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Key Topics in Second Language Acquisition

• Vivian Cook and David Singleton
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• Language: English
• Publisher: Multilingual Matters
• Copyright year: 2014
• Main content: 168
• Published: April 2, 2014
• ISBN: 9781783091812

Key Topics in Second Language Acquisition

Author: vivian cook , david singleton.

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This textbook offers an introductory overview of eight hotly-debated topics in second language acquisition research. It offers a glimpse of how SLA researchers have tried to answer common questions about second language acquisition rather than being a comprehensive introduction to SLA research. Each chapter comprises an introductory discussion of the issues involved and suggestions for further reading and study. The reader is asked to consider the issues based on their own experiences, thus allowing them to compare their own intuitions and experiences with established research findings and gain an understanding of methodology. The topics are treated independently so that they can be read in any order that interests the reader.

The topics in question are:

• how different languages connect in the mind;

• whether there is a best age for learning a second language;

• the importance of grammar in acquiring and using a second language;

• how the words of a second language are acquired;

• how people learn to write in a second language;

• how attitude and motivation help in learning a second language;

• the usefulness of second language acquisition research for language teaching;

• the goals of language teaching.

This excellent volume offers a clear and engaging description of central topics in second language acquisition research, and highlights the connection between research findings, formal and informal learning contexts, and teaching practices. I have no doubt that this volume will soon become an invaluable resource for teachers and students alike. This book provides a welcome, very readable introduction to second language learning, angled at university students as well as those with a general interest in the subject. It is also very teacher-friendly. Readers will not only be suitably informed but will also find plenty to intrigue them about language and its acquisition. Vibrant, prescient, honest, enjoyable… such is the view of SLA that Cook and Singleton have crafted in this unmatchable book! The palette of 8 topics covers yet transcends the box of traditional SLA and the wealth of interactive illustrations fully situates adult language acquisition in present-day realities. A must-own SLA title. Cook and Singleton's book succinctly addresses many pressing questions asked by both novices and experts in the field of SLA and could be a useful tool in an introductory SLA course. LINGUIST List 25.5116 (2014) This book constitutes a prime example of a well-written introduction to the undoubtedly highly complex, interdisciplinary and multifaceted domain of second language acquisition research, being at the same time accessible, readable and simply engaging. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, SSLLT 4 (4). 2014. 719-723

Vivian Cook is Emeritus Professor, Newcastle University, UK. He has been researching in the fields of second language acquisition and writing systems for over 45 years and was founding President of the European Second Language Association (EUROSLA).

David Singleton is Professor, University of Pannonia, Hungary and Fellow Emeritus, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland. He has published widely on second language acquisition, multilingualism and lexicology and is the series editor for the SLA series published by Multilingual Matters.

Introduction

1. How do Different Languages Connect in our Minds?

2. Is there a Best Age for Learning a Second Language?

3. How do People Acquire the Words of a Second Language?

4. How Important is Grammar in Acquiring and Using a Second Language?

5. How do People Learn to Write in a Second Language?

6. How do Attitude and Motivation Help in Learning a Second Language?

7. How Useful is Second Language Acquisition Research for Language Teaching?

8. What are the Goals of Language Teaching?

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Second Language Acquisition Research Methods

• Reference work entry
• pp 3301–3313
• Cite this reference work entry

• Rebekha Abbuhl 3 &
• Alison Mackey 4  

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Introduction

The field of second language acquisition (SLA) has grown significantly in recent years. Of the 20 plus journals (in English) concerned with topics of second and foreign language (L2) learning, for example, nearly a third were established in the past 15 years. The vast majority of these journals are devoted to empirical research, providing a forum for SLA researchers to present their findings on the linguistic, cognitive, social, contextual, psychological, and neurobiological characteristics of L2 learning and processing. Concomitantly, SLA research methods have been developed, expanded, and refined in an ongoing process as researchers investigate increasingly complex questions.

Early Developments

Since SLA first emerged as a serious field of inquiry in the 1960s, a wide variety of approaches have been used to investigate the process of learning a nonnative language. Early studies focused on differences , namely, areas of divergence between the first language (L1) and the...

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Abbuhl, R., Mackey, A. (2008). Second Language Acquisition Research Methods. In: Hornberger, N.H. (eds) Encyclopedia of Language and Education. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30424-3_248

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Department : Education Module co-ordinator : Dr. Cylcia Bolibaugh Credit value : 20 credits Credit level : M Academic year of delivery : 2024-25 See module specification for other years: 2021-22 2022-23 2023-24

Module will run

Module aims.

To familiarise students with key topics, concepts, findings and theories in work on second language learning and development

To critically evaluate their relevance and implications for language education

Module learning outcomes

Subject content

To develop a good understanding of key areas and issues discussed in work on second language learning and development

To understand the main methods used to investigate second language learning and development

To be able to read and critically evaluate original studies on key topics in second language research

To be able to evaluate the relevance of major research findings for second language learning and instruction, and make informed decisions regarding language teaching methodologies and practice

To be able to carry out small scale second language investigations for their dissertation

Academic and graduate skills

Engage critically with academic and language teaching publications

Formulate critical and balanced arguments orally and in writing

Participate in groupwork and problem-solving activities

Undertake and report appropriately short, empirical data collection and analysis work

Demonstrate effective planning and time management

Word-process, use a concordancer, manage files, use e-mail, VLE and the Web

Module content

Course Details

Key issues in second language acquisition theory and research

This session will sketch the key issues discussed in second language acquisition theory and research and situate these in relation to SLA’s ‘feeder’ disciplines of language teaching, linguistics, child language acquisition and psychology.

Logical problem of language acquisition: Nativist and Emergentist approaches

Are humans biologically endowed with a specialised language faculty? Or can the statistical properties of language and general cognition explain acquisition? In this session we will examine the evidence for two major (and opposing) explanations of how a language learner comes to know properties of language that go far beyond the input.

The role of age in second language learning: The Critical Period Hypothesis

This session focuses on how the age of onset determines the rate and the final outcome of language learning. We will discuss questions including whether second language learners can ever become entirely nativelike, and whether younger is always necessarily better.

The role of transfer in second language learning

This session address the question of what constraints (if any) a first language places on the learning of a second language. We will examine negative and positive consequences of different L1 backgrounds on different aspects of L2 learning.

The role of input, output and interaction in second language development

Is input necessary in SLA, and how much of it do we need? Is it sufficient? Does ‘input enhancement’ enhance language learning? What difference, if any, do interaction and output make? We turn to a rich body of both experimental and classroom SLA research to explore these questions.

The role of instruction and feedback in second language grammar development

In this session, the focus will be on the debate concerning the effectiveness of L2 grammar instruction. Can it work in principle? And if so, what is the comparative effectiveness of different types of instruction?

L2 vocabulary learning: incidental and intentional

What do we know when we know a word? How is the bilingual mental lexicon organised? How do we learn new words? How difficult is it to learn a new word? How many words do L2 learners need to know? These are some of the questions that this session will explore.

Individual cognitive differences and second language learning

This session takes a cognitive perspective on SLA and explores the role of working memory and the role of individual differences in working memory capacity for second language learning.

Overview of the module and assignment preparation

In this session we’ll pull together various threads covered in the module. The students will also have a chance to discuss various issues related to their assignments.

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Additional assessment information.

The assessment for this module has a 3,500 word length.

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Module feedback.

Students will receive written feedback on their summative assessments. The feedback is returned to students in line with university policy. Please check the Guide to Assessment, Standards, Marking and Feedback for more information.

Indicative reading

Doughty, C. & Long, M. (2003). The handbook of second language acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell.

Gass, S. & Selinker, L (2001). Second language acquisition: An introductory course (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. (1999). How languages are learned. Revised edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Mackey, A. & Gass, S. (2005). Second language research. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Marsden, E., Mitchell, R., & Myles, F. (2013). Second language learning theories. London: Routledge.

Ortega, L. (2014). Understanding second language acquisition. London: Routledge.

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The littlest linguists: new research on language development.

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How do children learn language, and how is language related to other cognitive and social skills? For decades, the specialized field of developmental psycholinguistics has studied how children acquire language—or multiple languages—taking into account biological, neurological, and social factors that influence linguistic developments and, in turn, can play a role in how children learn and socialize. Here’s a look at recent research (2020–2021) on language development published in Psychological Science . 

