leadership theories assignment

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Refine your approach with these 7 leadership theories

What does leadership look like in practice?

When we imagine what a leader is, what they look like, and what they do, there are a few traits that they have in common. Most of us think of leaders as confident, decisive, and future-minded. But when it comes down to the day-to-day work of leading and managing others in the real world, those traits might feel a little nebulous. 

Depending on the view of leadership you’ve embraced, you might believe leadership comes from within. You may have been told that leaders are “born, not made.” Or you might believe that everyone has the potential to step up and lead at any time. 

You may think that becoming a leader takes a lot of study and the right education. Conversely, you might believe some version of trial by fire, that leadership emerges through doing. Perhaps it requires practicing skills and techniques under the tutelage of a great leader. Perhaps it requires self-knowledge and self-mastery through a lot of Inner Work®. 

That’s all great — and none of these leadership theories are wrong , exactly. But where does that leave you if you’re leading a team? What exactly do you do? And if none of it is wrong, how do you know what you’re doing is right?

The fact is, there are all kinds of ways to lead. It isn’t about choosing one right theory over others. As people, we learn the best by example. It’s one of the reasons we enjoy reading the stories of other leaders so much. We’re inspired by their example. But a leader is influenced by more than the people they’re leading. They change their strategy to fit the circumstances they find themselves in and the goals they want to accomplish.

To keep up in the modern-day workplace, we can’t cling to just one kind of leadership. The world is changing fast, so leaders, managers, and professionals have to stay agile and change with it. A solid understanding of leadership theories — and what each one entails — can help you pivot in changing circumstances. It can also help you be a more inclusive leader , at ease when working with different types of people. Here are seven key leadership theories that every manager should know and understand.

What are leadership theories?

Great leaders inspire others to achieve high standards. They are good role models, make sound decisions, and provide emotional support. But what does it take to become a “great leader?”

Leadership theories are philosophies that explain what defines a leader and makes them successful. There are many schools of thought, and some contradict one another. But studying these approaches provides valuable insight that leaders can use as they grow.

Formal attempts to define the qualities of a successful leader date back to the mid-19th century. At that time, scholars and philosophers believed that certain personality traits determined whether one could lead. These traits were linked to specific individuals who had demonstrated effective leadership. The concept of “leadership development” was non-existent at this point, since you either had it or you didn’t.

As the study of leadership evolved, researchers began to identify a sort of leadership spectrum. Now, it’s widely accepted that leadership isn’t based on a finite set of characteristics. The best leaders are able to adapt their approach to meet the needs of their team and the challenges ahead.

Why study leadership theories?

As a manager, you likely want to be a good leader. And while there's no one perfect way to lead, studying leadership theories can give you some tools and ideas to try out. By becoming a student of leadership skills and approaches, you’ll be more well-rounded. You’ll also find that you’re better equipped to help others succeed as well.

The more experience you have with different theories, the more agile you’ll be as a leader. After all, even though there’s no one-size-fits-all approach to leadership, you’ll have a style of working with others that you tend to default to. To be an agile leader, you’ll need to develop the ability to switch approaches quickly. 

How many leadership theories are there?

There are many different leadership approaches — and with every new book on the topic , another one is born. Many leadership researchers, authors, and organizations have distinct models of leadership. However, most fall into one of the seven major theories below:

Trait theory

Trait theory posits that people are born with certain traits and that these traits lead to successful leadership. For example, a leader might be born with charisma, which enables them to rally people to their cause. The idea behind this theory is that it can help managers identify potential leaders within their ranks. However, it should be noted that not everyone who possesses the “necessary traits” will make a good leader; it takes more than just raw talent.

This theory has been (largely) debunked, since notions of what comprises "leadership traits" are not even agreed upon. They’re often based on data or ideas about management and authority from the last century. These outdated ideals don't reflect a more diverse and mobile global workforce. They also don’t adapt well to the changed conditions and demands on the leadership of a digital, technology-driven, exponential business environment.

However, just because we know something isn’t true doesn’t mean we don’t believe it. Some people feel that those who are introverted or shy aren’t strong leaders. These biases can lead others to overlook people who might not be the “obvious” choice for leadership roles.

Behavioral theory

One of the most well-known leadership theories is the behavioral theory, which posits that leaders can be made, not born. This theory looks at what leaders do, rather than their traits or inner qualities. One key tenet of this theory is that there is no one perfect way to lead and that the best approach depends on the situation. To be an effective leader, then, you need to be adaptable and have a range of different leadership styles in your toolkit.

Contingency theory

Contingency theory posits that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to leadership. Instead, the style of leadership that is most effective depends on the situation at hand. Contingency theory is also known as situational leadership theory. 

Generally, task-oriented leadership is more effective when the team is both skilled and motivated. Relationship-oriented leadership is more effective when direct reports need more support and guidance. Leaders shift their approach to suit the needs of their team and organization.

Transformational leadership theory

Transformational leadership creates positive change in both the followers and the leader. This change can be something small, like improving work habits, or something big, like developing a new product. Leaders who use this style of leadership motivate and inspire their followers to achieve greatness. 

Transactional theory

A transactional leadership style helps keep teams moving quickly. Rewards and consequences are clearly communicated. The idea is that there’s an exchange — a role to be played — by both parties. The leader is responsible for keeping the rewards flowing and punishments consistent. The other party (generally an employee) simply needs to “keep their end of the bargain.” 

This “cut-and-dried” type of leadership gets results — but often at the expense of employee engagement. Participants in these settings are less likely to take an active role in the decision-making process. They tend to eschew responsibility for outcomes beyond their immediate roles.

Great Man Theory

This theory arose during the 19th century and was popularized by Scottish writer Thomas Carlyle. The great man theory argues that history is shaped by a select few great men, who are born with the natural ability to lead and influence others . 

While this theory has been largely discredited, it still offers some insights into the concept of leadership. For example, the idea that leaders are born rather than made suggests that leadership ability can’t be taught or learned — or at least, that many people believe that to be true. This theory also places a great deal of emphasis on individual achievement and greatness. It downplays the importance of team effort or group dynamics.

Coaching theory

In terms of leadership, coaching theory views leaders as skilled supporters, who work with team members to help them reach their desired goals. A coaching leadership style is collaborative and focused on the skills of the individual. Managers can use coaching by setting clear expectations for what people are supposed to do, modeling desired behaviors, providing ongoing feedback on how well those expectations are being met, and discussing potential opportunities for improvement.

What is the best leadership theory?

There is no one best leadership theory. Instead, there are several different theories that can be useful in different situations. The key is to know which theory will work best in a given situation and to be able to adapt your leadership style as needed. 

Instead of trying to figure out which theory of leadership is best, learn to adapt your managerial style to a variety of situations. Knowing that you have the tools to handle anything that comes your way will help boost your self-confidence.

How do you apply leadership theories?

BetterUp’s research has identified that one of the most important qualities that a leader can have is future-mindedness. A future-minded leader can think through multiple, possible outcomes and anticipate what to do in each situation.

As you look to integrate the key points of the main leadership theories, it’s a good idea to develop your power of prospection. Think through: What could happen? Who would be involved? What would success look like, and how could we achieve it in the face of the worst-case scenario?

1. What could happen?

Grace under pressure is a trait associated with many successful leaders, and rightfully so. Doing something new and taking risks often means dealing with a high level of uncertainty. When ambiguity is handled poorly, it can foment mistrust and fear in even the most connected work environment .

A leader that’s confident and self-assured (trait theory) can inspire trust and confidence in their team — for a time. But if it’s not backed up with action (behavioral), people begin to feel that their leaders are keeping secrets or out-of-touch.

In ambiguous situations, let your direct reports see you work through possible scenarios (situational theory). Show them that you’re aware of both their concerns and the worst-case scenario. Don’t be afraid to bring in outside help. Asking for help can seem scary, because it means admitting that there’s something you don’t know. But the very act is proof that a plan is underway.

2. Who would be involved?

Many leadership theories agree that a leader’s greatest responsibility is to their people. That’s because the position of a leader implies trust. People “follow” because they believe that a leader is taking them somewhere that they couldn’t go on their own.

Leaders have a commitment to the “bottom line” as well as their teams, but it’s a good idea to try to seek a win-win in the process (transformational leadership). For example, if a company is looking to hire for a new role, is it possible to promote an internal candidate (coaching)? If there will be layoffs, will employees still have access to healthcare and wellness perks? Even when the outcome isn’t favorable, a leader who’s invested in their team will seek to minimize impact.

Furthermore, strong leaders communicate early and often. They let group members and stakeholders know what changes are coming down the line and how the team may be affected. This type of leader often earns a high degree of trust and loyalty from their team. People know that even if circumstances look bleak, they have someone looking out for their best interests.

3. What would success look like?

There are many paths to success. A strong leader knows that the first, second, and even third plans may not work out. They focus on the encouragement and empowerment of their team, keeping them energized as they work towards the end goal.

This is where agility is most important. If you have a clear vision of what a successful outcome looks like, and you’re not too attached to how you get there, you have a greater chance of achieving it. The contingent theory emphasizes this type of leader behavior . It helps teams respond quickly under changing conditions to meet the goal.

Perhaps the biggest strength of this leadership style is that it empowers other people within the organization to step up and lead. These leaders manage by delegating responsibility to others. They give their direct reports opportunities to grow even as they work to complete tasks. Individuals on the team grow their communication skills, problem-solving abilities, and other core leadership competencies . Transformational leaders tend to be the most adept at this. They coach their teams “on the field” to improve their skills as they achieve outsized results.

Be the best leader you can be

In order to develop into a successful leader, you don’t necessarily have to memorize every leadership theory. You have to have a clear understanding of what you’re working towards, a sense of responsibility to your team, and willingness to grow.

