research topics on victimology

60 Victimology Topics & Examples

For your paper on crime prevention, penology, or violence in any form, take a look at our victimology research topics. Get a critical title from the collection prepared by our team .

🏆 Best Victimology Topics & Essay Examples

📌 interesting victimology research paper topics, ❓ victimology research questions.

• Victimology in the Case of Sarah Lawrence The purpose of this paper is to distinguish between the notions of criminology and victimology, examine the Sellin and Wolfgang’s victim typology, and apply this knowledge to the case of Sarah Lawrence college.
• Victimology and Domestic Violence In this situation there are many victims; Anne is a victim of domestic violence and the children are also victims of the same as well as the tragic death of their father.
• The Green Victimology: Saving Non-Human Victims Consequently, a multidisciplinary study of green victimology is required to create solutions to protect victims and mitigate the detrimental effects of environmental crime.
• Career in Victimology But criminal victimologists continue to investigate the problems of victim-offender interactions, individual characteristics of victims within and outside of the context of a committed crime, relation of victims to latent criminality, etc.
• Victimology and Victimization The concept of the sideshow freak is a term inextricably linked to the various circuses and carnivals in the U.S.during the mid 19th to mid 20th century.
• The Victimology Project by Ellisha Shelsta The case revealed victims of the crime, described the behavioral pattern of the offender and provided insights into the relationship between the perpetrator and the injured party.
• Comparing Positivist and Radical Victimology Perspective
• Contribution to Victimology and Marginalisation
• Crime, Victimology and Victimization
• Female Victims of Assault Crimes Dealing With Victimology
• Feminism, Positivism, and Radical Victimology
• Historical Background of Victimology
• History of Victimology and Its Impact on Society
• Justice System and the Impact of Victimology
• Law Enforcement and the Study of Victimology
• Merton’s Strain Theory and Victimology Theories
• Similarities Between Criminology and Victimology
• The Politics of Victimization: Victims, Victimology, and Human Rights
• The Role of Victimology in Law Enforcement
• Victimology and Alternatives to the Traditional Criminal Justice System
• Victimology and Criminal Justice System
• Victimology and How to Avoid Becoming a Victim of a Crime
• Victimology and Its Effect on the Justice System
• Victimology and Restorative Justice
• Parallels Between Criminology and Victimology
• Victimology: Crime and Criminal Victimization
• Victimology: Criminology and Victim
• Victimology: The Cause of Domestic Violence
• Victimology: The Role of Victims When Influencing Crime
• What Is Victimology Criminology?
• Why Is the Victimology Perspective Important in Understanding Serial Murder?
• What Are the Contributions of the Different Personalities in Studying Victimology?
• What Is the Difference Between Victimology and Victimologists?
• What Is the Interrelationship Between Criminology, Penology, and Victimology?
• How Does Criminal Psychology Relate to Victimology?
• What Is the Definition of the Term Human Behavior and Victimology?
• What Degrees in Psychology Specialise in Criminal Victimology?
• What Is the Effect of Victimology in Society?
• What Is the Worst Classical School Theory in Explaining Victimology?
• What Are the Advantages of Victimology in the Philippines?
• Why Do We Need to Study Human Behavior and Victimology?
• What Victimology Says About Child Abuse?
• How Is Victimology Different From Sociology?
• What Are the Recent Areas of Research in Victimology?
• What Is Victimology and Why Is It Important?
• What Is Victimology in Human Behavior?
• What Role Does Victimology Play in the Study of Criminology and Criminal Justice?
• What Is the Difference Between Victimology and Psychology?
• Do You Think “White Victimology” Is a Valid Concept?
• In What Ways Can the State Be Considered a Perpetrator in Victimology?
• What Did Heidegger Think About Victimology?
• What Is the Summary of Hans von Hentig’s Victimology?
• What Are Similarities Among the Three Basic Theories of Victimology?
• What Is the Historical Overview of Victimology?
• Who Was the Father of Victimology?
• What Are the Different Types of Victimology?
• How Do You Determine Victimology?
• How Is Penology and Victimology Related?
• How Is Victimology Relevant in Law Enforcement?
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109 Victimology Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Victimology is the study of victims of crime and the psychological effects that being a victim can have on a person. It is an important field of study that helps us understand the impact of crime on individuals and society as a whole. If you are studying victimology or writing an essay on the subject, here are 109 topic ideas and examples to help you get started:

• The psychological effects of being a victim of domestic violence
• The role of the victim in the criminal justice system
• Victim blaming and its impact on survivors of sexual assault
• The impact of cyberbullying on teenage victims
• The experiences of victims of human trafficking
• The role of restorative justice in supporting victims of crime
• The impact of hate crimes on victims and communities
• The experiences of victims of elder abuse
• Victim compensation programs and their effectiveness
• The experiences of victims of mass shootings
• The impact of stalking on victims
• The experiences of children who witness domestic violence
• The role of victim advocacy organizations in supporting victims of crime
• The impact of robbery on victims
• The experiences of victims of workplace harassment
• The role of trauma-informed care in supporting victims of crime
• The impact of sexual harassment on victims in the workplace
• The experiences of victims of identity theft
• The role of the media in shaping perceptions of victims of crime
• The impact of violent crime on victims' families
• The experiences of victims of cyberstalking
• The role of social support in helping victims cope with trauma
• The impact of child abuse on victims' long-term mental health
• The experiences of victims of white-collar crime
• The role of victim impact statements in the sentencing of offenders
• The impact of homicide on the families of victims
• The experiences of victims of human rights abuses
• The role of the police in supporting victims of crime
• The impact of hate speech on its victims
• The experiences of victims of terrorism
• The role of mental health professionals in supporting victims of crime
• The impact of sexual assault on male victims
• The experiences of victims of hate crimes based on sexual orientation
• The role of technology in supporting victims of crime
• The impact of mass incarceration on victims of crime
• The experiences of victims of police brutality
• The role of race and ethnicity in shaping perceptions of victims of crime
• The impact of drug addiction on victims of crime
• The experiences of victims of human trafficking in the United States
• The role of the legal system in supporting victims of crime
• The impact of sexual assault on college campuses
• The experiences of victims of cyberbullying in schools
• The role of victim-offender mediation in addressing the needs of victims of crime
• The impact of gun violence on victims and communities
• The experiences of victims of financial fraud
• The role of community organizations in supporting victims of crime
• The impact of racial profiling on its victims
• The experiences of victims of campus sexual assault
• The role of bystanders in supporting victims of crime
• The impact of childhood trauma on victims' long-term well-being
• The experiences of victims of hate crimes based on religion
• The role of gender in shaping perceptions of victims of crime
• The impact of human trafficking on victims' physical health
• The experiences of victims of online harassment
• The role of the criminal justice system in addressing the needs of victims of crime
• The impact of sexual violence on victims' relationships
• The experiences of victims of intimate partner violence
• The role of cultural factors in shaping perceptions of victims of crime
• The impact of war and conflict on civilian victims
• The experiences of victims of workplace discrimination
• The role of social media in supporting victims of crime
• The impact of bullying on victims' mental health
• The experiences of victims of revenge porn
• The role of trauma recovery programs in supporting victims of crime
• The impact of human trafficking on victims' mental health
• The experiences of victims of online scams
• The role of victim support groups in helping victims cope with trauma
• The experiences of victims of hate crimes based on race
• The role of victim services agencies in supporting victims of crime
• The impact of domestic violence on victims' economic security
• The experiences of victims of sexual exploitation
• The role of the criminal justice system in preventing revictimization
• The impact of trauma on victims' ability to trust others
• The experiences of victims of elder financial abuse
• The role of community-based organizations in supporting victims of crime
• The impact of childhood abuse on victims' self-esteem
• The experiences of victims of child sex trafficking
• The role of trauma therapy in helping victims heal
• The impact of sexual harassment on victims in the military
• The experiences of victims of workplace violence
• The role of victim advocates in supporting victims of crime
• The impact of campus sexual assault on victims' academic performance
• The experiences of victims of police misconduct
• The role of trauma-informed schools in supporting victims of trauma
• The impact of hate crimes based on disability on victims
• The experiences of victims of financial exploitation in nursing homes
• The role of the justice system in addressing the needs of victims of hate crimes
• The impact of sexual abuse on victims' ability to form healthy relationships
• The experiences of victims of human trafficking in the sex industry
• The role of victim compensation programs in supporting victims of crime
• The impact of gun violence on victims' physical health
• The experiences of victims of online harassment based on gender
• The role of victim advocacy organizations in supporting victims of hate crimes
• The impact of trauma on victims' ability to work
• The experiences of victims of child pornography
• The role of technology in preventing and responding to crimes against victims
• The impact of rape culture on victims of sexual violence
• The experiences of victims of elder neglect
• The role of mental health professionals in supporting victims of mass shootings
• The impact of human trafficking on victims' access to healthcare
• The experiences of victims of sex trafficking in the United States
• The role of victim impact panels in educating offenders about the impact of their crimes
• The impact of cyberbullying on victims' mental health
• The experiences of victims of sex trafficking in developing countries
• The role of victim services agencies in supporting victims of financial crimes
• The impact of trauma on victims' ability to form healthy relationships
• The experiences of victims of child labor trafficking
• The role of trauma recovery programs in helping victims rebuild their lives