Preverbal Infants Discover Statistical Word Patterns at Similar Rates as Adults: Evidence From Neural Entrainment

Dawoon Choi, Laura J. Batterink, Alexis K. Black, Ken A. Paller, and Janet F. Werker (2020)

One of the first challenges faced by infants during language acquisition is identifying word boundaries in continuous speech. This neurological research suggests that even preverbal infants can learn statistical patterns in language, indicating that they may have the ability to segment words within continuous speech.

Using electroencephalogram measures to track infants’ ability to segment words, Choi and colleagues found that 6-month-olds’ neural processing increasingly synchronized with the newly learned words embedded in speech over the learning period in one session in the laboratory. Specifically, patterns of electrical activity in their brains increasingly aligned with sensory regularities associated with word boundaries. This synchronization was comparable to that seen among adults and predicted future ability to discriminate words.

These findings indicate that infants and adults may follow similar learning trajectories when tracking probabilities in speech, with both groups showing a logarithmic (rather than linear) increase in the synchronization of neural processing with frequent words. Moreover, speech segmentation appears to use neural mechanisms that emerge early in life and are maintained throughout adulthood.

Parents Fine-Tune Their Speech to Children’s Vocabulary Knowledge

Ashley Leung, Alexandra Tunkel, and Daniel Yurovsky (2021)

Children can acquire language rapidly, possibly because their caregivers use language in ways that support such development. Specifically, caregivers’ language is often fine-tuned to children’s current linguistic knowledge and vocabulary, providing an optimal level of complexity to support language learning. In their new research, Leung and colleagues add to the body of knowledge involving how caregivers foster children’s language acquisition.

The researchers asked individual parents to play a game with their child (age 2–2.5 years) in which they guided their child to select a target animal from a set. Without prompting, the parents provided more informative references for animals they thought their children did not know. For example, if a parent thought their child did not know the word “leopard,” they might use adjectives (“the spotted, yellow leopard”) or comparisons (“the one like a cat”). This indicates that parents adjust their references to account for their children’s language knowledge and vocabulary—not in a simplifying way but in a way that could increase the children’s vocabulary. Parents also appeared to learn about their children’s knowledge throughout the game and to adjust their references accordingly.

Infant and Adult Brains Are Coupled to the Dynamics of Natural Communication

Elise A. Piazza, Liat Hasenfratz, Uri Hasson, and Casey Lew-Williams (2020)

This research tracked real-time brain activation during infant–adult interactions, providing an innovative measure of social interaction at an early age. When communicating with infants, adults appear to be sensitive to subtle cues that can modify their brain responses and behaviors to improve alignment with, and maximize information transfer to, the infants.

Piazza and colleagues used functional near-infrared spectroscopy—a noninvasive measure of blood oxygenation resulting from neural activity that is minimally affected by movements and thus allows participants to freely interact and move—to measure the brain activation of infants (9–15 months old) and adults while they communicated and played with each other. An adult experimenter either engaged directly with an infant by playing with toys, singing nursery rhymes, and reading a story or performed those same tasks while turned away from the child and toward another adult in the room.

Results indicated that when the adult interacted with the child (but not with the other adult), the activations of many prefrontal cortex (PFC) channels and some parietal channels were intercorrelated, indicating neural coupling of the adult’s and child’s brains. Both infant and adult PFC activation preceded moments of mutual gaze and increased before the infant smiled, with the infant’s PFC response preceding the adult’s. Infant PFC activity also preceded an increase in the pitch variability of the adult’s speech, although no changes occurred in the adult’s PFC, indicating that the adult’s speech influenced the infant but probably did not influence neural coupling between the child and the adult.

Theory-of-Mind Development in Young Deaf Children With Early Hearing Provisions

Chi-Lin Yu, Christopher M. Stanzione, Henry M. Wellman, and Amy R. Lederberg (2020)

Language and communication are important for social and cognitive development. Although deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children born to deaf parents can communicate with their caregivers using sign language, most DHH children are born to hearing parents who do not have experience with sign language. These children may have difficulty with early communication and experience developmental delays. For instance, the development of theory of mind—the understanding of others’ mental states—is usually delayed in DHH children born to hearing parents.

Yu and colleagues studied how providing DHH children with hearing devices early in life (before 2 years of age) might enrich their early communication experiences and benefit their language development, supporting the typical development of other capabilities—in particular, theory of mind. The researchers show that 3- to 6-year-old DHH children who began using cochlear implants or hearing aids earlier had more advanced language abilities, leading to better theory-of-mind growth, than children who started using hearing provisions later. These findings highlight the relationships among hearing, language, and theory of mind.

The Bilingual Advantage in Children’s Executive Functioning Is Not Related to Language Status: A Meta-Analytic Review

Cassandra J. Lowe, Isu Cho, Samantha F. Goldsmith, and J. Bruce Morton (2021)

Acommon idea is that bilingual children, who grow up speaking two languages fluently, perform better than monolingual children in diverse executive-functioning domains (e.g., attention, working memory, decision making). This meta-analysis calls that idea into question.

Lowe and colleagues synthesized data from studies that compared the performance of monolingual and bilingual participants between the ages of 3 and 17 years in executive-functioning domains (1,194 effect sizes). They found only a small effect of bilingualism on participants’ executive functioning, which was largely explained by factors such as publication bias. After accounting for these factors, bilingualism had no distinguishable effect. The results of this large meta-analysis thus suggest that bilingual and monolingual children tend to perform at the same level in executive-functioning tasks. Bilingualism does not appear to boost performance in executive functions that serve learning, thinking, reasoning, or problem solving.

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“When families are informed about the importance of conversational interaction and are provided training, they become active communicators and directly contribute to reducing the word gap (Leung et al., 2020).”

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Motivation in second language acquisition: A bibliometric analysis between 2000 and 2021

Associated data.

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

As one of the most important constructs of individual differences in second language learning, motivation has garnered a lot of attention in the area of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). Nevertheless, little bibliometric research has been conducted to provide a systematic overview of this line of research, which will help researchers to better understand how motivation-related research in SLA has evolved over the past 22 years and where it might push the boundaries of SLA research into in the future. In this study, three types of bibliometric analyses (i.e., co-citation analysis, citation analysis, and keyword analysis) were performed to identify the prominent scholarly documents, authors, venues of publications, and research topics that have been highly influential in the research of motivation in SLA between 2000 and 2021. Results from scientific network maps and keyword analysis suggest significant changes in the topic over the past 22 years. The results in this study also indicate an evident continuity of theoretic development in L2 language learning motivation research. Moreover, an air of active use of qualitative approaches has been detected in L2 language learning motivation research in the last 22 years.

Introduction

Motivation is of great importance in second language acquisition. For one thing, second language learners cannot be immersed in an ideal language learning environment where they have enough opportunities to use English and communicate with native English speakers. Therefore, motivation serves as the driving force which sustains the learning of the second language even when there is a lack of appropriate language learning environments. For another, as Gardner (2007) pointed out that compared to the learning of other subjects, which involves elements common to one’s own culture, learning a second language involves taking on elements of another culture, for instance, vocabulary, pronunciation, and language structure.

As one of the most important constructs of individual differences in second language learning, motivation has garnered a lot of attention in the area of Second Language Acquisition (SLA), and an unparalleled publication surge has been witnessed in the past few years. Several publications have offered comprehensive overviews of the constructs and their development of motivation in language learning (e.g., Dornyei and Ushioda, 2011 ; Boo et al., 2015 ). Nevertheless, little research has been conducted to provide a bibliometric overview of this line of research, which will help researchers to better understand how motivation-related research in SLA has evolved over the last years and where it might push the boundaries of SLA research into in the future.

Inspired by Zhang (2020) , the present study used bibliometric approach to perform citation analysis, co-citation analysis, and keyword analysis to review publications on L2 language learning motivation. With the assistance of the mathematical and statistical methods, bibliometric analysis can extract patterns from publications which reveal the characteristics or patterns of publications in a specific discipline. In addition, bibliometric analysis can also be used to offer visualizations of the intellectual structure of the field via network mapping techniques. Moreover, by comparing the frequency of keywords in different periods, some significant changes to the key topics can be identified in a field (e.g., Lei and Liu, 2019 ; Zhang, 2020 ).

