essay about memory loss

139 Memory Research Topics & Essay Examples

Memory is a fascinating brain function. Together with abstract thinking and empathy, memory is the thing that makes us human.

❓ Memory Research Questions

🏆 best memory topic ideas & essay examples, 💭 exciting memory research topics, 💫 interesting memory topics for essays, 👍 research topics about memory in psychology, 🕑 learning & memory research topics.

In your essay about memory, you might want to compare its short-term and long-term types. Another idea is to discuss the phenomenon of false memories. The connection between memory and the quality of sleep is also exciting to explore.

If you’re looking for memory topics to research & write about, you’re in the right place. In this article, you’ll find 174 memory essay topics, ideas, questions, and sample papers related to the concept of memory.

How does sensory memory work?
How is short-term memory different from long-term memory?
What memory-training techniques are the most effective?
What are the reasons for memory failures?
Memory and aging: what is the connection?
What are the key types of memory disorders?
How to improve memory?
Memory Chart Stages in Psychology For instance, the brain uses the procedural memory to encode procedural skills and tasks that an individual is involved in. The stages of memory are very complex and often pass unrecognized.
Love and Memory From a Psychological Point of View The commonly known love types include affection, passionate love, friendship, infatuation, puppy love, sexual love, platonic love, romantic love and many other terms that could be coined out to basically describe love.
Memory Test The two controversies determine the classification of memory depending on the form of information processing that occurs in the brain and the different types of memories in relation to the accessibility.
Memory for Designs Test The examination of the functioning of the memory of an individual cannot be limited to only one memory test, and as a result, there are a variety of assessments that target the various features of […]
Improving Memory and Study Power Study power and memory are important aspects of the learning process and improving them is necessary for success. Working the brain is important in improvement of memory and study power.
The Effect of Sleep Quality and IQ on Memory Therefore, the major aim of sleep is to balance the energies in the body. However, the nature of the activity that an individual is exposed to determines the rate of memory capture.
How Memory and Intelligence Change as We Age The central argument of the paper is that intelligence and memory change considerably across the lifespan, but these alterations are different in the two concepts. The article by Ofen and Shing is a valuable contribution […]
Cognitive Psychology: The Effects of Memory Conformity The experiment’s control conditions did not allow the witnesses to discuss the event seen in the videos, while in the other condition, the witnesses were encouraged to discuss the event.
Memory Strategies Examples and How They Work A good strategy for memory is the one that improves information encoding, necessitates storage of data in a memorable state and enables the mind to easily retrieve information. Indeed, a malfunction in retrieval of stored […]
Memory Model of Teaching and Its Effectiveness The main objective of the research study was to find out the difference in the effect of the memory model and the traditional method of teaching on students’ performance.
Long and Short Term Memory The procedure of conveying information from STM to LTM entails the encoding and consolidation of information: it is not a task of time; the more the data resides in STM it increases the chances of […]
Brain and Memory Evidence suggests that the amygdala and the hippocampus regions of the brain interact during the formation of verbal and visual memory.
Memory: Its Functions, Types, and Stages of Storage First, information is processed in sensory memory, which perceives sensory events for a couple of seconds to determine whether the information is valuable and should be kept for a longer period. As information goes through […]
The Relationship Between Memory and Oblivion The purpose of this essay is to discuss the relationship between memory and oblivion, private and public recollection of events, and the way these concepts are reflected in the works of Walid Raad, Christo, and […]
Memory: Understanding Consciousness The essay seeks to discuss memory in terms of the processes occurring in the brain as far as memory is concerned.
The Concept of Memory Palace: Discussion In the living room, there is a big conspicuous chair on the left of the room, similar to a king’s throne, and underneath it is cobwebs reminding me of a spider.
Factors of Learners’ and Adults’ Working Memory An individual’s working memory refers to their ability to access and manipulate bits of data in their mind for a short period.
Statistics: The Self-Reference Effect and Memory After the distraction part was over, the participants were asked to recall the twelve adjectives they rated from a list of 42 words. This brings the question of whether the results would be different if […]
Memory Mechanisms: Cognitive Load Theory The teacher’s task is not only to give information but also to explain the principles of learning and to work with it.
The Self-Reference Effect and Memory Accordingly, the analysis has the following hypotheses: the SRE should enhance recognition of words that participants can relate to themselves, and people should feel more confident about their memory under the SRE.
Henry Molaison and Memory Lessons The case of Henry Molaison serves as a poignant reminder of the complexity of memory and the importance of understanding its various components.
Memory and Attention as Aspects of Cognition It has specific definitions, such as “consideration with a view to action,” “a condition of readiness involving a selective narrowing or focusing of consciousness and receptivity,” and “the act or state of applying the mind […]
Intergenerational Trauma and Traumatic Memory The exploration of interconnected issues of intergenerational trauma and traumatic memory in society with historical data of collective violence across the world sensitizes to the importance of acknowledging trauma.
Psychological Conditions in Addition to Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory The authors, who have many papers and degrees in the field, have noted the features of the brain structure and the differences between HSAM.
Concept for Teaching Memory in Primary School Students Teaching is one of the most demanding and demanding jobs in the world because it is the job that holds the future generation together.
The Multi-Storage Memory Model by Atkinson and Schiffrin The function of the is to track the stimuli in the input register and to provide a place to store the information coming from the LTS.
Emotions: The Influence on Memory At the same time, the influence of positive and negative feelings on the process of memorization and reproduction is different. In conclusion, it should be said that the process of the influence of emotions on […]
The Psychological Nature of Memory Using the numerical representation of the participants’ results, the researchers calculated the dependence of the memory and theory of mind in the process of recalling the interlocutors.
Functioning of Human Memory Schemas Consecutively, the study aimed to identify the relation between the facilitation of prior knowledge schemas and memories and the ability to form new schemas and inferences in older adults.
Enhancing Individual and Collaborative Eyewitness Memory Considering the positive results of research utilizing category clustering recall and the reported benefits of group memory, a question arises whether the use of category clustering recall might diminish the negative effects of group inhibition.
The Relationship Between the Working Memory and Non-Conscious Experiences The structure of the proposal follows the logical layout, beginning from the background of the issue through the methodology to problem significance and research innovation.
Consciousness: The Link Between Working Memory and Unconscious Experience The present study seeks to address the gap in the research regarding the executive function of VWM and consciousness. This study will follow a modified structure of Bergstrom and Eriksson experiment on non-conscious WM to […]
The Role of Image Color in Association With the Memory Functions Memory is the cornerstone of human cognition that enables all of its profound mechanisms, and the instrument of knowledge acquisition and exchange.
The Memory Formation Process: Key Issues Hippocampus plays an essential role in the memory formation process because it is the part of the brain where short-term memories become long-term memories.
Information Processing and Improving Learning and Memory Information processing theory is a method of studying cognitive development that arose from the American experimental psychology tradition.
Memory Techniques in Learning English Vocabulary ‘Word’ is defined by Merriam Webster Dictionary as follows: “1a: something that is said b plural: the text of a vocal musical composition c: a brief remark or conversation 2a: a speech sound or series […]
Covalent Modification of Deoxyribonucleic Acid Regulates Memory Formation The article by Miller and Sweatt examines the possible role of DNA methylation as an epigenetic mechanism in the regulation of memory in the adult central nervous system.
Repressed Memory in Childhood Experiences The suffering often affects a child’s psychological coping capacity in any respect, and one of the only ways of dealing with it is to force the memory out of conscious perception.
Adaptive Memory and Survival Subject Correlation The results of the study have revealed that the participants found it slightly easier to recall the words related to the notion of survival.
Developmental Differences in Memory Over Lifespan While growth refers to the multiplication of the number of individual units or cells in the body, maturation on the other hand can be defined as the successive progress of the individual’s appendage land organs […]
Memory, the Working-Memory Impairments, and Impacts on Memory The first important argument for a thorough discussion on how ADHD could affect brain functioning and working memory impairments is the existence of prominent factors that could create a link between the disorder and the […]
