coastal management case study igcse

• Age: 14-16 MYP Individuals and Societies
• Age: 14-16 GCSE / IGCSE Geography
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Coastal management case study - Scarborough, UK

• Weathering and erosion
• Factors affecting weathering

Watch this video clip that shows wave activity in Sandsend, a small coastal town on the Yorkshire coast (UK) not far from Scarborough. Brainstorm the problems that these sorts of events cause and any solutions you can think of.

Where are the coastal defences?

Scarborough is a town on the North Sea coast of North Yorkshire, England with a population of around 50,000. Scarborough is the largest holiday resort on the Yorkshire coast.

The most striking feature of the town's geography is a headland pointing eastward into the North Sea, which separates the seafront into a North Bay and a South Bay.

In 1896 the Council decided to link the two bays by the construction of a 1200-metre link road to be known as Marine Drive. At the time, there was much support for the project, not only for the commercial advantages but also due to the pressing need to prevent coastal erosion.

• Describe the location of Scarborough, UK.
• Describe the location of the coastal defences within Scarborough.

When were the coastal defences built?

The 22 month coastal protection project began in April 2002. It arose from a Coastal Defence Strategy undertaken by Scarborough Borough Council in 1998, which identified a prioritised action plan for the whole of the town’s coastal frontage.

• When was the coastal defence project finished?

Why were the coastal defences built?

The limited residual life of the existing coastal defence structures which were built in the 19th to early 20th century. There was severe erosion at the toe of the wall which threatened to undermine the seawall and the road. There was regular and costly damage to the infrastructure of Marine Drive, with the concrete in the seawall deteriorating and extensive rehabilitation required.

Severe wave overtopping from the near vertical sea walls causes regular closure of Marine Drive, usually more than 35 times a year. This has a economic impact for local businesses.

Renewed cliff foot erosion would increase the risk from landslides on the headland. Landslides from the Scarborough Castle Headland have been common through history and indeed over a period of 700 years the site of Scarborough Castle had dwindled from 60 acres to 16 acres due to erosion.

Threat to public safety and assets. The resulting threat to public safety and protected assets (estimated at approximately £100m) was considerable.

• Give four reasons why coastal defences needed to be built along the Castle Headland.

What coastal defences were built?

• £25.7 million coastal protection project.
• 11,000 metres square of concrete ‘boardwalk’ style paving has been provided to form a new promenade around Marine Drive.
• A 1 metre high concrete wave return wall has been cast along the frontage.
• Scarborough Council determined that the provision of an Accropode revetment with a 1m high wave return wall would allow for overtopping to be reduced significantly, thus significantly reducing the risk of damage to Marine Drive and greatly enhancing the safety of its users.

• Accropodes – interlocking concrete rock armour units.
• Up to 4,000 are being were to protect the East Pier and Castle Headland. They were pre-cast in Sunderland, then brought to Scarborough in barge loads of 40 at a time.
• Each Accropode weighs about 15 tonnes.
• These interlocking units are lighter than rip-rap and therefore can be used at a steeper gradient. Accropodes also have a greater percentage of voids and for given wave conditions overtopping is less.
• They have a stronger visual impact than rock armour but this is significantly offset by the smaller profile of an Accropode armoured bund.
• Lower cost than rip-rap.
• Greater stability and lower maintenance.
• Design life of at least 50 years.

• 280,000 tonnes of granite from Larvik, Norway to act as rock armour (rip-rap).
• Describe a ’concrete wave return wall’ and how it works as a coastal defence.
• What is an Accropode?
• Why are Accropodes considered to be ‘better’ than normal rip-rap?
• If Accropodes are so good why was rip-rap still used as part of the Scarborough coastal defence scheme?
• Why did the rip-rap come from Norway?
• Who built the coast defences and who paid for them?

• The owner of a hotel on South Bay.
• A member of Scarborough Council.
• A café owner on North Bay.
• A Scarborough resident that lives in the west of the town and works in a local factory.
• A local fisherman.
• The local police officer.

Using the resources above produce an outline of an answer to the following exam style question:

What strategies can be put in place to control the impact of wave erosion upon human activity. You should give examples from an area you have studied. [8 Marks]

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Edexcel IGCSE Geography Lecture 20 - Coastal Management Case Studies

Subject: Geography

Age range: 14-16

Resource type: Lesson (complete)

Last updated

28 May 2023

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Powerpoint lecture covering the following in a modern, concise format:

Specification Point 2.3 - Understand case studies of coastal management in a developed country and a developing or emerging country.

Complete set of Chapter 2 Lectures are available.

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Help for igcse geography students at kis.

Did you know……. 60% of the world’s population lives close to a coast.

A coast is just the name for the area where the sea meets the land

Click on the link below to download revision checklist for this topic

Checklist for revision

Every coastline looks different. There are many reasons for this!

Some coastlines are suffering from coastal erosion. Erosion is where the waves in the sea are wearing away the rocks at the coast.

There are four types of erosion (exactly the same as in our rivers topic!)

1) Abrasion – The waves are carrying material which is thrown into the cliff at high speed.

2) Corrosion- Acids in sea water slowly dissolve rocks at the base of the cliff

3) Hydraulic action- Waves compress air into the cracks in the cliffs which expands

4) Attrition- The waves are carrying material which is thrown at each other and they break down into smaller pieces

Erosion at the coast can create some amazing coastal land forms!

Cliffs and Wave Cut Platforms

In areas of fairly hard resistant rock, you may see cliffs and a feature known as a wave cut platform.

• At high tide, the waves attack the base of the cliff and undercut it to forma wave cut notch.
• After time, the cliff above the notch collapses as it has lost its support.
• In this way the cliff retreats backwards
• As this repeats over time, it cuts away the cliff to leave a platform of rock (wave cut platform)
• This is only exposed at low tide.

Headlands and Bays

In areas where hard rock and soft rock are next to each other, headlands and bays will form.

This leaves the harder rock sticking out to sea and the softer rock curves inwards.

Headlands are harder pieces of rock which stick out to sea- Like your head sticks out of your body!

Bays are curved inlets (c shapes) either side of headlands, normally with a beach inside

Caves, Arches, Stacks and Stumps

Even though harder rock is resistant for a long time and is left sticking out to sea as a headland, it does still erode!