Based on bibliometric data retrieved from WoS from 2000 to 2021, this bibliometric study attempts to address the following four questions:

• What are the most-cited documents published in the past 22 years?
• What are the highly influential publications, authors and sources of publications in the intellectual structure of the L2 motivation research?
• What are the changes of the themes and topics in motivation research?
• What might be the directions that would be worthy of future research?

Materials and methods

The bibliometric data used in this study were retrieved from Web of Science (WoS). According to Zhang (2020) , WoS outperformed the other two major online data resources (i.e., Scopus and Google Scholar) in bibliometric analysis for three reasons. First, the amount of subscribers of WoS was two times larger than that of Scopus, making WoS a more widely used library resource. Second, both academic citations and non-academic citations were provided by Google Scholar which made it difficult to calculate the scholarly values of the publications. Third, co-citation analysis is one of the important bibliometric analyses used in this study, but co-citation information is not available in Google Scholar.

Since the present study focuses motivation research in the field of SLA, research articles published in high-quality journals in this field were included. Only published research articles were included for the reason that the quality and reliability of the unpublished preprints cannot be guaranteed due to a lack of a strict quality control mechanism such as peer review ( Zhu and Lei, 2022 ). As for the selection of the high-quality journals, many research used the list of 15 journals provided by VanPatten and Williams (2002) to investigate issues in SLA. However, the current study adopted 16 SSCI-indexed international journals in SLA provided by Zhang (2020) for their rigorousness in peer-review processes and accessibility and visibility to the worldwide academia.

The starting year of the retrieved publications was set in 2000 because in that year Ryan and Deci (2000a , b) had conducted two momentous review studies which discussed the importance of social contextual conditions for motivation research. In one of the review articles, the authors not only retrospected classic definitions of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, but also argued that “social contextual conditions are the basis for one maintaining intrinsic motivation and becoming more self-determined with respect to extrinsic motivation” ( Ryan and Deci, 2000a , p. 65). In another article, Ryan and Deci (2000b) reviewed studies that adopted the approach of Self-Determination Theory (hereafter SDT) to investigate human motivation, and concluded that SDT could be effectively used to address the perennial debate on the activity or passivity of human beings. The two publications are quite influential (by the day this paper was written, the two review articles have received more than 20,000 citations in Web of Science) since they provided evidence of the power of social conditions on motivated behaviors and identified new directions in motivation research.

The finalized search strategy used for data retrieval in the present study was TS = (motivation) AND PY = (2000–2021) AND SO = (Applied Linguistics OR Applied Psycholinguistics OR Bilingualism Language “and” Cognition OR Computer Assisted Language Learning OR ELT Journal OR Foreign Language Annals OR Journal of Second Language Writing OR Language learning OR Language Learning “and” Technology OR Language Teaching Research OR Modern Language Journal OR ReCALL OR Second Language Research OR Studies in Second Language Acquisition OR System OR TESOL Quarterly) AND Type of publication: (Article).

Data cleaning

Data downloaded from WoS were subject to coding errors. To guarantee the reliability of the data, the current study adopted the methods used by Zhang (2020) for data cleaning. Specifically, different author names that referred to the same author were recoded. For instance, “Dörnyei,” “Dörnyei Z.,” “Dörnyei Z,” and “Dörnyei Zoltán” were all recoded to “Dörnyei Z.” In addition, different keywords that referred to the same concept were also recoded. For instance, “mobile assisted language learning (MALL),” “mobile-assisted language learning (MALL),” and “MALL” were all recoded as “mobile assisted language learning.” Similarly, singular and plural forms of the same concept were also recoded. For instance, “possible self” and “possible selves” referred to the same concept; hence, all “possible selves” were recoded to “possible self.” It should be noted that keywords that share a degree of similarity would not be recoded since their meaning can be different. For instance, “motivational profiles” and “motivational factors” were not recoded as one since the former focused on a detailed description of a language learner’s motivation ( Thompson and Vásquez, 2015 ), while the latter examined the various variables which may explain why a learner studies and continues to study a foreign language. For instance, issues like “how much effort they put into learning, how long they persist at learning, and how successfully they learn a language” ( Ushioda, 2009 , p. 218) might be discussed in research on “motivational profiles,” and topics like “why some students persist in foreign language study and others do not” ( Ramage, 1990 , p. 192) are more likely to appear in research on “motivational factors.”

Except for those measures, this study also checked and recoded the same abbreviations that referred to different concepts. For instance, SEM was found to be used as an abbreviation for Structural Equation Modeling, a multivariate, hypothesis-driven technique, and the Socio-Educational Model formulated by Gardner (1985) to investigated learners’ attitudes toward the TL community.

Data analysis

Citation analysis, co-citation analysis, and keyword analysis were performed in this study. The 22-year data were divided into two periods (i.e., the 2000–2010 period and the 2011–2021 period) and the results of all the three bibliometric analyses in one period will be compared against the other period to reveal important changes during the last 22 years.

Citation analysis used citation information downloaded directly from WoS and the tool of BibExcel ( Persson et al., 2009 ) was used to detect the impact of the documents. Specifically, the lifetime citation count of a document was retrieved from WoS, and a normalized citation is then adjusted for the time effect ( Zhang, 2020 ).

Co-citation analysis was based on the references in the surveyed articles. The articles published in the 16 journals between 2000 and 2021 cited more than 21,000 unique references. It is hardly possible to interpret the nodes if all the cited references were included in a network map. Therefore, when constructing the network maps in VOSviewer ( Van Eck and Waltman, 2010 , 2017 ), a cutoff point was set to limit the number of nodes in a map ( McCain, 1990 ; Zhang, 2020 ). For instance, a cutoff point of 13 citation counts was used to restrict the total number of the nodes to the top 50 most-cited authors when building the author network map in the 2000–2010 period. Following Zhang (2020) , the cutoff points were set at the values to restrict the total number of the nodes to the top 50 most-cited items or authors in the maps for all the three types of co-citation analyses (i.e., most-cited sources of publications, most-cited authors, and most-cited publications). It should be noted that setting such cutoff points may rule out those latest research which may open up new avenues for future research.

Keyword analysis was conducted using the following procedures. First, author-supplied keywords and n -grams of up to four words in length and monograms of all nouns in the abstracts were extracted from the downloaded bibliometric data. It should be noted that those n -grams and monograms extracted from abstracts can append important research topics which may be overlooked in the author-supplied keywords ( Lei and Liu, 2019 ; Zhang, 2020 ). Additionally, only monogram nouns were extracted from the abstracts for the reason that “individual adjectives, adverbs, and verbs do not constitute research topics” ( Lei and Liu, 2019 , p3). Second, frequency counting of each keyword was performed. In this step, if there were multiple occurrences of a keyword in an abstract, they were counted as one. Third, the log-likelihood (LL) test was conducted for the identification of significant cross-period differences of the keywords in terms of frequency in the next step. Moreover, Bayes Factor (BIC) of each keyword was also calculated using an online calculator in the following link. 1 The LL test and the BIC were used in this study since they were widely used in corpus linguistics and bibliometric studies to identify important keywords ( Rayson and Garside, 2000 ; Wilson, 2013 ; Zhang, 2020 ). Last, a LL value of 3.84 and a BIC value of 2 were used as criteria to determine whether there was a significant cross-period difference of the frequency of a keyword. Specifically, a word/phrase with a LL value greater than 3.84 suggested that the topic had experienced a significant change from one period to the other. Otherwise, it suggested that the interest toward this topic remained relatively stable during the two periods. BIC values supplemented the identification of keywords to LL values with a stricter criterion. Similar to Zhang (2020) , BIC values greater than 2 were interpreted as an increasing/decreasing interest toward the topic with positive evidence, BIC values greater than 6.84 were interpreted as an increasing/decreasing interest toward the topics with strong evidence, and BIC values greater than 22.22 were interpreted as an increasing/decreasing interest toward the topic with very strong evidence.

Results and discussion

The bibliometric information of a total of 752 articles was analyzed. In this section, results of the citation analysis, co-citation analysis, and keyword analysis will be presented in sequence.

