching strategy examples
• Assessment-based instructional strategies
• Group teaching techniques
• Teaching strategy examples for advanced students
• Organizational instructional strategies
• Tiered instructional strategies

1. What are instructional strategies?

Instructional strategies encompass any type of learning technique a teacher uses to help students learn or gain a better understanding of the course material. They allow teachers to make the learning experience more fun and practical and can also encourage students to take more of an active role in their education. The objective of using instructional strategies beyond subject comprehension is to create students who are independent, strategic learners. The hope is, with time and practice, students will be able to select the right strategies on their own and use them effectively to complete tasks.

There are various instructional strategy examples that can be used effectively at all levels and subject areas, with a wide range of learning styles. These learning strategies motivate students by improving their engagement, capturing their attention and encouraging them to focus on not only remembering course material, but truly understanding it.

Educators who use instructional strategies allow students to make meaningful connections between concepts learned in class and real-life situations. They offer an opportunity for students to demonstrate their knowledge and course correct on their own when needed. Teachers also benefit from using instructional strategies because they’re able to better monitor and assess student performance through different methods of evaluation.

2. What’s the difference between instructional strategies, teaching strategies, teaching techniques and teaching practices?

In the dynamic landscape of higher education, understanding the nuances between instructional strategies, teaching strategies, teaching techniques, and teaching practices is crucial for educators aiming to enhance their pedagogical approach. Instructional strategies encompass a broader framework, outlining the overarching plans and methods employed to facilitate learning. These strategies guide the selection of teaching methods and techniques, serving as the foundation for effective educational practices. On the other hand, teaching strategies delve into the specific approaches instructors use to convey information and engage students. These strategies act as the vehicles through which instructional goals are achieved, embracing diverse methodologies such as collaborative learning, active participation, and technology integration.

Zooming in further, teaching techniques are the tactical tools and methods employed within a specific teaching strategy. These are the hands-on practices educators implement to deliver content, foster understanding, and promote critical thinking. Examples include case studies, role-playing, and interactive discussions. Finally, teaching practices encompass the comprehensive application of instructional, teaching, and technical strategies in the classroom. It reflects the amalgamation of various methods tailored to the unique needs of learners and the subject matter. By dissecting these components, higher education professors can refine their pedagogical repertoire, fostering a rich and dynamic learning environment for their students.

3. Types of instructional or teaching strategies

There are far too many types of instructional or teaching strategies to catalog in one place. And there’s no single, specific way to group them together. While the categories below are by no means exhaustive, instructional strategies often fall under general groupings. These include: active learning , assessment-based , group-based , advanced strategies , organizational (or classroom management) and tiered .

4. Active learning instructional strategies and teaching strategy examples

4.1. exit tickets.

Before students leave your learning environment, ask them to answer a question related to a key concept discussed in the lesson that day. They can write it down on a piece of paper or index card. Questions can be simple, like asking students what they found most interesting about the lesson. Or, they can be more complex, such as having them draw a sketch that demonstrates what they learned, or asking them to connect the key concept they learned to a real-life situation. Have students hand the ‘tickets ‘ to you as they exit (or have them submit a response to your discussion board), then review the responses.

The feedback can help educators determine which students need additional teaching in specific areas. Using this approach, teachers gain a quick understanding of how the whole class is grasping and reacting to the material.

Use the information from the exit tickets to form groups in the class that follows. Place students at similar levels of understanding, or who have similar views on a topic, together. Conversely, group students with opposing views together in order to foster debate and conversation. Learn more about the types of exit tickets you can use in your next course—download an exit ticket template here .

4.2. Flipped classrooms

Regardless of where you teach, flipping your classroom is one of the most popular forms of active learning and among the most well-known instructional strategies. Instead of using classroom time for lecturing, educators provide students with a pre-recorded lecture to watch prior to class. They’re often concise, posted to sites like YouTube, or presented in the form of a podcast that students can listen to at home or during their commute. Educators can then use classroom time to engage students in learning activities related to the lecture they’ve already seen or heard.

Flipped classrooms are an effective teaching technique because they allow students to review and learn concepts on their own time. Students are then free to complete more interactive and collaborative work in class, including discussions and tasks with their peers and teacher. They can also collaborate and discuss material online, via forum discussions with peers and subject matter experts. In class, students can actively apply concepts via peer learning, group work, and presentations.