Could you answer this question?

Explain what a headland is and how and why they change over time (7m)

• Headlands are harder pieces of rock that stick out to sea either side of a bay
• As waves approach them they refract around them and hit the sides
• This increases the wave’s height and energy
• The waves attack the side of the headland through corrosion and abrasion and create a crack
• Over time, hydraulic action erodes the cracks to open further and create a small cave
• The waves hit against the back of the cave and erode it further until the back wall of the cave has gone. This is now called an arch.
• The arch is eroded by the waves to be larger.
• There is nothing to support the arch underneath so it collapses
• When it collapses there is a pillar left standing at sea called a stack
• Eventually the waves erode the base of the stack, and it collapses forming a stump.

Parts of a wave

When a wave moves onto the shore this is called SWASH

When a wave moves back to sea this is called BACKWASH

Constructive and Destructive Waves

There are two main types of wave- Constructive and Destructive. There are some differences between them shown in the diagram below.

Long-shore Drift- Transportation of material along the coast

Waves are important for their role in moving material along the coast. They pick up eroded material and sand on the beach and move it along the coast in a process known as long shore drif t. The process is shown in the diagram below

Have a look at the diagram and see if you can answer the following question

Explain how material is moved along the coast (6m)

Mark scheme for the question

• Waves called swash come into the beach at an angle and pick up material (1)
• They come in at an angle because of wind direction (1)
• The wave called backwash pulls the material back down the beach straight (1)
• These backwards movements occur straight due to gravity (1)
• This process repeats itself along the beach and is called long shore drift (1)
• The material is moved along the beach. (1)

Depositional Landforms

Once material has been eroded and then transported along the coast, it is often deposited in places where the waves lose energy. This deposition can create some wonderful features! They are called….

Key idea:  Longshore drift will continue along a coastline until the coastline changes direction (e.g. at a river mouth)

How is a spit formed?

•  Longshore drift of material occurs along the coast until the coastline meets a river mouth
• Where the coastline changes direction the eroded material is deposited out to sea
• This builds up across a river mouth but not fully across it
• The end of the spit is sometimes curved if the wind directs it.

Why is there marsh behind the spit?

• Behind the spit is sheltered from the wind and waves are low energy
• Marsh forms in calm undisturbed water where material is deposited

How does a tombolo form?

• Long shore drift continues along a coastline until it changes direction
• If the coastline changes direction material is deposited in a long strip out to sea
• When this strip joins an island and a tombolo is formed

How does a bar form?

•  Longshore drift of material occurs along the coast until the coastline changes direction at a bay
• The coastline changes direction across a bay
• Material is deposited across the bay
• This blocks off the sea behind leaving a lagoon

Sand Dune Formation

Sand dunes form in stages and as they grow they are moved further back from the coastline and beach.

So how do they form?

See if you can now complete this gap fill task

Coral Reefs

Corals are tiny, marine animals called polyps that form reefs when they live in colonies.

Their skeletons are joined with others in the colony to form a hard stony mass. As one generation dies, the next grows on top of it, so the reef grows up and outwards.

Coral reefs don’t just grow anywhere! They are only found in certain locations around the globe.

Map to show the location of coral reefs around the globe

The reason they only grow in certain places is because they need certain conditions to form

Conditions needed for them to form

-Has to be a solid surface for them to form on

-No sea temperature lower than 18C

-Grow best where sea temperature is 22-25c

-Need oxygen and food from wave action (too calm and they will not grow)

-Need clean, clear water to live in (not too much sediment)

-Grow best in areas of high salinity

-Like to be in shallow water up to about 30 metres deep ( best down to 10m)

Coral Reef Formation

Coral reefs are often found in three different patterns around the world.

Coastal management

Due to the fact that coastlines are eroding away. Sometimes we need to manage the coastline. This means trying to protect areas of coast from erosion, so that our property is kept safe.

Coastal defences are placed between the sea and the cliffs/land

They either

a) Absorb wave energy  (like your rubber soles on your trainers do when you jump onto a hard surface!)

b) Deflect wave energy  (like you would do to someone’s hand if they tried to hit you!)

What would be the most logical way to protect an eroding cliff from erosion?

There are several ways of protecting the coastline, and these are known as coastal management schemes.

Look at the table below to remind yourself of each type, how it works, its advantages and disadvantages.

Sometimes coastlines are left to erode rather than using coastal management methods. This is often in cases where there is not anything on the land that is being eroded which is economically worth protecting.

Holderness Coast – Coastal erosion and management case study

The Holderness Coast is one of the fastest eroding coastlines in Europe.  It can be found in the North East of England.

Click on the following link to download a virtual field trip through the Holderness Coast and a worksheet to fill in, to find out why it is eroding, the impacts of erosion and the management which is being used.

A virtual case study- Holderness Coast – Virtual Field Trip

The Holderness Coast – Worksheet

Hazards at the coast- Tropical Storms

Hurricanes/ Typhoons/ Cyclones are all the same thing!

They are severe tropical storms which rotate around an “eye”. They have winds of above 74 miles per hour.

Case study: Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans, 2005

Click on the two links below to be directed to a website on the impacts of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans in the USA in 2005

Case Study of Hurricane Katrina Impacts

BBC Bitesize: Case Study of Hurricane Katrina Impacts

Take some notes as you read from the websites to make your own case study card!

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thanks for the wonderful insights. keep up the good work.

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PERM, H-1B and Prevailing Wage Case Processing Statistics from the Department of Labor (FY2015 Q1)

The Department of Labor has provided some updates for the first quarter of the Fiscal Year 2015 (October 1, 2014 to December 31, 2014) on their processing of PERM, H-1B LCA and prevailing wage determination cases and we are happy to share them with our clients and readers.

DOL Processing Statistics (First Quarter, 2015 Fiscal Year)

According to the PERM case report , during the quarter, there were 23,133 new cases received (an increase of 7% from the prior quarter and a significant 31% increase compared to the same period of the previous year ), 16,192 certified (slight increase over the previous quarters), 1,322 denied (increase, but in proportion of the rate of new filings) and 1,104 withdrawn (about the same as the prior quarter).