Citation analysis

The citation information of the top 10 most-cited articles in the 16 journals is presented in Table 1 . The normalized citations of the articles in the second period are relatively higher than those in the first period. This result echoes findings in previous research that there is a substantial research interest in the topic of L2 motivation ( Boo et al., 2015 ).

The most-cited articles in the journals (order by normalized citation).

In the 2000–2010 period, many research topics have been examined. For instance, Liu and Jackson (2008) examined the topic of the unwillingness to communicate in Chinese English as a foreign language context, Lorenzo et al. (2010) focused on the pedagogic approach of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), and Mills et al. (2006) assessed self-efficacy beliefs and their relation to foreign language proficiency. Among the top 10 most-cited articles are empirical studies carried out to test the then emerging theoretical models. For instance, Peng and Woodrow (2010) and Yashima (2002) adopt the Willingness to Communicate (henceforth WTC) model to investigate the indirect influence of motivation on WTC in the Chinese English as a Foreign Language and the Japanese English as Foreign Language contexts, respectively. The results of these two researches not only validated the model in different cultural contexts but also identified variables which had direct or indirect influence on motivation. For example, Peng and Woodrow (2010) identified the direct effect of learner beliefs on motivation and confidence, and suggested that individual and contextual variables might be drawn on to account for classroom communication. Similarly, Papi (2010) initiatively tested a theoretical model subsuming variables in L2 Motivational Self-System (henceforth L2MSS), and found that the ideal L2 self and the L2 learning experience can ease students’ English anxiety, while ought-to L2 self-made students more anxious.

Another feature of the top 10 most-cited articles in this period is that new theories from other disciplines are introduced to the L2 motivation field. For instance, the self-determination theory (hereafter SDT) featured by empirical research in psychology was used to investigate motivation in L2 language learning by Noels et al. (2000) and Joe et al. (2017) . The introduction of SDT to L2 motivation research is of great importance since it, to some degree, settled the dispute on the validity and reliability of a scale of two important types of motivation (i.e., intrinsic and extrinsic motivation) for L2 learning. The three review articles among the top most-cited articles in this period are also worth noticing. Laufer and Hulstijn (2001) investigated the cognitive and motivational aspects of L2 learning in previous literature. Macintyre (2007) , based on the literatures on language anxiety and language learning motivation, argued that the decision to speak was a volitional and dynamic process. Dörnyei (2003) presented an overview of recent advances in research on motivation to L2 language learning and created the theoretical context of the selected articles.

Similar to the diversity of research topics discussed in the top-10 most-cited articles in the 2000–2010 period, different themes have also emerged in the top-10 most-cited articles in the 2011–2021 period. However, some unique features are identified in this period.

First, large datasets of publications are used in review articles. Except for Zou et al. (2021) , more than 350 publications are included in the other three review articles. Specifically, Boo and collaborators reviewed 416 journal articles and book chapters published between 2005 and 2014, Plonsky and Oswald (2014) extracted and analyzed L2 effects from 346 primary studies and 91 meta-analyses, and Golonka et al. (2014) summarized evidence for the effectiveness of the use of technology in foreign language learning and teaching from over 350 studies. Second, variables related the L2 language learning environment in line with the times are investigated. For instance, prompted by the worldwide COVID-19 health crisis, online English education is reshaping L2 language learning environment. Derakhshan et al. (2021) explored causes of and solutions to boredom of online English classes in Iran, whose findings can help teachers to improve students’ experience of online English learning during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. In another top-10 most-cited article in this period, Wang et al. (2021) surveyed L2 language learners’ perceptions of their blended learning in a Chinese English as a foreign language context and argued that an efficient EFL learning environment can be created via a blended design. Moreover, new educational technologies are frequently used in L2 language learning environment (for example, the use of WeChat moments in Wang and Jiang, 2021 and the online use of English in Lamb and Arisandy, 2020 ). Therefore, it is not surprising to see that the topic of technology-based English as a foreign language occupies a crucial position among the top-10 most-cited articles in the 2011–2021 period. For example, Bai et al. (2021) proposed a model which involved motivational beliefs to investigate L2 language teachers’ continuance intention to use information and communication technology in their teaching, and Rafiee and Abbasian-Naghneh (2021) identified the factors which affected e-learning acceptance and readiness in the foreign language learning context.

Last, with regard to theoretical development, less empirical research has been conducted to test the theoretical hypothesis in the 2011–2021 period compared to the top-10 most-cited articles in the 2000–2010 period. The only one is conducted by Dörnyei and Chan (2013) to test the hypothesis that the students’ capability to generate mental imagery is partially determined by their intensity of motivation. The findings of Dörnyei and Chan (2013) have been widely cited by current research to examine the potential interaction between motivation or variables that are directly/indirectly related to motivation and self-images. For instance, Fathi and Mohammaddokht (2021) investigated two foreign language learning emotions (i.e., enjoyment and anxiety) as the predictors of ideal L2 self. Another example is Safranj et al. (2021) who conducted a research to determine the degree to which the ideal L2 self can be regarded as a significant factor with regard to its power to make a difference in students’ actual motivated behavior in L2 communication. Moreover, theories rooted in the field of SLA have been developed. For instance, Li (2018) developed Translanguaging as a theory of language which emphasized the multimodal and multisensory nature of the social interaction of foreign language learners as multilingual language users.

Co-citation analysis and network mapping

Results from the citation analysis shed light on identifying the most-cited publications in the field of L2 motivation research as independent units. In this section, the highly influential references, authors, and sources of publications in the intellectual structure of the L2 motivation research are presented and discussed based on the results of co-citation analysis and network mapping.

The highly influential references

Among the 4,000+ unique references cited in the articles published between 2000 and 2010, all top 50 most-cited references had citation counts of at least 9. The network map generated by the VOSviewer produced three major clusters ( Figure 1A ). The density view of the network in Figure 1B is presented to help readers visualize the hot topics between 2000 and 2010. Among the 21,000+ references cited in the articles published between 2011 and 2021, all the top 50 most-cited references were cited at least 26 times. The network analysis produced three major clusters ( Figure 2A ). Figure 2A shows the connections and clustering of the top references and Figure 2B provides the density view of the network.

(A) . Network map of the most-cited references (2000–2010); (B) . Density view (2000–2010).

(A) . Network map of the most-cited references (2011–2021); (B) . Density view (2011–2021).

It is worth noticing that in the 2000–2010 network map, the three clusters are almost equally distributed, while in the 2011–2021 network map, the size of the L2WTC cluster (the blue cluster in Figure 2A ) has shrunk. As a widely accepted model in L2 language learning motivation research, L2WTC is a comprehensive conceptual model proposed by Macintyre and colleagues ( Macintyre et al., 1998 ) with an aim to schematize various traits and situational variables that converge to describe, explain and predict language learners’ willingness to communicate in L2. A large body of research in the 2000–2010 period has been conducted to investigate the underlying factors from this model in different cultural contexts. For instance, Yashima (2002) used this model to examine relations among L2 learning and L2 communication variables in the Japanese English as a foreign language context. In the 2011–2021 period, research began to explore factors that affect or connect to L2WTC. For example, Fallah (2014) developed the L2WTC model based on the research by MacIntyre et al. (1998) and previous empirical studies by examining the potential connections among L2WTC, three individual differences (shyness, motivation, and communication self-confidence) and one situational variable (teacher immediacy). The findings revealed the positive influence of motivation and communication self-confidence on L2WTC, and the indirect influence of shyness and teacher immediacy on L2WTC.

The highly influential authors

Of the 3,172 authors cited in 2000–2010, more than 10 citations are received by each of the top 50 authors, and of the 12,667 authors cited in 2011–2021, more than 50 citations are received by each of the top 50 authors. The visualizations of the connections among the highly influential authors in the two periods are presented in the networks in Figures 3 , ​ ,4. 4 . As can be seen in Table 2 , Zoltán Dörnyei, Robert C. Gardner, and Peter MacIntyre are the top three most-cited authors between 2000 and 2021. Theoretical and empirical studies conducted by the three authors form the backbones of the L2 language learning motivation research. For instance, the classic concept of the integrative motive by Gardner (1985) , the L2WTC model by Macintyre et al. (1998) , and the theory of L2MSS by Dörnyei (2005) all provide good opportunities to explore and enrich the research territory of motivation in L2 language learning. The lasting influence of those authors has been reflected in the network maps of the cited authors in the two periods as well. For instance, Dörnyei is conspicuously presented in the two network maps ( Figures 3 , ​ ,4 4 ).

