what is a case study in forensic science

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Case Studies: Forensic Science

All forensic science case studies.

Fatally Flawed?

By Amy C. Groth

Disaster at the Daisys’

By Kimberly S. Farah

Caught Red-Handed

By Mackenzie A. Hahn, Hannah C. Schake, Ryan T. Schalles, Sarah R. Shioji, Breanna N. Harris

The Boy in the Temple

By Cheryld L. Emmons

The Sad But True Case of Earl Washington

By Justin F. Shaffer

Thomas and Sally

By Eric Ribbens, Andrew C. Lydeard

King Tut's Family Secrets

By Kuei-Chiu Chen

Murder by HIV? Grades 5-8 Edition

By Michèle I. Shuster, Naowarat (Ann) Cheeptham, Laura B. Regassa

What Do We Tell the Sheriff?

By Phoebe R. Stubblefield, Elizabeth Scharf

The Case of the Druid Dracula: Clicker Case Version

By Norris Armstrong, Terry Platt, Peggy Brickman

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Forensics Digest

All about Forensics

Case Studies

Who is d.b. cooper the man who vanished in the skies.

The identity and whereabouts of D. B. Cooper remain one of the greatest unsolved mysteries in the history of American criminal investigations. D.B. Cooper is the alias used by an unidentified individual who, in 1971, hijacked a commercial airplane, extorted a ransom, and then parachuted out of the plane, disappearing without a trace. On November […]

Bitcoins and Bazaars- The Silk Road Saga

The digital era ushered in a wave of technological advancements that revolutionized the way we communicate, conduct business, and share information. From the early days of the internet to the emergence of cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin, the digital landscape promised unparalleled connectivity and convenience. It transformed the world into a global village where information could […]

The Tragic Tale of Amarjeet Sada: World’s Youngest Serial Killer

In the eerie realm of true crime, one name stands out with chilling distinction – Amarjeet Sada, the world’s youngest serial killer. This is not just a story of horrifying acts but a dive into the psyche of a child whose actions defied understanding. Early Years and Innocence Lost Amarjeet’s journey into infamy began in […]

The World’s Oldest Forensic Case – The Iceman’s Mystery

In the annals of forensic science, one of the most remarkable and oldest solved cases revolves around the mysterious death of a man who lived over 5,000 years ago. Discovered in the Alps in 1991, the ancient remains, aptly named “Ötzi the Iceman,” have provided an astonishing window into our distant past and offered valuable […]

The Burari Tragedy: A Quest for Salvation

In the quiet neighborhood of Burari, a suburb in North Delhi, a chilling incident unfolded on the morning of July 1, 2018. What appeared to be an ordinary family home concealed a dark and mystifying secret. Eleven members of the Bhatia family, including seven women and four men, were discovered hanging from an iron grill […]

eRaksha Competition 2021 by NCERT & CyberPeace Foundation

NCERT in collaboration with CyberPeace Foundation is organising eRaksha Competition 2021. About eRaksha Competition 2021 CIET-NCERT in collaboration with CyberPeace Foundation has been spreading awareness amongst children and young adults on the need to be safe, smart and resilient in the cyber space through the ‘e-Raksha Competition’. Thee-Raksha Competition2021has been launched and the theme of […]

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Detectives Just Used DNA To Solve A 1956 Double Homicide. They May Have Made History

Sharon Pruitt-Young

Clippings from the Great Falls Tribune were part of the Cascade County Sheriff's Office investigative file into the 1956 murders of Patricia Kalitzke and Lloyd Duane Bogle. Traci Rosenbaum/USA Today Network via Reuters Co. hide caption

Clippings from the Great Falls Tribune were part of the Cascade County Sheriff's Office investigative file into the 1956 murders of Patricia Kalitzke and Lloyd Duane Bogle.

It was only three days into 1956 when three boys from Montana, out for a hike on a normal January day, made a gruesome discovery they were unlikely to ever forget.

During a walk near the Sun River, they found 18-year-old Lloyd Duane Bogle, dead from a gunshot wound to the head. They found him on the ground near his car, and someone had used his belt to tie his hands behind his back, according to a report from the Great Falls Tribune . The next day brought another disturbing discovery: A county road worker found 16-year-old Patricia Kalitzke's body in an area north of Great Falls, the paper reports. She had been shot in the head, just as Bogle had been, but she had also been sexually assaulted.

Their killings went unsolved until this week when investigators announced they had cracked what is believed to be the oldest case solved with DNA and forensic genealogy.

The victims were discovered in a lover's lane

Bogle, an airman hailing from Texas, and Kalitzke, a junior at Great Falls High School, had fallen for each other and were even considering marriage, the Tribune reports. The place where they were believed to have been killed was a known "lover's lane," according to a clipping from a local newspaper posted on a memorial page.

But their love story was brutally cut short by the actions of a killer whose identity would not be revealed for more than 60 years. And it was not for lack of trying: Early on in the case, investigators followed numerous leads, but none of them panned out. The case eventually went cold.

For decades, the Cascade County Sheriff's Office continued to work on it, with multiple detectives attempting to make progress over the years. One such investigator was Detective Sgt. Jon Kadner, who was assigned the case in 2012 — his first cold case, he said during an interview with NPR. He was immediately met with the daunting task of digitizing the expansive case file, an endeavor that took months.

He continued to work on the Kalitzke/Bogle case even while handling the newer cases that were landing on his desk all the time, but he had a feeling that more was needed to get to the bottom of what had happened to the couple all those decades ago.

"My first impression was that the only way we're gonna ever solve this is through the use of DNA," Kadner said.

Detectives turned to a new forensic investigation

Fortunately, Kadner had something to work with. During Kalitzke's autopsy in 1956, coroners had taken a vaginal swab, which had been preserved on a microscopic slide in the years since, according to the Great Falls Tribune report. Phil Matteson, a now-retired detective with the sheriff's office, sent that sample to a local lab for testing in 2001, and the team there identified sperm that did not belong to Bogle, her boyfriend, the paper reports.

Armed with this knowledge, Kadner in 2019 sought out the assistance of Bode Technology. After forensic genealogy was used to finally nab the Golden State Killer the year prior, law enforcement officials were becoming increasingly aware of the potential to use that technology to solve cold cases — even decades-old cases like Kalitzke and Bogle's.

With the help of partnering labs, forensic genealogists are able to use preserved samples to create a DNA profile of the culprit and then use that profile to search public databases for any potential matches. In most cases, those profiles can end up linking to distant relatives of the culprit — say, a second or third cousin. By searching public records (such as death certificates and newspaper clippings), forensic genealogists are then able to construct a family tree that can point them right to the suspect, even if that suspect has never provided their DNA to any public database.

In this case, "Our genealogists, what they're going to do is independently build a family tree from this cousin's profile," Andrew Singer, an executive with Bode Technology, told NPR. He called it "a reverse family tree. ... We're essentially going backwards. We're starting with a distant relative and trying to work back toward our unknown sample."

It worked: DNA testing led investigators to a man named Kenneth Gould. Before moving to Missouri in 1967, Gould had lived with his wife and children in the Great Falls area around the time of the murders, according to the Tribune .

"It felt great because for the first time in 65 years we finally had a direction and a place to take the investigation," Kadner told NPR. "Because it was all theories up to that point ... we finally had a match and we had a name. That changed the whole dynamic of the case."

Investigators' goal is a safer world

But there was one big problem: Gould had died in 2007 and his remains had been cremated, according to the Tribune . The only way to prove his guilt or his innocence was to test the DNA of his remaining relatives.

Detectives had an uncomfortable task ahead of them: letting a dead man's family know that, despite the fact that he'd never previously been identified as a person of interest, he was now the key suspect in a double homicide and rape.

Authorities traveled to Missouri, where they spoke with Gould's children and told them about the Kalitzke/Bogle case and eventually identified their father as a suspect, Kadner said. They asked for the family's help in either proving or disproving that Gould was the man responsible and the family complied.

The test results said Gould was the guy. With the killer finally identified, Kadner was able to reach out to the victims' surviving relatives and deliver the closure that had taken more than 60 years to procure. It was a bittersweet revelation: They were grateful for answers, but for many of the older people in the family, it was a struggle to have those wounds reopened.