All of these skills are rooted in self-awareness . Leadership theories are part of what helps us cultivate that awareness. We learn from the example of those around us. Then we internalize and develop based on what we learn. In that way, becoming a leader isn’t an art or a science, but a continuous process of intentional growth.

If you want support in developing leadership skills and understanding what it means to be future-minded, reach out to BetterUp for a demo today.

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The Major Leadership Theories

The 8 Major Theories of Leadership

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Karen Cilli is a fact-checker for Verywell Mind. She has an extensive background in research, with 33 years of experience as a reference librarian and educator.

Verywell / Brianna Gilmartin 

• "Great Man"

Contingency

• Situational
• Participative
• Relationship

What Kind of Leader Are You?

What is it that makes some people excel in leadership roles? Leadership theories seek to explain how and why certain people become leaders. Such theories often focus on the characteristics of leaders, but some attempt to identify the behaviors that people can adopt to improve their own leadership abilities in different situations.

Early debates on the psychology of leadership often suggested that such skills were simply abilities that people were born with. In other words, these theories proposed that certain people were simply "born leaders." Some more recent theories propose that possessing certain traits may help make people nature leaders, but that experience and situational variables also play a critical role.

A Closer Look at Leadership Theories

As interest in the psychology of leadership has increased over the last 100 years, a number of different leadership theories have been introduced to explain exactly how and why certain people become great leaders.

What exactly makes a great leader? Do certain personality traits make people better suited to leadership roles, or do characteristics of the situation make it more likely that certain people will take charge? When we look at the leaders around us—be it our employer or the President—we might find ourselves wondering exactly why these individuals excel in such positions.

People have long been interested in leadership throughout human history, but it has only been relatively recently that a number of formal leadership theories have emerged. Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century.

Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill levels. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types.

"Great Man" Theories

Have you ever heard someone described as "born to lead?" According to this point of view, great leaders are simply born with the necessary internal characteristics such as charisma, confidence, intelligence, and social skills that make them natural-born leaders.

Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent—that great leaders are born, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic, and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

Such theories suggest that people cannot really learn how to become strong leaders. It's either something you are born with or born without. It is very much a nature ( as opposed to nurture ) approach to explaining leadership.

Trait Theories

Similar in some ways to Great Man theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify a particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. For example, traits like extroversion , self-confidence, and courage are all traits that could potentially be linked to great leaders.

If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.

There are plenty of people who possess the personality traits associated with leadership, yet many of these people never seek out positions of leadership. There are also people who lack some of the key traits often associated with effective leadership yet still excel at leading groups.

Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations.

Leadership researchers White and Hodgson suggest that truly effective leadership is not just about the qualities of the leader, it is about striking the right balance between behaviors, needs, and context.

Good leaders are able to assess the needs of their followers, take stock of the situation, and then adjust their behaviors accordingly. Success depends on a number of variables including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.

Situational Theories

Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.

For example, in a situation where the leader is the most knowledgeable and experienced member of a group, an authoritarian style might be most appropriate. In other instances where group members are skilled experts, a democratic style would be more effective.

Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Consider it the flip-side of the Great Man theories. Rooted in behaviorism , this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.

Participative Theories

Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.

Management Theories

Management theories, also known as transactional theories , focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded and when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

Relationship Theories

Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task.

These leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want every person to fulfill their potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.  

Try our fast and free quiz to find out your usual leadership style.

There are many different ways of thinking about leadership, ranging from focusing on the personality traits of great leadership to emphasizing aspects of the situation that help determine how people lead.

Like most things, leadership is a highly multi-faceted subject and it is a mixture of many factors that help determine why some people become great leaders. Learn more about some of the things that make people strong leaders is one way of potentially improving your own skills.

Benmira S, Agboola M. Evolution of leadership theory . BMJ Leader . Published online January 8, 2021:leader-2020-000296. doi:10.1136/leader-2020-000296

Malakyan PG. Followership in leadership studies: A case of leader-follower trade approach . Journal of Leadership Studies . 2014;7(4):6-22. doi:10.1002/jls.21306

Mango E. Rethinking leadership theories . Open Journal of Leadership . 2018;07(01):57-88. doi:10.4236/ojl.2018.71005

Grant AM, Gino F, Hofmann DA. Reversing the extraverted leadership advantage: The role of employee proactivity . Academy of Management Journal. 2011;54(3):528-550. doi:10.5465/amj.2011.61968043

Khan ZA, Nawaz A, Khan IU. Leadership theories and styles: A literature review . Journal of Resources Development and Management . 2016;16:1-7.

Hodgson P, White R.  Leadership, learning, ambiguity and uncertainty and their significance to dynamic organizations . In: Peterson R, Mannix E, eds.  Leading and Managing People in the Dynamic Organization.  Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 2003.

Cote R. A comparison of leadership theories in an organizational environment . International Journal of Business Administration . 2017;8(5):28. doi:10.5430/ijba.v8n5p28

Amanchukwu R, Stanley G, Ololube N. A review of leadership theories, principles and styles and their relevance to educational management . Management . 2015;5(1)(2162-8416):6-14. doi:10.5923/j.mm.20150501.02

Groves KS, LaRocca MA. An empirical study of leader ethical values, transformational and transactional leadership, and follower attitudes toward corporate social responsibility . J Bus Ethics. 2011;103: 511. doi:10.1007/s10551-011-0877-y

• Gill, R. (2011). Theory and practice of leadership. London: SAGE Publications.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Five Leadership Theories and How to Apply Them

Center for Values-Driven Leadership August 15, 2017 Values-Driven Leaders

When Kathleen Yosko, now CEO of Northwestern Medicine’s Marianjoy Rehabilitation Center, began her first job as a hospital president, there was no onboarding process planned, and no one to welcome her. Thinking it was a mistake, Yosko called her headquarters for advice. They told her, “Just do whatever a president does.”

Fortunately, Yosko was a seasoned leader and she intuited where to start. But for many others, our first forays into leadership felt much like Yosko’s first day: knowing how to start was not obvious. In many companies, individuals are promoted because of their technical skill – they are gifted engineers, accountants, or marketers – but that does not mean they are prepared for leadership. Leadership is a skill that can be learned, but it takes intentionality .

In the past half century, the study of leadership has grown, offering many new theories and frameworks for exploring what it means to be a leader, and how to do leadership well. In this article, we outline five current leadership theories, and offer resources and suggestions for integrating the theories into your own leadership practice. We will explore:

Transformational Leadership

Leader-member exchange theory.

• Adaptive Leadership
• Strengths-Based Leadership
• Servant Leadership

But First, A Quick Review of Leadership History

Before we begin, we need to put leadership theory and practice in the context of history, to understand how the field of study has evolved . The earliest theories of leadership were the Great Man Theories, which emerged in the late 1800s. (Perhaps you can see one primary fault with these theories, just from their name: they assumed only half the world’s population could even be considered for leadership.) The Great Man concept evolved into trait-based theories of leadership, which defined leadership by a leader’s characteristics, most of which were considered innate. You were either lucky enough to be born with them, or you weren’t. (Starting, first, with a Y chromosome.) For many of us, our first understanding of leadership may have aligned with these theories: leaders were often men with dominant personalities. We still see this theory at play unconsciously today, when someone is overlooked for a leadership role because of a quiet personality.

In the middle of the last century, the study of leadership shifted from the study of traits to the study of behaviors: not who the leader is but what the leader does . This allowed for an understanding that leadership could be developed in others. The most prominent leadership theories today build on this understanding, and begin to integrate the perspective of followers and the contextual circumstances in which leaders and followers interact. As business, and our understanding of human nature, grows more complex, leadership theories and frameworks should evolve to accommodate the new contexts and understandings.

Defining Leadership

Before we unpack contemporary theories of leadership, we need to define the term itself. Leadership theory scholar Dr. Peter Northouse defines leadership as “a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.” This definition makes clear that leadership is not a trait or behavior, and it is not a position. You are not made a leader by your job title, you are made a leader by your influence.

Finally, contemporary theories of leadership wrestle with the motivations of leaders: can you be a leader if your goal is selfish or even malicious? The classic question is, “Was Adolf Hitler a leader?” Theories of leadership must wrestle with the moral implications of a leader’s motivations. As you’ll see in several of the theories below, many theories would answer the question of Hitler with a firm no: Hitler was a dictator, but not a leader. He had positional authority, but did not show true leadership.

To begin our exploration of leadership theories, let’s start with one of the most researched and referenced today, transformational leadership.

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The concepts of transformational leadership were brought to prominence by political sociologist James MacGregor Burns, in the late 1970s. Burns identified two types of leadership,

• Transactional : where a leader influences others by what they offer in exchange, the transaction;
• T ransformational: where a leader connects with followers in such a way that it raises the level of motivation and morality.

Those two words – motivation and morality – are important, as it demands that transformational leaders be committed to a collective good. This may be a societal good, such as starting a community center or improving air quality, or a more personalized good, such as helping direct reports reach their own potential.

Activating transformational leadership:

If Kathleen Yosko, the hospital CEO who was thrown into leadership with little direction, wanted to employ transformational leadership strategies in her work, she might start with four factors researchers find present in transformational leaders. Northouse (2016) outlines these factors, which can serve as a starting place for test driving transformational leadership:

• Idealized influence, or charisma: Transformational leaders have an uncanny ability to make you want to follow the vision they establish.
• Inspirational motivation: Communication is a vehicle of inspiration for transformational leaders; they use words to encourage others and inspire action.
• Intellectual stimulation: Transformational leaders stretch others to think more deeply, challenge assumptions, and innovate.
• Individualized concern: Finally, while focused on the common good, transformational leaders show care and concern for individuals.

The concept of individualized concern has some carry-over to our second theory, Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX). To understand this theory, you only need to think back to junior high: almost every student could be divided into two categories, popular or unpopular.

