religious diversity in india essay

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Religion in india: tolerance and segregation, indians say it is important to respect all religions, but major religious groups see little in common and want to live separately.

This study is Pew Research Center’s most comprehensive, in-depth exploration of India to date. For this report, we surveyed 29,999 Indian adults (including 22,975 who identify as Hindu, 3,336 who identify as Muslim, 1,782 who identify as Sikh, 1,011 who identify as Christian, 719 who identify as Buddhist, 109 who identify as Jain and 67 who identify as belonging to another religion or as religiously unaffiliated). Interviews for this nationally representative survey were conducted face-to-face under the direction of RTI International from Nov. 17, 2019, to March 23, 2020.

To improve respondent comprehension of survey questions and to ensure all questions were culturally appropriate, Pew Research Center followed a multi-phase questionnaire development process that included expert review, focus groups, cognitive interviews, a pretest and a regional pilot survey before the national survey. The questionnaire was developed in English and translated into 16 languages, independently verified by professional linguists with native proficiency in regional dialects.

Respondents were selected using a probability-based sample design that would allow for robust analysis of all major religious groups in India – Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains – as well as all major regional zones. Data was weighted to account for the different probabilities of selection among respondents and to align with demographic benchmarks for the Indian adult population from the 2011 census. The survey is calculated to have covered 98% of Indians ages 18 and older and had an 86% national response rate.

For more information, see the  Methodology  for this report. The questions used in this analysis can be found  here .

More than 70 years after India became free from colonial rule, Indians generally feel their country has lived up to one of its post-independence ideals: a society where followers of many religions can live and practice freely.

India’s massive population is diverse as well as devout. Not only do most of the world’s Hindus, Jains and Sikhs live in India, but it also is home to one of the world’s largest Muslim populations and to millions of Christians and Buddhists.

A major new Pew Research Center survey of religion across India, based on nearly 30,000 face-to-face interviews of adults conducted in 17 languages between late 2019 and early 2020 (before the COVID-19 pandemic ), finds that Indians of all these religious backgrounds overwhelmingly say they are very free to practice their faiths.

Related India research

This is one in a series of Pew Research Center reports on India based on a survey of 29,999 Indian adults conducted Nov. 17, 2019, to March 23, 2020, as well as demographic data from the Indian Census and other government sources. Other reports can be found here:

How Indians View Gender Roles in Families and Society

Religious composition of india, india’s sex ratio at birth begins to normalize.

Indians see religious tolerance as a central part of who they are as a nation. Across the major religious groups, most people say it is very important to respect all religions to be “truly Indian.” And tolerance is a religious as well as civic value: Indians are united in the view that respecting other religions is a very important part of what it means to be a member of their own religious community.

These shared values are accompanied by a number of beliefs that cross religious lines. Not only do a majority of Hindus in India (77%) believe in karma, but an identical percentage of Muslims do, too. A third of Christians in India (32%) – together with 81% of Hindus – say they believe in the purifying power of the Ganges River, a central belief in Hinduism. In Northern India, 12% of Hindus and 10% of Sikhs, along with 37% of Muslims, identity with Sufism, a mystical tradition most closely associated with Islam. And the vast majority of Indians of all major religious backgrounds say that respecting elders is very important to their faith.

Yet, despite sharing certain values and religious beliefs – as well as living in the same country, under the same constitution – members of India’s major religious communities often don’t feel they have much in common with one another. The majority of Hindus see themselves as very different from Muslims (66%), and most Muslims return the sentiment, saying they are very different from Hindus (64%). There are a few exceptions: Two-thirds of Jains and about half of Sikhs say they have a lot in common with Hindus. But generally, people in India’s major religious communities tend to see themselves as very different from others.

This perception of difference is reflected in traditions and habits that maintain the separation of India’s religious groups. For example, marriages across religious lines – and, relatedly, religious conversions – are exceedingly rare (see Chapter 3 ). Many Indians, across a range of religious groups, say it is very important to stop people in their community from marrying into other religious groups. Roughly two-thirds of Hindus in India want to prevent interreligious marriages of Hindu women (67%) or Hindu men (65%). Even larger shares of Muslims feel similarly: 80% say it is very important to stop Muslim women from marrying outside their religion, and 76% say it is very important to stop Muslim men from doing so.

Moreover, Indians generally stick to their own religious group when it comes to their friends. Hindus overwhelmingly say that most or all of their close friends are also Hindu. Of course, Hindus make up the majority of the population, and as a result of sheer numbers, may be more likely to interact with fellow Hindus than with people of other religions. But even among Sikhs and Jains, who each form a sliver of the national population, a large majority say their friends come mainly or entirely from their small religious community.

Fewer Indians go so far as to say that their neighborhoods should consist only of people from their own religious group. Still, many would prefer to keep people of certain religions out of their residential areas or villages. For example, many Hindus (45%) say they are fine with having neighbors of all other religions – be they Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhist or Jain – but an identical share (45%) say they would not be willing to accept followers of at least one of these groups, including more than one-in-three Hindus (36%) who do not want a Muslim as a neighbor. Among Jains, a majority (61%) say they are unwilling to have neighbors from at least one of these groups, including 54% who would not accept a Muslim neighbor, although nearly all Jains (92%) say they would be willing to accept a Hindu neighbor.

Indians, then, simultaneously express enthusiasm for religious tolerance and a consistent preference for keeping their religious communities in segregated spheres – they live together separately . These two sentiments may seem paradoxical, but for many Indians they are not.