"They're excited, but at the same time, it has brought up a lot of memories," Kadner said.

Now, the sheriff's office is considering forming a cold case task force, as other law enforcement agencies have done. The hope is that they'll be able to provide more families with the answers they deserve and, in many cases, have spent years waiting for.

"If there's new technology and we are able to potentially solve something, we want to keep working at it, because ultimately we're trying to do it for the family," he said. "Give them some closure."

The Kalitzke/Bogle case is one of the oldest criminal cases that has been solved using forensic genealogy, and authorities are hopeful that they'll be able to use this ever-advancing technology to solve cold cases dating back even further — although new state legislation restricting forensic genealogy could complicate matters.

Even without that complication, Singer explained to NPR, the success rate depends heavily on how well the evidence has been preserved over the years. Still, he hopes that it can be used to help law enforcement improve public safety and "[prevent] tomorrow's victim."

"It's really fantastic technology and it's going to solve a lot of cold cases," Singer said.

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• Published: February 2020
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The defining feature of forensic science is its relationship with the law. ‘Science and justice—a case study’ considers the final stages of a criminal inquiry—adjudication by the courts. The significance of forensic evidence is assessed by human cognition. The evidence is weighed carefully by experts, but words can be misunderstood or manipulated. The murder of Jill Dando in 1999 is used as a case study, where the significance of gunshot residue became a critical part of the case. The canon of forensic technologies will continue to develop and change. The conceptual gap between technology and the law is likely to remain and perhaps increase.

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What is Forensic Science?

The word forensic comes from the Latin word forensis :  public, to the forum or public discussion; argumentative, rhetorical, belonging to debate or discussion.  A relevant, modern definition of forensic is: relating to, used in, or suitable to a court of law.  Any science used for the purposes of the law is a forensic science. The forensic sciences are used around the world to resolve civil disputes, to justly enforce criminal laws and government regulations, and to protect public health.  Forensic scientists may be involved anytime an objective, scientific analysis is needed to find the truth and to seek justice in a legal proceeding. 

What Do Forensic Scientists Do?

What's a forensic scientist.

A forensic scientist is first a scientist. When a scientist's knowledge is used to help lawyers, juries, and judges understand the results of scientific tests, the scientist becomes a forensic scientist. Because the work of a forensic scientist is intended to be used in court and because scientific evidence can be very powerful, the forensic scientist must be accurate, methodical, detailed, and above all, unbiased. 

Analyze Information and Document Findings

In most cases, the item or items in question are provided to the forensic scientist for examination and analysis. In other cases, they may need to go to the scene to conduct an on-site analysis, gather evidence, or document facts for later analysis. Having been provided or having gathered the relevant information, the forensic scientist then has to decide which examinations, tests, or analyses are appropriate – and relevant – to the issue(s) in dispute. (Is that powder cocaine or not?  Did a defect in the road surface cause the crash?). They must conduct the most appropriate tests/analyses and document the process to interpret the results and document the steps followed to reach this conclusion or opinion.

Testify in Court as an Expert Witness

The forensic scientist will, at some point, have to testify. Testimony is the verbal statement of a witness, under oath, to the judge or jury. Forensic scientists are "expert" witnesses as opposed to ordinary or "fact" witnesses. Expert witnesses are permitted to testify not just about what the results of testing or analysis were ("facts"), but also to give an opinion about what those results mean. For example, a forensic scientist may testify about the observed, factual results of a chemical drug analysis and that, in their expert opinion, the results show that the tested substance is a specific drug, such as cocaine or heroin.

To qualify as an expert witness, the forensic scientist must have a solid, documented background of education, training, and experience in the scientific discipline used to conduct the examinations, testing, or analyses about which the forensic scientist wants to testify.

Being a member of the AAFS may assist in qualifying a forensic scientist as an expert witness. 

Student Affiliate

Students must be enrolled in an undergraduate or graduate program that would support a forensic science career to be eligible..

This reduced barrier to entry is intended to encourage youth involvement in the field of forensic science, escalate career opportunities, and promote collaboration between the different generations of practitioners.

Student Affiliate Membership Requirements

A party to a court case may challenge whether the scientist performed the tests correctly; whether the scientist interpreted the results accurately; or, whether the underlying science is valid and reliable. A party to a court case may additionally challenge whether the scientist is properly qualified to render an expert opinion or question the scientist's impartiality.

"If the law has made you a witness, remain a man of science. You have no victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent person to convict or save — you must bear testimony within the limits of science."

— Dr. P.C.H. Brouardel 19th-Century French Medico-Legalist

How do I Become a Forensic Scientist?

You will need:

• Bachelor's degree in science - (chemistry, biology, physics, etc.) Take other courses in math, statistics, and writing skills.
• Advanced degree – certain jobs require advanced degrees and specialized training.
• Good speaking skills – courses enhancing your public presence and speaking ability are highly recommended.
• Good note-taking and observation skills – take laboratory courses.
• The ability to write an understandable scientific report
• The ability to be unbiased, intellectual curiosity, and personal integrity

How Much Money Will I Make?

Income in the forensic sciences and average work weeks vary greatly depending on the type of job, the employer, and the work requirements. Most scientists in forensic laboratories work 40 hours per week.  Others work in the field, some may be "on call," and their work hours may vary. Every branch of forensic science offers opportunity for personal growth, career advancement, and increased financial compensation.

The average salary of a forensic scientist is estimated to be between $40,000 and $100,000 a year. 

How to Become a Forensic Scientist

Forensic science is a field that focuses on using scientific methods to address legal disputes.

Getty Images

Many forensic scientists work for government-run crime laboratories, and some work for law enforcement agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

When a serious crime such as a murder occurs, the identity of the perpetrator may not be obvious. In whodunit scenarios, where it is unclear who is responsible for wrongdoing, forensic science often provides the key to solving the mystery.

How Long It Takes to Get a Ph.D. Degree

Ilana Kowarski Aug. 12, 2019

What Is Forensic Science? A Definition

Forensic science is a practical academic discipline that involves solving puzzles. Forensic scientists use their knowledge of basic science fields like biology, chemistry and physics to investigate questions with legal implications, such as inquiries about who is at fault for a particular incident or what caused an injury.

For example, forensic science could clarify whether and when someone was poisoned, and it could indicate whether a particular gun had been used in a homicide.

"It's all about traceable, detailed investigations to solve a problem or solve a crime," says Catherine Jordan, who has a Ph.D. degree in organic chemistry and spent nine years working as a forensic scientist. Jordan previously worked for Minton, Treharne & Davies, an international scientific testing and inspection service provider.

Jennifer Shen – former director of the police department crime lab in San Diego, California – emphasizes that forensic science is "first and foremost, a science" and notes that a person needs some kind of scientific education in order to work as a forensic scientist.

Qualities Needed to Become a Forensic Scientist

A science degree is necessary, but not sufficient, for a career as a forensic scientist. The ability to pass a background check is critical, warns Daniele Podini, chair of the department of forensic sciences at George Washington University , where he is also an associate professor.

Podini also suggests that because forensic scientists often encounter disturbing imagery and hear troubling stories, they need to be able to emotionally detach themselves and keep a level head.

According to Jordan, analytical skills are necessary for success in forensic science. In addition, because forensic scientists often serve as expert witnesses in criminal and civil court cases and frequently testify before judges and juries, they must be eloquent enough to "present their findings well enough to stand up in court," Jordan says.

Though associate and bachelor's degrees are sufficient for certain basic forensic science jobs, high-level jobs in the field usually require a master's degree , and some roles cannot be obtained without a doctorate, experts say.

Because the profession is one that many workers consider glamorous, competition for jobs tends to be fierce, Shen says. Anyone who hopes to gain employment in this sector ought to present themselves to employers in a polished way in order to maximize their chances of getting hired, she adds.

Anita Zannin, a forensic scientist who owns AZ Forensic Associates LLC, a forensic consulting firm in New York, notes that objectivity is essential within the forensic science field.

"Individuals should not get into this field to 'put bad guys away' – it should be just as rewarding to assist in exonerating someone who has been wrongfully accused," Zannin, who earned a master's degree in forensic science from Syracuse University , wrote in an email. "While we are all human, and may have opinions about an individual’s guilt or innocence, that opinion CANNOT play into a scientist’s evaluation of the evidence."