Flipped learning helps keep students continuously engaged in class instead of just passively listening. And it makes good use of downtime by allowing students to combine a workout or commute time with further learning, when it’s most convenient for them. Built to enable this strategy, Top Hat makes it simple to adopt a flipped classroom —simply run quizzes prior to your lecture and create interactive discussions for students to collaborate during class time.

Looking for more? Get 25 additional instructional strategies in this free guide .

4.3. Journals and learning logs

This instructional strategy lets students record their thoughts, feelings and reflections on a variety of topics. Journal entries could refer to something discussed in your lecture, or they can allow students to reflect on a relevant newspaper article or piece of media they came across. Journals can also be used for getting students to think critically about the course material and how it can be applied to the real world. This activity lets students make predictions, brainstorm ideas, connect ideas and even identify solutions to problems presented in class.

You might consider using the following prompts in advance of a journaling assignment to promote higher-level thinking. At the start of a lesson, you might ask, “What questions do you have from yesterday?” During the middle of a lesson, ask, “What do you want to know more about?” At the end of your lesson, ask, “How could you use these findings outside of class?” Encourage students to note any thoughts that come to mind at these three points. At the end of the semester, their journal can form the foundation of a more comprehensive study guide.

4.4. Minute papers

Pose a question about the day’s teaching, and give students a moment to reflect before writing down their answer on their own or in pairs. The responses can provide valuable insight into student comprehension of the material.

Minute papers can be presented in a number of ways, but the easiest is a “ticket out,” whereby educators wrap up class a few minutes early. (We saw this earlier in our instructional strategies list, under ‘exit ticket’ ). They then ask students to answer what the most important thing they learned today was and what questions they still have. The first question requires students to think quickly, recall class material, decide on the main points, and put it into their own words. For the second, they must think further about what they’ve understood thus far.

Teachers can use the responses to determine how well students understand the material. Minute papers can also help students understand where their own learning gaps are. Once this is realized, both students and teachers can identify and address weaknesses.

4.5. Muddiest point

The ‘muddiest point’ is another active learning instructional strategy. This activity asks students to use index cards (or an app), to anonymously submit what part(s) of the course material they’re having the most difficulty with. Educators can then use the responses to determine where extra instruction is needed and adjust lessons accordingly.

Alternatively, these topics can be addressed during student review sessions. Ask students to identify topics they feel they need clarification on and consolidate these into a list. Then get each student to select a term from the list they feel they can explain to the rest of the class.

Cross it off the list, and move on to the next. By the end, it will be easy to see which concepts students are having the most issues with by process of elimination. And if terms haven’t been selected, they are being avoided for a reason. Naturally, students will pick the terms they are most comfortable with.

Use that information to devise more instructor-led sessions on the concepts that most students are confused about, or that require more clarification, to eventually complete the entire list.

4.6. Reflection

Hand out blank index cards or a pre-designed worksheet at the end of a class session and ask students to use them to submit a response to a question about the day’s lesson. Alternatively, ask students to submit a discussion board response. The reflection prompt could be simple, like asking what they learned, or what they found the most interesting. Or, you can make your prompt more application-based, like asking them to connect what they learned to a real-life situation, or telling them to explain why what they learned is important.

The purpose of reflection is to encourage students to consider what they have learned. Like a number of other instructional strategies in this list, it also gives the teacher an idea of where students stand on a topic or issue so they can use this information to help better prepare for the next lesson. The added benefit is that having students express these thoughts on paper can result in better memory retention.

To drive this strategy in higher education, Top Hat’s interactive discussions make it easy for students to reflect on what was covered in class. Allow students to discuss concepts with their peers, with the ability to grade discussions as desired.

4.7. Think-pair-share

This active learning technique is another of the best-known instructional strategies. After presenting a lesson, pause the lecture for a moment to ask students to pair up with a partner. Have them discuss the material they just learned. Prepare questions, and, once they’ve had some time to discuss with their partner(s), get students to take turns presenting their observations to the rest of the class.