These topics provide a wide range of ideas for essays on victimology, from the psychological effects of specific types of crime to the role of the criminal justice system in supporting victims. By exploring these topics, you can gain a deeper understanding of the impact of crime on individuals and communities, and the ways in which we can support victims in their recovery and healing process.

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Victimology from clinical psychology perspective: psychological assessment of victims and professionals working with victims

Tuğba yılmaz.

İzmir Bakırçay University, İzmir, Turkey

Associated Data

Not available.

Victimology concerns victims of various traumas from accidents, disasters, assaults to wars. Survivors of trauma are also an area in clinical psychology since it is interested in the assessment and diagnosis of psychopathology and psychotherapy. Stress and mental health are intertwined; increased stress results in difficulties in feeling, thinking and behaving. The stress symptoms are an intrusion, avoidance, negative cognitions and mood, and arousal and reactivity . A trauma survivor might develop post-traumatic stress disorder. Healing trauma is so comprehensive that many professionals work from different aspects. From attorneys to mental health workers, many professionals deal with the aftereffects of trauma. Engaging with details of the trauma endangers not only the victims but also the professionals working with the victims. These professionals end up having psychological effects such as secondary trauma, vicarious trauma, compassion fatigue, countertransference and occupational burnout. Trauma has serious effects on its victims but not all effects are negative and paralyzing. Trauma victims might change their priorities in a way that they report more personal control over their life. This phenomenon is called posttraumatic growth. The paper aims to collaborate victimology with clinical psychology by highlighting psychopathology and psychological assessment.

Karmen ( 2012 ) postulated that victims are people who are affected negatively such as having an injury or a hardship because of an illegal action of people or group of people. Victimology is the name of the scientific study of victims and the victimization process (Turvey, 2014 ). Van Dijk ( 1999 ) suggested that victimology has variety in itself so that there are penal victimology and general victimology. This diversification depends on the idea that penal (interactionist) victimology heavily depends on criminal law and conceptualizes the victim in criminological and legal terms. On the other hand, general victimology defines the victim in a much broader manner than the other. In general victimology, victims are thought as people who had harm by different types of trauma such as accidents, disasters, assaults and wars (Van Dijk, 1999 ). This study aims to provide knowledge from clinical psychology in evaluating general victimology which is an interdisciplinary area involving law, forensic psychology, sociology, economics and so on.

Clinical psychology is a branch of psychology that concerns psychological assessment, and diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and behavioral problems (Plante, 2005 ). Victims are individuals who are negatively affected by an event such as a criminal act, disaster or accident. Being exposed to such a devastating event, individuals might be affected physically and/or psychologically. They might be suffering from some emotional, cognitive and behavioral problems. By adopting the biopsychosocial model (Engel, 1977 ) the effects a victim might experience should be conceptualized from biological, psychological and social aspects. This study tries to understand how a victim gets seriously affected by a negative event from a psychopathological viewpoint. The psychological treatment of psychopathologies after an adverse event is explained in the next section. After this, a different viewpoint will be highlighted by altering the focus point from victims to people who work with victims. Professionals whose job is to closely work with victims are also affected by the adverse events (Yılmaz & Karakuş, 2019 ). Following the discussion of secondary trauma, vicarious trauma, compassion fatigue and occupational burnout that professionals might feel, coping ways with these feelings are explained in the light of current literature.

The author also wants to point out the importance of working with victims by reviewing the critical points from the literature. Many professionals including clinical psychologists work with victims in the rehabilitation of aftereffects. The psychological effects of being a victim seem to affect professionals working with victims, too (Yılmaz & Karakuş, 2019 ). In the first part of this study, the author highlighted the psychological aftereffects of victims have after a devastating and/or criminal event. Psychological symptoms and disorders are discussed in terms of acute stress disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, dissociative disorders, depressive disorders, and substance use disorders. The groups of these psychopathologies are explained by taking the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5; American Psychological Association [APA, 2013 ) as a reference. A brief history of effects of victims in psychopathology, especially the effects of WWI and WWII and the rise of applied psychology (Schultz & Schultz, 2008 ) was described. Effects of victimization in DSM history were discussed by considering how victim-specific psychological diagnoses changed over time (Yılmaz, 2019a ). Treatment of psychopathologies were detailed throughout the study. The author suggested books, movies and series about victimization to support the discussion.

Stress and Mental Health

Stress is a kind of condition in which people feel challenged beyond their coping abilities (Shalev, 2009 ). Stress might have detrimental effects on physical health and psychological health. The negative effects of stress are acknowledged by the function of the HPA axis where the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands interact and prepare an organism to perform a stress response such as fight, freeze or flight (Bracha, 2004 ).

The effects of stress are well- acknowledged in the development of psychological diagnoses. As a result, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders fifth edition (DSM-5), the well-known handbook of psychological disorders that was published by American Psychiatric Association (APA) included a new diagnostic category named trauma and stress related disorders (APA, 2013 ). Under this diagnostic category, there are adjustment disorder, acute stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; APA, 2013 ). Formerly in DSM-IV-TR, acute stress disorders and PTSD are grouped under anxiety disorders category; whereas, adjustment disorders were a separate diagnostic category (Yılmaz, 2019a ). The reason lying behind the change of the diagnostic category of these disorders is the fact that major stressors are playing very crucial and central role in the development of them (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2014 ).