Indeed, many take both positions, saying it is important to be tolerant of others and expressing a desire to limit personal connections across religious lines. Indians who favor a religiously segregated society also overwhelmingly emphasize religious tolerance as a core value. For example, among Hindus who say it is very important to stop the interreligious marriage of Hindu women, 82% also say that respecting other religions is very important to what it means to be Hindu. This figure is nearly identical to the 85% who strongly value religious tolerance among those who are not at all concerned with stopping interreligious marriage.

In other words, Indians’ concept of religious tolerance does not necessarily involve the mixing of religious communities. While people in some countries may aspire to create a “melting pot” of different religious identities, many Indians seem to prefer a country more like a patchwork fabric, with clear lines between groups.

The dimensions of Hindu nationalism in India

One of these religious fault lines – the relationship between India’s Hindu majority and the country’s smaller religious communities – has particular relevance in public life, especially in recent years under the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Led by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, the BJP is often described as promoting a Hindu nationalist ideology .

The survey finds that Hindus tend to see their religious identity and Indian national identity as closely intertwined: Nearly two-thirds of Hindus (64%) say it is very important to be Hindu to be “truly” Indian.

Most Hindus (59%) also link Indian identity with being able to speak Hindi – one of dozens of languages that are widely spoken in India. And these two dimensions of national identity – being able to speak Hindi and being a Hindu – are closely connected. Among Hindus who say it is very important to be Hindu to be truly Indian, fully 80% also say it is very important to speak Hindi to be truly Indian.

The BJP’s appeal is greater among Hindus who closely associate their religious identity and the Hindi language with being “truly Indian.” In the 2019 national elections, 60% of Hindu voters who think it is very important to be Hindu and to speak Hindi to be truly Indian cast their vote for the BJP, compared with only a third among Hindu voters who feel less strongly about both these aspects of national identity.

Overall, among those who voted in the 2019 elections, three-in-ten Hindus take all three positions: saying it is very important to be Hindu to be truly Indian; saying the same about speaking Hindi; and casting their ballot for the BJP.

These views are considerably more common among Hindus in the largely Hindi-speaking Northern and Central regions of the country, where roughly half of all Hindu voters fall into this category, compared with just 5% in the South.

Whether Hindus who meet all three of these criteria qualify as “Hindu nationalists” may be debated, but they do express a heightened desire for maintaining clear lines between Hindus and other religious groups when it comes to whom they marry, who their friends are and whom they live among. For example, among Hindu BJP voters who link national identity with both religion and language, 83% say it is very important to stop Hindu women from marrying into another religion, compared with 61% among other Hindu voters.

This group also tends to be more religiously observant: 95% say religion is very important in their lives, and roughly three-quarters say they pray daily (73%). By comparison, among other Hindu voters, a smaller majority (80%) say religion is very important in their lives, and about half (53%) pray daily.

Even though Hindu BJP voters who link national identity with religion and language are more inclined to support a religiously segregated India, they also are  more  likely than other Hindu voters to express positive opinions about India’s religious diversity. Nearly two-thirds (65%) of this group – Hindus who say that being a Hindu and being able to speak Hindi are very important to be truly Indian  and  who voted for the BJP in 2019 – say religious diversity benefits India, compared with about half (47%) of other Hindu voters.

This finding suggests that for many Hindus, there is no contradiction between valuing religious diversity (at least in principle) and feeling that Hindus are somehow more authentically Indian than fellow citizens who follow other religions.

Among Indians overall, there is no overwhelming consensus on the benefits of religious diversity. On balance, more Indians see diversity as a benefit than view it as a liability for their country: Roughly half (53%) of Indian adults say India’s religious diversity benefits the country, while about a quarter (24%) see diversity as harmful, with similar figures among both Hindus and Muslims. But 24% of Indians do not take a clear position either way – they say diversity neither benefits nor harms the country, or they decline to answer the question. (See Chapter 2 for a discussion of attitudes toward diversity.)

India’s Muslims express pride in being Indian while identifying communal tensions, desiring segregation

India’s Muslim community, the second-largest religious group in the country, historically has had a complicated relationship with the Hindu majority. The two communities generally have lived peacefully side by side for centuries, but their shared history also is checkered by civil unrest and violence. Most recently, while the survey was being conducted, demonstrations broke out in parts of New Delhi and elsewhere over the government’s new citizenship law , which creates an expedited path to citizenship for immigrants from some neighboring countries – but not Muslims.

Today, India’s Muslims almost unanimously say they are very proud to be Indian (95%), and they express great enthusiasm for Indian culture: 85% agree with the statement that “Indian people are not perfect, but Indian culture is superior to others.”

Relatively few Muslims say their community faces “a lot” of discrimination in India (24%). In fact, the share of Muslims who see widespread discrimination against their community is similar to the share of Hindus who say Hindus face widespread religious discrimination in India (21%). (See Chapter 1 for a discussion of attitudes on religious discrimination.)

But personal experiences with discrimination among Muslims vary quite a bit regionally. Among Muslims in the North, 40% say they personally have faced religious discrimination in the last 12 months – much higher levels than reported in most other regions.

In addition, most Muslims across the country (65%), along with an identical share of Hindus (65%), see communal violence as a very big national problem. (See Chapter 1 for a discussion of Indians’ attitudes toward national problems.)

Like Hindus, Muslims prefer to live religiously segregated lives – not just when it comes to marriage and friendships, but also in some elements of public life. In particular, three-quarters of Muslims in India (74%) support having access to the existing system of Islamic courts, which handle family disputes (such as inheritance or divorce cases), in addition to the secular court system.