LMX theory explains that in any group or organization, there are in-group members and out-group members. In-group members work well with the leader, have a personality that fits with the leader’s, and are often willing to take on extra tasks or responsibilities. Out-group members are less compatible with the leader; they may hold dissenting opinions, have clashing personalities, or be less willing to take on extra assignments. Not surprisingly, in-group members are more likely to earn promotions; out-group members are more likely to leave.

Activating LMX theory :

For followers, applying the concepts of LMX theory is easy: align yourself with the leader, take on extra tasks, and expect positive results. For leaders, LMX offers a greater challenge, because making your team as productive as possible will mean finding ways to turn out-group members into in-group members. Individualized concern, the final factor of transformational leadership, may offer one path to converting out-group members.

Additionally, LMX theory has important implications for improving diversity and inclusion. If minorities, women, or people with disabilities routinely identify as out-group members, the leader should ask the question, “What is required to be an in-group member here, and are we creating unintentional barriers for others?”

More on Leadership Theory

Continue learning about leadership theory in the next article in this series, where we’ll discuss Adaptive Leadership, Strengths Based Leadership, and Servant Leadership, along with the usefulness of leadership theories. >> Read more in part 2 of this series.

Download our Leadership Doctoral Program Booklet to learn about the Ph.D./D.B.A. program in values-driven leadership, for senior executives.

Amber Johnson is the Center’s Chief Communications Officer and Senior Research Associate; she is also a doctoral student in the Center’s Ph.D./D.B.A. Program in Values-Driven Leadership.

Want more on Leadership Theory? Find an interview on why leadership theory matters, at this link. 

Northouse, P.G. (2016). Leadership: Theory and practice (7 th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishers, Inc.

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Justin Greenleaf, Ph.D., Lori Kniffin, Ph.D., Kaley Klaus, Ed.D., Megan Rust, MPS 10.12806/V22/I2/A1

Introduction

Leadership theory has evolved and expanded over time (Nelson & Squires, 2017), and contemporary theories are built on the foundation set by earlier ones. Many leadership education programs include a course that focuses on understanding various leadership theories and concepts and how they have shaped the field of study (Komives & Sowcik, 2020). Often, this type of course is offered at the beginning of an academic program of study, as this approach allows students in the program to have a shared understanding of the meaning of the term, “leadership.”

Authors within the field (see Dugan, 2017; Ebener & Jalšenjak, 2021; Northouse, 2021, for examples) have created resources to outline historical and contemporary theories of leadership. While these authors present the theories with different organizing schemes, it is clear there are a variety of theories that exist which serve as a foundation for leadership knowledge and practice. Some theories emphasize the individual (e.g., trait and behavior theories), while others highlight the leadership setting (e.g., situational and contextual theories). Each theory provides insight, or an angle, into understanding part of the complex process of leadership; however, it is through synthesizing these ideas that students can think critically about the nature of leadership.

It can be challenging for students to synthesize and integrate leadership theories and concepts. While instructors have a wide range of teaching techniques to use, they are often limited by the time frame of the course. In some cases, especially in short courses (e.g., four to eight weeks), the amount of information introduced, explored, and discussed can be overwhelming. In our experience of teaching leadership theories, we find some students are able to see the forest from the trees, others tend to get lost in the woods. As a coping method, these students tend to choose a theory or concept that resonates with them, and focus narrowly on that concept, rather than try to make sense of all available information. This narrow focus ultimately becomes leadership to them, which leads to the student moving forward from the theory course with a skewed and/or incomplete idea of the leadership process.

In an attempt to address this problem, we created a mind map assignment designed to help students visually organize the relationships among leadership theories and concepts and apply it to their lives. The goal of this assignment was to help students recognize the connections between leadership theories and concepts, and to understand the process of leadership as something happening in the broader context. In this article, we describe our application of using mind maps in an introductory leadership concepts course in our undergraduate program, and present outcomes and implications of this practice. Lastly, we provide recommendations for leadership educators who would like to implement mind mapping as a practice for supporting students when integrating leadership theories and concepts holistically into their lives.

Literature Review

The teaching and learning methods used in any course have an impact on the student learning experience, and there are many methods to choose from when planning a lesson. Popular methods include: lecturing, class discussion, case studies, and role-play activities (Guthrie & Jenkins, 2018). Mind maps have also become a popular study tool in recent years, as a reflective strategy (Wilson et al., 2022), and to help students connect separate ideas and apply that knowledge (Mesa, 2018), as well as introduce knowledge in a more sustainable way (Lozano et al., 2017).

Mind mapping is a brainstorming technique that allows people to develop their ideas by writing down a central idea and developing a “map” of the associations their mind makes with it (Jones, 2012). These associations can be in the form of pictures, different colors, or words connected to the central idea (Keleş, 2012). A mind map is often compared to a tree, with the central idea being the root and the related ideas being branches. In addition to brainstorming, mind maps may be used as a pedagogical tool to generate creative and active learning, help students “recall and connect previous knowledge,” organize information, and enhance critical thinking (Tavares et al., 2021). As technology has developed, it is becoming more common for students to use computer programs, rather than a pencil and paper, to create mind maps (Su et al., 2022), and therefore mind maps have become a more popular activity in the academy.

Tony Buzan popularized mind mapping as a tool to encourage critical thinking in students (Buzan & Buzan, 1996). Since then, mind mapping has been used to improve the critical thinking skills of nursing students (Wu & Wu, 2020), teach mathematical principles (Loc & Loc, 2020), and develop English writing skills (Gou et al., 2021). This strategy allows students to practice active learning and creativity while learning and reviewing information (Tavares et al., 2021). Mind maps give students the opportunity to analyze presented information and find new associations between seemingly unrelated ideas (Davies, 2010). This is considered an active learning strategy that helps students build their knowledge in a way that makes sense to them (Hegarty-McGinley, 2018).

Guthrie and Jenkins (2018) posit that developing knowledge of leadership through theories and concepts “represents a critical part of leadership education,” and that learning occurs “when applying leadership theories and concepts to personal experiences” (p. 59). Mind mapping is an active and practical, pedagogical tool that has been effective in other disciplines, and so in this article, we describe the use of mind mapping within an undergraduate leadership program to help students make connections between leadership theories and their lives, and subsequently, develop their knowledge of leadership.

Context of Application

To understand the outcomes of the mind mapping assignment discussed in this manuscript, it is important to understand the context in which it is administered. Fort Hays State University is a midwestern, public state university, which offers programs in three modalities: on-campus face-to-face, online, and through cross-border partnerships. Offering programs in 31 academic departments, Fort Hays State University offers the only undergraduate major in organizational leadership in the state. In addition, the Department of Leadership Studies offers a minor in leadership studies as well as multiple academic certificates. In total, the Department serves over 500 undergraduate students across all leadership programs, with around 200 students pursuing academic programs domestically on-campus or online, and a little over 300 earning their degree through a cross-border program.

The mind mapping assignment is the culminating assignment in our course, Introduction to Leadership Concepts, which serves as the first core course in our undergraduate major program, minor program, and academic certificate, and is a prerequisite for most undergraduate courses in our programs. The purpose of the course is to introduce students to historical and contemporary theories, concepts, and issues associated with the leadership studies discipline; a multitude of approaches to leadership are covered. The course is offered on-campus and cross-border in a 16-week format, and online in an eight- or 16-week format. Students who participate in the course on-campus are typically of “traditional” student age, between 18-24 years. The online course includes some traditional students but is largely comprised of adult learners—who are defined as those age 25 and above (Chen, 2017; Osam et. al, 2017).

The Introduction to Leadership Concepts course is organized into three units—each covering a sub-set of theories and concepts: (1) leader-centric, (2) relational, (3) context and process. See Table 1 for a list of concepts taught in the course, which are listed as conceptual categories (e.g., ethical leadership) rather than specific theories, models, or frameworks taught within that category (e.g., Kidder’s four patterns of ethical dilemmas).

Leadership Concepts Taught in Introductory Course

Description of Application

This mind map assignment is designed to help students visualize the connections between leadership theories and concepts and their own lives. Students are instructed to identify an area of their life—to establish a specific context—and draw connections to leadership. We encourage students to design “free-form” maps, meaning they have an unconstrained structure, allowing the student to “go where they want” with the map. Because this approach might make it difficult for the instructor to interpret the connections a student makes, students submit an essay alongside their map describing the connections and how and why the leadership concepts apply to any particular piece of life.

Assignment Instructions.  There are three primary components to the assignment: (1) the mind map, (2) a description of the map and reflection on connected leadership concepts, and (3) a brief discussion on their holistic approach to leadership. When creating the mind map, students are asked to connect an area of their life to a minimum of five concepts taught in the introductory course. Our introductory concepts course covers a multitude of theories, models, and general concepts (see Table 1), including: early and contemporary trait and behavioral theories, contingency and situational models, shared leadership concepts (transformational leadership, servant leadership, adaptive leadership), followership, power, influence, organizational culture, leader-member exchange, diversity, and global leadership, so a minimum of five connections is easy to achieve for the students.

Students may use a variety of online platforms to aid this process such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Lucidchart, Plectica, MindMup, Visme, and Mind Meister. Many online platforms are available for free to the students. As noted above, we ask students to identify a piece of their life for which to establish leadership connections in order to set a context for their perspective. Some students select a specific organization they are involved in through work or personal connections, or they may select to connect leadership concepts to their family or friend groups. Once a context is established, it becomes the center “bubble” of the map, and they connect various concepts from that vantage point. We discuss the most common contexts and the leadership connections made in students’ maps later in this article.