Psychological Disorders a Victim Might Develop

Victims are individuals who are involved in a criminal activity and affected psychologically and physically (Van Dijk, 1999 ). The psychological effects of being a victim due to a criminal event have been investigated in clinical psychology literature, especially under trauma-related disorders. To exemplify, sexual and physical assault victims (Kimerling & Calhoun, 1994 ; Resick & Schnicke, 1992 ), rape victims (Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, & Murdock, 1991 ; Nishith, Resick, & Griffin, 2002 ; Resick, Nishith, Weaver, Astin, & Feuer, 2002 ), victims of war and torture (Hensel-Dittmann et al., 2011 ), victims of traumatic head injury (Benedict, 1989 ), motor vehicle accident victims (Blanchard et al., 1995 ), traffic accident victims (Frommberger et al., 1999 ); cyberbullying victims (Campfield, 2008 ), disaster victims (Rubonis & Bickman, 1991 ; Rüstemli & Karanci, 1999 ; Sumer, Karanci, Berument, & Gunes, 2005 ) are the groups of people of whom psychologists evaluate, understand and treat. One important point to highlight in reviewing the literature is to realize that the number of people who report they had been victimized is lower than that of the actual people who had been victimized. Kilpatrick, Saunders, Veronen, Best, and Von ( 1987 ) stated that approximately half of the people who were victimized did not report the police. The highest reporting rate is for burglary whereas sexual assault had the lowest reporting rate. One in third of the victimized people stated that they had developed post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after the criminal event (Kilpatrick et al., 1987 ). These results suggest that there are victims who are unrecognized and unreported but these people continue their lives despite the serious adversity they had experienced. Research show that the effects of a trauma is inherited and transferred to next generation family members who are in fact not related to it (Öztürk, 2020 ; Wolynn, 2017 ). Moreover, research also indicate that the risk of being traumatized is increased if there is a prior personal experience with a traumatic event (Altınay & Arat, 2007 ; Zara-Page & İnce, 2008 ). Considering these important results, unrecognized and unreported victims who are traumatized are not just a concern for clinical psychology, psychiatry or victimology; they are also concern for public health.

Victimization is a distressing event and victims might have psychological problems after the event or during the event since some criminal activities are not one-time events. Well-known psychological outcome of being a victim is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Mason & Lodrick, 2013 ; Turvey, 2014 ). Compared to PTSD, having similar symptoms for a shorter duration deserves for acute stress disorder (ASD; APA, 2013 ). ASD and PTSD are psychopathologies acknowledged by DSM as well as adjustment disorders. PTSD might be comorbid with anxiety disorders, substance abuse disorders, dissociative disorders and depressive disorders. Some victims who developed PTSD might engage in self-harmful behaviors to alleviate the negative feelings due to the traumatic event (Mason & Lodrick, 2013 ). Turvey ( 2014 ) reviewed the trauma victim literature in the forensic area and concluded that although not recognized by APA in DSM, there are some victim specific syndromes in the literature. These syndromes are the battered woman syndrome (Walker, 1984 ), rape trauma syndrome (Burgess & Holmstrom, 1974 ), and stalking trauma syndrome (Colins & Wilkas, 2001 ).

In understanding symptomatology PTSD, DSM-5 criteria grouped symptoms under four categories, namely intrusion, avoidance, negative cognitions and mood, and arousal and reactivity. Intrusion refers to re-experiencing of the traumatic events in various ways such as nightmares, intrusive images and showing physiological reactivity to reminders of the trauma. Intrusion might lead accessing traumatic episodic memory, which might cause victim to experience autonomic nervous system arousal, i.e., physiological reactivity (Mason & Lodrick, 2013 ). This is particularly important for police interview and courtroom testimonies with which victims recall traumatic event and might re-experience the traumatic event (Mason & Lodrick, 2013 ). The second group of symptoms is avoidance, which includes symptoms related to victims’ efforts to avoid reminders, feelings and thoughts of the trauma. The third group of symptoms is negative cognitions and mood. This group includes victim’s blaming him/herself or others and other negative emotional states like shame, guilt, and anger. Feelings of detachment and estrangement from others, and inability to have positive emotions is also included in this group of symptoms. The last group of symptoms is called changes in arousal and reactivity. Sleep disturbance, hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response, and reckless and self-destructive behavior might be experienced in traumatized victims under this group of symptoms. The duration of PTSD must be more than one month. There are two sub-types of PTSD. The first is PTSD with dissociative symptoms such as depersonalization and derealization. The second is PTSD with delayed expression. In this sub-type, victims might now show the full-blown symptoms of PTSD until at least 6 months after the traumatic event. In this instance, the onset and the beginning of some symptoms might begin immediately.

Turvey ( 2014 ) shed light on important issues in terms of psychological assessment of victims. He suggested that victims are traumatized and victimized twice, one by the offender and the second by the criminal justice system. This is critically important since the adverse effects are repeated for living victims. Second, Turvey ( 2014 ) indicated that violent events rarely happen just one victim. Generally, there are more than one victim involved in the actual assault. Moreover, there are collateral victims who are spouses, friends and children of the assaulted victim. These individuals are also negatively affected by the adverse event. Even the diagnostic category of PTSD acknowledges that collateral victims could be diagnosed with PTSD as long as they show symptoms. Collateral victims might witness the assault in person, or they might learn a brutal or violent crime might happen to someone very close to them, or else they might experience extreme exposure to aversive details of the traumatic event (Butcher et al., 2014 ). Investigators, prosecutors, and defense attorneys should take these facts into consideration. As Mason and Lodrick ( 2013 ) postulated heightened in the interview of victims, ANS response might stimulate archaic structures of the brain which controls survival of the organism and the victims might feel as if the real danger is close to them, which might lead them to become more cooperative or compliant. This might cause inconsistencies between the accounts they have given in processing their complaints through the criminal justice system.

Acute stress disorder (ASD) is very similar to PTSD in terms of symptomatology. Intrusion symptoms, negative mood, dissociative symptoms, arousal, and avoidance symptoms include 14 different symptoms. The difference between ASD and PTSD is about the duration of the symptoms as the brief history of these disorders can tell. For ASD, symptoms are expected to begin after the trauma and to last at least 3 days and at most 1 month (APA, 2013 ). If the duration of the symptoms exceeds 1-month threshold, the diagnosis is altered to PTSD (Butcher et al., 2014 ). The function of ASD diagnose is to detect a victim who need immediate professional help and ensure him/her with evidence based psychological treatment.