There are 64,810 applications pending as of December 31, 2014 which is about 8% increase in the pending case load.   Out of these cases, approximately 60% are in analyst review stage (no change to prior quarter), 30% under audit review (no change) and 8% on appeal (slight decrease.)

Prevailing Wage Determinations

The prevailing wage report provides some detailed breakdown of the rate of filings in addition to details about top employers, top occupations and top areas.   During the first quarter, there were approximately 38,000 prevailing wage determination requests filed — of those, 29,870 were for PERM cases ( increase of 27% compared to prior year’s period), 1,476 were for H-1B cases (increase of 5%) and 6,334 were for H-2B cases (increase of 38%).     In terms of activity, 31,946 prevailing wage determinations were issued during the first quarter and the pending load has increased from 14,619 during the prior quarter to 18,282 in the first quarter of FY2015.

The H-1B/LCA report also provides a breakdown in the rate of filings, in addition to some details about the top LCA filers and the top positions and geographic areas.    Since this quarter fell entirely outside of the H-1B cap filing season, the number of LCA filings is lower compared to other quarters during the year, and especially Q2 of 2014.  Even then, there were 80,520  H-1B LCA filings in the first quarter, noting a decrease of about 13% compared to the prior quarter.   During the quarter, there were 77,691 LCAs certified for 169,282 positions (one LCA can include more than 1 position).

According to DOL, 100% of the LCAs are processed timely within seven days of receipt.     The rate of LCA denial is fairly low (1,761 out of 89,367 determinations) and the main reasons remain (1) FEIN mismatch or failure to verify before LCA filing  or (2) prevailing wage tracking number issues.

The first quarter of the FY2015 shows a significant increase in the number of DOL filings in a number of categories.  Perhaps most notable is the increase in PERM filings – 31% increase over the prior year and 7% increase over the prior quarter.   Similarly, the PERM prevailing wage requests rose by 27% over the prior year period, signaling continued strong rate of upcoming PERM filings.   Thus, in turn, is likely to translate increase in the PERM case processing times.    We are hopeful that DOL would continue to work on decreasing its load and processing times, especially for the PERM cases (see the most recent PERM processing times report ).

We will continue monitoring DOL processing metrics and report any notable developments and trends.      Please visit us again, contact us, or subscribe to our free weekly newsletter to ensure that you obtain this and related immigration-related news and announcements.

About the Author: Dimo Michailov

Related News and Articles

• PERM Labor Certification Overview and Processing Times
• October 2023 Government Shutdown and Immigration: (How) Will It Affect Me?
• Premium Processing Requests on Form I-907: Eligible Petitions, Fees, and Processing Times
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The Capitol Immigration Law Group has been serving the business community for over 15 years and is one of the most widely respected immigration law firms focused solely on U.S. employment-based immigration.   Disclaimer:  we make all efforts to provide timely and accurate information; however, the information in this article may become outdated or may not be applicable to a specific set of facts.  It is not to be construed as legal advice.

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Coastal Management Case Study: Swanage

Example of a coastline in the uk – swanage, dorset.

Swanage is located on the south coast of England. Swanage is on a stretch of coastline known as the Jurassic Coast.

The coastline of Swanage

• A discordant coastline is made up of lots of different types of rock.
• The discordant coastline has led to the formation of bays and headlands.

Rocks that form the coastline

• Bands of hard rock (e.g. chalk).
• Soft clays.

Swanage Bay

• Swanage Bay is a sandy beach.
• Swanage Bay has formed in a sheltered bay.

Ballard Point

• Ballard Point is an example of a headland near Swanage.
• Ballard Point was created by a band of chalk in the coastline.
• The well-known Old Harry stack, cliffs and arches are found at the end of Ballard Point.