Part two of the assignment requires students to describe their connections, with a thorough rationale and reflection on how the leadership concepts map to their life. The description of the map directs the reader on how to follow the connections, while the critical reflection seeks to discuss the connections in greater depth. For example, if a student creates a connection between their part-time job manager and the concept of power, students are expected to discuss how and why the connection to power is relevant, and how it impacts this portion of their life. In this instance, we would expect the student to specify the base of power (i.e., legitimate, coercive, referent, etc.) through which their manager operates, and what it is like, as an employee, to interact with another person who holds that power. Typically, this piece of the assignment is written in about four to six pages, double-spaced.

The final portion of the assignment asks students to define leadership in a personally holistic manner. Essentially, we ask, “Now that you know about all of these concepts, how do YOU define leadership?” This is usually a struggle for our students, as there are many perspectives through which to study leadership, and creating a personal point-of-view on the subject can be challenging. Considering leadership scholars and practitioners have chosen to adopt several definitions for leadership, we cannot be surprised our own students find this a difficult endeavor. We will discuss the outcomes of this particular portion of the assignment later in this article.

At the end of the semester, we also ask our on-campus students to share their map during the final class period of the semester. Though this presentation is not evaluated for a grade, it allows students to recognize the connections they have with each other, in addition to the connections they have to leadership.

Each portion of the assignment is evaluated using an analytic rubric (Figure 1), which specifies multiple levels of achievement the student can attain.

Grading Rubric for Mind Map Assignment

Faculty Approaches to the Assignment .  Because this assignment serves as a culminating piece of the introductory course, faculty introduce the guidelines and expectations early in the term. For example, during a 16-week term, the assignment is introduced during week six of the class, at the conclusion of the first course unit. Students are encouraged to begin thinking about a context on which to base the map at that time, select an online platform with which to build the map, and build the map piece-by-piece throughout the rest of the semester. Of course, as faculty with years of experience, we recognize that while we encourage students to begin this work early, it is not necessarily likely they will do so. With that said, we often incorporate informal check-ins with students to ensure they haven’t “forgotten” about the requirement. We usually do this at the end of the second unit, and mid-way through the third unit.

One way to conduct an informal check-in is to allow students some time in class, or in an online discussion board, to brainstorm contexts and connections for their map. We cannot underestimate the power of communal brainstorming for this assignment; bouncing ideas off of one another helps students formulate their approach to the map. Faculty also allow work time during class to give students the opportunity to clarify expectations and ask questions toward the end of the term.

Moreover, mind mapping is a new concept to most students in this course; therefore, providing opportunities for students to create mind maps in class can give them practice in mapping. For example, one of the authors has implemented an in-class activity for on-campus students to map their personal identities during the course chapter on diversity and leadership. Referring to Loden’s primary and secondary dimensions of identity (see Loden, 1996), students practice the process of mapping by identifying their own dimensions and mapping each one to themselves. Doing this activity has helped students feel more comfortable with the practice of mind mapping prior to formulating their final mind map assignment.

Outcomes and Implications

We reviewed 99 mind map assignments submitted in our on-campus and online courses in the spring 2022 semester to determine whether this assignment is effective in helping students connect a holistic view of leadership to their life. We examined three primary components of the submissions: (1) how students chose to organize their mind map, (2) the leadership concepts students displayed in their mind maps and how they are applied, and (3) how students defined their personal holistic approach to leadership.

Organization of Mind Maps.  There were three ways students chose to organize their mind maps: (1) placing themselves at the center of the map, (2) placing an organization at the center of the map, and (3) placing themselves or an organization at the center of their map but, with a metaphorical representation.

Organizing with the Self. The most common way students organized their mind map was to put themselves at the center, or as the primary foundation, of the map, and think about their life as a whole, rather than focusing on one area. Typically, each branch related to another area of their life such as their family, social groups, or organizations. These maps usually featured at least one theory for each branch of their life. For example, a student might map their family and connect authentic leadership to describe their mother; they may also include a student organization they are involved in and connect types of power to describe the officers in the group. Figure 2 displays a mind map created by David, a student who aligned both his personal and professional roles to multiple leadership approaches.

David’s Personal Mind Map

Organizing with an Organization. Another common way students organized their map was by putting a group or organization at the center. For example, student athletes often put their teams at the center; the branches of the map typically related to people within that team such as a coach, themselves, a captain, and upperclassmen. Students also placed organizations in which they are involved in the center. Figure 3 provides an example through which a student involved in 4-H defined multiple aspects of the organization and leadership concepts such as power, followership, and organizational culture. Adult learners often applied this method in the contexts of their workplace.

4-H Organization Mind Map

Organizing with Metaphors and Images. A less common, though notable, method in which students organized their map was to create an image or metaphor to design their map. For example, one student mapped a house where each element (the foundation, walls, windows, and roof) represented different leadership theories and concepts. Another student designed a butterfly; the wings symbolized two major elements of her leadership practice, and the center of the butterfly and the antennae represented her values and beliefs that founded her leadership practices. Some students also used images within their map to illustrate connections to leadership theories or concepts. For example, one student described symbols related to organizational culture, and she included several images representing the cultural symbols of the Scouts of America organization. Figure 4 represents a metaphorical map from a student involved in the Future Farmers of America (FFA) organization; she created her map in the shape of an ear of corn, which is a symbol included in the FFA emblem (FFA, 2022).

FFA Ear of Corn Mind Map

Leadership Concepts and Applications.

Leadership concepts. Students chose to include a wide variety of leadership concepts in their mind maps. In our review, we found over 20 concepts were mapped, with the most common concept being power, followed by servant leadership, followership, and behavioral theories. The least commonly mapped concepts were social change, charismatic leadership, and management versus leadership. While one may assume students chose to map the concepts most recently covered in the course, we discovered students mapped concepts found in all three units of the class (see Table 2), suggesting this assignment challenged students to apply, comprehensively, a variety of leadership theories and concepts–historical and contemporary–in their map. Overall, students included an average of 4.71 leadership concepts in their maps, with the most being seven theories used and the least being one.

Frequency of Leadership Concepts Cited in Student Mind Maps

Application of concepts. Students applied theories and concepts in multiple ways throughout their maps. The students who chose to center themselves in their mind maps often used the people in their lives to exhibit their chosen leadership theories. For example, students often chose to connect leadership concepts to their family members, followed by friends and coworkers. Notably, when students included their family members in the map, they often connected their mothers with servant leadership and their fathers with the use of power. Some students also chose to connect themselves directly to leadership theories. For example, Figure 2 demonstrates how one student, David, considers himself a servant leader because he is a provider, understands others’ needs, and supports others’ goals. Servant leadership was one of the most common connections students made to themselves, along with followership.

Students who placed an organization at the center of their map often took the opportunity to discuss aspects of the organizational culture. As shown in Figure 3, this student referred to mechanisms of culture to describe aspects of the organization; they noted rites and ceremonies, symbols, and the specialized language of 4-H. Further, the student identified leadership styles others used at different points in 4-H operations. Power was also a popular topic among maps aligned with organizations, as students often noted the types of power held by leaders of the organization (see Figure 3), as well as the influence tactics they may use (see Figure 4).

A noticeable trend among the use of the most cited concepts includes connecting those concepts to individuals or specific roles rather than the process or activities associated with leadership. For example, when making connections with power, students often identified a specific person in their life or organization and explained the types of power that person holds. Similarly, with servant leadership, authentic leadership, and various leadership traits or behaviors, students identified individuals who exemplified that approach to leadership. This approach to designing their map might imply that students continue to view leadership from a primarily leader-centric perspective. Perhaps this is because historical theories are leader-centric and are taught in the first unit, which is heavily aligned with popular understandings of leadership. While we shift to contextual/process perspectives later in the semester, it may be difficult for students to fully shift perspectives away from foundational leader-centric theories. It is worth exploring whether a shift in the order of our course units would make an impact on student understanding of contemporary approaches.

Personal Holistic Approaches.  To better understand the outcomes of the mind map assignment, we examined how students viewed leadership theories and concepts before and after designing their map. An exam is given at the end of each unit, so we added an essay question to the unit three exam which included the same prompt as students would later answer in their mind map essay: “Describe how you would connect the various theories we’ve learned this semester into a holistic approach to leadership.” We reviewed the exam responses and compared them to the responses in the mind map paper for patterns/themes.

Pre-Assignment Exam. The exam was the first time the students were asked to connect theories to create a holistic approach to leadership. Because this was on an exam, they did not have time to prepare a response or review the concepts within their notes. In reviewing the answers, we noticed several patterns.

• Students cited theories and concepts used more recently (likely because they were on the exam).
• Theories and concepts concerning adaptation were particularly popular. Students often discussed the need to “adapt to [the follower’s] needs,” and be prepared to adapt to “new goals and expectations” as a project evolves. This often did not include reference to a specific theory or model covered in the course.
• Students included values and ethics into a model of holistic leadership. According to students, leaders should be able to “integrate their value[s] into their everyday actions” to inspire followers to do the same. They also explored the need for leaders to “define [their] values” and voice those values to their team members.
• The majority of students commented on only one to two theories or concepts.
• More students left this essay question unanswered, compared to other essay questions on the exam.

Mind Map Essay. After using the mind map to connect leadership theories and concepts they have seen in their own lives, students were able to create a larger and more holistic view of leadership. Their responses were more varied and more intentionally written than the exam responses. In the essay portion of their mind map, students wrote about a variety of concepts covered across the class curriculum, from all three units of content. For example, the first unit in the class is leader-centric theories, and students often incorporated statements about the traits and behaviors of a leader within their definition. Leaders who can “change their leadership style based on their surroundings” are considered successful as well as leaders who possess “good traits” for leadership.

The second unit in the class focuses on relational theories, and students focused on followership and change. Students included followers in their holistic view of leadership and put an emphasis on “valuing” their followers and communicating clearly with them. Some students also included the idea that “being a good follower is the first step” to becoming a good leader. The second relational theme they discussed was the idea of servant leadership. While in the maps many students connected this theory to their mothers or their pastor, this approach was highly referenced as their primary approach to leadership.