Muslims’ desire for religious segregation does not preclude tolerance of other groups – again similar to the pattern seen among Hindus. Indeed, a majority of Muslims who favor separate religious courts for their community say religious diversity benefits India (59%), compared with somewhat fewer of those who oppose religious courts for Muslims (50%).

Sidebar: Islamic courts in India

Since 1937, India’s Muslims have had the option of resolving family and inheritance-related cases in officially recognized Islamic courts, known as dar-ul-qaza. These courts are overseen by religious magistrates known as qazi and operate under Shariah principles . For example, while the rules of inheritance for most Indians are governed by the Indian Succession Act of 1925 and the Hindu Succession Act of 1956 (amended in 2005), Islamic inheritance practices differ in some ways, including who can be considered an heir and how much of the deceased person’s property they can inherit. India’s inheritance laws also take into account the differing traditions of other religious communities, such as Hindus and Christians, but their cases are handled in secular courts. Only the Muslim community has the option of having cases tried by a separate system of family courts. The decisions of the religious courts, however, are not legally binding , and the parties involved have the option of taking their case to secular courts if they are not satisfied with the decision of the religious court.

As of 2021, there are roughly 70 dar-ul-qaza in India. Most are in the states of Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh. Goa is the only state that does not recognize rulings by these courts, enforcing its own uniform civil code instead. Dar-ul-qaza are overseen by the All India Muslim Personal Law Board .

Recent debates have emerged around Islamic courts. Some Indians have expressed concern that the rise of dar-ul-qaza could undermine the Indian judiciary, because a subset of the population is not bound to the same laws as everyone else. Others have argued that the rulings of Islamic courts are particularly unfair to women, although the prohibition of triple talaq may temper some of these criticisms. In its 2019 political manifesto , the BJP proclaimed a desire to create a national Uniform Civil Code, saying it would increase gender equality.

Some Indian commentators have voiced opposition to Islamic courts along with more broadly negative sentiments against Muslims, describing the rising numbers of dar-ul-qaza as the “Talibanization” of India , for example.

On the other hand, Muslim scholars have defended the dar-ul-qaza, saying they expedite justice because family disputes that would otherwise clog India’s courts can be handled separately, allowing the secular courts to focus their attention on other concerns.

Since 2018, the Hindu nationalist party Hindu Mahasabha (which does not hold any seats in Parliament) has tried to set up Hindu religious courts , known as Hindutva courts, aiming to play a role similar to dar-ul-qaza, only for the majority Hindu community. None of these courts have been recognized by the Indian government, and their rulings are not considered legally binding.

Muslims, Hindus diverge over legacy of Partition

The seminal event in the modern history of Hindu-Muslim relations in the region was the partition of the subcontinent into Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan at the end of the British colonial period in 1947. Partition remains one of the largest movements of people across borders in recorded history, and in both countries the carving of new borders was accompanied by violence, rioting and looting .

More than seven decades later, the predominant view among Indian Muslims is that the partition of the subcontinent was “a bad thing” for Hindu-Muslim relations. Nearly half of Muslims say Partition hurt communal relations with Hindus (48%), while fewer say it was a good thing for Hindu-Muslim relations (30%). Among Muslims who prefer more religious segregation – that is, who say they would not accept a person of a different faith as a neighbor – an even higher share (60%) say Partition was a bad thing for Hindu-Muslim relations.

Sikhs, whose homeland of Punjab was split by Partition, are even more likely than Muslims to say Partition was a bad thing for Hindu-Muslim relations: Two-thirds of Sikhs (66%) take this position. And Sikhs ages 60 and older, whose parents most likely lived through Partition, are more inclined than younger Sikhs to say the partition of the country was bad for communal relations (74% vs. 64%).

While Sikhs and Muslims are more likely to say Partition was a bad thing than a good thing, Hindus lean in the opposite direction: 43% of Hindus say Partition was beneficial for Hindu-Muslim relations, while 37% see it as a bad thing.

Context for the survey

Interviews were conducted after the conclusion of the 2019 national parliamentary elections and after the revocation of Jammu and Kashmir’s special status under the Indian Constitution. In December 2019, protests against the country’s new citizenship law broke out in several regions.

Fieldwork could not be conducted in the Kashmir Valley and a few districts elsewhere due to security concerns. These locations include some heavily Muslim areas, which is part of the reason why Muslims make up 11% of the survey’s total sample, while India’s adult population is roughly 13% Muslim, according to the most recent census data that is publicly available, from 2011. In addition, it is possible that in some other parts of the country, interreligious tensions over the new citizenship law may have slightly depressed participation in the survey by potential Muslim respondents.

Nevertheless, the survey’s estimates of religious beliefs, behaviors and attitudes can be reported with a high degree of confidence for India’s total population, because the number of people living in the excluded areas (Manipur, Sikkim, the Kashmir Valley and a few other districts) is not large enough to affect the overall results at the national level. About 98% of India’s total population had a chance of being selected for this survey.

Greater caution is warranted when looking at India’s Muslims separately, as a distinct population. The survey cannot speak to the experiences and views of Kashmiri Muslims. Still, the survey does represent the beliefs, behaviors and attitudes of around 95% of India’s overall Muslim population.

These are among the key findings of a Pew Research Center survey conducted face-to-face nationally among 29,999 Indian adults. Local interviewers administered the survey between Nov. 17, 2019, and March 23, 2020, in 17 languages. The survey covered all states and union territories of India, with the exceptions of Manipur and Sikkim, where the rapidly developing COVID-19 situation prevented fieldwork from starting in the spring of 2020, and the remote territories of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; these areas are home to about a quarter of 1% of the Indian population. The union territory of Jammu and Kashmir was covered by the survey, though no fieldwork was conducted in the Kashmir region itself due to security concerns.