Adjustment disorders (ADs) are yet another diagnosis that a victim might develop. In terms of symptomatology, ADs do not have a long list of symptoms. This diagnosis can be counted as a sign of an individual’s difficulty in returning to their routines after a stressor strike and ended. The individual has clinically high degree of stress in adjusting to their normal life. DSM-5 says that an individual has marked stress and/or impairment in important areas of functioning within 3 months of the onset of the stressor and once the stressor ended the symptoms do not last more than 6 months (APA, 2013 ). The connection between ADs and victimization was studied. For example, Bachem and Maercker ( 2016 ) studied with burglary victims who developed Ads at clinical and subclinical level. They compared intervention group and wait-list group in terms of Ads symptoms. The psychotherapeutic intervention in this study was bibliotherapeutic self-help intervention, which as its name implies did not have any therapists. Results yielded that was bibliotherapeutic self-help intervention worked well in terms of effectively treating symptoms of ADs (Lorenz, Bachem, & Maercker, 2016 ). Similarly, Sirles, Smith, and Kusama ( 1989 ) reported that children victims of intrafamilial sexual abuse might have different diagnoses, one of which is ADs. Lönnqvist et al. ( 1995 ) analyzed all adolescent suicides in Finland between 1987 and 1988. They reported that AD diagnosis was observed only in male suicide victims. All these studies indicate the importance of diagnosing ADs in both living or deceased victims.

Not every people can meet the full criteria for PTSD, ASD or ADs after a specified trauma and DSM appreciates this case by suggesting “ other-speficied trauma and stressor related disorder ” as a diagnosis. In assigning this diagnosis, a clinician is expected to specify the reason. The specifiers of this diagnosis are “adjustment-like disorders with delayed onset of symptoms that occur more than 3 months after the stressor”, “adjustment-like disorders with prolonged duration of more than 6 months without prolonged duration of stressor”, “Ataque de nervios”, “other cultural syndromes”, and “persistent complex bereavement disorder”. In cases for whom the trauma is not specified, there is another option. This option is “ unspecified trauma and stressor related disorder ”. A clinical might not have clear information in assigning a specific diagnosis in trauma and stressor related disorders diagnosis group and instead can assign “unspecified trauma and stressor related disorder”. This might happen in emergency settings and in crises (APA, 2013 ).

PTSD, ASD, ADs and other- or unspecified trauma and stressor related disorder are official diagnoses which are presented in DSM-5. Nevertheless, the literature has more options in terms of diagnoses. Turvey ( 2014 ) pointed out battered woman syndrome (Walker, 1984 ), rape trauma syndrome (Burgess & Holmstrom, 1974 ), and stalking trauma syndrome (Colins & Wilkas, 2001 ) are trauma syndromes discussed in the literature. All three syndromes share a common point in alleging that they are a part or sub-type of PTSD. Although these syndromes have not been assigned in DSM-5; authors suggesting these syndromes are a part of DSM-5 (Turvey, 2014 ).

Battered woman syndrome was first coined by Walker ( 1984 ) after conducting a study in which she interviewed 435 women who were victims of domestic violence. In offering battered woman syndrome, Walker’s aim is to explain why women chose to remain in a relationship in which she was experiencing violence. She formulated the cycle of violence in which learned helplessness is the reason why woman believe that they cannot change the ongoing relationship (Walker, 1984 ). the symptoms of battered woman syndrome are similar to PTSD. This syndrome is gender specific syndrome and actually was not supported by other studies other than those of Walker. Turvey ( 2014 ) points out that if a woman is facing physical violence and if a diagnosis is needed to be assigned; rather than thinking about PTSD as a first-line choice, the symptoms of the woman should be understood because other diagnoses might be plausible, too.

Rape trauma syndrome (RTS) was described for forcible rape or attempted forcible rape by Burgess and Holmstrom ( 1974 ) who interviewed 146 women victims of rape. They purported that there is an acute and long-term phase of RTS. In acute phase, which consists of immediate impact phase, victims are engaging in their emotions and might end up in two alternative responses: being expressive or guarded. Expressive victims unclose how they feel whereas guarded ones do not. The authors also acknowledge that a rape victim might change her emotional response from one another. Long term phase of RTS is reorganization when a victim realizes that her lifestyle is affected in different ways (Burgess & Holmstrom, 1974 ). Although once accredited as a mental diagnosis of victims in courts, RTS was not an official diagnosis. Turvey ( 2014 ) criticizes both RTS and BTS on many common points. One is these syndromes are not validated by other researchers. Second, there is no follow-up validation. Third, there are no control groups comparing the affected group against. Fourth, the samples from which both BWS and RTS were described were preselected samples. The last one is these syndromes are gender-specific. Because of these reasons and many others, DSM never listed these syndromes as official diagnoses although accepted rape as a serious trauma and/or stressor for PTSD diagnosis.

Stalking trauma syndrome (STS; (Colins & Wilkas, 2001 ) is yet another syndrome discussed in the literature regarding mental health of victims. First, stalkers are people who engage in repetitive acts to harass a victim. Stalking might happen in real or cyber lives. Turvey ( 2014 ) states that some stalkers might be delusional in inferring that the victim wants to form a relationship with them while most stalkers are people who are angry with the victim because of a break-up which in fact they deny. Colins and Wilkas ( 2001 ) stated that STS is different when compared to BWS and RTS. STS is not an outcome of one incident like rape, it is an ongoing stressor. Victims of STS experience traumatic symptoms for a while when stalking is in progress. Moreover, STS victims are in actual helplessness rather than learned helplessness occurred in BWS. The authors described crisis and anticipation phase of STS while recovery phase is absent due to continuous fear of next harassment (Colins & Wilkas, 2001 ). The authors suggested that stalking causes hopelessness and helplessness in victims. Turvey ( 2014 ) highlights that these are symptoms of any crime victim. In other words, the symptoms are not differentiating the effect of stalking; they are actually too general symptoms that might be seen in any victim. He states that pathologizing normal reactions of victims might be the case in introduction of these syndromes. These syndromes should have divergent validity, each one of them should be differentiated from one another.

Brief History of these Psychological Disorders

How psychopathology begin to recognize trauma-related disorders is related to wars and their aftereffects. Applied psychology including clinical psychology developed after World War I and II (Schultz & Schultz, 2008 ). After World War I, veterans return home suffering from combat. Shell shock and combat fatigue were the names of the syndromes for traumatized soldiers. After World War II, gross stress reaction was accepted as a diagnosis in the first edition of DSM. The second version of DSM excluded gross stress reaction diagnosis partly because this edition was prepared in a war-free era (Andreasen, 2004 ).

After Vietnam war, psychiatrists came to understand that veterans were not able to return to their lives prior to war (Butcher et al., 2014 ). First, DSM II task force suggested to include Post-Vietnam Syndrome in DSM, since psychiatrists relied on DSM II and unable to diagnose traumatized veterans. Then PTSD was added to DSM as a diagnosis as well as acute PTSD. Trauma was defined as a stressor which was outside the range of normal human experience (Andreasen, 2004 ; Butcher et al., 2014 ). Psychiatrists began to argue about the nature of the traumatic event and they broad the application of the diagnosis to other stressors such as childhood sexual abuse (Andreasen, 2004 ). DSM-III definition of PTSD relied on the qualities of the stressor; later version of the diagnosis in DSM-IV-TR emphasized the emotional response of the victim (Shalev, 2009 ). Acute PTSD was dropped in DSM-III-R but it was named as acute stress disorder and accepted as a diagnosis in DSM-IV (Andreasen, 2004 ). In terms of PTSD, DSM-IV-TR suggested that in addition to the fact that the stressor should be outside the range of normal human experience, the response to the stressor should involve helplessness, horror or intense fear (Butcher et al., 2014 ). This change highlights the focus of the PTSD diagnosis, now the focus is on the experience of the victim rather than the quality of the stressor.