Working Memory in 7 &13 Years Aged Children However, it was hypothesized that children with AgCC will show similar performance improvement in verbal working memory task performance from 7 to 13 years of age as indicated in the study with CVLT.
Working Memory & Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum However, it was hypothesized that children with AgCC will show similar improvement in performance on verbal working memory task performance from 7 to 13 years of age as indicated in the study with CVLT.
Lifespan Memory Decline, Memory Lapses and Forgetfulness The purpose of the research by Henson et al.was to deepen the understanding of differential aging of the brain on differential patterns of memory loss.
Elaborative Process and Memory Performance The process is significant in the study and retention of data. In addition, the application of the concepts in the author’s learning process will be highlighted.
The Essence of Context Dependent Memory The results ought to show that the context in which eyewitnesses observed an event is important in the recall memory of the participants.
“Neural Processing Associated With True and False Memory Retrieval” by Yoko The researchers noted that both true and distorted memories activate activities in the left parental and left frontal areas of the brain. Parahippocampal gyrus- Is the area of the brain that is responsible for processing […]
Dementia and Memory Retention Art therapy is an effective intervention in the management of dementia because it stimulates reminiscence and enhances memory retention among patients with dementia.
Biological Psychology: Memory By and large, there is a general agreement that molecular events are involved in the storage of information in the nervous system. It is about to differentiate different kinds of memory, one which is short-term […]
Music and Memory: Discussion Future research should focus on addressing the limitations of the study and exploring the effect of other types of music. The findings of the study are consistent with the current body of knowledge about the […]
Fuzzy-Trace Theory and False Memory The writers set out to show the common ground for all these varied scenarios and convincingly show that false memories are a result of an interaction between memory and the cognitive process of reasoning. The […]
Individual Differences in Learning and Memory In the following paper, the variety of learning styles will be evaluated in relation to theories of human learning and memory retrieval on the basis of the findings currently made by academic researchers.
The Difference Between Females and Males Memory The hippocampus is of importance when it comes to memory formation and preservation and is relatively larger in females than males, giving the females advantage in memory cognition.
The Nature of False Memory Postevent information is one of the reasons that provoke the phenomenon of misinformation. The participants watched a video of a hockey collision and were asked to estimate the speed of the players.
Advertising and Memory: Interaction and Effect An advert sticks into one’s memory when it focuses on the characteristic of the material being advertised, other advertisements competing for the same market niche, and the kind of people it targets.
Memory, Thinking, and Human Intelligence As Kurt exposits, “The effects of both proactive and retroactive inferences while one is studying can be counteracted in order to maximize absorption of all the information into the long-term memory”.
Psychological Issues: Self-Identity and Sexual Meaning Issues, and Memory Processing Most sex surveys are run by firms dealing in other products and the motives of the surveys are for marketing of their primary products.
Human Memory as a Biopsychology Area This paper is going to consider the idea that electrical activity measures of the brain of a human being can be utilized as a great means for carrying out the study of the human memory.
Biopsychology: Learning and Memory Relationship Memorization involves an integral function of the brain which is the storage of information. Memorization is directly linked to learning through the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
Community Gatherings and Collective Memory The objective of this paper is to examine some of the gatherings that take place in the community and how these gatherings are related to time.
Psychology: Memory, Thinking, and Intelligence Information which serves as the stimuli moves from the sensory memory to the short term memory and finally to the long term memory for permanent storage.
Working With Working Memory Even if we can only make a connection of something we see with a sound, it is easier to remember something we can speak, because the auditory memory helps the visual memory.
Operant Conditioning, Memory Cue and Perception Operant conditioning through the use of punishment can be used to prevent or decrease a certain negative behavior, for example, when a child is told that he/she will lose some privileges in case he/she misbehaves, […]
Human Memory: Serial Learning Experiment The background of the current research was stated in Ebbinghaus’ psychological study, and reveals the fact, that if e series of accidental symbols is offered for memorizing, the human memory will be able to memorize […]
Hot and Cold Social Cognitions and Memory What is mentioned in biology text books and journals about the human brain is so small and almost insignificant compared to the myriad functions and parts of the brain that are yet to be explored.
Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation After Sleep The memory consolidation of the visual skill tasks is related to the REM sleep and the short wave component of the NREM.
Attention, Perception and Memory Disorders Analysis Teenage is the time for experimentation, with a desire to be independent and try new and forbidden things like drugs or indulge in indiscrete sexual activity.
Autobiographical Memory and Cognitive Development During this stage important cognitive processes take place and are fundamental towards the development of autobiographical memory in the infants. This help the infants to have important memory cues that form part of the autobiographical […]
Sensory and Motor Processes, Learning and Memory There are three processes involved in the sensory function of the eyes: the mechanical process, the chemical process, and the electrical process. The mechanical process starts as the stimuli passes through the cornea and […]
Repressed Memory and Developing Teaching Strategies The author aims to emphasize the “importance, relevance, and potential to inform the lay public as well as our future attorneys, law enforcement officers, therapists, and current or future patients of therapists” with regards to […]
Hippocampus: Learning and Memory The limbic cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus are considered the processing parts of the limbic system while the output part comprises the septal nuclei and the hypothalamus.
The Implications of False Memory and Memory Distortion The former refers to the manner of impressing into our minds the memories which we have acquired while the former refers to the manner by which a person reclaims the memories which have been stored […]
Memory Comprehension Issue Review To sum up, studying with the background of loud music is counterproductive, as it is also an information channel that interferes with the comprehension and memorization of more important information.
The Interaction of Music and Memory Therefore, the research is of enormous significance for the understanding of individual differences in the connection between memory and music. Therefore, the research contributes to the understanding of the interaction of age with music and […]
The Effect of Memory, Intelligence and Personality on Employee Performance and Behaviour The present paper will seek to explain the theoretical background on memory, intelligence and personality and evaluate the influence of these factors on work performance and employee behaviours.
The Conceptual Relationship Between Memory and Imagination In particular, the scholar draws parallels between these processes by addressing the recorded activity of specific brain structures when “remembering the past and imagining the future”.
“How Reliable Is Your Memory?” by Elizabeth Loftus Regardless of how disturbing and sorrowful it may be, and even when pointed out that this certain memory is false, a person may be unable to let it go.
Chocolate Consumption and Working Memory in Men and Women In this study, the independent variable was chocolate intake, while the dependent variable was the effect of chocolate on the memory of different genders.
Memory Acquisition and Information Processing The problem of disagreeing with memories can be explained by a closer look at the process of memory acquisition. Most part of the sensory information is not encoded due to selective attention.
Learning Activity and Memory Improvement The easiest way to explain the difference between implicit and explicit types of learning is to think of the latter as active learning and of the former – as passive one.
Psychology: Short-Term and Working Memory The thing is that the term short-term memory is used to describe the capacity of the mind to hold a small piece of information within a very short period, approximately 20 seconds.
Free and Serial Memory Recalls in Experiments In the study, the experimenters changed the order in which the items were presented to the participants before each trial to test the ability of the subject to recognize these words it was observed that […]
Collective Memory and Patriotic Myth in American History However, to think that colonists and early Americans pursued a general policy of killing or driving out the native Indians is incorrect.
Effects of Marijuana on Memory of Long-Term Users The pivotal aim of the proposed study is to evaluate the impact of marijuana use on long-term memory of respondents. The adverse impact of marijuana after the abstinent syndrome refers to significant changes in prefrontal […]
Amphetamines and Their Effects on Memory The scope of the problem of stimulant abuse is quite important in nowadays medicine since the application of amphetamine is not explored in an in-depth manner.
Memory Retrieval, Related Processes and Secrets The resulting impression of having experienced what is portrayed in the picture leads to the creation of false memories. The authors of the study make it clear that placing one in specific visual and spatial […]