This study, funded by The Pew Charitable Trusts and the John Templeton Foundation, is part of a larger effort by Pew Research Center to understand religious change and its impact on societies around the world. The Center previously has conducted religion-focused surveys across sub-Saharan Africa ; the Middle East-North Africa region and many other countries with large Muslim populations ; Latin America ; Israel ; Central and Eastern Europe ; Western Europe ; and the United States .

The rest of this Overview covers attitudes on five broad topics: caste and discrimination; religious conversion; religious observances and beliefs; how people define their religious identity, including what kind of behavior is considered acceptable to be a Hindu or a Muslim; and the connection between economic development and religious observance.

Caste is another dividing line in Indian society, and not just among Hindus

Religion is not the only fault line in Indian society. In some regions of the country, significant shares of people perceive widespread, caste-based discrimination.

The caste system is an ancient social hierarchy based on occupation and economic status. People are born into a particular caste and tend to keep many aspects of their social life within its boundaries, including whom they marry. Even though the system’s origins are in historical Hindu writings , today Indians nearly universally identify with a caste, regardless of whether they are Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhist or Jain.

Buddhists in India nearly universally identify themselves in these categories, including 89% who are Dalits (sometimes referred to by the pejorative term “untouchables”).

Members of SC/ST/OBC groups traditionally formed the lower social and economic rungs of Indian society, and historically they have faced discrimination and unequal economic opportunities . The practice of untouchability in India ostracizes members of many of these communities, especially Dalits, although the Indian Constitution prohibits caste-based discrimination, including untouchability, and in recent decades the government has enacted economic advancement policies like reserved seats in universities and government jobs for Dalits, Scheduled Tribes and OBC communities.

Roughly 30% of Indians do not belong to these protected groups and are classified as “General Category.” This includes higher castes such as Brahmins (4%), traditionally the priestly caste. Indeed, each broad category includes several sub-castes – sometimes hundreds – with their own social and economic hierarchies.

Three-quarters of Jains (76%) identify with General Category castes, as do 46% of both Muslims and Sikhs.

Caste-based discrimination, as well as the government’s efforts to compensate for past discrimination, are politically charged topics in India . But the survey finds that most Indians do not perceive widespread caste-based discrimination. Just one-in-five Indians say there is a lot of discrimination against members of SCs, while 19% say there is a lot of discrimination against STs and somewhat fewer (16%) see high levels of discrimination against OBCs. Members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are slightly more likely than others to perceive widespread discrimination against their two groups. Still, large majorities of people in these categories do not think they face a lot of discrimination.

These attitudes vary by region, however. Among Southern Indians, for example, 30% see widespread discrimination against Dalits, compared with 13% in the Central part of the country. And among the Dalit community in the South, even more (43%) say their community faces a lot of discrimination, compared with 27% among Southern Indians in the General Category who say the Dalit community faces widespread discrimination in India.

A higher share of Dalits in the South and Northeast than elsewhere in the country say they, personally, have faced discrimination in the last 12 months because of their caste: 30% of Dalits in the South say this, as do 38% in the Northeast.

Overall, 64% of Indians say it is very important to stop women in their community from marrying into other castes, and about the same share (62%) say it is very important to stop men in their community from marrying into other castes. These figures vary only modestly across members of different castes. For example, nearly identical shares of Dalits and members of General Category castes say stopping inter-caste marriages is very important.

Majorities of Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and Jains consider stopping inter-caste marriage of both men and women a high priority. By comparison, fewer Buddhists and Christians say it is very important to stop such marriages – although for majorities of both groups, stopping people from marrying outside their caste is at least “somewhat” important.

People surveyed in India’s South and Northeast see greater caste discrimination in their communities, and they also raise fewer objections to inter-caste marriages than do Indians overall. Meanwhile, college-educated Indians are less likely than those with less education to say stopping inter-caste marriages is a high priority. But, even within the most highly educated group, roughly half say preventing such marriages is very important. (See Chapter 4 for more analysis of Indians’ views on caste.)

Religious conversion in India

This survey, though, finds that religious switching, or conversion, has a minimal impact on the overall size of India’s religious groups. For example, according to the survey, 82% of Indians say they were raised Hindu, and a nearly identical share say they are currently Hindu, showing no net losses for the group through conversion to other religions. Other groups display similar levels of stability.

Changes in India’s religious landscape over time are largely a result of differences in fertility rates among religious groups, not conversion.

Respondents were asked two separate questions to measure religious switching: “What is your present religion, if any?” and, later in the survey, “In what religion were you raised, if any?” Overall, 98% of respondents give the same answer to both these questions.

An overall pattern of stability in the share of religious groups is accompanied by little net gain from movement into, or out of, most religious groups. Among Hindus, for instance, any conversion out of the group is matched by conversion into the group: 0.7% of respondents say they were raised Hindu but now identify as something else, and although Hindu texts and traditions do not agree on any formal process for conversion into the religion, roughly the same share (0.8%) say they were  not raised Hindu but now identify as Hindu. 5  Most of these new followers of Hinduism are married to Hindus.

Similarly, 0.3% of respondents have left Islam since childhood, matched by an identical share who say they were raised in other religions (or had no childhood religion) and have since become Muslim.

For Christians, however, there are some net gains from conversion: 0.4% of survey respondents are former Hindus who now identify as Christian, while 0.1% are former Christians.