Make the question challenging, such that it could spark debate between the grouped or paired students. Give them just a few minutes to talk amongst themselves and come to a collective conclusion.

Think-pair-share can work especially well for the first few lessons of a class, keeping students on their toes and interested in the material that is to come. But it can also help recapture student enthusiasm near the middle of a term, reminding students that they aren’t alone in their learning and that others share their views or concerns, and that there are different perspectives to support an issue that are worth considering beyond their own.

5. Assessment-based instructional strategies

5.1. assessment.

One of the most used instructional strategies, assessments are considered any graded test, quiz, project, or exam. Informal checks of student progress throughout the year, such as discussions or presentations, can be included too. There are many different assessment-based instructional strategies (and a few follow in this group).

In general, there are various ways to run assessments and different ways to adapt them to class time. These include: asking certain groups of students to only complete specific parts of a test, allowing students to respond orally versus in writing, or asking students to demonstrate what they’ve learned in a more hands-on way, like building something or drawing a diagram.

The most critical thing to remember with assessments is to try and stay focused on evaluating the concept that’s most important for the student to grasp. This might mean your assessments have to be more practical. Asking a student to put the learning to work and actually do something can be a far better indicator of what they know than simple written or oral answers.

One tip is to include test or quiz questions that vary in complexity, and focus on different aspects of a concept. You could include one question mandatory for responding, but allow students to choose which ones they want to answer among the remaining ones.

→ Download Now: 25 Free Instructional Strategies

5.2. Cubing

“Cubing” is a version of the above. It involves writing a command or question on each of the six sides of a cube, then having students roll the cube like a die and respond to the question or command accordingly.

The questions can relate to describing, comparing, contrasting, applying, predicting or imagining concepts. Get students even more involved in this cooperative learning activity by having them come up with their own questions that they then exchange with classmates, taking turns to answer.

Take it to another level by creating multiple cubes with questions of varying levels of complexity. Assign students to work in groups—have each group of students write or dictate their answers to the questions on their cube. Use the data to determine which students should work on which concepts come assignment time.

5.3. Grade as you go

This instructional strategy is ideal for subjects that involve repetitive practices and rote memorization, such as mathematics and language. Have students work on assignments either alone or in pairs, checking and marking their work.

This teaching technique is motivational because students instantly know if they’re on the right track, allowing them to gauge their achievement level. But it also helps students immediately correct something they’re doing wrong. Once they identify the mistakes, they can translate that learning to subsequent questions, instead of completing the entire assignment incorrectly.

Instructional strategies such as ‘Grade As You Go’ also help educators pinpoint students who have a superior grasp of the material, allowing them to move on to a more challenging assignment.

By the time the assignment is completed, it’s far more likely that the entire class will be ready to move on to the next concept or skill. And since grades have already been given, it reduces after-class grading time for teachers. Put this strategy into practice this fall by relying on the Top Hat Gradebook . This comprehensive tool lets you view attendance, participation and completion data in one place and makes it easy to retroactively adjust grade weights as needed.

5.4. Homework practice

The purpose of homework , as one of the numerous assessment-based instructional strategies, is to extend learning beyond the classroom setting. Homework gives students extra time to master concepts studied in class and further refine their learning. To use this effectively, assign homework based on the student’s skill level, ensuring it aligns with the areas they need more practice in.

The amount and complexity of homework varies depending on subject and level. Students should be able to complete homework independently, with minimal involvement from tutors or peers. If they can’t, it should serve as a red flag to both the student and educator.

Built to enable this strategy, Top Hat makes it easy to create, personalize and assign interactive homework assignments . Choose from a variety of question types including fill-in-the-blank or multiple choice and embed discussion questions throughout your assessments.

5.5. Questions and quizzes

Question-asking is among the simplest of the instructional strategies, but it can still be strategically complex. The simplest way to gauge student understanding of course material is to ask them questions about it. During group discussions, pose several questions of varying complexity so that everyone has a chance to respond, including both those who are experiencing difficulties with the class, as well as those who are mastering the concepts. Strategically adjust the questions you ask based on who you plan to call upon. This helps build student confidence and ensures the class runs smoothly.