Mnemonics for Memory Improvement in Students The selected participants will be split into two groups that will be asked to memorize a set of words from a story with the help of the suggested technique.
Concreteness of Words and Free Recall Memory The study hypothesized that the free recall mean of concrete words is not statistically significantly higher than that of abstract words.
Memory Formation and Maintenance The first similarity between working memory and long term memory is that in both cases, tasks retrieve information from secondary memory, although sometimes working memory tasks retrieve information from the primary memory. After completion of […]
Working Memory Training and Its Controversies As a result, a range of myths about WM has been addressed and subverted successfully, including the one stating that WM related training cannot be used to improve one’s intellectual abilities and skills.
Music and Human Memory Connection The effects of music on people vary considerably, and this project should help to understand the peculiar features of the connection between human memory and music.
Music Role in Memory and Learning Processes As such, the study purposed to test the differences in visuospatial abilities between men and women bearing in mind that the former is perceived to demonstrate greater memory capabilities compared to the latter As such, […]
Working Memory Training: Benefits and Biases The research results indicate that the effects of stereotyping on the development of WM and the relevant skills are direct and rather drastic.
Biopsychology of Learning and Memory The hippocampus is a brain region in the form of a horseshoe that plays an essential role in the transformation of information from the short-term memory to the long-term memory.
Memory, Thoughts, and Motivation in Learning Moreover, using the knowledge acquired from various sources of information, students can interpret the contents of their various environments and apply them to their advantage.
Working Memory Concept The central executive, as the name implies, is the primary component of the working memory system; every other component is subservient to it.
False Memory and Emotions Experiment The hypothesis was as follows: a list of associate words creates a false memory by remembering a critical lure when the list is presented to a subject and a recall test done shortly after that.
Building of Memory: Managing Creativity Through Action It could be important for the team to understand Kornfield’s vision of the project, the main and secondary tasks, the project timeline, and the general outline of it. The third technique is to ensure face-to-face […]
Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test and Cognistat Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test and the Cognistat are the assessment tools employed by the occupational therapists in order to determine the levels of impairment in their mental function that directly impact the individuals’ executive abilities […]
Stroop Effect on Memory Function The aim of the study was to examine the Stroop effect on memory function of men and women. The aim of the study was to examine Stroop effect on men and women’s cognitive functions.
Misinformation Effect and Memory Impairment It is important to determine the science behind the misinformation effect, because the implication of the study goes beyond the confines of psychology.
Memory Distortions Develop Over Time Memory is the ability to recall what happened in the past or the process through which one’s brain stores events and reproduce them in the future. Simpson were put on a scoreboard to analyze the […]
Working Memory Load and Problem Solving The present research focuses on the way working memory load affects problem solving ability and the impact working memory capacity has on problem solving ability of people.
Sensory Memory Duration and Stimulus Perception Cognitive psychologists argue that perceived information takes one second in the sensory memory, one minute in the short-term memory and a life-time in the long-term memory.
Memory Study: Different Perspectives Having carried out two experiments, Oberauer comes to the conclusion that information in working memory is highly organized and has its own structure and understanding of this structure can help to improve the work of […]
Working Memory Concept: Psychological Views To begin with, the findings support the use of the Working-Memory Model because it offers a clear distinction between the subordinate memory systems and the “central executive” memory.
Memory Strategies and Their Effects on the Body Memory problems are a common concern in the society due to the increased rate of memory problems among the individuals. This is a strategy that uses chemicals to suppress the adverse effects of memory problems.
Memory and Emotions in Personal Experience I tried to convince Sherry that the kind of life she led will not do good to her. I thought that Sherry is a grown-up person who would understand the mistakes she had done and […]
Face Recognition and Memory Retention It is imperative to mention that cognitive process is very significant in face recognition especially due to its role in storage and retrieval of information from long-term memory.
Memory Capacity and Age Correlation Since young adults have high levels of positive emotions and low levels of negative emotions, the positive emotions enable them to enhance their memory capacity for positive information.
Long Term Memory and Retrieval The mode of presenting the items in sequence in the first presentation has great impact on the results and validity of the study.
Semantic Memory and Language Production From the foregoing discussions, it can be deduced that the nature and function of semantic memory is closely related to the process of language comprehension. Moreover, lexical retrieval of the semantic memory and phonological facilitation […]
Basic Functions of Memory and Language The area of semantic memory involves stored information regarding the features and characteristics, which determine the processes of retrieving, using, and producing information in various cognitive processes such as thought and language comprehension/production.
The Concept of Autobiographical Memory The research findings show that memory phenomenology determined the relationship between attachment avoidance and depression, while the negative affective content of the autobiographical memory determined the link between attachment anxiety and depression. The concept of […]
Neuroimaging Experiments and Memory Loss Studies This is because it enables the examination of the cognitive and affective processes. This is relative to the effects of alcohol consumption.
Memory Lane and Morality In the first experiment where participants were expected to remember their childhood experience, those memories aided the experimenter more than they let the participants take control.
Autonoetic Consciousness in Autobiographical Memory One characteristic of AEM is the mental time travelling on the subjective time in order to connect the past with the current memory status.
Establishing False Memory in Humans The rate at which the observers included nonexistent words in their recollection of the initial study list was explored and represented in the experiment.
Constructive Nature of Memory Some of the common symptoms of this disease include loss of speech and the ability to classify objects in the immediate environment of an individual.
How to Improve Your Memory One of the most effective ways to memorize some information is based on the research concerning working memory. Furthermore, Sperling’s research which proves that people have photographic memory can help work out some strategy to […]
Strategies of the Memory Matlin defines knowledge as the information stored in our memory, the cognitive functioning of our memory and the ability to utilize the acquired information.
Biology of Memory: Origins and Structures Memory can be classified into sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory. Declarative memory also known as explicit memory is a form of long term memory that requires the conscious recall of information […]
Amnesia and Long-Term Memory These factors interfere with the function of hippocampus, the section of the human brain that is responsible for the development of memory, storing and organizing information.
Cannabis and Its Effects on Long Term Memory The memory function in general has been studied in acute administration studies of long term users of cannabis to humans and animals, and in long term studies of cannabis users.
Mental Chronometry: Response Time and Accuracy Sternberg relies on the idea that the reaction time is determined by the total amount of mental operations, such as recognition of the stimulus and organization of the response.
Working Memory in Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Whereas many studies have indicated the possibility of the beneficial effects of WM training on people with ADHD, critics have dismissed them on the basis of flawed research design and interpretation.
False Memory Syndrome: Is It Real? Freud’s findings bring the idea that some of the memories that are categorized to be false memories that emanates from the unconscious memory.
Memory Process: Visual Receptivity and Retentiveness For one to articulately understand the concepts of working-memory, short-term-memory, and long-term-memory in present days, he or she has to streamline the three memory types to specifics of what constitutes or makes a difference or […]
How Age and Diseases Affect Memory However, in case of a disease such the Alzheimer’s disease, there is pervasive memory impairment to the extent that relationships and social activities are compromised. It is however not clear on the course of the […]
Memory, Thinking, and Intelligence Only when people learn to challenge their intelligence and think critically, will they avoid many of the fatal mistakes they make, and in return save much time and resources.
Language and Memory Paper Whereas semantic memory acts as a granary for stored words, symbols and their underlying meanings, it is during the process of language production that actual ideas and concepts are put to test.
Sleep Improves Memory It is possible to replace a traumatic memory with a pleasant one then take a brief moment of sleep to reinforce the pleasant memory.
Social Development Essay Topics
Alzheimer’s Disease Research Ideas
Dementia Research Ideas
Meditation Questions
Epilepsy Ideas
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Home — Essay Samples — Psychology — Neuroscience — Essay On Memory And Memory