What an Aspiring Forensic Scientist Should Study

Though it is possible for someone to become a forensic scientist if he or she has a degree in a related academic discipline, having a forensic science degree is helpful when competing for jobs in that field, according to experts. Graduate-level credentials can increase someone's odds of advancement within the profession, since technical lead positions often require a master's and some lab director jobs cannot be acquired without a Ph.D. degree, experts suggest.

Forensic science students can expect to take a combination of science classes, including courses in genetics, biochemistry and microscopy, and should anticipate spending a lot of time in the laboratory. They also typically learn how to follow lab protocols and write forensic reports. Graduate students in forensic science programs usually specialize within a particular area of forensic science, such as forensic biology or forensic chemistry.

Forensic Science Careers

Forensic scientists are often employed by federal, state, city or local governments. Many work for government-run crime laboratories, and some work for law enforcement agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation .

They sometimes work at private-sector labs and occasionally work independently, says Zannin, who also earned bachelor's degrees in forensic chemistry and criminal justice. While forensic scientists typically focus on criminal matters, she explains, they can be involved with civil litigation, serving as expert witnesses in courtroom disputes over product liability and personal injuries.

The median annual salary among U.S. forensic science technicians was $59,150 as of May 2019, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Technician positions typically require a bachelor's degree, the bureau states.

Someone who advances from a technician position to a management role may earn significantly more money. According to the bureau, the median salary among natural sciences managers – people who supervise lab scientists – was $129,100 in May 2019.

Shen says one advantage of forensic science jobs, compared with other science positions, is that scientists in these roles often see immediate results from their labor – something that is rare in other branches of science such as biology . There is also something fulfilling about performing a public service by revealing the truth about what happened in a particular case, she adds.

Podini notes that forensic science jobs often involve significant pressure, since sometimes a backlog of evidence needs to be processed and accuracy is paramount.

"You don't want to make mistakes, because these mistakes can then have an effect on people's lives," he says.

A significant benefit of being a forensic scientist, Podini says, is that "what you do benefits society and is very important for society."

He adds that DNA analysis can lead to wonderful results. "A family can find closure, or a victim can find closure, or an innocent suspect is exonerated, or a person that might hurt others is apprehended and taken off the street."

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Textbook of Forensic Science pp 41–66 Cite as

Introduction to Forensic Science

• Neeti Kapoor 6 ,
• Pradnya Sulke 6 ,
• Pooja Pardeshi 6 ,
• Rasika Kakad 6 &
• Ashish Badiye 6  
• First Online: 29 October 2023

511 Accesses

1 Citations

The chapter “Introduction to Forensic Science” provides an overview of the diverse fields encompassed within forensic science, common types of evidence encountered at crime scenes, the seven principles of forensic science, and significant contributors to the field from around the world. The chapter begins by outlining the multidisciplinary nature of forensic science, including its subdivisions such as forensic chemistry, forensic biology, forensic anthropology, and digital forensics. It emphasizes the importance of integrating various scientific disciplines in the investigation of crimes and the analysis of evidence. Additionally, the chapter discusses common types of evidence encountered in forensic investigations, including fingerprints, DNA, trace evidence, firearms and ballistics, and digital evidence. The seven principles of forensic science, including the Locard’s Exchange Principle and the Principle of Individuality, are presented to highlight the foundational principles guiding forensic investigations. Furthermore, the chapter recognizes major contributors in the field of forensic science from around the world, showcasing their significant contributions and advancements in forensic techniques and methodologies. By providing an overview, this chapter serves as a foundation for understanding the principles and applications of forensic science.

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Neeti Kapoor, Pradnya Sulke, Pooja Pardeshi, Rasika Kakad & Ashish Badiye

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Kapoor, N., Sulke, P., Pardeshi, P., Kakad, R., Badiye, A. (2023). Introduction to Forensic Science. In: Shrivastava, P., Lorente, J.A., Srivastava, A., Badiye, A., Kapoor, N. (eds) Textbook of Forensic Science . Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1377-0_2

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Forensic science and the case of Dr Mario Jascalevich

By Alan Dronsfield and Ann Ferguson 2011-05-01T00:00:00+01:00

• No comments

Forensic science is depicted in several television programmes as a near-perfect means of solving major crimes. In real life, forensics may sometimes point to guilt, but in the end be insufficient to prove it. This is the account of one such case

Doubt and confusion remain even after advances in analytical chemistry provided new insights into a suspected case of poisoning

Murder by poisoning is now rare compared to a century or more ago. Firstly, the classic poisons are much less readily available. You cannot pop into the local chemists and buy the deadly poisonous alkaloid, strychnine, under the pretence that you want it for destroying garden moles. Arsenic compounds are no longer ingredients in fly-papers. Secondly, in suspicious deaths, analytical chemistry is far more effective at identifying unexpected substances in bodily remains, so laying the foundation for subsequent detective work.

Source: AP photos/Corbis/Corbis

Jascalevich (left) Shipman (middle) and Crippen (right)

The medical profession and murder by poison have a connectivity, even in recent times. Most notorious is the case of Dr Harold Shipman, who may have killed up to 230 of his patients by injections of morphine and heroin. A century earlier, the story of Dr Hawley Harvey Crippen who poisoned his wife using hyoscamine, still resonates today. This connection between doctors and poisoning arises because they:

• have access to drugs that the general population does not have
• have knowledge of the drugs' actions and how to adminster them without causing obvious suspicion
• are connected in the public mind with saving lives, not bringing them to a premature end.

New Jersey, US, 1965

This is the story of Dr Mario Jascalevich, who probably killed as many as 25 hospital patients, and the battle between two sets of forensic experts, the outcome of which failed to convince the jury of the doctor's guilt. Jascalevich was the chief surgeon at Riverdell Hospital, New Jersey, US. In 1965-6 patients began to die unexpectedly. 

The first was a man of 73 admitted for a hernia repair. Jascalevich said he was not fit for surgery due to mild congestive heart failure and he put him on an intravenous drip. The patient died a few minutes later. 

A few months later a four year old girl had her appendix removed by another surgeon, Dr Stanley Harris. She was progressing well and told a nurse that she wanted to go home. A few minutes later she was dead. 

A succession of suspicious fatalities followed. Dr Harris and his colleague, Dr Lans, reviewed the cases and noted several similarities: 

• all the patients had intravenous access via a drip 
• all the deaths were sudden, wholly unexpected and seemed to involve respiratory arrest 
• many occurred at about 8am 
• ...Dr Jascalevich seemed to have been near all the patients. 

Using his own initiative, Dr Harris decided to open Jascalevich's locker. He found several vials (both sealed and half used) of curare, a poison and syringes of curare. The directors of the hospital were alerted. A warrant was obtained to conduct a formal search of the locker. 

Source: Koehler's Medicinal Plants 1887

The strychnos toxifera plant, from which curare can be extracted

Curare in medicine

Curare (pronounced curaré) was used by South American Indians as arrow poison. It was derived from local plants, which they used to kill prey for food. 5   In sufficient quantity, curare paralyses muscles so that the prey cannot escape, and dies because it stops breathing. It was first brought to Europe by the explorer, Charles-Marie de la Condamine, and extensively investigated by physiologists in the 19th century. But it was not until the mid-20th century that it was realised that as it caused paralysis, if it were to be safely used in medical applications, it had to be combined with artificial ventilation.

Source: Lonely Planet Images

 The nerve impulse from the brain along the nerve is electrical, but when it reaches the nerve ending, it becomes chemical. Acetyl choline is released which passes across the junction on to receptors on the muscle, and causes it to contract. Curare sits on these receptors, so the acetyl choline cannot reach them. Provided that the subject is kept alive by artificial ventilation, eventually the curare dissipates, and the subject recovers voluntary muscle control.

Curare itself is no longer used in anaesthesia as better synthetic analogues are now available. These drugs have revolutionised anaesthesia and surgery. An anaesthetised patient can now be kept lightly anaesthetised, but completely paralysed, so that surgeons can gain access to areas which were impossible previously. At the end of surgery these drugs can be reversed and recovery from anaesthesia is more rapid, as less anaesthetic agent needs to be used.