DSM-5 is the latest version of psychopathology and there are other changes in PTSD diagnosis. The changes are about the definition of the traumatic event, the diagnosis for children 6 years and younger. Exposure to traumatic event was detailed, as well. Traumatic event might happen to victim him/herself or the victim might witness a traumatic event personally. Other way of exposure to a traumatic event is that a victim may learn that a violent or accidental event happened to some very close like a family member or a close friend. The exposure excludes experience of a traumatic event through electronic media. The requirement of emotional experience of the trauma in the form of helplessness, intense fear or horror removed. Diagnostic criteria were explained in a separate section for children who are 6 years of age or younger (APA, 2013 ; Yılmaz, 2019a ).

Treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Post-traumatic stress disorder is a common type of psychopathology that can be seen surviving victims. Many clinical psychologists are working on psychological treatment of PTSD. There are many efficient and effective psychotherapies of PTSD.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for PTSD is one of the important and successful methods in treatment of PTSD (Zayfert & Becker, 2019 ). CBT is an eclectic form of psychotherapy in which cognitive models of psychotherapy and behavior analysis incorporate. According to CBT, psychopathologies lie PTSD are an outcome of dysfunctional thinking and they can be altered by new learning. Hence, as a response to a traumatic event people have some cognitions and behaviors, which compose PTSD and related difficulties. CBT aims to modify these cognitions and behaviors which are after-effects of trauma. Keane and Barlow ( 2002 ) states that sustaining factor for PTSD is avoidance symptoms. Surviving victims, for instance, might prefer staying away from crime scene, or might prefer to avoid recalling the details of the traumatic event or a crime. These are the sustaining factors for crime- related anxiety, fear and related symptoms. Victims can also report anger, and other self-conscious emotions such as shame and guilt; these are emotions that make a victim’s disclosure of a traumatic event difficult. These emotions disrupt the processing of the traumatic event which is not a health way of coping with trauma. In addition, expectation of disapproval or disbelief from the social connections, which is seen particularly with victims of sexual assault, may exacerbate the symptomatology of PTSD (Zayfert & Becker, 2019 ).

Treatment of PTSD by CBT has two core components; namely, exposure and cognitive restructuring. These two components aims to decrease avoidance behaviors. By graded exposure which could be either in real life or virtual reality, patients are equipped with an ability to make a distinction between cues of danger and cues of safety. Reprocessing of the traumatic event is also part of graded exposure. Exploration of thinking is promoted with an aim to process and understand the traumatic event better. Thoughts abut trauma are revisited and victim’s conclusions of the traumatic event are critically examined.

There are other forms of CBT that draw attention in treatment of PTSD. One is stress inoculation therapy while the other is eye movement desensitization therapy (EMDR). The first form, stress inoculation therapy aims to teach a patient to manage stress effectively by some strategies like relaxation, thought stopping and assertive communication. While the other form; EMDR, aims to present a moving visual stimulus while revisiting the traumatic event. These processes are accompanied by cognitive restructuring to some degree (Zayfert & Becker, 2019 ).

Another approach in psychological treatment of PTSD is metacognitive treatment which is in fact a kind of cognitive therapy (Wells, 2000 ). In this approach, the main aim is to deal with reflexive adaptation process (RAP). Wells and Sembi ( 2004a ) points out that RAP is a normal reaction to immediate trauma and perseverance blocks RAP by metacognitions, i.e. cognitions about thinking style of oneself. Perseverations comprise of worry and rumination, threat monitoring, and dysfunctional though control mechanisms. Avoidance and dissociation further blocks emotional processing of trauma and give rise to perseveration. Depending on these premises, metacognitive therapy offers some ways to deal with perseverance including worry postponement, detached mindfulness, and attentional modification (Wells & Sembi, 2004a ). In another study, Wells and Sembi ( 2004b ) applied metacognitive therapy to victims of various traumas such as armed robbery and they had promising results. The sample they worked with showed marked improvement in their PTSD symptoms. Their resuls were also effective in follow up measurements. Wells, Walton, Lovell, and Proctor ( 2015 ) conducted a study to compare the effectiveness of metacognitive therapy with prolonged exposure therapy in PTSD patients; they also had wait list group. In this current study, it is seen that both types of psychotherapy were effective in decreasing symptoms of PTSD, anxiety and depression when compared to wait-list group. The difference between metacognitive therapy with prolonged exposure therapy occurred in post-treatment measures (Wells et al., 2015 ).

Considering that there are many types of psychotherapy offering treatment to PTSD and each one of them have strengths in improvement of PTSD symptoms. At this point, one should focus on the studies investigating the parts of a therapy which make it more efficient. Therapeutic alliance, the relationship between a patient and a psychotherapist makes important and positive effects in treatment outcome and effectiveness studies. Having positive alliance, trust and genuineness in psychotherapist-patient dyad could make a therapy effective (Howgego, Yellowlees, Owen, Meldrum, & Dark, 2003 ). In a study, sample consisted of people suffering from childhood abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and successful therapy outcomes were result of therapeutic alliance and emotional regulation capacity (Cloitre, Chase Stovall-McClough, Miranda, & Chemtob, 2004 ).

Professionals Working with Victims: Secondary Trauma, Vicarious Trauma, Compassion Fatigue, Countertransference and Occupational Burnout

Once a devastating event occurs and people get affected from it whether directly or indirectly, many professionals begin working with this case to improve the consequences. Some of these professionals are ambulance drivers, the police, lawyers, search and rescue teams, paramedics, emergency department professionals such as physicians and nurses, psychologists, psychiatrists and social workers (Rothschild & Rand, 2006 ; Yılmaz & Karakuş, 2019 ).

Studies show that professionals working closely with victims of devastating events are also traumatized in different ways such as trauma related stress and occupational burnout (Newell & MacNeil, 2010 ). Secondary traumatic stress and vicarious trauma are also observed in these professionals (Gürdil Birinci & Erden, 2016 ). Because professionals working in humanitarian aid are engaging in interpersonal situations that have heavy emotional burden, they might have a specific kind of work-related stress which is called as “occupational burnout” (Leiter & Maslach, 1988 ; Maslach & Jackson, 1981 ).