Author network map (2000–2010).

Author network map (2011–2021).

Citation of the top 50 most-cited authors between 2000 and 2021.

As is shown in Figures 3 , ​ ,4, 4 , some influential authors are closely associated with each other, and several clusters have been formed. As is shown in Figure 3 , three large clusters have been identified in the 2000–2010 period, including the socio-educational model cluster (in green; e.g., Robert Gardner, Zoltán Dörnyei, Clément Richard, and Ushioda Ema), the self-regulation related cluster (e.g., Paul R. Pintrich, Barry J. Zimmerman, and Frank Pajares), and the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) related cluster (e.g., Kimberly A. Noels, Rebecca Oxford, Robert J. Vallerand).

Three major clusters have also been identified in the network map in the 2011–2021 period. The socio-educational model cluster remains one of the key areas with more authors (e.g., Alastair Henry, Yumiko Taguchi, and Csizer kata) engaging in. It also should be noted that some authors in this cluster have used new methods to explore the topics on L2 motivation. For instance, Papi (2010) takes a structural equation modeling approach to test a theoretical model that covers components in the L2MSS, anxiety, and effort. Another major cluster is formed by authors (e.g., Jean-Marc Dewaele, Peter D. Macintyre, and Tomoko Yashima) who are interested in emotion research, especially those who adopt methods from the field of Positive Psychology (PP). This result demonstrates the importance of positive emotion in L2 language learning. The third cluster that worth noticing is the self-related theory/model cluster, which includes authors such as Barry J. Zimmerman and Rebecca Oxford. As can be seen in Figures 3 , ​ ,4, 4 , the self-regulation-related cluster and the Self-Determination Theory cluster in the 2000–2010 network map have merged into one cluster in the 2011–2021 period.

Influential sources of publications

Of the 2,429 sources in 2000–2010, around 15 citations are received by each of the top 50 journals/books, and of the 8,042 sources in 2011–2021; more than 70 citations are received by each of the top 50 journals/books. The intellectual structures of the influential sources of publications are visually presented in Figures 5 , ​ ,6. 6 . Three large clusters representing three major sub-areas in the field of the L2 language learning motivation are identified in the period of 2000–2010. The largest cluster (in red) is the second language learning (SLL) cluster, which is represented by the journals of Modern Language Journal , Language Learning , and two books by Dörnyei (2005) , and Gardner and Lambert (1972) . The second largest cluster (in green) is the second language teaching (SLT) cluster which includes journals such as System , Applied Linguistics , TESOL Quarterly , ELT journal , J ournal of Second Language Writing , World Englishes , and Language Teaching Research . The third cluster (in blue) is the second language acquisition (SLA) cluster, including journals of Foreign Language Annuals , Studies in Second Language Acquisition , and books such as Second Language Acquisition ( Freed, 1995 ) edited by Freed Barbara.

Network map of sources of publications (2000–2010).

Network map of sources of publications (2011–2021).

In the 2022–2021 period, four clusters representing four major sub-areas are identified. The red cluster is labeled as the multilingualism/bilingualism cluster, represented by journals, such as Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development , International Journal of Multilingualism , and International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism . Moreover, journals interested in the concept of multilingualism/bilingualism also exist as an indispensable part of this cluster. For instance, a special issue published by Modern Language Journal on the topic of “Beyond Global English: Motivation to Learn Languages in a Multicultural World” ( Ushioda and Dörnyei, 2017 ) has suggested that the dominant status of English as a global language cautions scholars to pay proper regard to notions of self, and identity, which is shaping conceptualizations of second language motivation. The blue cluster is labeled as the educational psychology cluster, including Journal of Educational Psychology , Contemporary Educational Psychology , and Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . The third cluster (in green) is the SLA cluster, including Applied Linguistics , TESOL Quarterly , Studies in Second Language Acquisition , Annual Review of Applied Linguistics , and Foreign Language Annuals . The last is the technology-based second language learning and teaching (SLLT) cluster (in yellow), including ReCALL , Computer Assisted Language Learning , Language Learning and Technology , and Journal of Computer Assisted Learning .

Keyword analysis

A total token of 15,399 (14,612 extracted from abstracts and 787 supplied by authors) keywords in the 2000–2010 period, and a total token of 40,839 (39,748 extracted from abstracts and 1,091 supplied by authors) keywords in the 2011–2021 period are included for analysis. The results of keyword analysis are presented in this section to provide information about key topics in the L2 motivation research over the past 22 years.

As is shown in Table 3 , topics that have gained significantly increasing attention are ideal self, motivational self-system, Chinese EFL learner, and digital game. Topics such as L2 motivational self-system, motivational self, self-image, and possible selves are among the lists of themes with increasing interests over the past 22 years. One plausible reason is that when the emergence of L2MSS model proposed by Dörnyei (2005) shed new insights to the research trajectory of L2 motivation. That is, the social educational approach to L2 motivation by Gardner (1985) has been overshadowed by this new model. Chinese EFL learner is also among the list of topics with significantly increasing interest. One of the reasons may be that an enormous number of EFL learners are Chinese. In addition, Korea, Saudi, and multilingualism are among the list of topics with increasing interest, which indicates that the impact of social environment on second language learning motivation probably varies from one culture to the other. It also should be noted that more and more topics are related to research method (e.g., longitudinal, semi-structured interviews, and multiple regression) over the last 22 years. This increase may be attributed to the surge of publications with a focus on the application of the then emergent theoretical models (e.g., L2WTC and L2MSS). Topics (i.e., digital game and mobile-assisted language learning) related to the use of technology in L2 language learning have attracted more and more researchers’ attention as well. This increase is probably triggered by the effective use of advanced technology (e.g., digital games and computer-assisted pronunciation training) in second language teaching and learning.

Topics with increasing interests.

au = author-supplied-keyword; ad = keyword-from-abstracts; LL = Log-likelihood; BIC = Bayes Factor ( Szlachta et al., 2012 ).

BIC values below zero have all been omitted.

The only topic that has experienced a significantly decreasing interest is English as a foreign language. One possible reason for this significant decrease might be that English is not the only choice of foreign languages for learners. Researchers in L2 motivation field have noticed that the theoretical paradigms of L2 language learning motivation should be used to understand the motivation of learning languages other than English (LOTEs; Dörnyei and Al-Hoorie, 2017 ). For instance, informed by L2MSS, Huang (2019) investigated learners’ motivation for three groups of language (i.e., Southeast Asian, Northeast Asian, and European). Another example is an investigation of the emergence of a multilingual motivational system in a Chinese LOTEs context by Huang and colleagues ( Huang et al., 2021 ).

Though no significant decrease in theoretical paradigms/models in L2 motivation, Table 4 shows that topics on Gardner and integrative motivation are being less touched upon over the past 22 years. The socio-education (SE) model of motivation by Gardner (1985) is one of the most influential models before 1990 and has a lasting effect on current L2 motivation research. However, Gardner’s model has its limitations. L2MSS model of Dörnyei (2003) addresses the limitations of the SE model by adopting the dichotomy of integrative and instrumental orientation, but it “changes the direction of reference from outwardly gauging the target language community to inwardly gauging the future vision of the learner’s self (PP. 577; Huang, 2019 ).” With exponentially increasing interest in L2MSS model ( Al-Hoorie, 2018 ), Gardner’s SE model has been overshadowed hence.

Topics with decreasing interests.

As for research methods and tools, questionnaire and simulated oral proficiency interview (SOPI) are less frequently used by researchers in L2 motivation research over the past 22 years. One possible reason for this might be that the reliability of the two methods/tools is questioned. For instance, the Greek language the Students’ Motivation Towards Science Learning (SMTSL) questionnaire needs to be adapted if used in a different cultural context ( Dermitzaki et al., 2013 ). As a testing tool for foreign language oral proficiency, the reliability of SOPI ratings at the Intermediate-High through Superior levels is also under question ( Stansfield and Kenyon, 1992 ).