Three-quarters of India’s Hindu converts to Christianity (74%) are concentrated in the Southern part of the country – the region with the largest Christian population. As a result, the Christian population of the South shows a slight increase within the lifetime of survey respondents: 6% of Southern Indians say they were raised Christian, while 7% say they are currently Christian.

Some Christian converts (16%) reside in the East as well (the states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal); about two-thirds of all Christians in the East (64%) belong to Scheduled Tribes.

Nationally, the vast majority of former Hindus who are now Christian belong to Scheduled Castes (48%), Scheduled Tribes (14%) or Other Backward Classes (26%). And former Hindus are much more likely than the Indian population overall to say there is a lot of discrimination against lower castes in India. For example, nearly half of converts to Christianity (47%) say there is a lot of discrimination against Scheduled Castes in India, compared with 20% of the overall population who perceive this level of discrimination against Scheduled Castes. Still, relatively few converts say they, personally, have faced discrimination due to their caste in the last 12 months (12%).

Religion very important across India’s religious groups

Though their specific practices and beliefs may vary, all of India’s major religious communities are highly observant by standard measures. For instance, the vast majority of Indians, across all major faiths, say that religion is very important in their lives. And at least three-quarters of each major religion’s followers say they know a great deal about their own religion and its practices. For example, 81% of Indian Buddhists claim a great deal of knowledge about the Buddhist religion and its practices.

Indian Muslims are slightly more likely than Hindus to consider religion very important in their lives (91% vs. 84%). Muslims also are modestly more likely than Hindus to say they know a great deal about their own religion (84% vs. 75%).

Generally, younger and older Indians, those with different educational backgrounds, and men and women are similar in their levels of religious observance. South Indians are the least likely to say religion is very important in their lives (69%), and the South is the only region where fewer than half of people report praying daily (37%). While Hindus, Muslims and Christians in the South are all less likely than their counterparts elsewhere in India to say religion is very important to them, the lower rate of prayer in the South is driven mainly by Hindus: Three-in-ten Southern Hindus report that they pray daily (30%), compared with roughly two-thirds (68%) of Hindus in the rest of the country (see “ People in the South differ from rest of the country in their views of religion, national identity ” below for further discussion of religious differences in Southern India).

The survey also asked about three rites of passage: religious ceremonies for birth (or infancy), marriage and death. Members of all of India’s major religious communities tend to see these rites as highly important. For example, the vast majority of Muslims (92%), Christians (86%) and Hindus (85%) say it is very important to have a religious burial or cremation for their loved ones.

The survey also asked about practices specific to particular religions, such as whether people have received purification by bathing in holy bodies of water, like the Ganges River, a rite closely associated with Hinduism. About two-thirds of Hindus have done this (65%). Most Hindus also have holy basil (the tulsi plant) in their homes, as do most Jains (72% and 62%, respectively). And about three-quarters of Sikhs follow the Sikh practice of keeping their hair long (76%).

For more on religious practices across India’s religious groups, see Chapter 7 .

Near-universal belief in God, but wide variation in how God is perceived

Nearly all Indians say they believe in God (97%), and roughly 80% of people in most religious groups say they are absolutely certain that God exists. The main exception is Buddhists, one-third of whom say they do not believe in God. Still, among Buddhists who do think there is a God, most say they are absolutely certain in this belief.

While belief in God is close to universal in India, the survey finds a wide range of views about the type of deity or deities that Indians believe in. The prevailing view is that there is one God “with many manifestations” (54%). But about one-third of the public says simply: “There is only one God” (35%). Far fewer say there are many gods (6%).

Even though Hinduism is sometimes referred to as a polytheistic religion , very few Hindus (7%) take the position that there are multiple gods. Instead, the most common position among Hindus (as well as among Jains) is that there is “only one God with many manifestations” (61% among Hindus and 54% among Jains).

Among Hindus, those who say religion is very important in their lives are more likely than other Hindus to believe in one God with many manifestations (63% vs. 50%) and less likely to say there are many gods (6% vs. 12%).

By contrast, majorities of Muslims, Christians and Sikhs say there is only one God. And among Buddhists, the most common response is also a belief in one God. Among all these groups, however, about one-in-five or more say God has many manifestations, a position closer to their Hindu compatriots’ concept of God.

Most Hindus feel close to multiple gods, but Shiva, Hanuman and Ganesha are most popular

Traditionally, many Hindus have a “personal god,” or  ishta devata:  A particular god or goddess with whom they feel a personal connection. The survey asked all Indian Hindus who say they believe in God which god they feel closest to – showing them 15 images of gods on a card as possible options – and the vast majority of Hindus selected more than one god or indicated that they have many personal gods (84%). 7  This is true not only among Hindus who say they believe in many gods (90%) or in one God with many manifestations (87%), but also among those who say there is only one God (82%).

The god that Hindus most commonly feel close to is Shiva (44%). In addition, about one-third of Hindus feel close to Hanuman or Ganesha (35% and 32%, respectively).

There is great regional variation in how close India’s Hindus feel to some gods. For example, 46% of Hindus in India’s West feel close to Ganesha, but only 15% feel this way in the Northeast. And 46% of Hindus in the Northeast feel close to Krishna, while just 14% in the South say the same.

Feelings of closeness for Lord Ram are especially strong in the Central region (27%), which includes what Hindus claim is his ancient birthplace , Ayodhya. The location in Ayodhya where many Hindus believe Ram was born has been a source of controversy: Hindu mobs demolished a mosque on the site in 1992, claiming that a Hindu temple originally existed there. In 2019, the Indian Supreme Court ruled that the demolished mosque had been built on top of a preexisting non-Islamic structure and that the land should be given to Hindus to build a temple, with another location in the area given to the Muslim community to build a new mosque. (For additional findings on belief in God, see Chapter 12 .)