Timing is important, too. When the class starts, or there’s a pause between concepts or topics, you can administer a quick quiz or poll to get an understanding of how far along students are in their learning. In order to effectively assess comprehension, it’s best to not attach a grade to this activity. Students will inevitably worry if the quiz is going to impact their overall grade for the class. Platforms like Kahoot! can be used to facilitate informal games or trivia sessions at the start of class, setting the stage for what’s to follow in your lecture.

Use technology like clickers to administer things like multiple choice quizzes that can be tabulated immediately for large classes, with questions that challenge or check an assumption before a lecture begins. Then, administer the same or a similar quiz at the end of class, and compare the results.

Educators can determine how effective the lesson was and see if they need to revisit the subject matter again, or can confidently move on to the next topic.

6. Group teaching techniques

6.1. case studies.

Case studies, as instructional strategies or teaching techniques, are more spontaneous than structured group projects. But this is a good thing. It helps prepare students for when they enter the workforce, where problem solving on the fly is an essential skill. In a practical work environment, students can’t just do what they’re told and expect to succeed. Case studies can help prepare them for life after college or university.

To use case studies, put students into groups and task them with finding a way to apply the knowledge they’ve acquired from reading course materials and listening to lectures into real-world scenarios that match your assigned content area(s).

In a classroom setting, working on case studies encourages students to think critically about what they’ve learned, not just recite points back to the class.

6.2. Debates

Instructional strategies like these work as a structured form of argumentation. Debates require students to research concepts and think critically in order to present their positions in a convincing and justifiable way.

Most fitting for concepts with opposing points of view, debates help students develop listening and presentation skills. Once presented in class, having a debate can also introduce new perspectives on topics, and convince students to conduct further research in order to build stronger arguments, or intelligently counter those of the opposing side.

6.3. Peer instruction

With the teacher’s guidance, students can prepare and present course material in class, encouraging interaction with peers. Try to do this without the use of slides as an aid, so students have to communicate more with classmates and discover more creative ways to present the material.

It’s best to do these kinds of student-led instructional strategies at the beginning of a class, so students can teach one another about what they know, sharing their knowledge and experiences that relate to course material.

6.4. Role play

The use of simulations and games in your instructional toolkit can give you a deeper look at the impact of learning, as well as demonstrate how students can invent and experiment with learned concepts. Role playing also offers students a chance to practice their interpersonal skills in an environment in which they are comfortable and familiar.

Having the opportunity to visualize, model or role play in dynamic situations promotes curiosity, exploration and problem solving. It can aid students in working towards a greater understanding of the material. The more ways that students have of representing the knowledge they’ve acquired beyond writing and oral explanation, the better their comprehension and recall of the information will be.

In math and science fields, for example, students can experiment with simulated projects that would otherwise be difficult or cost-prohibitive to do in real settings. Examples include: designing a model of a roller coaster to understand slopes, angles and speed; using a hard-boiled egg to demonstrate Newton’s Law of Motion; or building a model volcano to understand what makes them erupt.

7. Teaching strategies examples for advanced students

7.1. curriculum compacting.

These instructional strategies encourage educators to identify students who already have advanced knowledge of a subject, skill or concept so they can spend less time on these areas. Curriculum compacting frees students up to focus more on the areas where they need to develop a greater understanding, versus concepts with which they’re already proficient. It’s ideal when working with individual students or small groups.

7.2. Independent study project

If students appear to be ahead of the class, assign them independent study projects. These projects should allow them to focus on a single concept around material discussed in class. They can also work on a separate but related topic for which they’ve expressed an interest or passion, making this an inquiry-based learning exercise.

Once the project is completed, the student can share what he or she learned with the class, demonstrating their mastery of the concept, and further educating the rest of the class on a specific area or example.

Independent study projects usually run anywhere from three to four weeks.

8. Organizational instructional strategies

8.1. agendas.

An agenda sets out a comprehensive list of the assignments, activities, projects and tests students are responsible for working on and completing throughout the year, along with a timeline for each. Students can decide how they want to complete the work and in what order. Do they want to focus on one area of learning for an entire week? Do they want to tackle the subject matter they’re most comfortable with first, or start with more difficult concepts? In addition to encouraging students to come up with a structure they can follow, agendas help them practice time management skills.