Most research topics of L2 language learning motivation remained stable. Table 5 lists some of the topics without a significant change. Mixed methods remain a popular method probably because it has combined the advantage of both quantitative and qualitative methods to provide multiple perspectives on issues in L2 motivation research. Moreover, topics (e.g., language anxiety, emotion, mindset, and experience) related to propensity factors are also among the list for the reason that those variables are situated and dynamic.

Topics without much change (2.60 < LL < 3.84).

There is a long list of keywords that remain unchanged, and table only include those topics whose value of LL falls between 2.60 and 3.84.

Recent trends and future directions

Results from citation analysis, co-citation analysis, and keyword analysis all indicate that motivation is an increasingly important area in second language acquisition. Changes detected between the periods of 2000–2010 and 2011–2021 reflect recent trends in L2 motivation, and those trends may shed light into the directions of a proliferation of future studies in this field. Three major trends are identified from the changes.

First, application and development of existing models/theories will probably become an important area of future research. One typical example is the application and development of the SDT. Results from citation analysis have demonstrated that in the past two decades, SDT has become one of the most established motivational theories in L2 learning and has been robustly applied in multiple cultural settings. For instance, Chen et al. (2021) have applied the basic psychological needs theory and the relationship motivation theory in the Chinese context, Alamer and Lee (2021) in the Saudi Aribian context, Carreira (2012) in the Japanese context, and more commonly in the American ( Davis, 2022 ) and British contexts ( Parrish, 2020 ). Moreover, several mini-theories (e.g., organismic integration theory, cognitive evaluation theory, basic psychological needs theory, and goal contents theory) of SDT have also been generated ( Al-Hoorie et al., 2022 ). In addition, results from co-citation analysis of references reveal the possible trajectory of the development of the existing theoretical models. That is, theoretical models that share common features or involve similar variables may first merge with each other, and a comprehensive synthesis of those features and variables then might provide important insights for the introduction of a new theoretical model in this area.

Second, large datasets will probably be used in a number of future studies, especially review studies. Extracting kernels from wisdom in existing literature, review studies serve as enlightening and guiding beacons for experts and novices interested in the field of L2 motivation research alike. The use of a large dataset in a review study can offer insights to the explanation of the common problems or the description of the shared features in L2 language learning motivation research. Moreover, it also sheds light on the interpretation of results from statistical analysis in a particular discipline. For instance, Yousefi and Mahmoodi (2022) interpreted the overall effectiveness of L2 motivation on language learning by adopting the field-specific interpretation of effect sizes proposed by Plonsky and Oswald (2014) rather than the default one by Cohen (1977) .

Third, there is abundant room for further progress in investigating the influence of propensity factors on learners’ motivation. Results from the present study are consistent with Boo et al. (2015) who describe the environment of the L2 motivation research as “dynamic and accommodating, as opposed to one that is static and stagnant” (p. 155). For instance, the rapid advances in technology during 2011 and 2021 play a vital role in the field of L2 motivation research as Golonka et al. (2014) have demonstrated that the application of technological innovations in foreign language learning can increase learners’ interest and motivation and provide them with more interaction opportunities and input of the target language. That is, those propensity factors may affect learners’ motivation if the social contexts or education environments change. Therefore, those topics will probably being investigated in the future.

Conclusion and implications

This bibliometric study on L2 motivation research has performed analyses on publications, sources of publications, authors, and keywords over the past 22 years. Based on citation information, citation analysis, co-citation analysis, and keyword analysis are performed. Based on the findings in this study, several implications emerged.

First, influential publications, source of references, and authors are identified which may help researchers, especially the newcomers interested in L2 motivation, to effectively screen the massive literature on L2 language learning motivation. The most-cited publications identified from citation analysis can help scholars pinpoint the latest important literature on L2 motivation in the past 22 years, and the highly influential publications identified from co-citation analysis of publications will probably be the classic and key documents in this field. In addition, co-citation analysis of publication sources has presented key journals with similar scope into one cluster, “which may help authors make better decisions concerning which journal(s) may be the best fit for submitting their scholarly research” ( Zhang, 2020 , p. 218).

Second, the continuity of theoretic development is evident in L2 language learning motivation research. Results from citation analysis, co-citation analysis, and keyword analysis all indicate that theoretical models shift from one period to the other. However, a closer examination of the most-cited publications and the highly influential documents reveals that the fresh theoretical models are developed or expanded on the basis of the existing classic theories. By maintaining the best of the existing theories and pushing the relevant parameters outward, a more comprehensive model might be eventually created ( Oxford and Shearin, 1994 ).

Last, an air of active use of qualitative approaches has been detected in L2 language learning motivation research in the last 22 years. Boo et al. (2015) have suggested that quantitative approaches would probably lose their dominant role in the field of L2 language learning motivation. Results of the keyword analysis in this study indicate that qualitative approaches such as semi-structured interviews are receiving an increasing interest. Moreover, mixed methods remain a stable topic in this field. This finding probably indicates that the field of L2 motivation research is in the phase of the dynamic turn ( Boo et al., 2015 ). More qualitative or combined approaches should be applied in research on L2 motivation.

Future directions in L2 motivation research have also been identified. However, as Boo et al. (2015) have pointed out that motivation research in the field of second language acquisition is in the state of dynamic development, it should be reminded that those directions may offer insights for studies in the near future, and there are still uncertainties when using them to predict longer-term future development in this field.

Data availability statement

Author contributions.

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.

The research work reported in this article was supported by the China Foreign Language Education Foundation (Grant number: ZGWYJYJJ11Z035).

Conflict of interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Q&A: New research unveils three distinct language comprehension phenotypes in autistic children

by Katherine Gianni, Boston University

According to The National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), Autism Spectrum Disorder, or ASD, can affect children's language development and communication in a variety of ways . While some children with ASD may encounter difficulties communicating verbally, others exhibit impressive vocabularies and the ability to speak on specific topic areas in detail.

A new study led by Boston University neuroscientist Dr. Andrey Vyshedskiy examines these unique pathways of language development in autistic children. Published in npj Mental Health Research , this research, encompassing data from more than 31,000 autistic individuals, stands as the most extensive of its kind on language comprehension acquisition in autism.

Dr. Vyshedskiy's study supports an idea he had more than two decades ago: that language learning for autistic individuals doesn't happen in a straight line but goes through three different stages. In this Q&A, he discusses the key takeaways from the research, and its implications for clinicians, educators, and caregivers.

Can you summarize the main insights from this study?

The common intuitive belief is that language comprehension development follows a linear trajectory: children acquire one grammatical rule at a time. Based on a neurological approach, I predicted over 20 years ago that instead of linear development, language unfolds in three steps corresponding to three language comprehension mechanisms of increasing complexity.

The new study of more than 31,000 autistic individuals, published in the journal npj Mental Health Research , validates this prediction. The implications of this discovery are important for philosophy, paleoanthropology, linguistics, clinical medicine, and for improving language therapy interventions for children with autism.

What was the traditional understanding of how children develop language, and how does this research challenge that view?

The current practice of characterizing children's communication ability only in terms of their speech (i.e., verbal, nonverbal, or minimally verbal) is insufficient and one-sided. The new results show that communication abilities can vary independent of verbal abilities. For example, nonverbal children with full syntactic language comprehension have normal ability to communicate albeit nonverbally, while verbal children lacking syntactic language comprehension do not have a normal ability to communicate by any means.

The new study demonstrates that the three identified language comprehension mechanisms are neurologically and clinically distinct from the speech ability. A combined two-dimensional language characterization in terms of both language comprehension and verbal level will result in better identification of children's communication ability and lead to more children reaching their full linguistic potential.

How many people were involved in this study? How did the research team collect and analyze information?

This is the largest study of language comprehension acquisition in autistic children. The study included over 31,000 individuals. The study was conducted by surveying parents via a language therapy app popular among families with children diagnosed with autism and other language deficits.

Based on your research findings, how might clinicians and educators adapt their approaches to assessment and intervention to better address the diverse communication abilities of autistic children?