Essay on Memory and Memory

Categories: Neuroscience

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Words: 609 |

Updated: 16 November, 2024

Words: 609 | Page: 1 | 4 min read

Introduction, the fallibility of memory, memory reconsolidation, memory and identity, enhancing memory.

Loftus, E. F., & Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13(5), 585-589.
Nader, K., Schafe, G. E., & LeDoux, J. E. (2000). Fear memories require protein synthesis in the amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature, 406(6797), 722-726.
Roediger, H. L., & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(1), 20-27.

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Classic and recent advances in understanding amnesia

Richard j allen.

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Accepted 2018 Mar 13; Collection date 2018.

This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Neurological amnesia has been and remains the focus of intense study, motivated by the drive to understand typical and atypical memory function and the underlying brain basis that is involved. There is now a consensus that amnesia associated with hippocampal (and, in many cases, broader medial temporal lobe) damage results in deficits in episodic memory, delayed recall, and recollective experience. However, debate continues regarding the patterns of preservation and impairment across a range of abilities, including semantic memory and learning, delayed recognition, working memory, and imagination. This brief review highlights some of the influential and recent advances in these debates and what they may tell us about the amnesic condition and hippocampal function.

Keywords: amnesia, memory, hippocampus

Introduction

The ‘amnesic syndrome’ has a relatively high profile both in the neuropsychological literature and in popular culture. This is likely due in part to the centrality of memory in defining our place in the world and sense of self, in enabling effective everyday functioning, and of the often-striking loss of memory function in patients with amnesia, relative to healthy individuals. The term is derived from the Greek a- (without) - mnesis (memory), and at a broad level, amnesia can be defined as a profound loss of memory. The extensive impacts of this condition mean that individuals with amnesia usually require assistance in daily life.

Amnesia can be temporary or have a psychological root (for example, transient global amnesia 1 and psychogenic/dissociative amnesia 2 ) and is a term used in reference to memory problems in various neurological conditions (for example, amnestic mild cognitive impairment). However, the nature of these problems means that other functional and mechanistic descriptions likely apply, and so they are outside the scope of this overview. Instead, the focus is on the amnesic condition as a long-lasting or permanent disorder, emerging from an organic or neurological cause. Causes can include traumatic head injury, neurosurgery (for example, to treat severe epilepsy), anoxia/hypoxia (lack of oxygen), ischaemia, viral infection ( Herpes simplex encephalitis), and alcoholic Korsakoff’s syndrome. The large majority of cases represent adult-acquired memory loss, although individuals have been identified as having ‘developmental amnesia’, acquired at birth or in infancy 3 . The neurological basis of amnesia will obviously depend on the aetiological nature and extent. Although a range of brain areas can be involved in profound memory loss (for example, the prefrontal cortex or, in the case of alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome, the thalamic/diencephalic region), neurologically derived amnesia has more commonly been associated with damage to the hippocampus specifically and to the medial temporal lobes (MTLs) more broadly. This well-established primary neurological locus means that research with patients can inform both the amnesic condition and how the hippocampus and MTL contribute to memory and cognitive function more broadly.