Students also brought forward theories from the final unit on context and process, primarily concentrating on process. Students often focused on values, authentic leadership, and adaptive leadership. One student commented that it is important for a leader to “articulate [their] values and expectations” to their team in order to create a positive environment. Other students commented that values are “important” in the leadership process. Holistic leadership also includes authenticity on the part of the leader. It “bring[s] honesty to the work environment” and requires a leader to “be authentic with their values.” The theme of adaptability was also popular in the student essay responses. It is crucial for a leader to “recognize what the group needs” when facing challenges.

Implications.  Our intention was not to use the response to the exam and essay prompts as pre/post data to explore scientific variables associated with student mind mapping, but rather to explore the approaches students took to thinking holistically about theories and concepts learned in the course. When the students were asked to describe theories and concepts holistically in the exam, they had a difficult time drawing upon specific approaches taught in the course and making concrete connections to their lives. While it may seem obvious that students would respond to the prompt with more thoughtfulness and concreteness in the mind map assignment, we point to this as the primary implication of our application.

Students need intentional time to reflect on what they have learned—especially as it relates to themselves—and mind mapping provides that structured opportunity. In our dialogue with students about this assignment—before and after class or through email—we found selecting the organizing structure of the map is one of the most difficult steps. Many students struggle to begin thinking about how leadership theories and concepts can be integrated into their lives. As they grapple through organizing the map and work to connect the theories and concepts into a comprehensive visual, it becomes clearer on how they would connect theories and concepts holistically into an area of their lives.

Recommendations 

The application of a mind map tool provides a variety of benefits to leadership educators. While this article describes the integration of leadership theories and concepts, it is certainly not limited to that subject matter. For example, mind maps could be used to assist students in understanding the interaction of various leadership styles or personalities, deepen the exploration of cross-cultural differences, or map the working relationship between team members. It also allows educators to diversify their teaching strategies and better serve students with diverse learning styles (Guthrie & Jenkins, 2018). For those interested in implementing mind maps, clarity is an important consideration. As described above, prior to presenting the idea of mind mapping to students, one should carefully think through the reason behind the use of the maps, how the work will be described and understood by the student, and how it will be evaluated.

Limitations of the work described in this manuscript include that there is little to no evidence of true understanding. While the comparison of the exam responses to the mind map essays showed an expanded use of theory, there was no attempt to demonstrate the conceptual framework in any type of applied setting. It would be difficult to replicate the results of this work due to the varied nature of leadership programs and curriculum design (Greenleaf et al., 2018). Despite these limitations, future research could easily build on the foundation provided by this work to experiment with or improve the use of mind maps. It would be worthwhile to delve deeper into how these reflections shape students’ long-term perception and understanding of leadership, as well as how that understanding manifests itself in individual attempts to engage in the act of leadership.

Mind mapping is a pedagogical tool that helps students brainstorm how to organize information in a way that incorporates creative and active learning, as well as critical thinking. We shared an example of using mind maps in an undergraduate course focused on teaching leadership theory—including the assignment description, rubric, and a discussion of the application broadly. We discussed how we have seen students organize their maps based on themselves, organizations, or metaphors to integrate theories into their lives. Through this practice, we found that mind mapping leadership theories and concepts to areas of their life can develop students’ ability to describe how leadership theories operate more holistically in their life, rather than narrowing their understanding to one or two popular concepts. Thus, we recommend leadership educators consider mind mapping as a pedagogical tool to teach leadership theories and concepts that require understanding in a broader context. Future research on this learning tool in leadership education could also help us understand the impact it has on student learning outcomes. 

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Basic Academic Theories of Leadership

• First Online: 18 June 2017

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Over time one or more theories has occupied a prominent place in academic leadership research. While leadership constructs may manifest differently in specific contexts, trust usually is a part of any specific theory, either explicitly or implicitly. Categorizing pure academic leadership theories may not be a realistic strategy to understand effective leadership since most behaviors of effective leaders are a mix of academic leadership theories so that lines become too blurred to use a specific academic theory as a recipe for leadership. Nevertheless, due to the pervasive use of categorized theories of leadership in the literature, they are discussed in this chapter by leadership typology.

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5 Leadership Theories: The Complete List Explained

by  Antony W

December 19, 2022

In this guide, you’ll learn everything there is to know about leadership theories. In particular, we’ll look at the five theories as well as why it’s significant to learn them.

To begin with, leadership theories spring forth from varied ways of thinking. Some stress personalities and qualities, while others emphasize environmental factors that promote effective leadership.  

One of the most essential factors that influence the success or failure of a company is its human aspect. In the commercial world, the most valued talent is leadership.

This discusses several well-known leadership theories that can help you strengthen your talents and allow you to improve your performance in the workplace.

Let’s get started.

What is a Leadership Theory?

Leadership theories are philosophies proposed to explain how and why certain individuals attain leadership positions.

These ideas illuminate the characteristics and actions of a leader and can assist individuals in developing their leadership skills.

Individuals are difficult. They are difficult to comprehend and anticipate even at the best of circumstances. Leadership theories aid in making things simpler.

You cannot foresee how each individual will respond to a particular event. However, if you recognize the sort of leader you are, you will be able to take action that is more decisive. And your team will be able to attain its objectives via the use of sound, decisive judgment.

5 Leadership Theories Explained

A leadership theory explains why and how some people become leaders.

Each theory focuses on the traits and actions that individuals may acquire to improve their leadership skill. And according to the already established leaders, a good leader must possess strong ethics and high moral standards.

With that said, here’s a brief explanation of the different types of leadership theories that you should know about:

1. The Great Man Theory

According to the Great Man Theory, leaders are born with the necessary characteristics and skills for leadership. The thesis posits that leadership is innate, and that the finest leaders are born, not made.

Although the notion seems disappointing to individuals who wish to study leadership, it is nonetheless an intriguing perspective.

This approach emphasizes the characteristics of effective leaders. These characteristics have stayed mostly unaltered throughout time.

2. Contingency Leadership Theory

This leadership theory emerged in the 1960s and is based on the premise that no single leadership style is applicable in every circumstance.

The contingency theory is a generic idea stating that there is no optimum method to create an organization or lead a team. According to this hypothesis, the optimal leadership style will vary depending on the circumstances.

The contingency theory highlights several situational elements to find the most appropriate leadership style. Effective leadership, according to this theory, is comprised of all three factors: qualities, conduct, and situation.

In addition to possessing the proper traits, effective leaders are also able to assess the requirements of their followers and the circumstances at hand.

In addition to possessing the proper traits, effective leaders are also able to assess the requirements of their followers and the circumstances at hand. To support this hypothesis, several models of Contingency leadership were constructed.

These are:  

• Fred Fiedler’s Contingency Model or LPC Contingency Model
• Situational Theory
• Path-Goal Theory
• Leadership Substitutes Theory
• Multiple-Linkage Model
• Cognitive Resources Theory
• Normative Decision Theory

3. Behavioral Theory

Behavioral theory emphasizes the activities and behaviors of leaders rather than their attributes or qualities.

To support this notion, Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton created the Managerial Grid, commonly known as a leadership grid. They identified five unique leadership styles by classifying managers into 81 potential categories based on their scores.

The following are the many leadership styles identified by the Managerial Grid:

• Indifferent: The work or the personnel are not as valued. It is the least successful leadership style.
• Country Club: Instead than focusing on duties, the Country Club pays more attention to the health and engagement of its workers.
• Task Oriented: Leaders are more concerned with their work than with staff involvement.
• Status Quo: These leaders place an equal amount of attention on staff health and work.
• Sound: These leaders are extremely concerned about both their personnel and their production.

4. Trait Theory

In the late 1940s, Ralph M. Stogdill introduced the characteristic theory of leadership by analyzing the traits of several leaders. These qualities are similar to those of future leaders in order to measure the effectiveness of their leadership potential.

Scholars exploring trait theory concentrate on the following individual characteristic categories:

• Physical characteristics, including look, weight, and height
• Age, education, and family history
• Intellectual traits such as decisiveness, judgment, and knowledge
• Task-related characteristics such as commitment, initiative, resolve, and business acumen
• Personality attributes such as extraversion, self-assurance, honesty, and passion for leadership.

This idea was equally under scrutiny for a number of reasons.

Like the Great Man Theory, this view overlooked environmental and situational considerations.

The stated characteristics of leader according to the theory varied throughout time and made it difficult to determine what makes a good leader. Also, the Trait theory proved incapable of explaining leadership failures, which occurred despite the fact that leaders possessed the necessary characteristics.

5. Contemporary Leadership Theory 

This leadership theory emerged in the 1990s and it represents the New Era of leadership ideas. Researchers feel that a single component of leadership is insufficient and cannot account for the organizational complexity that always occurs.

By definition, contemporary theory is a collection of contemporary literary approaches to management. Modern leaders utilize personal influence to develop and motivate others to attain corporate objectives.

This notion states that every individual has leadership abilities, and as such, it’s possible to make leaders.

Earlier techniques were conventional and relied on leader-follower relationships. However, modern thinking emphasizes more intricate interaction and situational dynamics.

This theory examines several modern leadership theory approaches, including:

• Management Theory
• Relationship Theory, also known as transformational leadership theory
• Servant Leadership Theory
• Authentic Leadership Theory
• Complexity Leadership
• Charismatic Leadership Theory
• Participative Leadership Theory
• Power and  Influence Theory

Final Thoughts

Every team must have a leader in order to succeed. Without a leader, nothing will ever operate efficiently.

When you learn about leadership theory, you study materials that make putting leadership theory into practice even for rookie leaders.