1 The Challenge of Natural Hazards

1.1 Natural Hazards

1.1.1 Types of Natural Hazards

1.1.2 Hazard Risk

1.1.3 Consequences of Natural Hazards

1.1.4 End of Topic Test - Natural Hazards

1.1.5 Exam-Style Questions - Natural Hazards

1.2 Tectonic Hazards

1.2.1 Tectonic Plates

1.2.2 Tectonic Plates & Convection Currents

1.2.3 Plate Margins

1.2.4 Volcanoes

1.2.5 Effects of Volcanoes

1.2.6 Responses to Volcanic Eruptions

1.2.7 Earthquakes

1.2.8 Earthquakes 2

1.2.9 Responses to Earthquakes

1.2.10 Case Studies: The L'Aquila & Kashmir Earthquakes

1.2.11 Earthquake Case Study: Chile 2010

1.2.12 Earthquake Case Study: Nepal 2015

1.2.13 Living with Tectonic Hazards 1

1.2.14 Living with Tectonic Hazards 2

1.2.15 End of Topic Test - Tectonic Hazards

1.2.16 Exam-Style Questions - Tectonic Hazards

1.2.17 Tectonic Hazards - Statistical Skills

1.3 Weather Hazards

1.3.1 Global Atmospheric Circulation

1.3.2 Surface Winds

1.3.3 UK Weather Hazards

1.3.4 Tropical Storms

1.3.5 Features of Tropical Storms

1.3.6 Impact of Tropical Storms 1

1.3.7 Impact of Tropical Storms 2

1.3.8 Tropical Storms Case Study: Katrina

1.3.9 Tropical Storms Case Study: Haiyan

1.3.10 UK Weather Hazards Case Study: Somerset 2014

1.3.11 End of Topic Test - Weather Hazards

1.3.12 Exam-Style Questions - Weather Hazards

1.3.13 Weather Hazards - Statistical Skills

1.4 Climate Change

1.4.1 Evidence for Climate Change

1.4.2 Causes of Climate Change

1.4.3 Effects of Climate Change

1.4.4 Managing Climate Change

1.4.5 End of Topic Test - Climate Change

1.4.6 Exam-Style Questions - Climate Change

1.4.7 Climate Change - Statistical Skills

2 The Living World

2.1 Ecosystems

2.1.1 Ecosystems

2.1.2 Ecosystem Cascades & Global Ecosystems

2.1.3 Ecosystem Case Study: Freshwater Ponds

2.2 Tropical Rainforests

2.2.1 Tropical Rainforests - Intro & Interdependence

2.2.2 Adaptations

2.2.3 Biodiversity of Tropical Rainforests

2.2.4 Deforestation

2.2.5 Case Study: Deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest

2.2.6 Sustainable Management of Rainforests

2.2.7 Case Study: Malaysian Rainforest

2.2.8 End of Topic Test - Tropical Rainforests

2.2.9 Exam-Style Questions - Tropical Rainforests

2.2.10 Deforestation - Statistical Skills

2.3 Hot Deserts

2.3.1 Overview of Hot Deserts

2.3.2 Biodiversity & Adaptation to Hot Deserts

2.3.3 Case Study: Sahara Desert

2.3.4 Desertification

2.3.5 Case Study: Thar Desert

2.3.6 End of Topic Test - Hot Deserts

2.3.7 Exam-Style Questions - Hot Deserts

2.4 Tundra & Polar Environments

2.4.1 Overview of Cold Environments

2.4.2 Adaptations in Cold Environments

2.4.3 Biodiversity in Cold Environments

2.4.4 Case Study: Alaska

2.4.5 Sustainable Management

2.4.6 Case Study: Svalbard

2.4.7 End of Topic Test - Tundra & Polar Environments

2.4.8 Exam-Style Questions - Cold Environments

3 Physical Landscapes in the UK

3.1 The UK Physical Landscape

3.1.1 The UK Physical Landscape

3.2 Coastal Landscapes in the UK

3.2.1 Types of Wave

3.2.2 Weathering & Mass Movement

3.2.3 Processes of Erosion & Wave-Cut Platforms

3.2.4 Headlands, Bays, Caves, Arches & Stacks

3.2.5 Transportation

3.2.6 Deposition

3.2.7 Spits, Bars & Sand Dunes

3.2.8 Case Study: Landforms on the Dorset Coast

3.2.9 Types of Coastal Management 1

3.2.10 Types of Coastal Management 2

3.2.11 Coastal Management Case Study - Holderness

3.2.12 Coastal Management Case Study: Swanage

3.2.13 Coastal Management Case Study - Lyme Regis

3.2.14 End of Topic Test - Coastal Landscapes in the UK

3.2.15 Exam-Style Questions - Coasts

3.3 River Landscapes in the UK

3.3.1 The River Valley

3.3.2 River Valley Case Study - River Tees

3.3.3 Erosion

3.3.4 Transportation & Deposition

3.3.5 Waterfalls, Gorges & Interlocking Spurs

3.3.6 Meanders & Oxbow Lakes

3.3.7 Floodplains & Levees

3.3.8 Estuaries

3.3.9 Case Study: The River Clyde

3.3.10 River Management

3.3.11 Hard & Soft Flood Defences

3.3.12 River Management Case Study - Boscastle

3.3.13 River Management Case Study - Banbury

3.3.14 End of Topic Test - River Landscapes in the UK

3.3.15 Exam-Style Questions - Rivers

3.4 Glacial Landscapes in the UK

3.4.1 Erosion

3.4.2 Landforms Caused by Erosion

3.4.3 Landforms Caused by Transportation & Deposition

3.4.4 Snowdonia

3.4.5 Land Use in Glaciated Areas

3.4.6 Tourism in Glacial Landscapes

3.4.7 Case Study - Lake District

3.4.8 End of Topic Test - Glacial Landscapes in the UK

3.4.9 Exam-Style Questions - Glacial Landscapes

4 Urban Issues & Challenges

4.1 Urban Issues & Challenges

4.1.1 Urbanisation

4.1.2 Urbanisation Case Study: Lagos

4.1.3 Urbanisation Case Study: Rio de Janeiro

4.1.4 UK Cities

4.1.5 Case Study: Urban Regen Projects - Manchester

4.1.6 Case Study: Urban Change in Liverpool

4.1.7 Case Study: Urban Change in Bristol

4.1.8 Sustainable Urban Life

4.1.9 End of Topic Test - Urban Issues & Challenges

4.1.10 Exam-Style Questions - Urban Issues & Challenges

4.1.11 Urban Issues -Statistical Skills

5 The Changing Economic World

5.1 The Changing Economic World

5.1.1 Measuring Development

5.1.2 Classifying Countries Based on Wealth

5.1.3 The Demographic Transition Model

5.1.4 Physical & Historical Causes of Uneven Development

5.1.5 Economic Causes of Uneven Development

5.1.6 How Can We Reduce the Global Development Gap?

5.1.7 Case Study: Tourism in Kenya

5.1.8 Case Study: Tourism in Jamaica

5.1.9 Case Study: Economic Development in India

5.1.10 Case Study: Aid & Development in India

5.1.11 Case Study: Economic Development in Nigeria

5.1.12 Case Study: Aid & Development in Nigeria

5.1.13 Economic Development in the UK

5.1.14 Economic Development UK: Industry & Rural

5.1.15 Economic Development UK: Transport & North-South

5.1.16 Economic Development UK: Regional & Global

5.1.17 End of Topic Test - The Changing Economic World

5.1.18 Exam-Style Questions - The Changing Economic World

5.1.19 Changing Economic World - Statistical Skills

6 The Challenge of Resource Management

6.1 Resource Management

6.1.1 Global Distribution of Resources

6.1.2 Food in the UK

6.1.3 Water in the UK 1

6.1.4 Water in the UK 2

6.1.5 Energy in the UK

6.1.6 Resource Management - Statistical Skills

6.2.1 Areas of Food Surplus & Food Deficit

6.2.2 Food Supply & Food Insecurity

6.2.3 Increasing Food Supply

6.2.4 Case Study: Thanet Earth

6.2.5 Creating a Sustainable Food Supply

6.2.6 Case Study: Agroforestry in Mali

6.2.7 End of Topic Test - Food

6.2.8 Exam-Style Questions - Food

6.2.9 Food - Statistical Skills

6.3.1 The Global Demand for Water

6.3.2 What Affects the Availability of Water?

6.3.3 Increasing Water Supplies

6.3.4 Case Study: Water Transfer in China

6.3.5 Sustainable Water Supply

6.3.6 Case Study: Kenya's Sand Dams

6.3.7 Case Study: Lesotho Highland Water Project

6.3.8 Case Study: Wakel River Basin Project

6.3.9 Exam-Style Questions - Water

6.3.10 Water - Statistical Skills

6.4.1 Global Demand for Energy

6.4.2 Factors Affecting Energy Supply

6.4.3 Increasing Energy Supply: Renewables

6.4.4 Increasing Energy Supply: Non-Renewables

6.4.5 Carbon Footprints & Energy Conservation

6.4.6 Case Study: Rice Husks in Bihar

6.4.7 Exam-Style Questions - Energy

6.4.8 Energy - Statistical Skills

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Coastal Management Case Study - Holderness

Coastal Management Case Study - Lyme Regis

Identification of the Educational Clusters in the Regional Economy: Theory, Methodology and Research...