Secondary traumatic stress refers to PTSD-related symptoms a person might have as a result of indirectly being exposed to trauma, this way of exposure occurs with working with survivors and/or victims with PTSD (Salston & Figley, 2003 ). Vicarious traumatization is a more time dependent change in psychology of professionals working with victims (Gürdil Birinci & Erden, 2016 ; Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995 ). Vicarious traumatization of professionals is a result of empathetic engagement with victims of trauma (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995 ). Unlike secondary traumatic stress which is close to PTSD symptomatology with a sudden onset, vicarious trauma affects belief system of professionals and is not related to PTSD symptomatology (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995 ). Belief about security, trust, dignity, intimacy and control are seriously affected in people forming interpersonal relationships with victims of devastating events (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995 ). Compassion fatigue is another consequence that professionals working with victims might have. Compassion fatigue corresponds to feeling emotional and physical fatigue resulting from full appreciation of what a victim of a trauma experiences (Rothschild & Rand, 2006 ; Salston & Figley, 2003 ). Countertransference is yet another consequence a professional might have as a result of working with trauma victims (Salston & Figley, 2003 ). Traumatic countertransference is defined as “…the spontaneous or evoked responses of the therapist in regard to information provided, behaviors exhibited, emotions displayed by the traumatized client.” (Salston & Figley, 2003 , p.170). This type of countertransference retain psychotherapist in correctly diagnosing and treating trauma (Danieli, 1996 ).

Because of all these outcomes of working with victims of trauma, professionals, particularly mental health workers, should be offered alternative ways of treatment. They should be controlled on a regular basis to understand whether they have psychological consequences of working with victims. Group meetings, peer meetings, and supervision could offer professionals opportunities in sharing emotions, feelings, thoughts and behaviors related to their work.

Discussion and Suggestions

The aim of this study is to highlight a view from clinical psychology in discussing victimization. As a branch of psychology, psychological assessment, and diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and behavioral problems are main topics of clinical psychology (Plante, 2005 ). General victimology, as a multidisciplinary area, concerns victims of various types of traumas, from natural disasters to sexual assaults (Van Dijk, 1999 ). Clinical psychology addresses some common topics as victimization due to trauma with general victimology. Due to this intersection between clinical psychology and general victimization, the author discussed trauma related disorders, such as acute stress disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, adjustment disorders, all of which are official diagnoses (APA, 2013 ). In addition to this, unofficial diagnoses reviewed in the literature were accounted. These unofficial diagnoses are battered woman syndrome (Walker, 1984 ), rape trauma syndrome (Burgess & Holmstrom, 1974 ), and stalking trauma syndrome (Colins & Wilkas, 2001 ). Brief history of official diagnoses of victims of trauma was included to better understand how these diagnoses showed up and how traumatic experiences seriously affect their victims. Moreover, psychological treatment of PTSD was explained since PTSD is a frequent consequence of victimization. Secondary trauma, vicarious trauma, compassion fatigue, countertransference and occupational burnout were included to appreciate how professionals working in victimization area are also seriously and psychologically affected from their work. These outcomes demonstrate that professionals are also affected negatively and for long time. Their beliefs and emotions about staying safe changed due to indirect exposure to victimization.

Nevertheless, traumatic experiences might lead people to develop a better meaning in life. People can overcome the difficulties embedded in victimization and can move to a better psychological state with the help of deriving some other meaning in life. Their coping mechanisms improve and they report positive change. People can switch from suffering from a traumatic event to forming supportive relationships, feeling more personal strength, and reporting enriched existential and spiritual life (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004 ). Posttraumatic growth cannot be an excuse for victimization, but it is a consequence uncovering human potential to process and cope with suffering and trauma.

As a clinical psychologist, the author appreciates biopsychosocial model (Engel, 1977 ). This model offers to look for searching biological, psychological and social factors of a given outcome such as a traumatic event. Some people might have vulnerabilities to develop psychopathology and some others not, although they might experience the same event. These vulnerabilities might be biological or psychological. Psychological factors such as personality, social support and emotion regulation might protect a person from developing serious problems as a result of victimization. Social factors such as socioeconomic status and cultural norms might offer or hinder ways to a victim to recover from a traumatic event. All these factors are intertwined and constantly affecting each other. In terms of victimization, all these factors are better be investigated for victims, perpetrators, and for the context that the devastating event occurred. In other words, trauma is a serious event and its effects are long-lasting; hence, to fully understand it, factors surrounding the traumatic event should be analyzed altogether.

Mental health workers including clinical psychologists should be better equipped to engage in their work with victims and to feel well in performing their job. Training of mental health workers should include strategies to understand, empathize, connect with and treat victims of traumatic events. These strategies could include discussing real-life examples, hypothetical cases, and examples shown in various types of media. Books, movies, series, documentaries, and records of real-life examples are valuable sources of training. The author might suggest some media for fulfill as aim.

For instance, The Sinner, an American drama series is a perfect example of victimization, criminal justice and psychological interviewing and treatment of victims (Yılmaz, 2019b ). Another source is the book, The boy who was raised as a dog, by Perry and Szalavitz ( 2017 ) to better understand the situation of child victims. How children’s brain development is affected due to perpetual traumatic family interactions is explained in this book.

Authors’ Contributions

The author prepared all the manuscript.

This study received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data Availability

Declarations.

The author gives consent for publication in Current Psychology Journal.

This study is a review study; no data were gathered so informed consent was not necessary.

The Author declares no conflict of interest.

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A New Approach for Researching Victims: The ‘Strength-Growth-Resilience’ Framework

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Simon Green, Adam Calverley, Nicola O’Leary, A New Approach for Researching Victims: The ‘Strength-Growth-Resilience’ Framework, The British Journal of Criminology , Volume 61, Issue 3, May 2021, Pages 852–871, https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azaa093

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This paper proposes a new framework for researching victims that blends appreciative inquiry methods used by prison researchers with narrative interview methods used by desistance researchers to investigate victim ‘strength-growth-resilience’. Alongside established victimological concerns with the extent, distribution and treatment of crime victims, this framework offers an alternative lens that focuses on victim agency, identity and transformation. Building on the emancipatory project of feminist victimology, narrative and cultural criminology and an emerging narrative victimology the framework aims to provide a new conceptual reference point for victimological research. The article’s objectives are to demonstrate that this framework delivers a theoretically, empirically and ethically robust approach for exploring the mechanisms by which victims become resilient, and can even flourish, in the aftermath of criminal harm.

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Theories and methods of research in victimology

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The term ‘victimology’ was first coined by Frederick Wertham (1949), who called for a ‘science of victimology’. However, as regards theorising about victimology, it can be argued that Mendelsohn and von Hentig are widely recognised as the ‘founding fathers’ of the sub-discipline. Both have been profoundly influential in establishing victimology as an academic discipline, but in very different ways. Von Hentig’s work is closely linked to criminology in that its concern and focus is with the victims of crime – so victimology is analysed as a part of criminology. In contrast, Mendelsohn’s victimological theorising is very much bound up in the philosophy of human rights – and victimology is seen as, essentially, an independent discipline. As Mendelsohn himself states,

We must point out a fundamental difference between the points of view of Professor von Hentig and Professor Ellenberg on the one hand and of ourselves on the other hand. The former consider the study of the victim as a chapter of criminology, whereas we consider it as a separate science, which because of its structure and its aim should be independent.

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victimology

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• United Nations Asia and Far East Institute - Victimology – Past, Present and Future

victimology , branch of criminology that scientifically studies the relationship between an injured party and an offender by examining the causes and the nature of the consequent suffering. Specifically, victimology focuses on whether the perpetrators were complete strangers, mere acquaintances, friends, family members, or even intimates and why a particular person or place was targeted. Criminal victimization may inflict economic costs, physical injuries, and psychological harm.