Remember that when it comes to putting leadership theory into practice, the responsibility lies within you.  

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

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Leadership Theories and Styles

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Every company, no matter what industry they’re a part of or how big they are, needs good leadership to be successful. Good leaders are a vital part of effective business practices. And for most, being a good leader doesn’t come inherently. That’s why there are entire degree programs dedicated to management and helping students become great leaders in their business.

In the world of leadership there are many theories about how leadership works, what makes good leaders, and how to be effective. There are many leadership styles that managers can employ and their impact varies based on the group they are leading and the industry they are in. These leadership theories explain how leadership styles work within a company to bring success. If you are studying to become a business leader or manager, it’s important to understand these different leadership theories and how they impact your leadership and management style.

What is a leadership theory?

Leadership theories are the explanations of how and why certain people become leaders. They focus on the traits and behaviors that people can adopt to increase their leadership capabilities. Some of the top traits that leaders say are vital to good leadership include :

Strong ethics and high moral standards

Great self-organizational skills

Efficient learner

Nurtures growth in employees

Fosters connection and belonging

Research shows that these traits are considered the most important to leaders around the world. And leadership theories help explain how leaders harness and develop these traits. Recently leadership theories have been more formalized, making them easier to understand, discuss, and analyze in action. 

Ralph Nader says “The function of leadership is to produce more leaders, not followers.” This is considered transformational leadership—a leader can alter the perspective or psychology of a follower and shift them to want to become a leader too. This suggests that at the end of the day, leadership should be elevating and inspiring. Leaders should push the people they lead to new heights, helping them to grow into what they know they can become. Transformational leadership is an important psychological perspective for leaders to study and understand if they want to really influence and impact others. Different leadership theories address to create stronger and more effective leadership, helping followers become encouraged to be leaders themselves. 

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Major leadership theories.

While there are dozens of leadership theories and psychology, there are a few that are more well-known. These more common leadership theories are important to understand and recognize, especially if you currently are, or are studying to be business leader in the future. Understanding psychological and social impacts of effective leadership will help you determine the kind of leader you want to be.

--Behavioral theory. The behavioral leadership theory focuses on how leaders behave, and assumes that these traits can be copied by other leaders. Sometimes called the style theory, it suggests that leaders aren’t born successful, but can be created based on learnable behavior. Behavioral theories of leadership focus heavily on the actions of a leader—this theory suggests that the best predictor of leadership success is viewing how a leader acts. Action rather than qualities are the focal points of behavioral learning theory. Patterns of behavior are observed and categorized as “styles of leadership” in this theory. Some of the styles of leadership include task-oriented leaders, people-oriented leaders, country club leaders, status-quo leaders, dictatorial leaders, and more. At the end of the day, the actions and actual behaviors of a leader are what defines success in this theory.

The behavioral theory has many advantages, primarily that leaders can learn and decide what actions they want to implement to become the kind of leader they want to be. It allows leaders to be flexible and adapt based on their circumstances. Another great benefit of this leadership style is that it suggests anyone is capable of becoming a leader. Some disadvantages of the behavioral theory are that while it allows flexibility, it doesn’t directly suggest how to behave in certain circumstances. There are dozens of leadership styles that stem from the behavioral theory, but there isn’t a right one for every circumstance. 

A great example of the behavioral theory is looking at a task-oriented leader vs. a people-oriented leader. If there’s a problem with a team, a task-oriented leader will look at the process to see if something needs to be adjusted with the workflow. A people-oriented leader will look at the individuals and go right to them, asking what the issue is. Whatever behaviors you choose, the behavioral leadership theory helps leaders focus on their actions and utilize their decisions to be a great leader.

--Contingency theory. The contingency leadership theory, sometimes called situational theory, focuses on the context of a leader. These theories look at the situational effects of the success or failure or a leader. A leader’s effectiveness is directly determined by the situational context. While a leader’s personality is a small factor in their success, the most important factor is the context and situation of the leader. This theory takes the specific leadership styles and suggests that good leaders can adjust their leadership style situationally. It also suggests that it may be best to find the right kind of leader for a specific situation. Types of contingency theories include the Hershey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory, the Evans and House Path-Goal Theory, and Fiedler’s Contingency Theory.

The contingency theory has great advantages, including that leaders are able to be effective no matter their situational context. However, this theory does have criticism suggesting that there isn’t enough detail that goes into the context of any situation. Contingency theory focuses on the importance of a situation, but may not focus enough on the psychology of the employees or the company itself. It also may not focus enough on how leadership styles can change over time. 

There are internal and external factors that impact a leader and their situation. The type of company, the size of the team, and the innate leadership style of an individual are internal factors. External factors may include the customer feelings and the marketplace. All of these situations play a factor into the contingency theory. 

--Great Man theory. The great man theory of leadership, sometimes called the trait theory, suggests that good leaders are born. They have innate traits and skills that make them great, and these are things that can’t be taught or learned. The trait theory suggests that leaders deserve to be in their position because of their special traits. 

There is a great amount of criticism for the trait theory, mainly that leaders are either born or not, that there isn’t work or effort that is needed to be put in so you can become a leader. This suggests that social or psychological leaders are predetermined and that leaders are unable to come from the shadows—they are either chosen or not. There is also criticism that most of the traits associated with this theory are inherently masculine, and don't match the real psychology of good leaders. 

People cite Abraham Lincoln, Alexander the Great, Queen Elizabeth I, and many others as their examples of the great man theory. These social giants utilized their skills to lead nations. High levels of ambition and determination are usually seen in leaders that appear to bring this theory to life. Today, leaders that climb to the top may view their traits and abilities as part of the “great man” theory. So it may appear that leaders get to their position based on their inherit gifts. 

--Management theory. The management theory is sometimes called transactional leadership, and focuses on supervision, organization, and group performance. Transactional leadership is a system of rewards and punishments, and transactional leadership is regularly used in business. When employees do something successful, managers reward them. When they fail, they may get punished. Transactional rewards and punishments are given based on the idea that people really only do things for the reward. Their psychology doesn't allow human beings to do things out of goodness, but rather out of the promise of a reward.

The management leadership style can be extremely effective. Positive reinforcement is known for working wonders with employees, encouraging and motivating them to succeed. But there is lots of criticism around leadership that is strictly transactional as well. Consequences and punishments can decrease morale in an organization, negatively impacting employees. It can also be seen as a lazy leadership style—rewards and punishments are a relatively simple way to lead employees.

A common example of this management style is a leader that offers a cash bonus for employees who meet a goal. Or a leader who makes employees do extra paperwork if they miss a deadline. 

--Participative theory. Participative leadership isn’t as common in the corporate world. Sometimes called democratic leadership, this leadership theory suggests that employees be directly involved in decision making in their organization. The leader simply facilitates a conversation and then takes all the suggestions, and comes up with the best possible action. In this theory, everyone is very involved with decisions for the team and organization, with the leader simply helping direct the charge.

There are many advantages to this theory. Employees feel more engaged and motivated when they are directly involved in decisions and outcomes for their company. This theory is not without criticism however—some suggest that this type of style makes leaders appear weak or unnecessary. It is also a criticism that leaders in this theory don’t actually get the best outcomes, because they are too engaged in what people want more than what the company needs. 

Bill Gates is a well known example of participative theory. While this theory is still hotly debated, there are many examples of companies that work to incorporate employees more in the decision making process. In this theory, a leader may have a meeting to ask employees how to solve a particular problem. They encourage employees to be open and honest about their thoughts. They take all the suggestions, and meet with other leaders to discuss them. Leaders then make a decision based on the input from employees and their own decision making. Employees tend to appreciate this style, though it can be less effective overall. 

--Power theory. This theory looks at the way a leader utilizes their power and influence to get things accomplished. French and Raven's Five Forms of Power is a commonly known power theory of leadership. It looks at positional power and personal power and how they impact leaders choices and outcomes. 

This theory may appear to be highly effective—leaders with great power may seem highly efficient and get things done quickly. However, most employees don’t appreciate power leadership. They want a leader who doesn’t wield power over them, but works with them and encourages them. Thus the greatest criticism of this theory is that it doesn’t reach the end goal of inspiring and encouraging employees, but rather makes them feel dominated.

The power theory can be seen in organizations where hierarchy and promotion is key to success. Employees in power theory companies see that their only way to influence change or impact the company is to gain power of their own. This can result in low morale, political, and cliquey climates in the office. 

--Relationship theory. The relationship theory of leadership focuses on leaders who are mainly concerned about their interactions with others. They are often mentors for employees, scheduling time to talk to them and working to meet their needs. These kinds of leaders are focused on making work enjoyable for as many people as possible, and they want to foster a positive work environment. Studies show that this kind of leadership behavior can be the most effective for many employees. Relationship-oriented managers often get better results from their employees.

There are many advantages to this kind of leadership. Employees feel confident in their leader and want to follow them. They are also inspired to be good leaders to others. Mentorship provides great opportunities to foster growth in employees, and encourages them to stay at the organization for a longer period of time. There are some critics for this kind of leadership however, including thoughts that relationship driven leaders may be unwilling to view employees who are causing problems at face value, they can let relationships get in the way of work, and they can be guided to favor people over productivity. However, most experts agree that relationship driven leaders are actually more effective at the end of the day.

An example of relationship theory would be a manager who takes a newer employee under her wing. She works to help this employee understand how they fit within the organization, encourage them to be open about questions and problems, and create a positive working relationship. This employee then is encouraged to work hard, point out issues, and help solve problems for the company.

If you’re an aspiring business leader attending school, it’s important to understand leadership theories and how they impact you and your leadership style. Recognizing what leadership style you gravitate toward, or what leadership theory you’d like to employ, can help you determine how to be the most effective leader possible. It’s valuable to recognize leadership theories and styles in the company you work for, and understand what you can do to carry on that leadership theory or improve on it.