Understanding of amnesia has been substantially driven by case studies of patients such as HM 4 – 6 , and indeed this approach remains informative provided that robust methodological approaches are adopted 7 . Group studies are also informative in extending beyond the individual, offering greater statistical power, and allowing identification of consistent patterns, although care must be taken when collapsing across patients with possibly heterogeneous profiles of damage and ability, and combining behavioural and imaging methodology can be useful in this regard 8 . As noted by Clark and Maguire 9 , although the lesion-deficit model has been dominant and studies tend to focus on how individuals with amnesia are impaired, a comprehensive picture can be obtained only by contrasting this with patterns of preservation. Debate continues regarding precisely how to characterise this profile and what this reveals about the function of neural areas putatively associated with this condition. This review aims to provide a brief overview of some of the insights and debates emerging from classic work and recent advances in the area, particularly in the context of anterograde memory difficulties displayed by individuals with hippocampal/MTL amnesia. (For more in-depth recent reviews, see, for example, 7 – 10 .)

Long-term memory

Depending on aetiology and extent of lesion, individuals with amnesia will often show minimal memory following even short periods (>30 seconds) of distraction or interference, alongside relatively intact broader ability (for example, language and motor movement). Amnesia can be retrograde (that is, loss of memories acquired prior to onset) and anterograde (impairment in forming new memories), and patients typically exhibit both forms to varying extents. Severity of retrograde and anterograde loss appears to correlate 11 , and retrograde loss follows a temporally graded pattern with greater preservation of distally acquired information, relative to memories immediately prior to onset (as described by Ribot’s law 12 ). It has been suggested that this pattern of recent retrograde loss represents disruption of long-term memory consolidation 13 , and indeed there is some evidence that patients with amnesia show greater vulnerability to interference during consolidation 14 .

One of the key principles generated from research with patients with amnesia is that memory is not unitary and instead can be fractionated into separable systems or abilities. Amnesic patients with MTL damage have intact procedural memory and learning (see 15 for a review), suggesting a set of implicit or non-declarative memory systems that are distinct from explicit or declarative memory (for example, 16 , 17 , but see 18 for an alternative interpretation). They may also have relatively preserved semantic (that is, factual) knowledge for information acquired prior to onset 19 . However, controversy exists regarding whether new semantic information can be acquired post-onset. Patients often show considerable impairments in memory for novel facts about news events and famous individuals (for example, 20 ). On the other hand, work with developmental amnesia has shown that such patients indeed have been able to acquire semantic knowledge over time, although lab studies suggest that this may proceed more slowly than in healthy controls 3 , 21 . In contrast, episodic memory (that is, memory for events grounded in time and space) is consistently impaired in both (temporally graded) retrograde and anterograde form 22 . Indeed, these episodic memory difficulties may at least partly account for why patients with amnesia struggle with acquiring new semantic knowledge 23 .

Memory deficits in patients with amnesia appear to be particularly apparent when assessed via recall, compared to relatively reduced impairments on tests of recognition 21 , 24 – 26 . For example, Patai et al . 25 assessed 29 patients with relatively selective hippocampal damage on the recall and recognition subtests of the Doors and People Test 27 and found larger recall deficits relative to recognition. Moreover, hippocampal volume correlated with recall performance but not with recognition. Distinctions between recall and recognition have been mapped onto experiences of recollection and familiarity; individuals with amnesia have problems with recollection (on which recall is dependent) because the MTL underlies recollection, but they remain able to make recognition judgements based on intact feelings of familiarity (for example, 28 , 29 ). Following this, a more precise and detailed two-process approach 30 , 31 argues that the hippocampus plays a critical role in recollection, with parahippocampal regions supporting familiarity-based recognition judgements. This implies that the recall-recognition dissociation will be more dramatic in individuals with highly selective hippocampal damage. In contrast, broader MTL damage leads to substantial deficits in both recall and recognition. Although neuropsychological and imaging data provide some support for this 25 , 31 , it is by no means universally accepted. Other work with patient groups rejects a clear recall-recognition dissociation in amnesia 32 , 33 . For example, Smith et al . 34 found widespread recognition difficulties in groups of patients with either selective hippocampal and broader MTL lesions, with the former group intact on only one sub-category of test (immediate recognition for faces). The authors argued that recognition judgements draw on item-list associations, and so (as with other forms of associative processing) even amnesic patients with selective hippocampal damage show impairment.

Somewhat reduced recognition accuracy in selective hippocampal patients, relative to controls, should also be predicted by the dual-process account of recognition, which states that both recollection and familiarity contribute to recognition judgements in typical memory functioning 35 . These processes can be independently indexed by asking participants to make recognition-based metacognitive judgements regarding whether they remember (R) encountering an item earlier or simply know (K) that it had been previously presented, a distinction which maps onto recollection and familiarity respectively (and parallels the fractionation of episodic and semantic memory). As would be predicted on the basis of the relative absence of recollective experience, hippocampal amnesic patients have been shown to produce reduced rates of R estimates 26 . Similarly, although the developmental amnesic individual Jon reported R judgements, he seemed unable to understand the R-K distinction 21 , showed no brain activation differences between such judgements 36 , and was unable to provide recollective justifications for why he made R, K, or G (guess) categorizations 37 .

Although there is little doubt that amnesia involves severe deficits in delayed recall, debate continues as to the nature, extent, and causes of their possible difficulties in delayed recognition. Different studies have identified and emphasized patterns of relatively impaired or intact performance in various groups of patients with amnesia, and the overall picture appears to be that recognition deficits are often apparent compared with typical controls but are not as severe as those seen in recall. This may reflect, in part, the preserved ability to make familiarity-based recognition judgements, alongside deficits in recollective experience; impaired recognition performance will be observed when familiarity alone is not sufficient to adequately support performance. Nevertheless, notes of caution remain when contrasting relative patterns of recall and recognition across studies. Given the possible contributory roles played by distinct MTL structures (for example, 31 ), it is important that the lesion patterns of individual patients be clearly defined, as hippocampal and extra-hippocampal damage may lead to differing patterns of impairment. Furthermore, care must be taken to consider issues such as task difficulty and data sensitivity when comparing recall and recognition measures (for example, 25 ), as recall tends to be a more difficult task and produces reduced accuracy levels in healthy individuals as well as patient groups 38 .