Victimology first emerged in the 1940s and ’50s, when several criminologists (notably Hans von Hentig, Benjamin Mendelsohn, and Henri Ellenberger) examined victim-offender interactions and stressed reciprocal influences and role reversals. These pioneers raised the possibility that certain individuals who suffered wounds and losses might share some degree of responsibility with the lawbreakers for their own misfortunes. For example, the carelessness of some motorists made the tasks of thieves easier; reckless behaviour on the part of intoxicated customers in a bar often attracted the attention of robbers; and provocation by some brawlers caused confrontations to escalate to the point that the instigator was injured or even killed. More controversially, women were sometimes said to bear some responsibility for misunderstandings that evolved into sexual assaults. By systematically investigating the actions of victims, costly mistakes could be identified and risk-reduction strategies could be discerned. Furthermore, those who stress the culpability of injured parties for their victimization, such as defense attorneys, tended to argue in favour of mitigating the punishment of offenders.

Although the field originally focused on the varying degrees of victim blameworthiness, by the 1970s this preoccupation became overshadowed by studies intended to prevent victimization, to improve the way complainants are handled by the police and courts, and to speed recovery. Victimology is enriched by other fields of study, particularly psychology , social work , sociology , economics , law, and political science . Whereas lawyers, criminal justice officials, counselors , therapists, and medical professionals provide the actual services, victimologists study the kinds of help injured parties need and the effectiveness of efforts intended to make them “whole again,” both financially and emotionally. Victims of murder , rape , spousal abuse, elder abuse, child abuse , and kidnapping have received the most research attention, but entire categories of victims that were formerly overlooked have been rediscovered (e.g., people with disabilities that make them unusually vulnerable and targets of workplace violence, hate crimes, and terrorist attacks). Other groups have been discovered and protected, such as individuals who have fallen victim to identity theft .

One focus of victimology has centred on identifying and measuring the frequency (both annual incidence and lifetime prevalence rates) of various types of victimizations, such as stalking, date rape , and carjacking. Some research has focused on the related challenge of explaining why the risks of violent victimization vary so dramatically from group to group, especially by age, gender, social class , race, ethnicity , and area of residence (mostly as a result of exposure to dangerous persons because of routine activities as well as lifestyle choices). Another area of concern to victimologists is how the legal system (e.g., detectives in specialized squads, victim-witness assistance programs administered by the offices of prosecutors, and state-administered financial compensation programs) deals with victims in their capacity as witnesses for the government. Victimologists have documented how the interests and needs of injured parties have been routinely overlooked historically but are now being addressed because the victims’ rights movement has won concessions that empower victims within the justice system.

Victimologists have evaluated the numerous projects initiated since the early 1970s by advocacy and self-help groups (e.g., battered women’s shelters and rape-crisis centres) and the legislation that has enabled victims to have greater input into the decision-making process that resolves their cases (e.g., over such matters as sentencing and parole). The field also explores the social reaction to the plight of victims by the media, by businesses marketing protective products and services, and by political groups urging ostensibly “pro-victim” reforms and legislation. In addition, victimologists study the impulse toward vigilantism in retaliation for past wrongs as well as the opposite tendency—that is, a willingness to accept restitution as a prerequisite for mutual reconciliation—which is the foundation of the alternative paradigm of restorative justice . Restorative justice relies upon mediation, negotiation, dialogue , and compromise to build a consensus within a community that the wrongdoer must accept responsibility for actions taken and make genuine efforts to assist injured parties and repair any damage to harmonious relations.

Victimologists often collect their own data, but they also analyze the detailed information provided by government agencies that collect official crime statistics based either on incidents reported to police departments (such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s annual Uniform Crime Reports ) or on incidents disclosed to survey interviewers by respondents who are part of a large representative sample of a cross-section of the public (such as the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ National Crime Victimization Survey).

Victimology

A Comprehensive Approach to Forensic, Psychosocial and Legal Perspectives

• © 2022
• Rejani Thudalikunnil Gopalan 0

Department of Clinical Psychology, Mahatma Gandhi Medical College and Hospital, Jaipur, India

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Defines victimization across different types of crime at length

Separate chapters focus on medical and forensic investigations, as well as address report writing and revictimization

Focuses on victims rather than perpetrators, with an emphasis on individual crime

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About this book

The term victim refers to a person harmed, injured, or killed as a result of a crime, accident, or other event or action. Victimology focuses on the victimization in terms of psychological effects, impact on criminal justice system and new policies and it is a major aspect in the area of forensic field. Victimization can occur due to abuse, assault, maltreatment, war, terrorism, crimes and it can happen in different settings like home, school, and public. In the past, more emphasis was given to perpetrators and various theories tried explain the behavior of perpetrator and their offences. Recently, researchers started focusing different aspects of victimology and explored risk factors for becoming victim, reasons for repeated victimization, and forensic, psychological and social dimensions of victims and consequences of victimization. But there is a need for new theories and researches to have more thorough understanding of victimization.

The field of criminology dealt with crimes and various theories has developed to explain why crime occurs and more focused on perpetrators. A crime involves perpetrator and victim and not much attention has been given to the victim until recently. What happens to a victim, what are the psychological and social consequences of a harmful act to a victim, vulnerabilities to become a victim are getting serious attention now a days and started influencing the criminal justice system. The psychological and social impacts of victimization may be a short or long duration but the impacts cannot be ignored. The legal remedies and psychological healings are important aspects of victimization. While considering these factors, the book would be focusing on origin and scope of victimology, different types of victimization such as sexual abuse, domestic violence, maltreatment, cyber crimes, war and terrorism, natural calamities, victimization at school and work place, human trafficking, crime against persons, crime against property, white collar crime, elder abuse, victim with disabilities, secondary victim and re-victimization and its psychological impacts and related issues. The book would also focus on victimology and forensic factors and its influence on criminal justice system in addition to the psychological management of victimization.

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• forensic psychology
• victimization
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• cyber crimes
• re-victimization

Table of contents (21 chapters)

Front matter, recent updates on victimology and its influence on criminal justice system.

Rejani Thudalikunnil Gopalan

Working with Victims: Psychological Assessment of Victims and Mental Health of Professionals

• Smriti Maini, Kalpana Raman

Sexual Abuse

• Aarzoo Gupta, Archana Kashyap

Adult Molested as Child

• Namitha Babu

Intimate Partner Violence and Victims

Child maltreatment and forensic interview room in turkey.

• Huseyin Batman, Çağatay Serkan Kaya

Cyberbullying

• Michelle F. Wright

Victims of War and Terrorism

• Mahak Mathur, Gargi Chauhan Mehta, Vikas Singh Rawat

Trauma-Informed Psychological Supports When Natural Disasters Come

• York Williams

Victimization at School and Workplace

• Nagarhalli Ashwini Deshpande

Human Trafficking: Vulnerability, Impact, and Action

• Sheeba Shamsudeen

Crimes Against Persons

• Afreen A. Hussain

Psychological Factors in Property Crimes: Theories, Traits, and Treatment

• Dorothy Bhandari Deka

Elder Abuse and Victims with Disabilities

• Vaitsa Giannouli

Secondary Victimization of Sexually Assaulted Women

• Milica Boskovic, Gordana Misev

Revictimization: Towards a New Theoretical Concept

Early childhood violence exposure and subsequent antisocial behavior: canadian indigenous young offenders case study.