To get going, provide each student with a blank calendar to fill in with their own schedule, ensuring they’ve organized work in order to meet assignment and project due dates. If different students are working on the same part of an assignment at the same time, consider allowing them to work together during class. Take on the role of a facilitator here, helping students set reasonable deadlines according to their needs.

8.2. Anchor activities

Also referred to as ‘sponge’ activities, anchor activities are assignments that students must work on immediately in order to maximize instruction time. They can complete these activities at the beginning of every class or right after, but the idea is to keep the learning and educational process going.

Anchor activities might include the student revisiting a question posed in the previous day’s class and composing a response to it, or presenting and discussing an answer out loud to a partner. Another option could be drawing a picture to represent a concept they just learned, or writing down an opinion about a key issue. This instructional strategy for teachers can also be used to provide students with notes as a reference when they’re studying for exams.

Be mindful of anchor activities that are simply ‘busy work’ to pass the time. Just as a sponge soaks up water, the goal of anchor activities is to help students soak up a better understanding of a concept or skill.

8.3. Knowledge charts

Before delving into a new topic or concept, have students submit what they already know, what they want to know and what they’ve learned already. Then, assess their prior knowledge on the subject, and get a feel for how interested they are in a topic.

Knowledge charts, as instructional tools, can also be used at various times to see how students are progressing, and if their interest in the topic is waning or growing. In filling out these graphic organizers, teachers can get an idea of where students are at academically. Students themselves can gauge their own progress and see where more work is needed.

8.4. Learning contracts

Another one of the several instructional strategies aimed at more advanced students is the learning contract. Use it to help students who need to be challenged by providing a specific assignment and list of directives that they must complete within a set period of time. Work with the student to set out the requirements of the contract, and provide a blank calendar they can use to devise a doable timeline, determining what dates and times they need in order to complete different parts of the assignment. 

This is an effective instructional strategy to help students set their own learning goals and practice time management skills—both of which are useful in the working world. Once the contract and timeline are set, encourage students who are working on the same parts of the assignment at the same time to work together.

8.5. Portfolio development

Portfolios allow students to gather, organize and illustrate examples of their learning and academic achievements. Portfolio development is the process of creating, collecting, reflecting on and selecting work samples that best showcase students’ understanding of a given concept. Once students select their top pieces that best represent their learning outcomes, they can then use a binder or scrapbook to organize their work.

Work samples kept in a portfolio might include notes from an interview, a diagram, storyboards, essays, infographics and more. Portfolio development is a necessary and effective process for most humanities and STEM majors. Art students can use a portfolio to curate their top pieces—whether paintings, drawings or photographs—at the end of the semester. Alternatively, students in architecture or engineering courses can use a portfolio to house mockups and wireframes of a new building or the parts of an engine. No two students’ portfolios will include the same work since these differ based on discipline and course.

9. Tiered instructional strategies

9.1. tiered activities.

Set up three or four activities of varying complexity for students to participate in. Each should have the same common goal of helping students understand a specific element of the subject material. For example, it might be different experiments that all explain the basic concept of physics.

Start with a mid-level activity that would apply to most students in the class, then include one that’s a step-up in difficulty to challenge students with a better understanding of the material. Alternatively, offer a simplified version for students who are still working to gain a full understanding of the concept.

Place students in groups based on their perceived level, or give a brief description of each of the assignments and let them choose which level they feel most comfortable working in. Once completed, discuss and compare the results.

By the end of this collaborative exercise, each group will have a greater understanding of the material. If students are able to choose which group they join, the teacher will also get a feel for the comfort level of each student.

9.2. Tiered rubrics

Present a couple of rubrics (scoring guides) to students, based on their current level, so they have the skills needed in order to better focus and be successful in class.

The rubrics should all contain the same basic categories, but the point value or required elements should be adjusted based on the student’s readiness. For students equipped to take on greater challenges, add more categories or requirements. Conversely, remove some requirements and/or categories for students who need more assistance, or haven’t quite grasped the material just yet.

10. Conclusion

In exploring various types of instructional strategies, you’ll find that there’s something to suit every type of student level, subject and lecture format. When applied effectively, instructional strategies for teaching can help students gain a deeper understanding of course material and encourage critical thinking, beyond basic retention and surface understanding. Educators, too, can benefit by using different teaching methods throughout the semester to determine the efficacy of lesson plans, and how every student is progressing through each concept.