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Turned Twenty

8 Major Leadership theories: Strengths, Weaknesses and Examples

Leadership is a multifaceted subject, and a combination of various factors determine why some people are successful leaders. The theories of leadership are the studies and views of experts, scholars, and researchers that describe the aspects that make a great leader.

Different schools of thought have varied opinions on how can you become an extraordinary leader. Some theories suggest that you need to have inborn traits, some advocate you to shape your persona as per the situation, while others emphasize on effective behavior.

However, there are some common characteristics of exceptional leaders. Analyzing the takeaways from these theories can help you understand them and evolve as a leader.

Let’s have a look at the eight major theories, along with their strengths, weaknesses, and examples.

1) Great Man Theory of Leadership: Leaders are born, not made

The great man theory is one of the earliest ways to look at leadership. It states that some people are born with the traits of a leader; they have the gift of unique qualities. These attributes separate them from the masses and make them reach the position of power and authority.

Thomas Carlyle, who is associated with much of the work on this theory, said,

“The history of the world is the biography of great men.”

For example, people like Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, Joseph Stalin did not receive leadership training. However, they took on leadership roles and captured the imagination of the masses. These leaders had an unexplained tenacity to rise to the top when a lot of similar people were experiencing almost identical circumstances.

However, Herbert Spencer, a noted philosopher, was not in favor of this theory. He said, leaders are the result of their conditions; before they alter society, society has to make them.

For instance, people like Mahatma Gandhi, who were not trained in leadership but became great leaders, had leadership styles that were an extension of their personal experiences and life story.

2) Trait Theory of Leadership: Measure your leadership potential

The basis of Trait theory is the premise that ‘leaders are born not made.’ It is an extension of the Great Man theory of leadership.

The theory states that the comparison of your leadership characteristics to the list of the traits of many successful and unsuccessful leaders can be used to predict your leadership effectiveness.

The following figure gives us a list of a few traits of great leaders:

You can use the traits mentioned in this theory as a yardstick to assess your ability as a leader. Since these are personality traits, you can use personality assessment tests to identify your strengths and weaknesses.

Critics of this theory suggest that the list describing the leadership traits of successful leaders is very long – more than a hundred different traits. Also, situational factors, like social and economic inequities that impact your ability to lead, are not taken into account.

3) Contingency Theory of Leadership: Match your leadership style to the situation

Contingency theory, developed by Fred Fielder in 1958, assumes that leaders are either task-oriented or relationship-oriented. Task-oriented leaders assign tasks, set deadlines, and follow structural processes. Relationship-oriented leaders focus on people and are considerate.

Your success as a leader, according to this theory, lies in finding out the leadership style and situation in which you would flourish.

There are eight possible combinations for three situational variables, as shown in the following figure:

A good leader-member relation means your group members like you. High task structure implies that you are directing a well-defined job, and a strong position power would mean you have a position of high authority. The favorableness of a situation is the extent to which the situation allows you to influence your group.

For example, imagine you are a newly appointed store manager in one of the leading apparel brands. You will be poor on leader-member relations as you are new to the job. Task structure will be high as there will be clear operating procedures on how to deal with customers. You will be strong on the position of power as you can reward or punish employees as a store manager.

Now, how do you decide on your leadership style? That brings us to the second part.

As per the theory, task-oriented leaders perform well in situations that are very favorable or unfavorable, and relationship-oriented leaders perform well in situations that are intermediate in favorableness, as shown in the following figure:

Hence, as per the Contingency theory, the best way to approach your new job as a store manager is to use a relationship-oriented style.

What are the other situations in which you can apply contingency theory?

It can also help you identify the right talent for leadership openingsin your organization. You can compare the leadership style of the aspirants to the situation for which you need to hire a leader if they match you employ the person else you reject.

Though the contingency theory is quite dynamic, there are some downsides to it.

You need to fall under only a set of leadership styles to apply this theory. Also, there can be scenarios where you may want to change the situation rather than match your style of leadership to it. The contingency theory will not help you in these circumstances.

4) Situational Theory of Leadership: Adapt to the situation

Dr. Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard developed the Situational Theory of leadership. It states you cannot have one leadership style for all situations. The leadership style you adopt, depends on circumstances.

According to the theory, you should follow four primary leadership styles as per the readiness level of your subordinates:

Telling (Autocratic approach) : You can adapt this style for the ‘Readiness 1 level’ of subordinates; these people lack the ability as well as the willingness to do the job.

For instance, if you are a leader in a war or an emergency room of a hospital, you need to adapt to telling (authoritative) style of leadership.

Selling (A little Democratic approach) : This style is suitable for the ‘Readiness 2 level’ of subordinates, i.e., for people who lack the ability but are willing to do the job. Example: To lead a team of millennials in a software organization, you will have to use the selling style of leadership.

Participating (Democratic approach) : You should use this method when your subordinates have the ability but lack the willingness to do the job.

Delegating (Hands-Off approach) : You need to delegate work to people who have the ability, as well as the willingness to do the job. You can use this style in case you are working on an urgent assignment, and another task pops up, you will need to ‘delegate’ it to a competent subordinate.

The following figure explains the leadership styles according to the behavior of subordinates :

Do the above situations sound familiar? Go ahead and apply this theory to your workplace. Here is how you will grow as a leader:

You will be flexible to adapt to a variety of situations. Your awareness level will rise as you always need to be familiar with the situation around you. It will also lift the morale of your group members and give them a comfortable work environment.

However, you need to be cautious that this theory focuses on short term needs rather than long term goals. You may lose sight of your organizational objective and end up responding to immediate requirements only.

Another issue is that, even with the variables mentioned for various situations in this theory, it is difficult to ensure that you will analyze the situation the same way as other leaders. As a result, outcomes can vary.

5) The behavioral theory of Leadership: Leaders are made not born

This theory states that if you condition your behavior for the response to any given situation, you can be a leader. It focuses on your behavior and actions rather than traits or abilities.

According to the theory, your behavior as a leader determines your performance. Through teaching and observation, you can train yourself to behave as a leader. Thus, the theory concentrates on leadership and not the leader, i.e. it treats leadership as a characteristic that you can develop through practice. 

Kurt Lewin explained one of the behavior leadership theories in the 1930s. He identified three types of leadership behaviors, as described in the figure below:

In case you need to focus on the profit margins of your organisation or achieve stringent deadlines, you should apply the authoritative behavior of leadership. You can allocate tasks, arrange formal lines of communication, and set up quick turnaround time for your group members.

However, various researches on Lewin’s theory showed mixed results as most leaders used some part of either of the three leadership behaviors.

To help leaders decide on what behaviors to choose, Robert Tannenbaum and Warren H. Schmidt devised a continuum of leader behaviors (see below figure):

The continuum ranges from boss centered leadership to subordinate centered leadership along with what behavior you should display. You move from autocratic to democratic behavior as you go from boss to subordinate centered leadership.

Another behavior theory of leadership is the Ohio State leadership studies. It describes leader behavior in two dimensions, as explained in the figure below:

Initiating Structure behavior: You define what is expected of group members, set up formal lines of communication, and determine how subordinates will perform tasks.

Consideration behavior: You are concerned about subordinates and establish a warm and friendly work environment like you allow flexible working hours to your employees or set up daycare for infants in your organization. This approach is subordinate oriented and can help create the right environment for increasing productivity.

You need to be patient while applying the behavioral theory. The difference between knowing the behavioral styles and actually applying them takes repeated failures and lots of practice.

6) Participative theory of Leadership: The democratic dimension to lead

This theory says that the ideal leadership style takes input from others. According to the theory, you need to facilitate discussion. After collecting relevant inputs from everyone, synthesize the given information to arrive at a decision.

Following figure represents the process to effectively apply participative theory of leadership:

The theory attempts to remove the hierarchical distance between you and your group. It involves collective involvement and responsibility to achieve the goal.

For instance, Microsoft’s founder Bill Gates has empowered his key employees to make crucial decisions of significant departments like innovation and marketing.

He has set up strong digital channels for facilitating communication within the company. Also, people who need specific information about the organization can access it. Open sharing of information and knowledge has helped Microsoft grow leaps and bounds.

Are you planning to bring new policies in your organization?

Use the tools of participative theory. The implementation of new policies becomes easier with this method as decisions arrive with consensus. Also, group members perform well, even in your absence, because their morale is high, and they feel valued and accountable.

You need to be aware though that the decision-making process may take a lot of time, which can affect the efficiency of your group. Taking input from every group member can also cause indecisiveness on some points.

7) Transactional theory of Leadership: Do or die

Max Weber and Bernard M. Bass described this theory. The basis of the theory is the concept of rewards and punishments. The group gets a reward or punishment depending on whether it achieves the goal set by you.

To understand further, you should know the hierarchy of human requirements.

According to psychologist Abraham Maslow, human needs can be represented in the form of a pyramid, as can be seen in the figure below. The needs at the bottom are the most basic ones like sleep, food. As you go up the pyramid, needs become difficult to achieve.

As a transactional leader, you concentrate only on the bottom of the pyramid for your group members. You ensure to fulfill the physiological needs of your group, along with financial security.

Sounds mean?

Well, it’s true that with this leadership style, the relationship between you and your group is transitory, with no emotional bond. Also, the creativity of your employees takes a hit as you do not encourage new ideas.

However, this type of leadership motivates your group members by engaging them in their self-interest. Also, the productivity of your group members increases as they try to achieve their targets in a shorter duration. If your project requires undeviating and specific processes, you can use this style to accomplish the desired results.

8) Relationship theory of Leadership: Transformation through association

Leadership expert James MacGregor Burns initially introduced this theory. Also known as transformational theory, the basis of it is the relationship between you and your group. According to the theory, you need to build the trust of your subordinates by building quality relationships with them.