Sidebar: Despite economic advancement, few signs that importance of religion is declining

A prominent theory in the social sciences hypothesizes that as countries advance economically, their populations tend to become less religious, often leading to wider social change. Known as “secularization theory,” it particularly reflects the experience of Western European countries from the end of World War II to the present.

Despite rapid economic growth, India’s population so far shows few, if any, signs of losing its religion. For instance, both the Indian census and the new survey find virtually no growth in the minuscule share of people who claim no religious identity. And religion is prominent in the lives of Indians regardless of their socioeconomic status. Generally, across the country, there is little difference in personal religious observance between urban and rural residents or between those who are college educated versus those who are not. Overwhelming shares among all these groups say that religion is very important in their lives, that they pray regularly and that they believe in God.

Nearly all religious groups show the same patterns. The biggest exception is Christians, among whom those with higher education and those who reside in urban areas show somewhat lower levels of observance. For example, among Christians who have a college degree, 59% say religion is very important in their life, compared with 78% among those who have less education.

The survey does show a slight decline in the perceived importance of religion during the lifetime of respondents, though the vast majority of Indians indicate that religion remains central to their lives, and this is true among both younger and older adults.

Nearly nine-in-ten Indian adults say religion was very important to their family when they were growing up (88%), while a slightly lower share say religion is very important to them now (84%). The pattern is identical when looking only at India’s majority Hindu population. Among Muslims in India, the same shares say religion was very important to their family growing up and is very important to them now (91% each).

The states of Southern India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Puducherry, Tamil Nadu and Telangana) show the biggest downward trend in the perceived importance of religion over respondents’ lifetimes: 76% of Indians who live in the South say religion was very important to their family growing up, compared with 69% who say religion is personally very important to them now. Slight declines in the importance of religion, by this measure, also are seen in the Western part of the country (Goa, Gujarat and Maharashtra) and in the North, although large majorities in all regions of the country say religion is very important in their lives today.

Across India’s religious groups, widespread sharing of beliefs, practices, values

Despite a strong desire for religious segregation, India’s religious groups share patriotic feelings, cultural values and some religious beliefs. For instance, overwhelming shares across India’s religious communities say they are very proud to be Indian, and most agree that Indian culture is superior to others.

Similarly, Indians of different religious backgrounds hold elders in high respect. For instance, nine-in-ten or more Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists and Jains say that respecting elders is very important to what being a member of their religious group means to them (e.g., for Hindus, it’s a very important part of their Hindu identity). Christians and Sikhs also overwhelmingly share this sentiment. And among all people surveyed in all six groups, three-quarters or more say that respecting elders is very important to being truly Indian.

Within all six religious groups, eight-in-ten or more also say that helping the poor and needy is a crucial part of their religious identity.

Beyond cultural parallels, many people mix traditions from multiple religions into their practices: As a result of living side by side for generations, India’s minority groups often engage in practices that are more closely associated with Hindu traditions than their own. For instance, many Muslim, Sikh and Christian women in India say they wear a bindi (a forehead marking, often worn by married women), even though putting on a bindi has Hindu origins.

Similarly, many people embrace beliefs not traditionally associated with their faith: Muslims in India are just as likely as Hindus to say they believe in karma (77% each), and 54% of Indian Christians share this view. 8  Nearly three-in-ten Muslims and Christians say they believe in reincarnation (27% and 29%, respectively). While these may seem like theological contradictions, for many Indians, calling oneself a Muslim or a Christian does not preclude believing in karma or reincarnation – beliefs that do not have a traditional, doctrinal basis in Islam or Christianity.

Most Muslims and Christians say they don’t participate in celebrations of Diwali, the Indian festival of lights that is traditionally celebrated by Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists. But substantial minorities of Christians (31%) and Muslims (20%) report that they do celebrate Diwali. Celebrating Diwali is especially common among Muslims in the West, where 39% say they participate in the festival, and in the South (33%).

Not only do some followers of all these religions participate in a celebration (Diwali) that consumes most of the country once a year, but some members of the majority Hindu community celebrate Muslim and Christian festivals, too: 7% of Indian Hindus say they celebrate the Muslim festival of Eid, and 17% celebrate Christmas.

Religious identity in India: Hindus divided on whether belief in God is required to be a Hindu, but most say eating beef is disqualifying

While there is some mixing of religious celebrations and traditions within India’s diverse population, many Hindus do not approve of this. In fact, while 17% of the nation’s Hindus say they participate in Christmas celebrations, about half of Hindus (52%) say that doing so disqualifies a person from being Hindu (compared with 35% who say a person can be Hindu if they celebrate Christmas). An even greater share of Hindus (63%) say a person cannot be Hindu if they celebrate the Islamic festival of Eid – a view that is more widely held in Northern, Central, Eastern and Northeastern India than the South or West.

Hindus are divided on whether beliefs and practices such as believing in God, praying and going to the temple are necessary to be a Hindu. But one behavior that a clear majority of Indian Hindus feel is incompatible with Hinduism is eating beef: 72% of Hindus in India say a person who eats beef cannot be a Hindu. That is even higher than the percentages of Hindus who say a person cannot be Hindu if they reject belief in God (49%), never go to a temple (48%) or never perform prayers (48%).