Download our free instructional strategies guide , filled with 25 effective activities and best practices to use in any college course.

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Physics > Physics Education

Title: instructional strategies that foster effective problem-solving.

Abstract: Helping students become proficient problem solvers is a major goal of many physics courses from introductory to advanced levels. In fact, physics has often been used by cognitive scientists to investigate the differences between the problem-solving strategies of expert and novice problem solvers because it is a domain in which there is reasonably good agreement about what constitutes good problem-solving. Since the laws of physics are encapsulated in compact mathematical form, becoming an expert physics problem solver entails learning to unpack and interpret those physical laws as well as being able to apply them in diverse situations while solving problems. A physics expert must have a well-organized knowledge structure of relevant physics and math concepts and be able to manage cognitive load and do metacognition while solving complex problems. In this chapter, we review foundational research on expertise in physics problem-solving and then discuss research on instructional strategies that promote effective problem-solving as well as challenges in changing the instructional practices of physics instructors and teaching assistants via professional development to promote and support effective problem-solving approaches.

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The Instructional Coaching Handbook: 200+ Troubleshooting Strategies for Success

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Three instructional coaches share more than 200 of the most helpful problem-solving strategies they've used in their decades-long work with teachers, administrators, and coaches.

Table of contents

Introduction

Chapter 1. Coaching Efficacy

Chapter 2. Coaching Equity

Chapter 3. Coaching Academic Instruction

Chapter 4. Coaching Social-Emotional Instruction

About the authors

A. Keith Young is an education coach, trainer, and writer. After a short stint at seminary, he pivoted to teaching secondary students English and math. Eventually, Keith shifted to training teachers and leading school improvement efforts at the district level. Later, he became a principal, leading school turnaround work and regularly increasing student outcomes by double digits in Colorado, Puerto Rico, and Arizona. Keith now trains and coaches administrators, school leadership teams, and teacher coaches. As a trainer, he maintains a progressive philosophy and teaching style that embraces the best of constructivism and direct instruction. As a coach, he's known for telling it like it is and using a blended coaching model.

Angela Bell Julien owns and manages Angela Bell Julien Publications & Consulting. She provides school leaders and teachers with practical implementation strategies in site leadership, instructional improvement, strategic cycles of inquiry for systemic improvement, and relationship building. All told, she has spent close to 35 years working in high schools. Intrigued by the small learning communities movement, she molded the process into a pathway to provide equity, decrease dropout rates, and increase post–high school success for all students.

Tamarra Osborne is a project manager, trainer, and coach with WestEd, a national nonprofit in San Francisco, California. Tamarra's philosophy of early education favors students learning through experiences and using play to learn academics. She is known as an effervescent trainer and technical coach who sees the heart of a problem and provides sensible, warm-hearted solutions. Her training topics include formative assessment, curriculum development, presentation skills, implicit bias, and educational technology. Tamarra is proud to be published in Young Children magazine from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.

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Using Instructional Rounds to Improve Learning Outcomes

Learning walks provide a way to identify and remedy issues that may be hindering student learning.

Instructional innovation involves developing and implementing new instructional methodologies and strategies (including technology) to improve student learning outcomes. I was introduced to this concept while working as an instructional specialist in the central office of Richmond Public Schools (RPS) in Virginia. Our director of curriculum and instruction, Victoria Oakley , led our team in quarterly classroom visits to assist school leaders in developing professional development interventions for the 50 district schools.

We utilized the instructional rounds process to identify and remedy instructional problems in schools, employing action research to meet the district’s instructional innovation goals. Instructional rounds include strategically utilizing three essential components: classroom observations, improvement plans, and a team approach to solving problems of practice. Given that we had a dynamic team partnering effectively with schools, RPS saw results and became fully accredited by the state of Virginia in 2010 .

Coupling my knowledge of visiting classrooms to personalize teacher development, which I learned at RPS, with expert teaching, I have helped some superintendents and school leaders strengthen instructional innovation efforts in their school systems in recent years using what I learned about instructional rounds.