When challenged, Jascalevich claimed that he'd been using the drug as an anaesthetic adjunct for experimental work in connection with liver biopsies on dogs. Afterwards he went to his research laboratories and performed a dog experiment. 

Later his locker was found to be contaminated by dog blood and hairs. There was no way of knowing if the contamination occurred before or after the confrontation between Jascalevich and the hospital authorities. 

A check revealed that some of his curare had been legitimately purchased but some could have been stolen from the hospital pharmacy, and planted by someone else in his locker in an attempt to frame him. Because of this, and because the prosecution was told that curare could not be found in human tissue, the case was dropped. 

Early in 1967 Dr Jascalevich left Riverdell Hospital and the mortality rate dropped. 

Re-examining the case

In 1975 the New York Times received a tip-off that the events might be worth re-examination and reporter Myron Farber began investigating. He interviewed relatives of the deceased and hospital staff. He obtained case notes and other original files, publishing three long articles on his findings in the NY Times. 

Dr Michael Baden, Deputy Medical Examiner for New York, reviewed the case-notes and commented 

"It is my professional opinion that the majority of the cases reviewed are not explainable on the basis of natural causes and are consistent with having been caused by a respiratory depressant. It is my opinion that recent technological advances now permit the detection of very minute amounts of curare removed from dead bodies." 1

Relatives of five of the alleged patient-victims agreed to exhumations. Tissue samples were taken and divided among toxicology laboratories. Curare was found, apparently, in several of the bodies and Jascalevich was arraigned for the murder of these patients.

The 34 week trial, conducted before 18 jurors, started on 28 February 1978. The scientific issues that were being deliberated were:

• What happens to human tissue, embalmed and interred for a decade?
• Would the drug have changed chemically or have been destroyed entirely over a 10-year period?
• Assuming that curare had been injected, what analytical techniques could be used to trace submicrogram amounts of it?
• Could components in embalming fluids or bacteria react chemically, to form substances giving a false positive reading in the analytical procedures? 1

If the forensic analysis indicated the presence of curare in the patients' tissues, was Dr Jascalevich the person who injected them with it? His defence challenged the chemistry underpinning the analyses, and raised uncertainties over this last point.

Principal defence witness, Abraham Stolman, Chief Toxicologist, State of Connecticut Department of Health, said:

"Currently, the reported analytical methods (relied upon by the prosecution), which include ultraviolet absorption spectroscopy, thin layer chromatography, high pressure liquid chromatography and radio-immune assay, alone or in conjunction, lack such a degree of specificity with any degree of scientific certainty required to support the opinion that they identified the isolated material as d-tubocurarine (ie curare) in the embalmed decomposed and skeletonizing tissues that have been in the ground for ten years under varying climactic conditions."

The structure of curare (d-tubocurarine chloride)

Experienced users of thin layer chromatography will know how difficult it is to be certain that one ascending spot, or more likely, smudge, is moving at the same rate as the reference one. Even if it is, does the coincidence imply that the two substances, analyte and reference, are identical? 

• Analytical chemistry

Missing from Stolman's list was mass spectrometry. This technique was used by both the prosecution and defence. 

A prosecution witness, David Beggs from the Hewlett Packard Corporation, said he had found curare in the tissues from one of the patients (Nancy Savino) and that sample from two further exhumations contained  possible traces of curare. However, under cross-examination he stated that mass spectrometry is not an absolute test for curare but 'just probably indicated that it was there'. 

Today we would combine the spectrometry with capillary gas chromatography. If reference curare matched the analyte both with respect to GC retention time  and with a MS fingerprint, then the result would not be disputable. 

Establishing a method

A defence witness, Frederick Rieders, former chief toxicologist in Philadelphia, said the only procedure that he considered as providing unequivocal evidence for the presence of curare was, indeed, mass spectrometry. A reliance should be placed on the whole 'fingerprint' spectrum, rather than the more sensitive selected ion monitoring method. 

His technique was to: 

• crush the frozen sample 
• homogenise with an acid buffer and dichloromethane and discard the organic layer that contained neutral and acidic components 
• buffer the aqueous layer with alkali and extract the basic components again with dichloromethane 
• shake the organic layer with potassium iodide solution to extract the curare as the iodide salt
• shake the dichloromethane layer with hydrochloric acid to give an aqueous solution of the curare hydrochloride 
• aporate this on the MS probe and record the mass spectrum. 

Having established a method for showing up traces of curare, Rieders tested the stability of curare against embalming fluids and the liquids produced by bodies whilst they decompose. It was detectable for a few days, but after this period he could not find any traces of it, or plausible decomposition products that indicated its original presence. 

In reviewing his results, Lawrence Hall and Roland Hirsch said: 

"These liquids altered curare chemically to the point where it was no longer recognisable as such. He concluded that the rapid rate of decomposition meant that to detect curare in the specimens of 1976 would have required huge, medically impossible amounts to have been present in 1966."

Inconsistent evidence

However, Rieders had another surprise in store for the jury. His methodology confirmed one of the prosecution's assertions: he too found curare in the liver from Nancy Savino. However, this observation was accompanied by some concerns. 

Firstly, in the light of his work on the instability of curare towards embalming and decomposing fluids, it should not have shown up at all. 

Secondly, he found that the curare, despite having been in a most unpromising environment for a decade, was highly and inexplicably pure. 

Thirdly, he found curare only in the child's liver, not in her muscle tissue. The drug, administered by intravenous injection, should have perfused the whole body (with the possible exception of the brain) and a positive liver result should have been matched by a positive tissue result. 

In the reports available to us, we do not know what interpretations the defence made from these findings. Possibly the least suspicious one would be that some form of accidental contamination occurred whilst handing the child's liver. 

In October 1978, the jury retired to consider its verdict. It had to consider a mass of circumstantial evidence, an array of allegedly positive chemical tests advanced by the prosecution, and the doubts raised by the defence as to the validity of the results. It had to weigh the research results from Dr Rieders above and deliver a verdict. This only took two hours. 

The unanimous jury found Dr Jascalevich was not guilty of the charges of murder for which he had been tried. He was acquitted, but his licence to practise medicine was revoked by the New Jersey Medical Licensing board for seven unrelated counts of malpractice. He skipped the country, leaving his attorney, Raymond Brown, unpaid. 

Jascalevich died in 1984. Riverdell Hospital changed its name, but it remained tainted with the scandal and closed. 

Further Reading

One of us has recently reviewed this case from a medical viewpoint. 2 Some 20 years ago, L H Hall and R F Hirsch (then associate professor of chemistry at Seton Hall University) presented a view from an analytical chemical perspective and most of our quotations are taken from this source. 1 The Jascalevich case has featured in at least two books, with the one by Farber giving the more detailed account. 3,4

• L H Hall and R F Hirsch,  Anal. Chem. , 1979, 51, 812A
• A Ferguson,  Proc. Hist. Anaesth. , 2009, 40, 48 
• M Farber,  Somebody is lying . New York: Doubleday, 1982 
• M Barden with J A Hennessee,  Unnatural death . New York: Ballantine Books, 1990 
• Education in Chemistry , May 2003, p74, and A Ferguson,  Proc. Hist. Anaesth. , 2002,  31, 10 

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Forensic Cases: The Murder of Leanne Tiernan

In August 2001, a man walking his dog in Lindley Woods, near Otley, in West Yorkshire, found the body of 16-year old Leanne Tiernan, buried in a shallow grave. This was about ten miles from her home in Landseer Mount, Bramley, Leeds. She had been walking home from a Christmas shopping trip with her best friend in November 2000 when she disappeared.

How she was found

She had a black plastic bag over her head, held in place with a dog collar, with a scarf and cable tie around her neck, and cable ties holding her wrists together. Her murderer had then wrapped her body in green plastic bin liners tied with twine.

In the largest search in West Yorkshire, the police searched around 800 houses and 1500 gardens, outbuildings and sheds on her route from the bus stop to her house, as well as searches of a three-mile stretch of canal, drain shafts and moor land.

Length of time since her death

The pathologist examining her body said that it had not been there since November. She had been strangled and her body stored at low temperatures in the intervening time.

The Dog Collar, The Twine And The Cable Ties

Police tracked down suppliers of the dog collar and found that a man from Bramley had bought several similar to the one found around Leanne Tiernan’s neck. His name was John Taylor, and he was a poacher who had been seen around the woods where the body was found.