Attitudes toward beef appear to be part of a regional and cultural divide among Hindus: Southern Indian Hindus are considerably less likely than others to disqualify beef eaters from being Hindu (50% vs. 83% in the Northern and Central parts of the country). And, at least in part, Hindus’ views on beef and Hindu identity are linked with a preference for religious segregation and elements of Hindu nationalism. For example, Hindus who take a strong position against eating beef are more likely than others to say they would not accept followers of other religions as their neighbors (49% vs. 30%) and to say it is very important to be Hindu to be truly Indian (68% vs. 51%).

Relatedly, 44% of Hindus say they are vegetarians, and an additional 33% say they abstain from eating certain meats. Hindus traditionally view cows as sacred, and laws pertaining to cow slaughter have been a recent flashpoint in India . At the same time, Hindus are not alone in linking beef consumption with religious identity: 82% of Sikhs and 85% of Jains surveyed say that a person who eats beef cannot be a member of their religious groups, either. A majority of Sikhs (59%) and fully 92% of Jains say they are vegetarians, including 67% of Jains who do not eat root vegetables . 9  (For more data on religion and dietary habits, see Chapter 10 .)

Sidebar: People in the South differ from rest of the country in their views of religion, national identity

The survey consistently finds that people in the South (the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Telangana, and the union territory of Puducherry) differ from Indians elsewhere in the country in their views on religion, politics and identity.

For example, by a variety of measures, people in the South are somewhat less religious than those in other regions – 69% say religion is very important in their lives, versus 92% in the Central part of the country. And 37% say they pray every day, compared with more than half of Indians in other regions. People in the South also are less segregated by religion or caste – whether that involves their friendship circles, the kind of neighbors they prefer or how they feel about intermarriage. (See Chapter 3 .)

Hindu nationalist sentiments also appear to have less of a foothold in the South. Among Hindus, those in the South (42%) are far less likely than those in Central states (83%) or the North (69%) to say being Hindu is very important to be truly Indian. And in the 2019 parliamentary elections, the BJP’s lowest vote share came in the South. In the survey, just 19% of Hindus in the region say they voted for the BJP, compared with roughly two-thirds in the Northern (68%) and Central (65%) parts of the country who say they voted for the ruling party.

Culturally and politically, people in the South have pushed back against the BJP’s restrictions on cow slaughter and efforts to nationalize the Hindi language . These factors may contribute to the BJP’s lower popularity in the South, where more people prefer regional parties or the Indian National Congress party.

These differences in attitudes and practices exist in a wider context of economic disparities between the South and other regions of the country. Over time, Southern states have seen stronger economic growth than the Northern and Central parts of the country. And women and people belonging to lower castes in the South have fared better economically than their counterparts elsewhere in the country. Even though three-in-ten people in the South say there is widespread caste discrimination in India, the region also has a history of anti-caste movements . Indeed, one author has attributed the economic growth of the South largely to the flattening of caste hierarchies.

Muslim identity in India

Most Muslims in India say a person cannot be Muslim if they never pray or attend a mosque. Similarly, about six-in-ten say that celebrating Diwali or Christmas is incompatible with being a member of the Muslim community. At the same time, a substantial minority express a degree of open-mindedness on who can be a Muslim, with fully one-third (34%) saying a person can be Muslim even if they don’t believe in God. (The survey finds that 6% of self-described Muslims in India say they do not believe in God; see “ Near-universal belief in God, but wide variation in how God is perceived ” above.)

Like Hindus, Muslims have dietary restrictions that resonate as powerful markers of identity. Three-quarters of Indian Muslims (77%) say that a person cannot be Muslim if they eat pork, which is even higher than the share who say a person cannot be Muslim if they do not believe in God (60%) or never attend mosque (61%).

Indian Muslims also report high levels of religious commitment by a host of conventional measures: 91% say religion is very important in their lives, two-thirds (66%) say they pray at least once a day, and seven-in-ten say they attend mosque at least once a week – with even higher attendance among Muslim men (93%).

By all these measures, Indian Muslims are broadly comparable to Muslims in the neighboring Muslim-majority countries of Pakistan and Bangladesh, according to a Pew Research Center survey conducted in those countries in late 2011 and early 2012. In Pakistan, for example, 94% of Muslims said religion is very important in their lives , while 81% of Bangladeshi Muslims said the same. Muslims in India are somewhat more likely than those elsewhere in South Asia to say they regularly worship at a mosque (70% in India vs. 59% in Pakistan and 53% in Bangladesh), with the difference mainly driven by the share of women who attend.

At the same time, Muslims in India are slightly less likely to say there is “only one true” interpretation of Islam (72% in Pakistan, 69% in Bangladesh, 63% in India), as opposed to multiple interpretations.

When it comes to their religious beliefs, Indian Muslims in some ways resemble Indian Hindus more than they resemble Muslims in neighboring countries. For example, Muslims in Pakistan and Bangladesh almost universally say they believe in heaven and angels, but Indian Muslims seem more skeptical: 58% say they believe in heaven and 53% express belief in angels. Among Indian Hindus, similarly, 56% believe in heaven and 49% believe in angels.

Majority of Muslim women in India oppose ‘triple talaq’ (Islamic divorce)

Many Indian Muslims historically have followed the Hanafi school of thought, which for centuries allowed men to divorce their wives by saying “talaq” (which translates as “divorce” in Arabic and Urdu) three times. Traditionally, there was supposed to be a waiting period and attempts at reconciliation in between each use of the word, and it was deeply frowned upon (though technically permissible) for a man to pronounce “talaq” three times quickly in a row. India’s Supreme Court ruled triple talaq unconstitutional in 2017, and it was banned by legislation in 2019 .