Kovaleva T.Yu., Baleevskih V.G.

Science and Education Publishing

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Identification of the Educational Clusters in the Regional Economy: Theory, Methodology and Research Results (in Example of Perm Krai)

1 Department of Worldand Regional Economics, Economic Theory, Perm State University, Perm, Russia

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1. Introduction

2. theoretical background, 3. methodology, 4. research results, 5. conclusion.

Article provides an algorithm and defined criteria for the identification of educational clusters in the regional economy, adapted to the Russian reality. Identification of the leading industries as promising regional educational clusters in the economy of Perm Krai conducted on the basis of quantitative Shift-Share analysis and the calculation of the localization coefficient. Statistical base of the research were materials of the central statistical database of the Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation for 2007-2012 years by employment indicators. Qualitative diagnosis of educational clusters allowed to establish the shape and direction of development of strategic partnership in the educational system in the region, to identify the factors of competition. As a result, by applying a set of quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis of cluster, authors found that in the economy of Perm Krai has four potential educational clusters to be formed, the development of which should be a priority of educational policy in the region.

At a glance: Figures

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Keywords: educational cluster, Shift-Share analysis, localization, expert interviews, regional economy, cluster policy

International Journal of Econometrics and Financial Management , 2014 2 (4), pp 153-162. DOI: 10.12691/ijefm-2-4-7

Received July 27, 2014; Revised August 12, 2014; Accepted August 25, 2014

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• T.Yu., Kovaleva, and Baleevskih V.G.. "Identification of the Educational Clusters in the Regional Economy: Theory, Methodology and Research Results (in Example of Perm Krai)." International Journal of Econometrics and Financial Management 2.4 (2014): 153-162.
• T.Yu., K. , & V.G., B. (2014). Identification of the Educational Clusters in the Regional Economy: Theory, Methodology and Research Results (in Example of Perm Krai). International Journal of Econometrics and Financial Management , 2 (4), 153-162.
• T.Yu., Kovaleva, and Baleevskih V.G.. "Identification of the Educational Clusters in the Regional Economy: Theory, Methodology and Research Results (in Example of Perm Krai)." International Journal of Econometrics and Financial Management 2, no. 4 (2014): 153-162.

In modern conditions, socio-economic space in many Russian regions increasingly acquires the cluster features. In most regions, the cluster approach is declared as one of the basic conditions for effective public policies, and clusters play the role of tools for increasing the competitiveness of regional economies, ensuring the formation of centers of attraction of investment and innovative activity.

Effective cluster structures can be a tool to address urgent social and economic problems [ Social'no orientirovannyj klaster kak faktor ustojchivogo razvitija regiona [The social focused cluster as a factor of a sustainable development of the region]. Avtoreferat dissertacii na soiskanie uchenoj stepeni kandidata jekonomicheskih nauk [The thesis abstract of a scientific degree of Doctor of Economics]. Perm State National Research University, 2011. 29 p.">10 , Ispol'zovanie klasternogo podhoda v modernizacii jekonomicheskogo prostranstva Rossiskoj Federacii [Cluster approach to the modernization of economic space in Russian Federation]. Ekaterinburg. Institute of Economics, Ural branch RAS, 2013. 559 p.">15 ] . For example, today is particularly acute decline in the quality of educational services; there is a reduction in the proportion of people with higher and specialized secondary education, particularly in rural areas, compounded by disparities in the structure of demand for education. The pre-school education in many Russian regions in a deep crisis. In this regard, the important issue is the formation of educational clusters, the operation of which will be aimed at the intensive solution of these problems in order to ensure sustainable socio-economic development of the territories.

The founder of the cluster theory is fairly considered Michael Porter, a professor at Harvard Business School. M. Porter defines a cluster as ‘a geographically concentrated groups of interconnected companies, specialized suppliers, service providers, firms in related industries, as well as associated with their activities organizations (e.g., universities, agencies, standardization, trade associations) in certain areas, competing but at the same time working together’ [ 13 ] .

Cluster boundaries may vary. This is due to the fact that there are new businesses and industries emerge, the existing industries are narrowing as well as there are various kinds of new organizations. Clusters operate without creating any new actors. Under these conditions, a huge role in the successful operation of the cluster becomes arranges relationship between the parties and informal communication, trust between the cluster members. Due to the lack of red tape in a cluster this form of organization is more flexible and agile than other forms of business [ 5 ] . The flexibility and mobility of this structure can be regarded as a significant advantage in terms of the modern economy.

According to S. Rosenfeld, a cluster is a concentration of firms able to achieve synergies in view of their close geographic location and interdependence, even though the scale of presence in the area is not enough [ 14 ] . T. Roelandt and P. den Hertag write that ‘clusters can be described as a network of actively interacting companies (including specialized suppliers), interconnected by relationships within the value chain’ [ 7 ] . According to the approach of B. Elsner, a cluster is a group of firms that are functionally related to the market both vertically and horizontally [ 4 ] . These definitions indicate the features of clusters: geographic location, industry specialization, a combination of institutions of competition and cooperation of organizations in the cluster.

The basic typology of clusters in the economy can be regarded as: production (industrial) clusters and clusters of services. Cluster of service sector is ‘a group of independent companies that are in geographical proximity within the region who compete, cooperate and interact with each other, providing both local consumers and consumers from other regions, a range of services to meet their needs in a particular area’ [ [ 11 ] , p. 36]. The main feature of the cluster in service sector compared to industrial cluster is that its member companies, within a single value chain, at the same time realize the ultimate service completely independently. This feature determines the specificity of the services value chain in this type of cluster, where each link of the chain is a separate service, but may be supplemented by another service, resulting in the consumer receiving more than one service, and a range of services in one area.