The twine was an unusual kind, used for rabbit netting, and was tracked down to a supplier in Devon, which had only produced one batch. It matched twine found in John Taylor’s home.

Some of the cable ties used on Leanne Tiernan were of a type used almost exclusively by the Royal Mail, the patent company of John Taylor’s employer, Parcel Force. When the police searched John Taylor’s house they found more of the cable ties and one of the dog collars.

DNA examination

Police searched the woods and recovered around 400 items, including cans and magazines, and forensic scientists compared DNA samples from these, the duvet cover and the bin bags with samples from friends, family, residents on the council estate where Leanne lived, and known sex offenders.

Hairs found in the scarf

The scarf tied around Leanne Tiernan’s neck had a few hairs caught in the knot. Unfortunately, there was not sufficient DNA in the roots for standard DNA profiling. However, the scientists found very small amounts of DNA in the hair shaft and used mitochondrial DNA testing to match it to John Taylor.

First British murder investigation using dog DNA profiling

There were dog hairs on Leanne Tiernan’s body, and scientists in Texas produced a partial dog DNA profile – this was the first time a British murder investigation had used dog DNA profiling. However, John Taylor’s dog had died, so this could not be used in evidence.

The carpet and bloodstains under floorboards

Forensic scientists found a strand of pink carpet fibre on her clothes, with specific patterns of dye. Though John Taylor had destroyed the carpet by burning it, police found strands around a nail that matched the fibre on her jumper. Searching under the floorboards, police found bloodstains that the forensic scientists identified as belonging to Leanne Tiernan.

John Taylor was arrested in October 2001, and sentenced to two life sentences in July 2002. In February 2003, he was convicted of two rapes, based on DNA evidence, and given two additional life sentences.

Now find out more

To find out more about the various forensic principles used in this investigation, read the following:

• How a pathologist might have found that the body had not been there since November in – Estimating the time of death
• How the hairs and fibres on the clothing and carpet would have been analysed in – Hair and fibres in forensics
• The way the bloodstains found under the floorboard were identified in – Bloodstains and tyre tracks

Read about more forensic cases in our casebook category .

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Forensic Fiber Analysis and Chemical Tests With Case Studies

Fibers are a valuable type of evidence in solving cases. They can be used to identify suspects, victims, and location of crimes.

The steps involved in processing fiber evidence include recovery, identification, comparison, and evaluation.

In all, one of the essential aspects of forensic analysis is the examination of fibers found at crime scenes.

Chemical analysis of fibers can provide valuable insights into a case, helping investigators link suspects to the scene or victims [1] .

Moreover, like other evidence, proper documentation and analysis are essential to ensure the reliability of fiber evidence in court.

Classification of Fibers

Fibers can be classified in a number of ways, including by their origin, chemical composition, and physical properties [2].

Classification 1: By Origin

Fibers can be classified as natural and synthetic based on their origin.

• Natural Fibers: These are derived from plants or animals. Some of the most common natural fibers include cotton (plant), wool (animal), silk (insect), linen (plant), and natural minerals (Asbestos).
• Synthetic Fibers: These are man-made fibers produced from petrochemicals. Examples include polyester (a polymer of ester), nylon, acrylic, spandex, etc.

Read More: Paper Fiber and Pulp Analysis: How They Impact Questioned Documents Examination?

Classification 2: By Chemical Composition

Fibers can also be classified as cellulosic and protein fibers based on their chemical composition.

• Cellulosic Fibers: These are made up of cellulose, a polysaccharide found in plant cell walls. Common examples of cellulosic fibers include cotton, linen, and hemp.
• Protein Fibers: These contain biopolymers made up of amino acids. Examples are wool and silk.

Classification 3: By Physical Properties

• Fibers can further be classified by their physical properties, such as their strength, elasticity, and durability.
• For instance, some fibers are strong and durable, while others are soft and elastic.

Other Classification Systems

Apart from the above systems, fibers can also be classified based on:

• Their end use, such as textile and industrial fibers,
• Manufacturing processes , like staple fibers and continuous filament fibers, etc.

Forensic Examinations of Fibers: Destructive and Non-Destructive Approach

Forensic fiber tests are used to identify the type of fiber and to distinguish between natural and synthetic fibers . They also help in determining the chemical composition of fibers and identifying any dyes or treatments that have been applied to the fibers[4].

Before jumping to forensic chemical analysis of fibers, there are two categories into which tests can be divided:

• Non-Technical Tests: Burning and Feeling/Texture tests.
• Technical Tests: Melting point tests, Microscopic tests, and Solubility tests.

Note: All chemical tests are destructive in nature. So make sure you first perform microscopic analysis and only proceed with chemical tests when necessary.

1. Texture/Feeling Test

The texture test is a more subjective method used to identify fibers based on their texture and feel .

• Natural Fibers: E.g., Cotton is typically soft and smooth, while wool is coarse and wiry.
• Synthetic Fibers: These can have a variety of textures but are often stiffer and less breathable than natural fibers[6].

2. Microscopic Characteristics of Fibers and Their Analysis

Microscopic examination of fibers is a technique used to identify the type of fiber and to distinguish between natural and synthetic fibers. It is also employed to determine the physical characteristics of fibers , such as their size, shape, color, and cross-sectional structure.

• Microscopic Examination Tools: Microscopic examination of fibers can be conducted using a variety of microscopes, including optical microscopes (compound and simple), and electron microscopes (SEM and TEM).
• Optical Microscopes: These are the most commonly used type for fiber analysis due to their accessibility and ease of use.
• Electron Microscopes (SEM and TEM): These can be used to obtain more detailed images of fibers, but they are more expensive and require more specialized training to operate.

3. Melting Point Test

The melting point test can distinguish between natural and synthetic fibers by determining the temperature at which a fiber melts.

Natural Fibers:

• They generally do not melt; instead, they tend to char or decompose when exposed to high temperatures.
• Example: Cotton, being a natural fiber, will not melt but will burn and eventually turn to ash at high temperatures.

Synthetic Fibers:

• They typically have a specific melting point at which they melt and may even shrink from a flame.
• Example: When polyester is subjected to heat, it will melt at a specific temperature (typically around 260-290 °C).

4. Burn and Flame Test

The burn test is a rudimentary test and is based on how fibers (as evidence) react to flame and the type of smoke they produce when burned.

• When subjected to flame, natural fibers usually burn and may continue to glow after the flame is removed, producing a characteristic odor.
• Example: Wool will burn and may produce a characteristic burnt hair odor (because of keratin), leaving behind a black, crushable ash.
• Tends to melt and shrink away from the flame, and they often extinguish once the flame is removed, producing a different kind of smoke and odor compared to natural fibers.
• Example: Nylon will melt and shrink away from the flame, often extinguishing once the flame is removed, and may produce a celery-like odor and black smoke, leaving behind a hard, bead-like residue.

This test is not definitive but is useful for narrowing down the possible types of fibers.

5. Solubility Test

The solubility test is another rudimentary test used to distinguish between natural and synthetic fibers.

Procedure: A small sample of the fiber is placed in a solvent, such as acetone or sodium hydroxide.

• Natural Fibers: Typically soluble in certain solvents.
• Synthetic Fibers: Typically not soluble.

This test can be more definitive than the burn test. Still, it is important to use other tests to confirm the identity of a fiber due to some natural and synthetic fibers having similar solubility properties.

Note: All of the fibers listed in the table are insoluble in water.

6. Dye Test for Fibers

The dye test can be used to identify the type of dye applied to a fiber. It helps in determining the possible source of origin of a fiber, albeit not conclusively.

• Take a small sample of the fiber.
• Place the fiber sample in a water solution or ethanol.
• Heat the solution with the fiber sample in it.
• After heating, examine the fiber under a microscope and the amount of dye absorbed cross-sectional.
• Observe any color changes in the fiber.
• Document any color changes and the type of dye absorbed by the fiber for further analysis.

Observation: If the fiber absorbs any of the dyes, the color of the fiber will change[5] and the amount of soaking ability is much higher in natural fibers than in synthetic.

This information can help in narrowing down the possible sources of the fiber. Read the following examples:

Example 1: Fiber A (Cotton):

• If a cotton fiber is placed in the dye solution, it absorbs a specific dye, changing its color.
• This indicates that the fiber is natural and cellulose-based, as cotton is known to absorb dyes well due to its cellulose composition.