Working memory

Classic work on amnesia indicates that, although delayed (long-term) episodic memory is impaired, patients show intact immediate or working memory (that is, the ability to “hold a limited amount of information temporarily in a heightened state of availability for use in ongoing information processing” 39 ). HM, for example, demonstrated preserved digit recall provided that he was not distracted and sequence length did not exceed his immediate memory capacity 6 , 40 . Similar intact performance levels on a range of verbal and visuospatial working memory tasks have been repeatedly observed in other patients (for example, 22 , 41 ). Patients with amnesia also demonstrate apparently intact ability to use prior knowledge to facilitate working memory performance (for example, by showing superior memory for sentences over random word lists 42 , 43 and for digits when embedded in familiar ‘keypad’ configurations 43 , 44 ).

However, it has been argued that broader abilities attributed to the hippocampus may lead to amnesic patients showing deficits even in working memory tasks that require these abilities. For example, the hippocampus plays a key role in spatial processing 45 , and indeed patients with amnesia show deficits in some (but not all 46 , 47 ) aspects of spatial navigation 48 and allocentric memory 49 . Memory for associations or relational bindings between features of a stimulus or event is also thought to have a critical hippocampal component 50 – 52 . In regard to working memory, tasks that emphasize relational and allocentric spatial processing (regarding the relative relationship between objects in the environment, independent of the viewer) and minimize egocentric contributions indicate impaired performance in hippocampal/MTL patients, even at retention intervals of only a few seconds 53 , 54 . Similarly, short-term memory for relational binding between object and location, scene, or object has also been shown to be impaired and error-prone in MTL amnesic patients 55 – 59 .

Evidence is mixed, however, with other patients (for example, Jon) showing intact immediate memory for binding between shape and color 42 , and between object and location, alongside impaired delayed memory for the same material 60 . Along similar lines, Jeneson et al . 61 – 63 have observed intact working memory performance at short delays and small memory loads in hippocampal/MTL amnesics (see also 64 ), and deficits consistently emerge only when these task factors are increased and the limits of working memory are exceeded. Consistent with this, a recent comparison of relational memory for word pairs indicated that patients with amnesia were able to recall these relations in an immediate test but (unlike controls) not in a delayed test 25 minutes later 65 . It has been argued, on the basis of such results, that apparent evidence for immediate/working memory deficits on such tasks in individuals with hippocampal/MTL amnesia reflects conditions in which working memory capacity is exceeded and support from long-term memory is required 61 .

Despite this, it remains possible that specific forms of temporary memory processing are indeed impaired in amnesic patients with hippocampal damage. It may be that relational binding (that is, memory for the relationship between object and context) is impaired but conjunctive memory (that is, for the binding between features of unitary objects, such as shape and color) is intact 59 , 66 . Additionally, Yonelinas 67 has argued that the hippocampus supports high-resolution binding across perception, working memory, and long-term memory. Indeed, most research on working memory in amnesia has used categorical tasks not explicitly designed to index degradation of representational fidelity, although the limited number of studies using precision-based methods with patients with amnesia have produced mixed results 10 . Further research is clearly required here.

While these debates continue, they also illustrate how distinctions between types of task are not necessarily absolute in terms of the underlying mechanisms they may index and that, as noted by Eichenbaum 5 , hippocampal activation involved in longer-term memory retention is likely to begin during initial encoding of experiences. As such, at a functional level, individuals with amnesia may experience difficulties in memory tasks even when tested with relatively short delays.

Visualization, imagination, and scene construction

Amnesia is often referred to as a ‘global’ disorder (that is, with memory deficits that apply across verbal and visuospatial information). It is nevertheless important when assessing memory capability of such patients that a variety of tasks be administered, tapping memory for different types of information. Furthermore, there is some limited evidence that hippocampal damage may have a greater impact on visualization and visuospatial memory. For example, Patai et al . 25 found some evidence that hippocampal amnesic patients demonstrated greater memory problems in the visual domain, relative to verbal memory. Similarly, within verbal memory paradigms, there is some evidence that patients with amnesia show greater impairment in concrete relative to abstract words 68 , suggesting that they may be less able to use imagery to supplement verbal memory 69 .

These findings are in line with the greater emphasis that theories of hippocampal function often place on visuospatial processing 9 . For example, they speak to the theoretical framework developed by Maguire et al . 69 – 71 proposing that hippocampal amnesic patients have imagination and scene construction deficits that emerge across a range of tasks requiring the generation of coherent internal scenario or scene. Following initial reports of well-known patients such as HM and KC experiencing problems in imagination and projection into the future 72 , 73 , such deficits have subsequently been demonstrated experimentally in different groups of patients 74 – 76 . These deficits typically contrast with intact ability to imagine isolated objects and fragmented scenes, and to describe pictures and generate related narratives, in line with the possible centrality of scene construction. Similarly, problems in future thinking particularly relate to the imagination of detailed and spatially coherent future events rather than to temporal projection more generally 77 – 79 . Patients with amnesia also appear to show difficulties in deciding whether scenes are spatially coherent or impossible 80 , and in carrying out spatially based counterfactual thinking 81 , compared with controls. Finally, evidence of perceptual deficits in tasks requiring discrimination between spatial scenes has been observed in selective hippocampal damaged patients, whereas deficits in both spatial and non-spatial discrimination are apparent in patients with broader perirhinal/MTL damage 82 . It should be noted that, although the preponderance of evidence indicates imagination and scene construction deficits, some patients do demonstrate performance similar to that of control participants in such tasks 83 , 84 . This may reflect, in the case of the patients of Squire et al . 84 , the availability of relatively intact autobiographical memory in that group 9 or the use of intact semantic memory to support scene construction in the case of Mullally et al . 83 .

Concluding remarks

Although there is a consensus, at a broad level, about what the amnesic condition represents, debate continues regarding the precise patterns of preservation and impairment and what may be identified as being primary deficits or secondary/resulting features of the condition. Early studies of amnesia played a key role in the development of structural approaches to memory, drawing distinctions between systems based on dimensions such as content, capacity and temporal duration. Recent theorizing has increasingly adopted function- and process-oriented perspectives, in part through the influence of neuroimaging research with healthy and clinical populations. Within this context, it remains to be seen whether theoretical views that emphasize, for example, consolidation, recollection, relational memory, fidelity of processing, or scene construction provide the most comprehensive primary account of the patterns of impairment (and preservation) that are typically observed or whether it is a condition that is better characterised as a grouping of multiple, separable (and comorbid) deficits. Explanations at the micro level may also be usefully integrated at the macro level in order to develop systems-based structural frameworks within which patterns of preservation and deficit, and associated brain dynamics, across a broad range of tasks might be conceptualised (for example, 85 ).