You need to have four behavioral components to be a transformational leader, as explained in the figure below:

Charisma gives power to you as a relationship leader. Individualized consideration means your ability to increase the growth of the group. Inspiration refers to your quality to inspire group members. Intellectual stimulation allows you to build awareness of problems and solutions.

According to a  study by the University of Cologne , Germany, transformational leaders result in well being of their group.

Here is how you can bring a positive change with this leadership:

By following this approach, you not only look at the bigger picture but also help individual group members attain their potential. You transform the culture of your organization and achieve goals. Your employees will show a higher level of performance and satisfaction because they feel inspired and empowered.

However, transformational leadership will not work if you have a group of less-skilled members, as they require direction and guidance in an authoritarian style.

A classic example of a transformational leader:

Steve Jobs was truly transformational. He inspired employees to think beyond what they had already done. His passion for innovation, perfection, and simplicity drove Apple to achieve unbelievable results. He challenged his employees and made them create things that the world had never seen before.

Conclusion:

The ‘Great Man’ theory and ‘trait’ theory suggests that leaders have leadership traits by birth. It is imperative, though, that you groom and develop these qualities. The inspiration to lead may come from within, but you need to train yourself to appeal to the masses. Also, note that intrinsic qualities are a matter of choice and not chance. For example, being virtuous or dishonest to your group is an option.

You need the right psychological make-up to step in the shoes of a leader. Analyze the circumstances in which you are supposed to lead and prepare yourself according to the situation. Once you are aware of the circumstances and the qualities you need, use the tools described in leadership theories to set your leadership approach.

What are the qualities that you wish to acquire as a leader? How would you apply leadership theories to develop them? Do let us know in the comments below.

17 thoughts on “8 Major Leadership theories: Strengths, Weaknesses and Examples”

This is a very informative article.Thanks for sharing such great knowledge which will go a long way to making efficient and effective leaders the world needs today.

Thanks a lot, Francis 🙂 Appreciate you taking out time to read and share your feedback!

Thanks for this very informative article.

This is good information about leadership theories.

Rich article thank u so much have benefitted a lot.

Informative it helped me in revising for my examination Thanks

Thank you! very informative

Very informative especially to us who write a lot about leadership. Thank you.

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Wow,thanks for the intelligent article it really helps especially when studying Fundamental Business skills in Health and safety for management, it helped and inspired me to understand what im doing.

Excellent Read. The article has all the ingredients, that an aspiring leader should master. Well done.

Hello! I realize that I need to improve my charismatic and inspiring side…

Excelente artigo, muito informativo obrigada por disponibilizar contribuindo para nosso aprendizado.

parabéns, informações maravilhosas ,para formação do líder

Obrigada. Excelente conteúdo. Ajudou bastante na compreençaõ da percepção de liderança.

Aqui se vê a descrição de uma teoria não trazida na sessão principal: 7) Teoria Transacional de Liderança: Faça ou morra Extremamente rica a explanação!

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Leadership Theories

People have long been interested in leadership throughout human history, but it has only been relatively recently that a number of formal leadership theories have emerged. Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill levels.

Great Man Theory (1840s):

The Great Man theory evolved around the mid 19th century. Even though no one was able to identify with any scientific certainty, which human characteristic or combination of, were responsible for identifying great leaders. Everyone recognized that just as the name suggests; only a man could have the characteristic (s) of a great leader.

The Great Man theory assumes that the traits of leadership are intrinsic. That simply means that great leaders are born…

They are not made. This theory sees great leaders as those who are destined by birth to become a leader. Furthermore, the belief was that great leaders will rise when confronted with the appropriate situation. The theory was popularized by Thomas Carlyle, a writer and teacher. Just like him, the Great Man theory was inspired by the study of influential heroes. In his book “On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History”, he compared a wide array of heroes.

In 1860, Herbert Spencer, an English philosopher disputed the great man theory by affirming that these heroes are simply the product of their times and their actions the results of social conditions.

Trait Theory (1930’s – 1940’s):

The trait leadership theory believes that people are either born or are made with certain qualities that will make them excel in leadership roles. That is, certain qualities such as intelligence, sense of responsibility, creativity and other values puts anyone in the shoes of a good leader. In fact, Gordon Allport, an American psychologist,”…identified almost 18,000 English personality-relevant terms” (Matthews, Deary & Whiteman, 2003, p. 3).

The trait theory of leadership focused on analyzing mental, physical and social characteristic in order to gain more understanding of what is the characteristic or the combination of characteristics that are common among leaders.

There were many shortfalls with the trait leadership theory. However, from a psychology of personalities approach, Gordon Allport’s studies are among the first ones and have brought, for the study of leadership, the behavioural approach.

• In the 1930s the field of Psychometrics was in its early years.
• Personality traits measurement weren’t reliable across studies.
• Study samples were of low level managers
• Explanations weren’t offered as to the relation between each characteristic and its impact on leadership.
• The context of the leader wasn’t considered.

Many studies have analyzed the traits among existing leaders in the hope of uncovering those responsible for ones leadership abilities! In vain, the only characteristics that were identified among these individuals were those that were slightly taller and slightly more intelligent!

Behavioural Theories (1940’s – 1950’s):

In reaction to the trait leadership theory, the behavioural theories are offering a new perspective, one that focuses on the behaviours of the leaders as opposed to their mental, physical or social characteristics. Thus, with the evolutions in psychometrics, notably the factor analysis, researchers were able to measure the cause an effects relationship of specific human behaviours from leaders. From this point forward anyone with the right conditioning could have access to the once before elite club of naturally gifted leaders. In other words, leaders are made not born.

The behavioural theories first divided leaders in two categories. Those that were concerned with the tasks and those concerned with the people. Throughout the literature these are referred to as different names, but the essence are identical.

Contingency Theories (1960’s):

The Contingency Leadership theory argues that there is no single way of leading and that every leadership style should be based on certain situations, which signifies that there are certain people who perform at the maximum level in certain places; but at minimal performance when taken out of their element.

To a certain extent contingency leadership theories are an extension of the trait theory, in the sense that human traits are related to the situation in which the leaders exercise their leadership. It is generally accepted within the contingency theories that leader are more likely to express their leadership when they feel that their followers will be responsive.

Transactional leadership Theories (1970’s):

Transactional theories, also known as exchange theories of leadership, are characterized by a transaction made between the leader and the followers. In fact, the theory values a positive and mutually beneficial relationship.

For the transactional theories to be effective and as a result have motivational value, the leader must find a means to align to adequately reward (or punish) his follower, for performing leader-assigned task. In other words, transactional leaders are most efficient when they develop a mutual reinforcing environment, for which the individual and the organizational goals are in sync.

The transactional theorists state that humans in general are seeking to maximize pleasurable experiences and to diminish un-pleasurable experiences. Thus, we are more likely to associate ourselves with individuals that add to our strengths.

Transformational Leadership Theories (1970s):

The Transformational Leadership theory states that this process is by which a person interacts with others and is able to create a solid relationship that results in a high percentage of trust, that will later result in an increase of motivation, both intrinsic and extrinsic, in both leaders and followers.

The essence of transformational theories is that leaders transform their followers through their inspirational nature and charismatic personalities. Rules and regulations are flexible, guided by group norms. These attributes provide a sense of belonging for the followers as they can easily identify with the leader and its purpose.

Trait Theories:

Similar in some ways to Great Man theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. For example, traits like extraversion, self-confidence, and courage are all traits that could potentially be linked to great leaders.

If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership. There are plenty of people who possess the personality traits associated with leadership, yet many of these people never seek out positions of leadership.

Contingency Theories:

Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers and aspects of the situation.

Situational Theories:

Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making. For example, in a situation where the leader is the most knowledgeable and experienced member of a group, an authoritarian style might be most appropriate. In other instances where group members are skilled experts, a democratic style would be more effective.

Behavioral Theories:

Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Consider it the flip-side of the Great Man theories. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.

Participative Theories:

Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.

Management Theories:

Management theories, also known as transactional theories, focus on the role of supervision, organization and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished. Learn more about theories of transactional leadership.

Relationship Theories:

Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. These leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.

http://psychology.about.com

http://www.leadership-central.com

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BS4S16 Leadership & Management Theories Assignment Brief

You are required to complete one assignment to test the following module learning outcomes: 1. Critically evaluate the development of leadership and managementtheories; 2. Critically appreciate the nature of leadership and management theories and their application in a range of leadership and management settings.

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In summation, the role of leadership and management can work in different capacities, yet be the same when developing an organization. Leadership is nothing if it doesn’t build a systems’ based management structure, and management would have no support without the work of leadership as the backbone of ideals.

A review of this chapter’s major conclusions, include:

• Being ethically sound and sacrificing comforts for goals and objectives (classical ideals) make leaders strive for innovation and the improvement of society (contemporary ideals).
• Developing and systematically organizing hiring philosophies, institutional policies, budgeting processes, rewards, and decision-making styles are effective measures for managing organizations into the future.
• Leadership and management are both the same and different.
• Using the iceberg analogy and the five disciplines, leadership and management are both independent and dependent from each other, especially when achieving goals in a learning organization.

To offer parting words after this journey, it is important to understand that whatever leadership or management style chosen, it has to relate to inherent beliefs. Essentially, the iceberg below the surface is not just made in one day, it is shaped and cultivated throughout life through natural and social occurrences, assumptions, and inherent beliefs. It is very important for leaders to find their own icebergs and self-reflect on what their beliefs mean to their leadership styles and how they develop their management strategies. As prospective leaders and managers in society, it is highly important to locate and cultivate a personal leadership style to become successful in a future society.

Leadership and Management in Learning Organizations Copyright © by Clayton Smith; Carson Babich; and Mark Lubrick is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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