Recently, the educational clusters became especially highlighted among the clusters of service sector, the development of which is capable of providing innovative reproduction of human capital of the country and regions, the relationship of the educational system and the modern labor market, the creation of preconditions for structural modernization of the educational sector.

The foreign and domestic economic literature show no consensus on the interpretation of the educational cluster. According to the representation R. Culatta, educational cluster should be innovative and represent a group of related educational, research and business organizations, aimed at the production and implementation of innovations, and their promotion on the local and global markets [ 3 ] . The model of educational innovation cluster of R. Culatta includes three key players: educational institutions, scientific research organizations and businesses. Educational institutions provide the formation of intellectual retrieval environment in which the favorable conditions for the development of new ideas, technology and products by teachers and students, as well as innovation in the learning process are created. It is separately emphasized that educational partners have a real opportunity to test the promising developments in pilot innovative projects. Research organizations, in cooperation with business partners and educational institutions carry out basic and applied research, conduct an examination of the scientific and technical projects developed in the cluster, and develop effective learning technologies to improve the effectiveness of research activities in the educational system. Commercial partners are there to commercialize innovations, conduct applied research for educational institutions. They can also fund a research project to invest in innovative enterprises established in the cluster.

R. Tieman believes that the educational cluster is a system of inter-related universities, specialized schools and research organizations, which allows cluster members to combine their efforts and resources to promote educational services in the global market [ 16 ] .

In contrast to the approach of foreign researchers, Russian authors consider educational clusters as structures oriented at improving the effectiveness of training and development of human capital, on the convergence of the educational process with innovative and entrepreneurial activities. For example, N.A. Korchagina understands educational cluster as only ‘a group of educational institutions, which are localized in the same area, forming the final product as an educational service, competing and cooperating with each other and with suppliers around the necessary factors of production, equipment, specialized services, infrastructure, research institutes, with this reinforcing the competitive advantages of each other’ [ 8 ] . M.V. Zhuravleva defines educational cluster as a set of interrelated institutions of professional education, combined according to different sectors and related partnerships with companies in the sector [ 18 ] . According to V.M. Yuryev and M.S. Chvanova, innovative educational cluster is an association of institutions of higher education and enterprises a particular industry for training and conducting a practice oriented research for the industry [ 17 ] .

These interpretations indicate the formation of clusters in modern economics of an integrated approach to the study of clusters as tools for territorial development, which are not only universal, but holding the integrating nature, is to solve the complex problems of improving the competitiveness of the economy, modernizing the educational system, the transition to an innovative model of development.

In modern scientific literature, special attention is paid to the study of natural clusters as particular forms of inter-organizational interaction of economic agents, penetrating the various levels of the economic hierarchy. However, the problem of identifying promising cluster formations remains open to discussions of academic economists. In this regard, the urgency and relevance of forming a complex algorithm of cluster analysis is defined by the increasing role of clusters in promoting regional economic space.

Since the formation of the cluster mechanisms of economic development is related to a number of factors, which are often quite difficult to formalize, a priority in most countries are in qualitative methods of evaluation of clusters that are supported by quantitative analysis. However, the current statistical base, both Russian and foreign, allows to create and implement a system of quantitative methods of cluster analysis, providing identification of important empirical regularities of formation and functioning of clusters in the economy, which cannot be diagnosed using qualitative approaches, as widespread [ 9 ] .

The experience of studying clusters shows that the original cluster analysis algorithm is based on a synthesis of the two most frequently used techniques of evaluations with quantitative basis: identification of clusters by estimating the degree of localization (i.e. localization coefficient) and evaluation of the regional contribution of the sector to the economy (i.e. Shift-Share Analysis).

The estimate of the localization coefficient, allowing to compare regional and national economic characteristics (variables), such as employment, gross value added, investment, etc., and to identify the specialization area, is done according to the formula:

with l i – employment in the i sector in the region; L i – employment in the i sector in the country; l and L – total employment in the region and country respectively.

Interpretation of the calculated values is given in the article for the employment figures.

If the value of LQ greater than 1, then the concentration of the industry in the region is higher than in the country as a whole, hence the industry might have cluster features. According to the approach of M. Porter, which is shared by the authors of this article, LQ , exceeding 0.8 also demonstrates the high potential of the industry cluster.

Method of assessing structural shifts (Shift-Share Analysis) enables to identify the leading industry, the causes and trends of the cluster structure of the spatial economy. This is done by evaluation of the contribution of the national, sectoral and regional factors in the change in the value of the analyzed variable (e.g. employment, labor productivity, gross value added, etc.) [ 1 ] .

Assessing the impact of the national factor (NS), for example, the growth of national employment, on the key indicators of regional economic development is done according to the formula:

with l i t-1 – employment in the i sector in the region in the period (t-1) ; L t-1 and L t – total employment in the country during the periods (t-1) and t respectively.

Industry factor ( IM ) is estimated by determining the contribution of national growth rates of the analyzed variable in industry to change industry benchmarks in the region:

with L i t-1 and L i t – number of people employed in the i sector in the country during the period (t-1) and t .

Industry factor that secures national industry trends impact on the dynamics of the industry in the region reflects the quality of the industry structure of the regional economy in the analyzed variable, as IM can take both positive and negative values.

Regional factor (RS), as a key indicator of the quantitative identification of clusters, allows setting the leading and lagging sectors in the economy of the region by the criteria of the relative competitiveness: a comparison of growth rates of variable to be analyzed for the industry in the country and the region. It is calculated by the formula:

The industry characterized by high values of the index RS has considerable cluster potential. Industries with consistently negative values of the regional factor are outsiders of the economy.

Finding the general growth of the variable with the influence of national, sectoral and regional factors is performed as follows:

In order to isolate the leading economic activities that are able to create the core of the cluster, it is advisable to use the approach to classification of regional industry leaders on the ratio of the RS and IM ( Table 1 ).

Table 1. Typology of industries by the ratio of the RS and IM

The first and second types of industries are among the regional leaders. It is obvious that the sector of the first type has the greatest potential for clusters’ formation; industries of the second type are also able to form the core of the cluster. Industries of the third type, to a lesser extent have the ability to form the nucleus of the cluster, as regional conditions of growth do not contribute as much as hinder their development. However, it is possible that the implementation of an enabling economic policies will ensure their transformation into the first or second type of industry leaders.