Difficulties with theorizing regarding amnesia were noted over 20 years ago by Mayes and Downes 86 . Indeed, although great progress has been made in the development of new perspectives on the condition and the integration of behavioural and imaging techniques in this context, many of these basic issues remain. The multidimensional heterogeneity that is apparent between individuals and groups in terms of aetiology, locus and extent of lesion (and corresponding residual intact tissue), and degree of post-onset compensation/neural organization remains a source of challenges for drawing interpretations that can be generalized beyond single studies. Methodological differences between studies are also important to consider as a caveat to interpretation, as are issues of task validity and the extent to which patients may be able to supplement otherwise impaired performance through the use of strategy or intact cognitive abilities. Finally, the debates in the literature have often been framed in terms of the theoretical implication for hippocampal function, but they should also consider what the outcomes of these debates might mean for diagnostic technique and for understanding (and ameliorating) the impacts of the amnesic condition on a patient’s quality of life and everyday functioning.

Abbreviations

MTL, medial temporal lobe.

Editorial Note on the Review Process

F1000 Faculty Reviews are commissioned from members of the prestigious F1000 Faculty and are edited as a service to readers. In order to make these reviews as comprehensive and accessible as possible, the referees provide input before publication and only the final, revised version is published. The referees who approved the final version are listed with their names and affiliations but without their reports on earlier versions (any comments will already have been addressed in the published version).

The referees who approved this article are:

Francis Eustache , Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) and Ecole pratique des hautes études (EPHE), Université de Caen-Normandie, Unité 1077, Caen, France

R Shayna Rosenbaum , Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, Canada

Funding Statement

The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work.

[version 1; referees: 2 approved]

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Essay on Dementia

Good Essay About Memory Loss

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Dementia , Memory Loss , Medicine , Brain , Health , Time , Nursing , People

Words: 1400

Published: 02/20/2023

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Memory loss or amnesia is a case of unusual forgetfulness. It corresponds to forgetting things, events, and memories, either being unable to recall some event in the recent past or something that happened in the past. Sometimes either one or both of them might be hard to remember. Memory loss can also occur for a short period of time and gets resolved in a small period of time. Sometimes it may not go away, and the memory can keep getting worse with growing age and passing the time. There are a number of causes of memory loss which are related to disease, growing age, injuries and personality disorders. It is only natural at one point or another when a person forgets things such as where they kept their keys or what they had for lunch. All these things can, however, be remembered with a little effort because this phenomenon only occurs because the memory is clouded temporarily by more information. Memory loss occurs more commonly with progressing age due to the slowed and lessened release of dopamine and degeneration of cells. (Medline Plus). For memory loss to occur with aging is just as common as the loss or decline of other skills like weakness in the body, blood pressure or heart trouble. However for memory loss to occur in a natural way is different from its occurrence due to diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Dementia or even brain tumor. Extensive research has been done on memory loss in people. Usually, the word ‘dementia’ is associated with all problems related to forgetfulness or memory loss. It also refers to the problems that people face in judgment, reasoning, decision-making, language and impairment of the memory. When rendered untreated or incurable, takes other forms, worsening with time dementia leads to a lot of other troubles such as problems in interpersonal relationships, socialization, and work. Memory loss is one of the most recognizable and prominent signs of dementia. The most characteristic features of this asking the same questions repeatedly, forgetting words used in common speech, mixing up and missing words that need to be used in a common language such as saying cupboard instead of the refrigerator. Memory loss also depicts itself in the form of forgetfulness in performing tasks that a person used to be well familiar with. (Mayo Clinic.) For instance, there may be a problem in remembering the ingredients to a recipe that a person has been cooking for a long time. Misplacing things and putting them in the wrong place is also an indication of memory loss, such as putting the wallet in the refrigerator or putting a container of food in the cupboard instead of putting it in the fridge. (Medline Plus). Another common example of memory loss with age is losing track of time and place and forgetting directions while traveling or driving. A person may visit a place outside home very commonly, but they might visit the place again and suddenly forget where they are and how they got there. They can even get lost in a familiar neighborhood. Memory loss is also associated with abrupt and sudden mood changes and emotional disturbances which may not be timely and are usually unnecessary and untimely. Also, a person suffering from memory loss will find it difficult to follow directions and comprehend and remember long messages or complicated tasks. (Medline Plus). The actual cause of memory loss is damage to the brain, the parts which are specific to memory loss and retention of information. Several diseases result in dementia such as Alzheimer’s disease, Vascular dementia, Frontotemporal dementia and Lewy body dementia. All of these are progressed due to their own causes, yet their ultimate damage results in memory loss and the damage is irreparable in all of the above. The damaged areas of the brain cannot be repaired, and memory cannot be gained back. The medication or therapy given to patients with these problems can only help the life a little longer however there is yet no cure for these conditions. (Mayo Clinic.) Other diseases and problems include brain tumor, cancer treatment, chemotherapy and bone marrow transplant. If the brain tumor lies in the area of the region where memory and learning are stored, then memory loss can occur. In fact, memory loss becomes one of the symptoms of brain tumor. Similarly, aggressive cancer treatment is one of the causes of the death of cells in the brain, or the after effects of the treatment can lead to memory loss. (Mayo Clinic.) Migraine headaches are also a common cause of memory loss. People with severe migraines can have problems remembering things and might not remember immediate events of the past. A worsened migraine would lead to more memory loss. Brain infections and diseases of the brain are also responsible for memory loss in people. Memory loss is also sustained because of injuries such as traumatic accidents, head injuries and brain hemorrhaging. Concussions can also result in memory loss. People who sustain serious head injuries such as after a car accident, a blow to the head or a dangerous fall facing the head can incur internal bleeding in the brain. If it is not treated in time, it may cause the brain to get pressurized and swell up. If the blood is drained in time, then the chances of damage to the brain are reduced. However if the blood does not get drained or if the brain cells are deprived of oxygen for too long, then the person can suffer from brain damage and a symptom of that damage is memory loss. Also, major brain surgeries come with a high risk of memory loss or loss of personality after the operation. These are the risk factors of surgeries and while some surgeries end successfully, others may be serious enough to cause temporary and sometimes, permanent memory loss.(Mayo Clinic.) Sometimes, memory loss can occur because of personality disorders as well. Schizophrenia, bipolar disease, depression and severe traumatic events can result in memory loss. Schizophrenics suffer from facing a distorted version of the reality around them which makes them confused and fearful all the time. This greatly affects the cognitive development and abilities, and they can negatively suffer from a weak memory where they can’t remember what they were told about something and need to be retold things from time to time. Bipolar patients also suffer from memory loss. Bipolar disease disrupts the working memory where the patients experience difficulty in processing things, retaining information and thus they have mood swings and problems in understanding things. (Medline Plus). Depression is associated with memory loss as it is one of the prime causes of the existence of health problems which then lead to memory loss. People with depression suffer from nervousness, anxiety, loss of appetite and constant stress hovering over them. The persistence of stress leads to weakening of the cells and loss of memory. Depression is also associated with sleep deprivation, which, according to studies, is one of the causes of memory loss. When the mind is not rested, and a person has not slept well, there is sufficient difficulty in staying focused and alert. When this condition persists, hallucination may begin, and if it worsens, a person may not be able to remember things properly.(Medline Plus). Usually, memory loss has no cure. It is then up to the health caregiver and the family of the patient to help them cope with life and their condition. In order to retrieve some of the memory, they can be shown familiar objects, made to listen to audio versions of speech or take some prescribed medication for the condition diagnosed. Medical history of a patient is also important because some memory loss diseases are hereditary, and they may have a genetic disposition to the disease, which, can be found out through relevant tests.