Language comprehension in children is commonly assessed based on vocabulary. This evaluation method can grossly misrepresent the child's actual language comprehension progress. Moreover, it encourages therapists to focus on vocabulary training at the expense of exercises that build full language comprehension.

The new study provides evidence for creating new assessments evaluating the three mechanisms of language comprehension. These assessments are poised to improve language therapy interventions and enhance outcomes for individuals with language deficits.

What advice would you give to parents or caregivers based on the implications of this research for understanding and fostering language development in autistic children?

Focus all your efforts on improving your child's language comprehension. Connecting words is more important than building vocabulary. You can find language comprehension exercises in the book I wrote for parents, "This Way to Language: Four Things to Do at the First Sign of Autism."

Moving forward, what areas of research or practice do you believe warrant further exploration to better understand and help autistic children with their language development?

Our recent research demonstrates that the critical period for language acquisition is significantly shorter in autistic children compared to typical children. The shortened critical period may be the main culprit preventing autistic children from acquiring full language. These findings suggest that intensive language therapy has to start much earlier in children with suspected language deficits and encourages research into the possibility of pharmacological extension of the critical period for language acquisition.

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Creative Language Research Topics

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Most students turn to the internet to find research paper topics. Sadly, most sources provide unoriginal and basic topics. For this reason, this article provides some creative sample research topics for English majors.

Linguistics is a fascinating subject with so many research topic options. Check out the following creative research topics in language

• How you can use linguistic patterns to locate migration paths
• Computers and their effect on language creation
• The internet and its impacts on modern language
• Has text messages helped create a new linguistic culture?
• Language and change; how social changes influence language development
• How language changes over time
• How effective is non-verbal communication in communicating emotions?
• Verbal communication and emotional displays: what is the link?
• The negative power of language in internet interactions
• How words change as society develops
• Is the evolution of languages a scientific concept?
• Role of technology in linguistics

Argumentative essay topics should state your view on a subject so you can create content to defend the view and convince others that it is logical and well-researched. Here are some excellent language research titles examples

• Society alters words and their meanings over time
• Children have a better grasp of new language and speech than adults
• Childhood is the perfect time to develop speech
• Individuals can communicate without a shared language
• Learning more than one language as a child can benefit individuals in adulthood
• Elementary schools should teach students a second language
• Language acquisition changes at different growth stages
• The impact of technology on linguistics
• Language has significant power to capitalize on emotions
• The proper use of language can have positive impacts on society

Research topics for STEM students do not differ much from those for college and high school students. However, they are slightly more targeted. Find an excellent research title about language for your paper below:

• How does language promote gender differences?
• Music and language evolution: the correlation
• Slang: development and evolution in different cultures
• Can language create bonds among cross-cultural societies?
• Formal vs informal language: what are the differences?
• Age and pronunciation: what is the correlation?
• How languages vary across STEM subjects
• Are STEM students less proficient in languages?
• The use of language in the legal sector
• The importance of non-verbal communication and body language
• How politeness is perceived through language choices and use
• The evolution of English through history

Did you know you can find excellent social media research topics if you do it right? Check out the following social media language research titles:

• The role of the internet in promoting language acquisition
• A look at changes in languages since social media gained traction
• How social media brings new language
• How effective are language apps in teaching foreign languages?
• The popularity of language applications among learners
• A study of the impact of the internet on the spreading of slang
• Social media as a tool for promoting hate language
• Free speech vs hate speech: what is the difference?
• How social media platforms can combat hate language propagation
• How can social media users express emotions through written language?
• Political censorship and its impact on the linguistics applied in the media
• The differences between social media and real-life languages

A language research title can be the foundation of your quantitative research. Find some of the best examples of research topics for English majors here:

• Language barriers in the healthcare sector
• What percentage of kids below five struggle with languages?
• Understanding the increase in multilingual people
• Language barriers and their impact on effective communication
• Social media and language: are language barriers existent in social media?
• Bilingualism affects people’s personalities and temperaments
• Can non-native teachers effectively teach local students the English language?
• Bilingualism and its impact on social perceptions
• The new generative grammar concept: an in-depth analysis
• Racist language: its history and impacts
• A look into examples of endangered languages
• Attitudes toward a language and how it can impact language acquisition

You can choose a research topic about language based on social issues, science concerns like biochemistry topics , and much more. Sociolinguistics is the study of the correlation between language and society and the application of language in various social situations. Here are some excellent research topics in sociolinguistics:

• An analysis of how sociolinguistics can help people understand multi-lingual language choices
• An analysis of sociolinguistics through America’s color and race background
• The role of sociolinguistics in children development
• Comparing sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics and gender empowerment: an analysis of their correlation
• How media houses use sociolinguistics to create bias and gain a competitive advantage
• The value of sociolinguistics education in the teaching of discipline
• The role played by sociolinguistics in creating social change throughout history
• Research methods used in sociolinguistics
• Different sociolinguistics and their role in English evolution
• Sociolinguistics: an in-depth analysis
• What is sociolinguistics, and what is its role in language evolution?

A good research topic in English will serve as the guiding point for your research paper. Find a suitable research topic for English majors below:

• Types of indigenous languages
• Language s an essential element of human life
• Language as the primary communication medium
• The value of language in society
• The negative side of coded language
• School curriculums and how they influence languages
• Linguistics: a forensic language
• Elements that influence people’s ability to learn a new language
• The development of the English language
• How the English language borrows from other languages
• Multilingualism: an insight
• The correlation between metaphors and similes

Many students struggle to find good thesis topics in language and linguistics. As you read more on the thesis statement about social media , make sure you also understand every thesis title about language from the following examples:

• The classification of human languages
• The application of different tools in language identification
• The role of linguists in language identification
• The contributions of Greek philosophers to language development
• The origin of language: early speculations
• The history of language through the scope of mythology
• Theories that explain the origin and development of language
• Is language the most effective form of communication
• The impact of brain injuries on language
• Language impacts on sports
• Linguistics intervention that won’t work in this century
• Language as a system of symbols

Just like economic research paper topics , gender and language topics do not have to stick to the norms or the standards by which all students write. You can exercise some creativity when creating your topic. Discover a topic about language and gender from this list:

• Language and gender: what is the correlation?
• How different genders perceive language
• Does a kid’s gender influence their grasp of languages?
• Men vs Women: a statistical overview of their multilingual prowess.
• The perception of language from the female standpoint
• The difference between female and male language use
• The use of language as a tool for connection between females and males
• Does gender have an impact on efficient communication
• Does gender impact word choices in conversations?
• Females have an easier time learning two or more languages
• What makes female and male language choices differ?
• Are females better at communicating using spoken language?

There are many social issues related to language education that you can cover in your research paper. Check out the following topics about language related to social issues research topics for your research:

• Language translation: what makes it possible
• How does the mother tongue influence pronunciation?
• Issues that encourage people to learn different languages
• Sign language: origin and more
• Role of language in solving conflicts
• Language and mental health: a vivid analysis
• The similarities between English and French languages
• Language disorders: an overview
• Common barriers to language acquisition
• The impact of mother tongue on effective communication
• Reasons you should learn two or more languages
• The benefits of multilingualism in the corporate world
• Language and identity: what is the correlation?

Language acquisition is the process by which people gain the ability to understand and produce language. Like anatomy research paper topics , language acquisition is a great area to focus your linguistics research. Here are some research questions that bring the focus of the study of linguistic and language acquisition:

• Language acquisition: an overview
• What attitudes do people have about language acquisition
• How attitude can impact language acquisition
• The evolution of language acquisition over time
• Language and ethnicity: their correlation
• Do native English speakers have an easier time acquiring new languages?
• A case study on political language
• Why is language acquisition a key factor in leadership
• Language acquisition and mother tongue pronunciation: the link
• Ambiguity as a barrier to language acquisition
• How words acquire their meanings

While a good topic can help capture the reader and create a good impression, it is insufficient to earn you excellent grades. You also need quality content for your paper to get perfect grades. However, creating a high-quality research paper takes time, effort, and skill, which most students do not have.

For these reasons, we offer quality research paper writing services for all students. We guarantee quality papers, timely deliveries, and originality. Reach out to our writers for top linguistics research papers today!