Example 2: Fiber B (Polyester):

• If a polyester fiber is placed in the same dye solution, it does not absorb the dye or change color differently compared to cotton .
• This can indicate that the fiber is synthetic and likely made from polymers, as polyester fibers usually have non-absorbing properties due to their synthetic nature.

Read More: Identification of Paper Additives: Fillers, Oil, Waxes, and Pigment

Spectroscopy Examination of Fibers: A Non-Destructive Approach

Spectroscopy, specifically techniques like ATR-FTIR and FT-Raman, is pivotal for analyzing fibers. It involves studying the interactions between matter and electromagnetic radiation .

This helps the forensic examiner to extract detailed information about the molecular composition, chemical structure, and physical properties of fibers.

1. Dye and Pigment Analysis Using UV-Visible Spectroscopy

• Application: For analyzing dyes and pigments in fibers.
• Example: The absorption spectra obtained can be compared to known standards to identify specific dyes and pigments.

2. Identification of Chemical Composition Using IR

• Specific Techniques: ATR-FTIR and FT-Raman are pivotal for analyzing fibers.
• Application: Allows for the differentiation between various synthetic and natural fibers through the detection of specific functional groups like carbonyl or amine groups.
• Example: Using ATR-FTIR , analysts can identify the unique infrared absorption spectra of fibers. A fiber sample with a characteristic peak at 1720 cm⁻¹ could indicate the presence of a carbonyl group, typical in polyester fibers, allowing for more precise identification[7].

3. Structural Analysis using Raman Spectroscopy

• Application: Provides insights into the molecular vibrations within the fiber, enabling the identification of molecular structures and polymorphs.
• Example: Differentiation between various crystalline structures in synthetic fibers like polyethylene.

4. Microspectrofluorimetry

• Application: Allows for the detailed analysis of the color and optical properties of fibers (especially useful when examining dyed fibers).
• Example: Microspectrofluorimetry is essential for analyzing the fluorescence of fibers. For instance, a fiber treated with a specific flame retardant might exhibit a distinctive fluorescence signature under UV light.
• If a cotton fiber exhibits fluorescence at 460 nm , it might indicate the presence of a specific optical brightener or flame retardant, providing another layer of specificity to the analysis[9].

Read More: Forensic Watermark Examination of Paper: Destructive And Non-Destructive Analysis

5. Trace Evidence Analysis using Mass Spectrometry (MS):

• Application: Provides detailed information about the molecular weight and sequence of polymer units in fibers and their dye compositions.
• Example: Identification of trace components or additives in fiber samples.

6. Comparative Analysis with Database Integration

• Application: Allows forensic analysts to compare the spectroscopic profiles of unknown fibers with known samples.
• Example: A forensic analyst might compare a fiber found at a crime scene with fibers cataloged in the National Fiber Databank .
• If a match is found, say a unique dye in an acrylic fiber that corresponds to a specific manufacturer, it can significantly narrow down the source and potentially link a suspect or victim to the crime scene[8].

Challenges While Analysing Fibers as Evidence

• Contamination and Sample Degradation: These are persistent challenges that affect the reliability and accuracy of results.
• Limited Sample Quantity: Often, only minute fiber samples are available for analysis, which can limit the types and number of tests that can be performed.
• Instrument Limitations: The limitations of some analytical instruments can hinder the detection of certain fiber characteristics or components, potentially impacting the overall analysis.
• Complexity of Fiber Mixtures: Analyzing mixed fiber samples can be challenging due to the presence of multiple fiber types, dyes, and treatments, requiring careful separation and analysis.

Advancements in Fiber Analysis

• HEPA Filtered Environments: High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filtered environments in laboratories have significantly reduced the risk of airborne contamination during fiber analysis.
• Enhanced Microspectrophotometry: Advancements allow for more detailed analysis of fiber coloration and chemical composition, even with minute, degraded samples[10].
• Improved Instrumentation: The continual refinement and enhancement of analytical instruments, such as more sensitive spectrometers and higher-resolution microscopes, have expanded the capabilities of forensic fiber analysis.

Cases Solved Using Fibers As Evidence

Case 1: darlie routier [forensic files] invisible intruder case.

In the 1996 Routier case , a critical piece of evidence was a bread knife found with a single fiberglass rod and rubber dust .

These fibers matched the fiberglass rods from a cut window screen, indicating the screen had been cut from the inside and contradicting the intruder theory.

This fiber analysis was pivotal in solving the case, leading to Darlie Routier’s conviction for the murder of her sons.

Case 2: Beaten by a Hair [Forensic Files] Case

In the 1992 disappearance case of Laura Houghteling , forensic fiber analysis was proven important. A strand of synthetic hair, resembling a wig, was found in Laura’s brush, linking to Hadden Clark , a suspect.

Microscopic examination and microspectrophotometry analysis of this hair matched it to a wig found in Clark’s possession, confirming the fibers were identical.

Fiber analysis , along with other corroborating evidence like matching thumbprints and Clark’s possession of items belonging to Laura, led to the resolution of the case and Clark revealing the location of Laura’s body.

Case 3: Charlene and Brian Hummert [A Tight Leash] Case

In the 2004 case of Charlene Hummert , forensic analysis of a dog leash helped in identifying the culprit.

The forensic linguist, Dr. Robert Leonard , analyzed various letters and concluded that the stalker’s letter, the killer’s misleading letter, and Brian’s writings were all penned by Brian Hummert , Charlene’s husband.

The linguistic analysis, coupled with matching ligature marks from a dog’s leash found in Brian’s possession and his ownership of clothing matching descriptions from enhanced security footage, led to Brian Hummert’s arrest for the murder of his wife.

Case 4: Nice Threads [Forensic Files] Case

In the 1995 case of Dawn Fehring , meticulous solving the case from fingerprints on clothes . Forensic expert Eric Bird made a significant breakthrough by retrieving details from partial blood fingerprints found on Dawn’s bed sheet (a fabric).

These fingerprints were then matched precisely by fingerprint expert Patrick Warrick to a neighbor, Eric Hayden , who had been acting suspiciously and inconsistently during interrogations.

The fingerprint development on fabric and the use of a mathematical algorithm to remove the background led to the arrest and subsequent conviction of Hayden for first-degree murder, solving the harrowing case.

References:

• Robertson, J., Roux, C., & Wiggins, K. G. (2017). Forensic Examination of Fibres . CRC Press.
• Identification of Textile Fibers. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2023, from Textile Coach
• Identification of Textile Fibers—Google Books. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2023, from Google Books
• Frank, R. S., & Sobol, S. P. (1990). Fibres and Their Examination in Forensic Science. In A. Maehly & R. L. Williams (Eds.), Forensic Science Progress (pp. 41–125). Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-75186-8_3
• Goodpaster, J., & Liszewski, E. (2009). Forensic Analysis of Dyed Textile Fibers. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 394 , 2009–2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-2885-7
• Textile Standards—Standards Products—Standards & Publications—Products & Services. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2023, from ASTM
• Meleiro, P. P., & García-Ruiz, C. (2016). Spectroscopic techniques for the forensic analysis of textile fibers. Applied Spectroscopy Reviews, 51 (4), 278–301. DOI: 10.1080/05704928.2015.1132720
• Forensic Fiber Examiner Training Program | Office of Justice Programs. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2023, from Office of Justice Programs
• Hu, C., Mei, H., Guo, H., & Zhu, J. (2020). Color analysis of textile fibers by microspectrophotometry. Forensic Chemistry, 18 , 100221. DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100221
• Stoney, D. A., & Stoney, P. L. (2015). Critical review of forensic trace evidence analysis and the need for a new approach. Forensic Science International, 251 , 159–170. DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.03.022

A Forensic Science graduate from Rashtriya Raksha University, and certifications in behavioral science, communication, and foreign languages. Known for her analytical proficiency and extensive field experience, solving real-world cases and presenting at prestigious conferences.

Anshika Srivastava

FR Author Group at ForensicReader is a team of Forensic experts and scholars having B.Sc, M.Sc, or Doctorate( Ph.D.) degrees in Forensic Science . We published on topics on fingerprints, questioned documents, forensic medicine, toxicology, physical evidence, and related case studies. Know More .