Mayo Clinic. Memory Loss: When to seek help. N,p. 2016. Web. 24 Feb 2016. Medline Plus. Memory Lose. N,p. 2016. Web. 24 Feb 2016.

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Memory Loss

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

For most people, it would be hard to imagine a life in which the mind did not routinely discard once-remembered details—from temporarily memorized facts and figures to the characteristics of people and places one hasn’t thought of in years. A normal degree of forgetting is a core element of memory, allowing people to dispense with information for which they no longer have much use.

Of course, forgetting causes problems, too. Minor failures to remember can be inconvenient at any age, and they may become more frequent and troublesome later in life. Scientists have shown that declines in certain types of memory ability are a typical part of aging and do not necessarily reflect the development of a medical condition such as Alzheimer’s disease. Experts have proposed a variety of tactics for staving off memory decline and managing typical levels of memory loss.

Many details and experiences are more relevant to our future than others, and remembering everything would be likely inefficient. Forgetting may actually be helpful for remembering in the sense that less-useful details that are forgotten (such as an old password or outdated set of directions) won’t interfere with the retrieval of useful ones. And forgetting unpleasant or painful memories , when one is able to do so, can make one feel better about past experiences and reduce the burden of negative ones.

Information may be forgotten because one wasn’t paying close enough attention initially or has not reinforced the memory of the information by retrieving it. A more recently acquired memory may interfere with the retrieval of an earlier one, such as when one learns the names of more than one person in succession. Stress, lack of sleep, and certain behaviors, such as excessive alcohol consumption, can also temporarily impair memory (causing a “blackout,” in the case of drinking.)

Yes. While chronic forgetfulness can be a sign of a medical condition, simply forgetting the name of someone you’ve just met or small memory failures related to tasks you probably weren’t paying much attention to (“Did I lock the car?”) are not necessarily cause for concern. They may be still inconvenient—and precautions such as paying deliberate attention in the moment to what you tend to forget and repeating aloud the thing to be remembered could be helpful.

Warning signs of a potential memory problem include problems remembering well-known and often-used information (such as the way to and from a regular destination), difficulty handling important tasks due to memory, or increased forgetfulness that is noticeable to others. In such cases it is worth talking about memory-related concerns with a health-care provider (and it may ultimately be helpful to see a memory expert.)

It’s that experience when someone cannot immediately recall a word or phrase (such as someone’s name) but feels as if they are very close to recalling it (“It’s on the tip of my tongue!”). When in a tip-of-the-tongue state , a person might sense—correctly or not—that they remember certain characteristics of a word, such as its first letter, without being able to bring the information into full awareness. This experience may become more frequent with age. The feeling of the tip-of-the-tongue state may serve to motivate someone to keep searching their memory.

It is well known that some forms of memory ability tend to become less sharp as the decades of one’s life pass by. Just like other parts of the body, the brain changes with age, with accompanying differences in the ability to recall information. But not everyone experiences such declines to the same degree as they get older, and some forms of memory—such as the memory for familiar physical tasks—seem largely unhindered by age.

To an extent, yes. Changes in the ability to remember are normal, even in the absence of dementia or another condition, and memory loss is a common concern among older adults. Declines in certain types of memory (such as working memory and episodic memory ) mean that a person might occasionally forget the word they had intended to say or where they left a frequently used object. Other forms of memory, including semantic memory (knowledge about the world) and procedural memory , seem to be less affected by normal aging.

Memory ability, at least for some kinds of memory (such as working memory ), can begin to gradually decline as early as one’s twenties or thirties, with downward trends extending into later life. Research indicates that episodic memory ability (memory for experiences) tends to decrease after age 60. Yet these are averages; for some individuals, memory is preserved to a greater extent and for longer.

Over time, degradation in the brain regions that support memory contributes to memory difficulties. Among the changes that occur in memory-related areas such as parts of the medial temporal lobe and prefrontal cortex are decreases in grey matter volume and in the quality of white matter, which is essential for communication between neurons. Scientists have also observed relevant differences in physiology (such as in the dopamine system) and in regional activation during memory tasks.

Can memory be protected as people grow older? While a person may not be able to prevent decreases in memory ability entirely, experts have studied various steps one can take to increase one’s odds of maintaining a sharp memory into older age. There are also techniques for working around common memory issues if they arise.

Adopting aspects of a generally health-promoting lifestyle—such as a healthy diet, routine physical activity, and plenty of sleep—may help maintain memory as you age. So might playing cognitively challenging games, such as chess, cards, and crossword puzzles, or exercising your mind in other ways.

Reducing stress and getting enough sleep could be helpful. Other ways to compensate for forgetfulness include organizing objects (such as car keys) so that their locations are always the same, making an extra effort to concentrate when taking in information to be remembered, minimizing distractions, and using simple memory aids such as planners, calendars, written lists, and reminder notes. In some cases, it may be worth considering medications to enhance memory.

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Marketeers use generation effects to bolster the memorability of ads. But what if its effects are laboratory illusions? And do generation effects work in multicultural societies?

Breaking out of isolation and talking about what happened with a trusted friend or therapist greatly reduces the burden of what is remembered.

You might feel social pressure to wait until Thanksgiving before you start decorating for Christmas. But decorating early can have some surprising benefits for your mental health.

Emotional ups and downs may account for the episodic nature of our memory.

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