It should be emphasized that Russia’s statistical base, formed according to the industries or by types of economic activity, allows to fully use the identification of clusters by the methods of evaluating LQ and Shift-Share analysis, widely used abroad. Application of such quantitative methods as ‘input-output’ tables is impossible in Russia to date because national and regional statistical offices for a long time do not constitute cross-sectoral balances.

For the analysis of quantitative research results, it is advisable to take the following criteria for classifying industries (i.e. forms of economic activities) to the number of the key components of the clusters shown in Table 2 .

Table 2. Criteria for classifying types of activities among the key components of clusters

The results of quantitative methods to identify clusters should be supplemented by qualitative assessments, particularly among which are expert surveys. The method of expert estimates is universal, applicable for various purposes, and can be used to identify regional economic clusters. In this case, the conclusions obtained on the basis of intuitive features are based on knowledge and experience of experts. Figure 1 summarizes the algorithm for identifying regional clusters, which has been developed and tested to identify educational clusters in the economy of the Perm Krai.

Table 3. The localization coefficient in terms of average number of employees for the ‘Education’ type of economic activity in the Perm Krai

According to the presented algorithm in Figure 1, the identification of educational clusters starts with quantitative methods. To estimate the LQ and structural changes the statistical data on the employment of the Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation in 2007-2012 was used. Table 3 shows the results of calculations of the localization coefficient for the type of economic activity ‘Education’ and its subtypes (subclasses) in terms of average number of employees (excluding external and part-time employment).

Value of LQ indicates the high potential of the cluster of education in Perm Krai. Leaders in this indicator are pre-school, primary and secondary professional education. The average value of LQ greater than 0.9 have schools, additional education for children and education for adults. Only the sphere of higher education is characterized by the LQ less than 0.8.

Using the method of structural changes, we estimate the impact of national, sectoral and regional contribution to the change in the average number of employees for each subtype of ‘Education’ activities in the Perm Krai (see Table 4 ).

According to Table 4 , it can be concluded that negative structural trends during the period have amplified in the field of education in the region, which has reduced the cluster potential of the industry. In particular, in 2012, employment in the areas of pre-school and school education, additional education for children, primary and secondary professional education and adult education has decreased mainly due to the impact of the regional component (RS). Minimal negative impact of structural changes seen in the field of higher education of the Perm Krai: the regional factor takes positive values in 2008-2010. However, in 2011 and 2012 RS is negative, which can be associated with both the effects of the economic crisis and with the ongoing reforms in the Russian sphere of education.

Table 5 provides a typology of subtypes of ‘Education’ activities by the ratio of regional and industrial components for the economy of the Perm Krai.

As evident from the matrix of RS and IM, no sphere of education of the Perm Krai can be regarded as a regional leader. In particular, for the 2007-2012 period the matrix of ‘industry type’ identified negative trends in the sectors of higher and professional education, pre-school education and adult education. The results indicate the need to improve regional conditions for the development of education in the Perm Krai, and provides a reasonable basis for the development and implementation of the state cluster policy.

It should be emphasized that the cluster projects initiated by the regional authorities should be considered as indicators of cluster development in the respective territory. The practical value of such initiatives is that regional authorities, interested in the development of clusters, provide a framework for cooperation and long-term cooperation of economic actors – educational institutions, businesses, research organizations, financial institutions and others.

Table 4. The influence of the national contribution (NS), the contribution of the industry (IM) and the regional input (RS) on the change in the average number of employees (excluding external and part-time employment) in ‘Education’ in the Perm Krai

Table 5. changes in the type of industries to the ratio of the rs, and im for subtypes of 'education' activities in the economy of the perm krai in 2007-2012.

As for the Perm Krai, today the region has received considerable attention in the formation of the cluster projects. For example, regional authorities, together with the Perm Chamber of Commerce (hereinafter - PCC) use cluster tools to support the development of secondary and higher professional education: in the Perm Krai since May 2013 is accepted a Regulation on professional education cluster [ 12 ] . Currently, in the Perm Krai, with the support of regional authorities and PCC created an agro-educational cluster, the work is ongoing to form a professional education cluster in the engineering industry. The authors also see the prospect of creating a regional construction and petrochemical professional education clusters. Generalization of the research results of quantitative methods to identify educational clusters is shown in Table 6 , which is based on the criteria presented in Table 2 .

Table 6. Summary results of a quantitative identification of clusters in terms of employment in the Perm Krai for the period 2007-2012

It should be noted that none of the subtypes of ‘Education’ activity meets all three criteria simultaneously. However, given the fact that the educational clusters of Perm Krai is in its infancy and the regional authorities are interested in their development, a number of key components of the cluster include activities that meet the requirements of at least one of the criteria. Thus, the generalization of the findings based on the application of quantitative methods in combination, suggests the formation of four educational clusters in the Perm Krai: 1) a cluster of pre-school education; 2) a cluster of schools; 3) a cluster of additional education of children; 4) a cluster of professional education and training.

To determine the cluster potential of the regional economy and to identify the nature and closeness of interaction between participants in the cluster, we performed a survey of experts, which was attended by over 30 experts. Figure 2 shows the distribution of experts by occupational activities.

The experts were asked to assess the key factors in the development of education in the Perm Krai on a scale of 0 to 4, where 0 - insignificant factor, and 4 - a highly significant factor. The results of expert evaluations are presented in Figure 3.

As seen in Figure 3, all factors are important above average. However, the factor of the ‘development of a competitive environment in the field of education’ has the lowest weight, according to experts.

Figure 4 shows the expert evaluation of the level of development of the main areas of education in Perm Krai. According to the survey, the highest averages have school and higher professional education.

The following two questions were directed to the study of competition in the field of education in the region as one of the key factors in the development of cluster structures.

First, the experts were asked to assess the intensity of competition in the field of education (a score of 0 was put in case of no competition, while a score of 4 indicates intense competition). Then, the experts were asked to rate the factors that make up the competitiveness of educational services (0 - lack of contribution to competitiveness, 4 - high contribution to competitiveness). Processed results of expert opinion demonstrated in Figure 5 and Figure 6.