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April 25, 2024

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Language skills key to understanding residential segregation, says study

by University of Aberdeen

Language skills are one of the key factors to explain residential segregation and play an important role in understanding immigrant residential environments, new research from the University of Aberdeen has found.

The study, published in the Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization , looked at the causal effects of English proficiency on residential location choices of immigrants.

Previous research has identified a correlation between host-country language proficiency and ethnic residential clustering and that there is a relationship between having lower English language skills and living in areas with high ethnic concentration.

The University of Aberdeen study is the first UK study to look at the causal effects of English language skills on location choices in different types of immigrant enclave, and on location choices in neighborhoods with differing levels of deprivation.

Dr. Yu Aoki, Lecturer in Economics at the University's Business School led the study. She said, "There is a significant extent of residential segregation in the United Kingdom. For example, over half of Britain's ethnic minority population lives in only three cities, London, Manchester and Birmingham. Given that residential environments are found to have a significant impact on social, behavioral and labor market outcomes, it is informative to know the role English language skills play in explaining immigrant residential environments."

The researchers used a unique dataset from the Office of National Statistics Longitudinal Study linking it to the measures of neighborhood deprivation in England. This allowed them to gain insights into the residential environments in which immigrants with different English skills live.

They also constructed measures of the extent of residential clustering of immigrants, aimed at capturing the concept of enclave along four dimensions: main language spoken by residents (language enclave), ethnicity (ethnic enclave), country of birth (country-of-birth enclave), and world region of birth (region-of-birth enclave); enabling them to study the impact of English skills on living in different types of enclave.

Dr. Aoki added, "Distinguishing different types of enclave is important, as for example, immigrants fluent in English may not choose to live in a language enclave, if the reason for living in an enclave is simply for linguistic convenience. However, immigrants proficient in English may decide to live in an ethnic enclave if they value other aspects of living in an enclave, such as offering employment networks, cultural amenities, or protection from possible discrimination they might face outside of the enclave."

The study found differing outcomes across the different types of residential enclave.

"Our results suggest that poorer English skills lead immigrants to live in a language enclave. In contrast, we have found that better English skills lead immigrants to live in an ethnic enclave," said Dr. Aoki. "This last effect is in contrast to the majority of the findings of previous correlation studies, showing the associations between poorer language skills and residency in an ethnic enclave.

"Additionally, we are the first to analyze the effects of language skills on the quality of the neighborhood immigrants live in and found strong evidence that poorer English skills lead immigrants to live in a neighborhood with a higher level of deprivation."

The authors suggest that helping immigrants improve their English skills, via for example providing English language courses, could be effective in reducing residential clustering, by promoting immigrants to live in linguistically less segregated areas with lower concentrations of people speaking their own native language.

However, better language proficiency leads immigrants to cluster in areas with higher concentrations of individuals from the ethnicity, suggesting that aspects other than linguistic convenience, such as the availability of good employment networks, are likely to play an important role in determining migrant residential locations.

Journal information: Journal of Economic Behaviour and Organisation

Provided by University of Aberdeen

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BRIEF RESEARCH REPORT article

This article is part of the research topic.

New Trends in Typical and Atypical Language Acquisition

Multilingual Use Assessment Questionnaire (MUAQ): a proposal for assessing language and literacy experience Provisionally Accepted

• 1 Autonomous University of Barcelona, Spain
• 2 University of Barcelona, Spain

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

The linguistic profile of multilingual individuals can vary significantly due to diversity in linguistic experience. This poses challenges for language researchers, educators, and clinical practitioners. We developed a Multilingual Use Assessment Questionnaire (MUAQ) to capture the heterogeneous nature of multilinguals profiles integrating three dimensions: self-assessment of language(s) competence, language(s) use for mental operations, and language(s) use in different contexts. The questionnaire was administered to bilingual Catalan/Spanish children and adults across three educational levels: elementary school (year 6), secondary school (year 10), and university level. The application of the MUAQ revealed that Catalan/Spanish bilinguals displayed variations in their selfassessed proficiency based on the type of linguistic activity required by each language. While high bilingual competence was concentrated in oral comprehension, production skills exhibited lower bilingual competence and a strong asymmetry between languages emerged in writing. Also, more pronounced preferences for one language were observed for Thinking and Counting. Whereas Catalan (the language of schooling) was more frequently preferred for Counting, a more multilingual approach was observed for Thinking. A significant heterogeneity was also evident in the language(s) used in different contexts, with each third of the study population demonstrating distinct patterns of linguistic behavior depending on the context. An Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) identified two key dimensions (linguistic competence skills and languages involved in mental operations) that accounted for a substantial portion of the variance, while the third dimension (language use in different contexts) bifurcated into situational/communicative vs. personal contexts. These results endorse multidimensional approaches for a comprehensive understanding of multilingualism.

Keywords: Bilingual Children, Multilingualism, Linguistic profile, Assessment Tool, questionnaire, Spanish-Catalan bilinguals, self-reported linguistic competence

Received: 02 Mar 2024; Accepted: 25 Apr 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Aparici, Rosado and Tolchinsky. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Dr. Melina Aparici, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

Energy Smart Appliances: launch of an EU Code of Conduct for interoperability

First 10 manufacturers commit to the EU Code of Conduct which aims to ensure interoperability of home appliances. This would contribute to a greater demand-side flexibility of households and help achieve a more stable and optimised power grid.

As renewables’ penetration renders the energy supply in the EU increasingly decentralised and reliant on variable resources, demand-side flexibility offered by households gains importance for ensuring the development and operation of the power grid at lowest costs for consumers.

Energy smart appliances (ESA) in homes enable consumers to shift electricity use depending on the preferences and other parameters, contributing to the stability of the power grid, or potentially lowering the electricity bill of the household. An example is running a heat pump or turning on a dishwasher when renewable generation is most abundant, whilst still delivering the service expected by the consumer (e.g. certain minimum temperatures, or to finish a wash cycle before a certain time).

Any energy control unit can usually manage automatically the energy consumption of an ESA. Unlike non-interoperable appliances, which have specific control systems and services depending on their manufacturers, interoperable ESA should offer common services and exchange the same information to enable them. These will allow for instance enabling a flexible start of a device or simply limiting its consumption regardless of the manufacturer.

To bring about cross-brand interoperability of widely used ESA, the JRC and the Commission’s Directorate-General for Energy developed a Code of Conduct (CoC) together with manufacturers.  This voluntary initiative aims to increase the number of interoperable energy smart appliances placed on the EU market.

The objective of the Code of Conduct is to define common demand flexibility services and the information that needs to be exchanged to enable them, at a semantic level that can work even where different technical communication protocols are used by manufacturers.

Product manufacturers (from the products in scope of this version), industry associations, NGOs, academia, and Member States were all involved in the process of creating this first version of the Code of Conduct. While the commitment is taken by the manufacturers of the products in scope, other relevant actors of the energy system are asked to acknowledge this Code of Conduct.

This first version of the Code of Conduct covers a range of appliances that have an energy label:

• white goods: washing machines, tumble driers, washer-driers, dishwashers;
• heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), including heat pumps and water heating.

It also includes the following “use cases”:

• flexible start
• power consumption monitoring
• limitation of power consumption
• incentive table-based power consumption management
• manual operation (provision of necessary information in case of user driven manual operation of ESA)

At the time of the launch, we have received the commitment of 10 companies producing appliances in the scope of this first version, namely Arçelik, Clivet, Daikin, Electrolux, Miele, Mitsubishi Electric, Panasonic, Vaillant Group, Vestel and Viessmann . The manufacturers have committed to develop interoperable connected products within a year . In addition, a Home Energy Management System manufacturer, GEO, has committed to support compliant ESA through their products.

Besides being beneficial for consumers, products that comply with the Code of Conduct would ultimately help several objectives through the increase of demand side flexibility, such as to improving the environmental impact of energy use over the whole energy system, contributing to grid stability and security of supply, and economical optimisation.

Related links

Code of Conduct for Interoperability of Energy Smart Appliances project website

Code of Conduct on energy management related interoperability of Energy Smart Appliances (V.1.0) (PDF)

Survey on interoperability of Energy Smart Appliances

EU Energy Day at the Hannover Fair

• Energy solutions

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• 8 March 2024

• News announcement
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