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The role of forensic science in solving true crime cases

You’ve seen it countless times.

Police scope out the scene of a crime and find a piece of evidence: a strand of hair, a blood sample, a bullet casing. It goes to the lab, and after forensic scientists analyze it, the evidence helps land the perpetrator in jail.

Or, that is how forensic science is depicted in "CSI" or "Law & Order." But in reality, forensic science is often far more complicated.

HOW EXACT IS FORENSIC SCIENCE?

What exactly is forensic science, and how does it work in real criminal investigations? Read on to learn more about the role that forensic science plays in solving true crime cases .

Forensic science, also known as criminalistics, is the use of scientific methods to assist professionals in the criminal justice system. It makes use of many scientific disciplines, such as chemistry, physics and biology, to determine what exactly happened at the scene of a crime, be it homicide, sexual assault or robbery. 

READ ON THE FOX NEWS APP

It begins with a thorough documentation of the crime scene. The area is photographed, bullet holes are measured to determine the trajectory of shots and possible witnesses are interviewed. 

Physical evidence, which could include fingerprints, blood or DNA samples, and possible murder weapons are collected. These items are then sent to a laboratory for analysis.

Victimology, or studying the victim to gain insight into the perpetrator’s behavior, is also an important component of forensic science. 

CRIMINAL PROFILING: THE TECHNIQUES USED BY POLICE TO CATCH DANGEROUS OFFENDERS

For Mary Ellen O’Toole, Ph.D., director of the Forensic Science Program at George Mason University and a former FBI special agent with the Behavioral Analysis Unit, victimology begins by considering a host of questions.

"Why was that victim selected and did the offender know that victim? What was the level of risk to the victim? Was this somebody that was victimized in their own home in a safe neighborhood?" she told Fox News Digital during a phone call.

Finding the answers to these questions can help shed light on the perpetrator’s behavior and possible motive. O’Toole said that at this point in the investigation, "I'm still looking at the whole case, but I'm already forming some tentative opinions." 

When it comes to conducting an investigation, doing things in the right order is essential.

Investigators have to make important decisions about things as simple as how to move through the scene: Do you enter into the bathroom first, or the bedroom? When one misstep can disturb or ruin potential evidence, being careful is critical.

This is especially important when items are examined in the lab. Some tests can destroy important evidence on the item. 

"Think about a firearm," Peter Valentin, Ph.D., the chairman of the Forensic Science Department at the University of New Haven and a former detective in the Major Crime Squad for the Connecticut State Police told Fox News Digital during a phone call. "You might want to know if the firearm functions. But if you send it to get an operability test done first, and you don’t realize until afterwards that there was biological evidence on that firearm, it’s quite likely that that evidence will be gone. It will be destroyed or altered from the way it originally appeared."

IDAHO MURDERS TIMELINE: WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT THE SLAYINGS OF FOUR STUDENTS

That is why nondestructive tests should be done as early in the process as possible.

As test results come in and more information becomes available, investigators are able to build a fuller picture of what happened at the scene of the crime. They may have hypotheses of what happened based on their first look at the scene, but sometimes, looks can be deceiving.

A death that appeared to be the result of natural causes could be a murder, or vice versa. That is why forensic science can provide objective data that helps them formulate their idea of how the crime occurred. 

Forensic science helps investigators take evidence and then establish an association "between someone suspected of committing a crime and the scene of the crime or victim," according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics. 

When Valentin explains this concept to his students, he focuses on three things. "Forensics is about connecting people together, connecting people to objects, and then connecting people and objects to places," he said. 

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For example, he points to the ongoing case of the Idaho college murder case . The prime suspect, Bryan Kohberger, was found after investigators discovered matching DNA on the sheaf of the knife used to slay four students.

Instead of having to go through thousands of hours of surveillance footage, investigators were able to narrow their search for a specific vehicle and a specific cell phone serial number. This is how they determined that Kohberger was in the vicinity of the crime scene during the time of the murders.

"It’s a great example of how you can use forensic information to focus your investigation," said Valentin. "You go from having a mountain of data to having a suspect from out of state, and his car is in the area during the period of the crime . That's enough evidence to perhaps convince a jury."

One way that forensic science differs from how it is portrayed on television is the length of time it takes to get results. In fiction, an analysis only takes a few hours. In reality, it can take days or weeks. 

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In the case of Gary Leon Ridgway, the "Green River Killer," one of the most prolific serial killers in U.S. history, it took more than a decade before a single piece of evidence led to his capture. 

Ridgway committed numerous murders from the 1980s to the early 2000s. Investigators considered him a suspect and even collected a saliva sample from 1987, but there was not enough evidence to convict him.

DNA profiling was still in its infancy in the 1980s. However, the technology rapidly developed in the ensuing decades, and in the early 2000s, a DNA test linked Ridgway’s saliva sample to DNA collected from murder victims. 

"It may take years, but that's what forensic science is all about," said O’Toole. 

Original article source: The role of forensic science in solving true crime cases

• Forensics Colleges » Forensic Education Blog » Resources » Fraud in Forensics: Five Cases of Abuse and Evidence Mishandling

Fraud in Forensics: Five Cases of Abuse and Evidence Mishandling

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There’s no shortage of crime-fighting TV shows where protagonists brandish the latest forensic science techniques. Whether it’s DNA testing, tool mark identification, bite mark measuring, or blood spatter analysis, it’s assumed that these methods are reliable, consistent, and valid measures of criminal activity. Of course, the evidence is available for experts with trained eyes and the proper equipment, but the science isn’t without fault.

Even those at the upper echelons of criminal justice have been found guilty of fraud in forensics. In 2015, the FBI admitted to decades of relying on faulty hair analysis in trials , a grave error in criminal proceedings. Among those convicted on fraudulent evidence are 32 defendants sentenced to death, 14 of whom have either died in prison or already been executed.

Overstating the utility of common forensic methods has serious consequences. In recent interviews with three prominent professors , www.forensicscolleges.com explored the impact of a recent bombshell in the community: a September 2016 report from the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST). The PCAST publication cast doubt on common forensics methods due to insufficient testing. It found that only single-source DNA had both of the requisite types of scientific validity: foundational (i.e., accurate in a controlled lab environment) and applied (i.e., applicable in a real world context). While multiple-source DNA, fingerprinting, and other forensic methods may be useful, they require further testing to establish both foundational and applied validity. Notably, all three of the interviewed professors highly recommended a strong core of hard science courses to thrive in forensics careers.

While the future of forensics methods is beyond the scope of this article, it’s important to remember examples where the collection or processing of evidence have failed. This article explores five fascinating cases of fraud in forensics to underscore the importance of using scientifically valid and reliable methods in this growing career field.

Amanda Knox

On November 2, 2007, American college student Amanda Knox returned to her flat in Perugia, Italy. She found the bathroom she shared with her roommate, Meredith Kercher, covered in blood. The carnage disturbed Knox, who described her roommate as “neat and tidy.” Knox had spent the night with her boyfriend, Raffaele Sollecito, and she attempted to get into Kercher’s room, which was locked. Sollecito tried to force the door open and failed, prompting him to call the police.

Filomena Romanelli, the third roommate, returned home following a phone conversation with Knox. Fearing the flat had been robbed, Romanelli began rummaging around, unknowingly disturbing the crime scene. It was Romanelli who uncovered Kercher’s two cell phones in a garden nearby and she requested that the police break into Kercher’s room. After the police refused, Romanelli’s friend broke through the door to uncover Kercher’s bloody and partially naked body. Autopsy reports indicated that most of Kercher’s injuries—bruising and cuts near the genital region—were sustained as a result of being restrained during the sexual violence.

Both Knox and Sollecito were arrested and charged with Kercher’s murder due to trace amounts of Knox’s DNA found on the kitchen knife—the presumed murder weapon—and Sollecito’s DNA found on Kercher’s bra clasp. Once Meredith Kercher’s room was thoroughly searched, police uncovered fingerprints and DNA belonging to Rudy Guede, who had gone on a date with the victim the night of her murder. Still convinced of Knox and Sollecito’s guilt, the prosecution spun a narrative claiming the couple had partnered with Guede in Kercher’s murder.