• Claude R. Shema

Understanding Adolescent Behavior and Victimization of Special Populations Through Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory

Working with victims: psychological assessment of victims, editors and affiliations, about the editor, bibliographic information.

Book Title : Victimology

Book Subtitle : A Comprehensive Approach to Forensic, Psychosocial and Legal Perspectives

Editors : Rejani Thudalikunnil Gopalan

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12930-8

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Behavioral Science and Psychology , Behavioral Science and Psychology (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-031-12929-2 Published: 28 October 2022

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-031-12932-2 Published: 29 October 2023

eBook ISBN : 978-3-031-12930-8 Published: 27 October 2022

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XVIII, 472

Number of Illustrations : 8 b/w illustrations, 5 illustrations in colour

Topics : Forensic Psychology , Criminology and Criminal Justice, general , Criminal Behavior , Criminal Behavior

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CJ 3300: Victimology

• What is Victimology
• Victimization in the United States
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Library Help

What is victimology.

Victimology is "An area of criminology which studies the victims of crime and their relationship with offenders,"  Oxford Dictionary of Law Enforcement .

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When finding scholarly articles in the library databases, learning a few key search strategies will make your search process more effective. When using search engines like Google, you can type in whole questions or long phrases. But library databases are designed differently and require adjusting our search process. Use the following strategies to find the information most relevant to your research! 

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Quotation marks are used to tell databases to search for exact phrases. This is especially useful for topics that can't be boiled down to a single word.

• "restorative justice"
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• "Violence Against Women Act"

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When you connect search terms using AND, the database finds items that contain  all  your search terms. Search strings using AND narrow our search and make it more specific to our topic. 

• stepfamilies AND adolescents
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• "Intimate partner violence" AND "victim services"

Most of the time, you'll want to use search strings with at least two search terms, in order to find the research most relevant to your needs. But be aware, search strings work best with no more than three or four search terms—otherwise, your search will be too narrow and the database might not find anything.

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Journals and Trade Magazines

• International Perspectives in Victimology The journal is a peer-reviewed multidisciplinary publication with focus on traditional and newly emerging areas of victimology. Topics covered may include: victims of crimes, abuse of power, road traffic accidents, domestic violence, child abuse, bullying, disasters, and war; victim services; victimological theories; victim rights: victim compensation and restitution; restorative justice; and new conceptual developments and research in the field.
• Journal of Behavior Analysis of Offender and Victim Treatment and Prevention The Journal of Behavior Analysis of Offender and Victim Treatment and Prevention focuses on the role of behavior analysis in adult and juvenile crime prevention, assessment of offenders including risk assessment, and treatment programs from a behavioral orientation including but not limited to the use of behavioral counseling, collaborative goal setting, contingency management, functional assessment, functionally based interventions, respondent conditioning and counter-conditioning procedures, functional analytic psychotherapy and acceptance and commitment therapy.
• Journal of Interpersonal Violence The Journal of Interpersonal Violence offers the most up-to-date information on domestic violence, rape, child sexual abuse, and other violent crimes.
• Journal of Victimology and Victim Justice Journal of Victimology and Victim Justice , a peer-reviewed journal, focuses on both critical leadership and practical development representing victimological perspectives from a broad range of disciplines and contribute to a greater understanding of victims, victimization, victim-offender relations, institutional functioning, and allied issues.

The Rediscovery of Crime Victims

• Start by Believing Video
• Learn to Recognize Domestic Violence and Get Help
• Utah Code of Criminal Procedure
• Utah Courts: Protective Orders This webpage is about cohabitant, dating violence and sexual violence protective orders. It explains what a protective order is, the different types of protective orders available, how to ask for one, how to respond to a request for one, and how to ask for a change to an existing protective order. Some people call this kind of order a "restraining order," but the legal term is "protective order."
• Utah Department of Public Safety - Victim Rights & Services Lists Utah victims rights and services available.
• Utah Domestic Violence Coalition (UDVC) Free and confidential support for victims and survivors of domestic and intimate partner violence.
• Substance Use and Mental Health (SUMH) Victim Advocate SUMH’s victim advocate provides a trained, community-based, trauma-informed voice to provide support and assistance to crime victims involved with the Board of Pardons and Parole (BOPP). The victim advocate can provide support and assistance with a variety of activities.
• Utah Coaltion Against Sexual Assault Utah information and services for sexual assault victims and volunteers.
• UVU Title IX The University has an obligation to take immediate and effective steps to eliminate gender discrimination, including sexual harassment, sexual assault, and sexual violence.
• UVU Victim Support Services Our Victims Navigator is a confidential resource on campus who is able to provide trauma-informed advocacy and navigation for survivors.
• UVU Police Department Victim Services The UVU Police Department has a full-time victim advocate that provides victim services to all UVU students, faculty, and campus community.
• RAINN (Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network) RAINN is the nation's largest anti-sexual violence organization. RAINN created and operates the National Sexual Assault Hotline (800.656.HOPE, online.rainn.org y rainn.org/es) in partnership with more than 1,000 local sexual assault service providers across the country and operates the DoD Safe Helpline for the Department of Defense. RAINN also carries out programs to prevent sexual violence, help survivors, and ensure that perpetrators are brought to justice.

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IResearchNet

Victimization Topics

Victimization can be defined as the act or process of someone being injured or damaged by another person. The resulting damage may be physical (e.g., bruises, broken bones) or psychological (e.g., posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD], depression). Victimization is a frequent event that occurs within an interpersonal context, often involving an abuse of power, such as a parent who abuses a child; an adult child who abuses a frail, elderly parent; or a teacher who sexually abuses a student. Although past research on victimization has tended to be compartmentalized, a more integrative approach is needed not only because of the frequent comorbidity among the different types of victimization, but also because of the shared psychological issues. Read more about  Victimization .

Victimization Research Topics

• Battered Woman Syndrome
• Child Maltreatment
• Child Sexual Abuse
• Intimate Partner Violence
• Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
• Psychological Autopsy
• Rape Trauma Syndrome
• Reporting Crimes and Victimization
• Sexual Assault Victims Coping
• Sexual Harassment
• Victim Participation in Criminal Justice

To understand victimization, several core themes need to be acknowledged. Contrary to a layperson’s perspective, victimization is not a rare event that occurs only in a stranger-on-stranger context. On the contrary, victimization is an extraordinarily frequent event that most often occurs in, and adheres to, the ordinary roles of human life. Although stereotyped conceptions of victimization do occur (e.g., a woman raped by a stranger walking down a street at night) and are damaging and need to be addressed, these types of victimization are not the norm outside the context of a war. Rather, the most significant sources of victimization are those that arise out of our ordinary day-to-day roles, such as those of spouse, parent, child, and friend. Thus, victimization must be understood as an inherent part of human relationships.

Browse other Forensic Psychology Research Topics .

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Victimology and criminology - trends and applications, additional details.

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