Learning Walks

Instructional rounds can be a powerful addition to any school teaching team’s instructional innovation efforts. Conducting rounds is not evaluative of the teaching staff. Instead, it’s a process of teams engaging in learning walks to visit classrooms to observe teaching and learning. For this reason, we purposefully inform the teachers we’re visiting, do not put their names on any documentation, and do not spend more than 10 minutes observing them. During learning walks, the team gains the necessary insight to identify areas needing improvement, collect the proper data to provide teachers with timely feedback, and plan interventions for in-service days and collaborative work time.

If instructional rounds and learning walks are not currently practiced in your school, it’s crucial to begin cultivating the trust of your teaching staff before proceeding. If this is not carried out appropriately, the learning walks portion of the process will appear to be evaluative and not for its intended purpose of support. First, it’s important to explain the process. I suggest showing them this Edutopia video and discussing the team’s objectives. Ask them about their perceptions, answer clarifying questions, and ease concerns, if any.

You are ready to begin the instructional rounds process after assembling your teaching team, which should include anyone in your school responsible for supporting instruction (e.g., administrators, coaches, and lead teachers). Here are six steps to get you started to conduct instructional rounds soundly. Feel free to adapt these to meet your school’s needs.

6 Steps to Implementing Instructional Rounds

1. Begin team facilitator preparation: Assign a team facilitator to help guide the process. With the teaching team, identify an instructional area of focus for the upcoming learning walk. Examples of instructional focus may include student engagement and differentiation . Ensure that everyone understands the structured learning walk process (see step two for examples) and how it guides data collection. Create a schedule with timings, and assign team members the classrooms they will visit. Also, inform the teachers being observed.

2. Conduct a team briefing: Facilitate a pre-round briefing meeting with the entire teaching team. Articulate the objectives of the instructional round to ensure that everyone is on the same page. Assign a classroom visitation schedule, roles, and responsibilities to the teaching team members (e.g., classroom observers, date-debrief note-takers). Review a team-agreed-upon well-structured learning walk protocol document aligned with the instructional focus area, and provide guidance on what to look for during the classroom visits.

Note: You can create your own or download an adaptable version here . I created it by drawing inspiration from the Leadership Capacity Toolkit, with differentiation as the instructional focus. Using ChatGPT, I defined each differentiation method on page one. (To the best of my ability, I edited the items to remove inaccurate material.)

3. Begin data collection: Conduct the learning walks by visiting classrooms in groups of two to three team members. Adhere to the observation protocol, and take notes on observations in the classroom. Document objectively and honestly.

4. Debrief following the learning walk: Facilitate shared observations, preferably using a structured protocol. Begin discussions by highlighting positive practices observed. Do not name specific teachers. Instead, focus on how students receive instruction, and identify common instructional challenges across the observed classrooms. Conjure up solutions to the instructional problems observed and discussed.

5. Conduct analysis and reflect on your findings: Analyze the collected data to pinpoint the causes of the instructional challenges. Reflect on the implications of the findings to student learning and teaching practice. Specify the desired improvement outcomes as a result of a professional development (PD) intervention. Consider potential PD interventions for producing the desired outcomes.

6. Decide how to move forward: Have the team develop improvement plans to address the instructional issues identified. Collaboratively define goals and outcomes, strategies, and realistic implementation timelines. Assign the teaching team members duties and responsibilities for action plan execution.

Instructional innovation isn’t confined to a series of steps—it involves dedication, team building and collaboration, patience, and methods for collecting relevant data to grow teachers and instructional practice. Instructional rounds and observing teaching and learning in classrooms are a means to help teaching teams innovate using a data-driven process.

The recommendations and steps prescribed in this article are a portion of the process. For many, these items might become a key element of their overall instructional innovation school plan. After engaging in instructional rounds, teams must commit to following up, monitoring, and continuously reflecting on the entire process. Instructional innovation needs to be ongoing.

This article is dedicated to the memory of Victoria Oakley. I sincerely thank Superintendent Serbrenia Sims for helping me improve this process. Our book on cultivating instructional innovation through action research is forthcoming from Solution Tree.

Theatre Game as Metaphor Strategies

Ensemble, energy & focus, setting, story & character, conflict, power & problem solving.