As can be seen from Figure 5, the highest intensity of competition develops in the field of higher education (the deviation from the mean value of 30.5%). The lowest intensity of competition, according to experts, has developed in the field of professional education (deviation from the average - 3%).

Figure 6 illustrates the experts’ opinion that the competitiveness of the educational services of all four levels of education have the greatest impact by two factors: the quality of services and highly qualified personnel (these factors have the highest average value).

Evaluation of the relevance and completeness of cooperation between educational institutions, the horizontal and vertical forms of cooperation between the subjects of clusters are shown in Figure 7. Evaluation scale remains the same: 0 - lack of relevance and cooperation, 4 - very high level of importance and cooperation.

Figure 7 shows that the assessment of the importance of all levels of interaction is significantly higher than the estimate of completeness, highlighting the need for the development and implementation of cluster policy in the region, aimed at the development of forms and mechanisms of cooperation, without which the successful functioning of educational clusters is impossible.

Further analyzed the forms of cooperation among the potential participants of educational clusters. Figure 8 shows the expert evaluation of the relevance and completeness of cooperation in the context of its basic forms between professional educational institutions of the same level.

Figure 8 shows that all forms of interactions between single-level educational institutions are weak. With the high importance of such forms as co-financing educational projects and activities, joint lobbying in government, the organization of joint training courses for teachers, they are currently the least developed.

Figure 9 shows the expert evaluation of the relevance and completeness of cooperation in the context of the main forms of cooperation between educational institutions of different levels, present in Perm Krai.

The Figure 9 suggests that, according to experts, regarding the cluster development a considerable attention should be given to joint research projects, especially between ‘school-college’ and ‘university-colleges’, and professional development of teachers and teachers of educational institutions. Based on the results of qualitative research in the future it is advisable to determine the strategic imperatives of regional policy on the formation of educational clusters in the Perm Krai.

The application of quantitative methods of identification revealed four potential educational clusters in the economy of Perm Krai: educational cluster of pre-school education, educational cluster of schools, educational cluster of supplementary education for children and educational cluster of professional education and training.

Using the method of expert estimations (i.e. the Delphi method), has allowed to establish forms of interaction between the participants of educational clusters, as well as identify areas of cooperation between them. Assessment of the importance of all levels of interaction between educational institutions, according to experts, is significantly higher than the fullness of interaction. It is worth noting a rather high general level of development of the educational system in the Perm Krai.

Synthesis of the results of quantitative and qualitative methods of detection and diagnosis of educational clusters suggests the need for a comprehensive policy for cluster development in Perm Krai. Today, the regional authorities of the Perm Krai have initiated a project to create a cluster of agro-educational and professional education cluster in the engineering industry, which indicates the importance of the cluster structures in the development of the educational system in the region. Given the industrial structure of the economy of the Perm Krai, the positive effect can bring the formation of the construction and petrochemical educational clusters.

Establishment and operation of educational clusters enhances the competitiveness of the educational system in the region by strengthening the integration between education, research, innovation organizations, enterprises, institutions of public education governance, financial, consulting, and other structures.

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Coastal Ecosystems

Edexcel iGCSE > Coastal Environments > Coastal Ecosystems

Many different coastal ecosystems exist, including coral reefs, mangroves, sand dunes and salt marshes.

Coral Reefs

A coral reef

These underwater ecosystems are concentrated in the tropics, typically in warm, shallow waters with plenty of sunlight for photosynthesis. Coral requires sea surface temperatures of 17-33°C to grow. It also requires 30-38 parts per thousand salinity and clear water. They’re mainly located in the Indo-Pacific region and the Caribbean Sea. These vibrant ecosystems are teeming with various marine life and are known for their high biodiversity. Around 25% of the world’s sea fish spawn, grow and breed in coral reefs. Reefs comprise coral polyps that secrete calcium carbonate, forming hard structures that provide habitats for numerous species.

Mangrove forest in Puerto Rico

Mangroves are saltwater-tolerant forests that grow in tidal estuaries and muddy, tropical coastlines. These are typically found in tropical and subtropical tidal areas and require sea surface temperatures of over 24°C in the warmest months and annual rainfall of over 1250mm. Countries with the largest mangrove areas include Indonesia, Brazil, and Australia. Mangroves are trees or shrubs that grow in coastal saline or brackish water. They have specialized roots, called pneumatophores, which help them to cope with oxygen-poor muddy soil and frequent inundations. They provide crucial habitat for many species and protect the coastlines from erosion and storm surges.

Sand dunes at Harlech in North Wales

Sand dunes are found in many coastal areas worldwide, often forming due to wind deposition . These dynamic systems are vital to the coastal environment, acting as natural barriers to sea level rise and storm surge. Their vegetation, adapted to sandy, nutrient-poor conditions, helps to stabilise the dune structure. Vegetation that dominates sand dunes is typically halophytic (salt-tolerant) and xerophytic (drought-resistant).

How do sand dunes change with distance from the beach?

Salt marsh at Spurn Point, Holderness Coast

Salt marshes are productive, fertile ecosystems. These coastal wetlands are found on every continent except Antarctica, primarily in temperate regions. They form in upper coastal intertidal zones between land and open saltwater, such as behind a spit or in tidal river estuaries that are flooded regularly by the tides. They form in coastal areas with high oxygen levels, significant nutrient content, and light availability. Salt marshes are characterised by grasses and other plants adapted to saline conditions. They serve as important habitats for many species, act as natural water filters, and provide a buffer against coastal storms and sea-level rise. Salt marsh vegetation is halophytic (salt-tolerant) and typically has deep roots to anchor the plant in the mud.

Coral Reefs: Found in warm, shallow tropical waters, particularly in the Indo-Pacific region and the Caribbean Sea, teeming with marine life due to high biodiversity.

Mangroves: Saltwater-tolerant forests in tidal estuaries and muddy, tropical coastlines, notably in Indonesia, Brazil, and Australia, providing habitat for many species and protecting coasts from erosion.

Sand Dunes: Found in various coastal areas worldwide, acting as natural barriers to sea level rise and storm surge, with vegetation adapted to sandy, nutrient-poor conditions.

Salt Marshes: Coastal wetlands present mainly in temperate regions, serving as habitats for many species, natural water filters, and buffers against coastal storms and sea-level rise.

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