During the June 2011 appeals trial, experts uncovered the numerous flaws in the forensic evidence levied against Knox and Sollecito. For example, the police didn’t wear caps or change gloves as they collected items , allowing cross-contamination of the objects in the room. Experts also noted that while the alleged murder weapon did contain trace amounts of Knox’s DNA, it was curiously free from the victim’s DNA.

On March 27, 2015, both Amanda Knox and Raffaele Sollecito were exonerated for the murder of Meredith Kercher.

On June 13, 1994, the bodies of Ron Goldman and the ex-wife of OJ Simpson, Nicole Brown, were found outside of Brown’s home. They’d been stabbed multiple times.

When detectives arrived at OJ Simpson’s home to inform him of the death of his ex-wife, they noticed blood on Simpson’s white Ford Bronco. Without a search warrant, Detective Mark Fuhrman jumped over the external wall and opened the gate for the other three detectives present, claiming they believed Simpson might have been injured and went to investigate. While walking along the outside of the house, Mark Fuhrman uncovered a matching bloody glove to one found at the crime scene.

During the trial, all of the missteps of the forensic team came to light, including the possibility of evidence tampering (and obvious evidence mishandling), as well as the glaring absence of evidence security. The defense noted several items that had gone missing, including a vial of blood from OJ Simpson. Jurors, infuriated by evidence of racism within the LAPD, questioned whether the missing blood was a result of planted evidence on the part of the detectives . Furthermore, Simpson’s Bronco , which had been impounded at an LAPD facility, was entered at least twice without authorization.

OJ Simpson was found not guilty on October 3, 1995.

On September 28, 2000, David Camm—a retired Indiana State Trooper—returned home to find his wife and two children dead of gunshot wounds. Camm believed his son was still alive and attempted CPR on the seven-year-old. When his son failed to respond, he called 911. Three days later, Camm was arrested for the deaths of his family. A state forensic analyst claimed that Camm’s t-shirt had been stained with the wife’s blood in patterns suggesting he was the perpetrator.

During Camm’s trial, the prosecution stated that Camm had dual motives: a $750,000 life insurance policy and alleged infidelity. On March 17, 2002, the jury found him guilty and he was sentenced to 195 years in prison .

In 2004, the Indiana Court of Appeals overturned the conviction and ordered a new trial. The case caught a break in 2005 when the DNA of career criminal, Charles Boney, was matched to a sweatshirt at the scene of the crime. Boney’s history included attacking women. Boney ultimately claimed it was Camm who murdered the family. Camm was charged once again—this time as a co-conspirator with Boney.

In 2009, the convictions were reversed by the Indiana Supreme Court. During the third trial, the defense presented evidence that the initial blood splatter expert had falsified his credentials and had no history of working with blood splatters. Additionally, a Dutch forensic expert found Boney’s DNA under Kim Camm’s fingernails and her DNA on his sweatshirt, two pieces of evidence which sealed his conviction.

On October 24, 2015, after spending 13 years in prison for the deaths of his wife and two children, David Camm was acquitted and released.

Ford Heights Four

On May 11, 1978, newly engaged Carol Schmal and Lawrence Lionberg were found shot in the head. Schmal had been raped seven times. An eyewitness claimed to have seen Dennis Williams, Kenneth Adams, and Willie Rainge in the abandoned townhouses where the bodies of the victims were found. Another witness named Paula Gray—a woman with an IQ of 55 who would later recant her testimony, thereby facing perjury charges—added Verneal Jimerson to the attackers. A final eyewitness named Marvin Simpson came forward five days after the murders identifying four completely different men as the killers, but the police failed to investigate these claims. The “ Ford Heights Four ”—all black men—were tried by an all-white jury.

During the first trial in 1978, state serologist Michael Podlecki testified that at least one of the rapists had type A secretor blood, a trait shared with approximately 25 percent of the population. Podlecki also testified that both Williams and Adams tested positive for being type A secretors, an assertion later refuted by an independent forensic witness. When the prosecution presented hairs found in the back of Williams’s car, Podlecki claimed they were consistent with the victims. Williams, Adams, Rainge, and Gray all received harsh sentences. Jimerson was not initially convicted because Gray had withdrawn her testimony, although she later testified against him in a plea deal with the prosecutors and he was sentenced to death.

After various appeals and retrials, students from the Northwestern University Medill School of Journalism—including award-winning NPR journalist Laura Sullivan—presented new evidence in 1996. They uncovered Marvin Simpson’s genuine eyewitness account. Coupled with confessions from the murderers and DNA evidence, Williams, Adams, Rainge, and Jimerson were finally exonerated after 17 years in prison.

In 1999, the Ford Heights Four won a $36 million in damages from Cook County—the largest settlement for a civil rights case in U.S. history.

Cameron Todd Willingham

On December 23, 1991, a fire ravaged Cameron Todd Willingham’s house killing his two-year-old daughter and one-year-old twins , while Willingham escaped with minor burns. His wife had been out Christmas shopping and despite her insistence that Willingham had never been abusive and had no motive for the crimes, he was arrested.

At the trial, James Grigson—a psychiatrist known as “Doctor Death” for frequently recommending the death penalty for defendants—was called as an expert witness. Grigson cited Willingham’s tattoo of a skull and serpent and some of his music posters as evidence that he was a sociopath. He did not perform a thorough psychiatric evaluation.

Furthermore, Johnny Webb, a jailhouse informant, testified against Willingham claiming he had confessed to the arson leading to the murders. Webb would later recant his testimony, telling a reporter he was mistaken as a result of being on multiple medications for bipolar disorder. The recanted testimony was never reported to Willingham’s attorneys and the prosecution ultimately cited the statute of limitations.

Manuel Vasquez, a state deputy fire marshall, took the stand and testified to seeing “puddle configurations” (i.e., areas of rapid burning) suggesting the use of accelerants in the fire and indicating arson. Vasquez also had claimed that Willingham’s first and second-degree burns were most likely self-inflicted with the intent to avert suspicion. It wasn’t until many years later that investigators would attribute his wounds to Willingham being in the fire before the flashover (i.e., when the entire room suddenly ignites in flames). Sadly, Willingham was found guilty and executed February 17, 2004.

Acclaimed fire investigator and scientist Gerald Hurst found Vasquez’s claims to be dubious and stated that there was no evidence to suggest arson.

In 2010—after more than a year of renewed investigation and stiff opposition from embarrassed state authorities, including Governor Rick Perry—the Texas Forensic Science Commission led by Dr. Craig Beyler concluded that there was not ample evidence for arson and Vasquez’s testimony was “hardly consistent with a scientific mind-set and was more characteristic of mystics or psychics.”

Conclusion: The Innocence Project

For aspiring forensics professionals, these documented abuses of the science are presented as cautionary tales. The collection and meticulous analysis of evidence aren’t easy processes and the techniques are still far from perfect. It’s worth noting that as of June 2017, the federal government remains committed to keeping current processes in place. Rebuffing scientists who had presented evidence of false applications of DNA analysis, Attorney General Jeff Sessions stated, “I don’t think we should suggest that those proven scientific principles that we’ve been using for decades are somehow uncertain and leaving prosecutors having to fend off challenges on the most basic issues in a trial” ( Washington Post , April 2017).

Despite setbacks in the advancement of the science, there are groups committed to exonerating falsely accused people with sound forensic evidence. For example, the Innocence Project aims “to free the staggering number of innocent people who remain incarcerated, and to bring reform to the system responsible for their unjust imprisonment.” Founded in 1992 by Peter Neufeld and Barry Scheck, it has helped to free 350 people on DNA evidence and identified 149 alternative perpetrators as of June 2017.

In short, forensic science depends not only on types of evidence with foundational and applied validity, but also on the dedicated efforts of ethics-minded groups such as the Innocence Project. How many innocent people are serving sentences for crimes they didn’t commit? How many criminals are walking free due to untested rape kit backlogs ? Forensic scientists can be part of the solution.

• Pathologists’ Assistant
• DNA Analyst
• Arson Investigator
• Forensic Scientist
• Crime Scene Investigator
• Forensic Technician
• Forensic Autopsy Technician
• Crime Scene Investigation (CSI)
• Forensic Science
• Forensic Photography
• Forensic Engineering
• Forensic Tech

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