Most Indian Muslims (56%) say Muslim men should not be allowed to divorce this way. Still, 37% of Indian Muslims say they support triple talaq, with Muslim men (42%) more likely than Muslim women (32%) to take this position. A majority of Muslim women (61%) oppose triple talaq.

Highly religious Muslims – i.e., those who say religion is very important in their lives – also are more likely than other Muslims to say Muslim men should be able to divorce their wives simply by saying “talaq” three times (39% vs. 26%).

Triple talaq seems to have the most support among Muslims in the Southern and Northeastern regions of India, where half or more of Muslims say it should be legal (58% and 50%, respectively), although 12% of Muslims in the South and 16% in the Northeast do not take a position on the issue either way.

Sikhs are proud to be Punjabi and Indian

Sikhism is one of four major religions – along with Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism – that originated on the Indian subcontinent. The Sikh religion emerged in Punjab in the 15th century, when Guru Nanak, who is revered as the founder of Sikhism, became the first in a succession of 10 gurus (teachers) in the religion.

Today, India’s Sikhs remain concentrated in the state of Punjab. One feature of the Sikh religion is a distinctive sense of community, also known as “Khalsa” (which translates as “ones who are pure”). Observant Sikhs differentiate themselves from others in several ways, including keeping their hair uncut. Today, about three-quarters of Sikh men and women in India say they keep their hair long (76%), and two-thirds say it is very important to them that children in their families also keep their hair long (67%). (For more analysis of Sikhs’ views on passing religious traditions on to their children, see Chapter 8 .)

Sikhs are more likely than Indian adults overall to say they attend religious services every day – 40% of Sikhs say they go to the gurdwara (Sikh house of worship) daily. By comparison, 14% of Hindus say they go to a Hindu temple every day. Moreover, the vast majority of Sikhs (94%) regard their holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib, as the word of God, and many (37%) say they read it, or listen to recitations of it, every day.

Sikhs in India also incorporate other religious traditions into their practice. Some Sikhs (9%) say they follow Sufi orders, which are linked with Islam, and about half (52%) say they have a lot in common with Hindus. Roughly one-in-five Indian Sikhs say they have prayed, meditated or performed a ritual at a Hindu temple.

Sikh-Hindu relations were marked by violence in the 1970s and 1980s, when demands for a separate Sikh state covering the Punjab regions in both India and Pakistan (also known as the Khalistan movement) reached their apex. In 1984, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards as revenge for Indian paramilitary forces storming the Sikh Golden Temple in pursuit of Sikh militants. Anti-Sikh riots ensued in Northern India, especially in the state of Punjab.

According to the Indian census, the vast majority of Sikhs in India (77%) still live in Punjab, where Sikhs make up 58% of the adult population. And 93% of Punjabi Sikhs say they are very proud to live in the state.

Sikhs also are overwhelmingly proud of their Indian identity. A near-universal share of Sikhs say they are very proud to be Indian (95%), and the vast majority (70%) say a person who disrespects India cannot be a Sikh. And like India’s other religious groups, most Sikhs do not see evidence of widespread discrimination against their community – just 14% say Sikhs face a lot of discrimination in India, and 18% say they personally have faced religious discrimination in the last year.

At the same time, Sikhs are more likely than other religious communities to see communal violence as a very big problem in the country. Nearly eight-in-ten Sikhs (78%) rate communal violence as a major issue, compared with 65% of Hindus and Muslims.

The BJP has attempted to financially compensate Sikhs for some of the violence that occurred in 1984 after Indira Gandhi’s assassination, but relatively few Sikh voters (19%) report having voted for the BJP in the 2019 parliamentary elections. The survey finds that 33% of Sikhs preferred the Indian National Congress Party – Gandhi’s party.

• Ahmed, Hilal. 2019. “ Siyasi Muslims: A story of political Islams in India .” ↩
• All survey respondents, regardless of religion, were asked, “Are you from a General Category, Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribe or Other Backward Class?” By contrast, in the 2011 census of India, only Hindus, Sikhs and Buddhists could be enumerated as members of Scheduled Castes, while Scheduled Tribes could include followers of all religions. General Category and Other Backward Classes were not measured in the census. A detailed analysis of differences between 2011 census data on caste and survey data can be found here . ↩
• According to the 2004 and 2009 National Election Studies by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), roughly half of Indians or more said that marriages of boys and girls from different castes should be  banned . In 2004, a majority also said this about people from different religions. ↩
• In both the 2004 and 2009 National Election Studies (organized by CSDS), roughly half of Indians said that “There should be a legal ban on religious conversions.” ↩
• This includes 0.2% of all Indian adults who now identify as Hindu but give an ambiguous response on how they were raised – either saying “some other religion” or saying they don’t know their childhood religion. ↩
• Puja is a specific worship ritual that involves prayer along with rites like offering flowers and food, using vermillion, singing and chanting. ↩
• Fifteen named deities were available for selection, though no answer options were read aloud. Respondents could select up to three of those 15 deities by naming them or selecting the corresponding image shown on a card. The answer option “another god” was available on the card or if any other deity name was volunteered by the respondent. Other possible answer options included “I do not have a god I feel closest to” and “I have many personal gods,” though neither was on the card. See the questionnaire or topline for the full list of gods offered. ↩
• The religious origins of karma are debated by scholars, but the concept has deep roots in Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism. ↩
• For an analysis of Jain theology on the concept of  jiva  (soul) see Chapple, Christopher K. 2014. “Life All Around: Soul in Jainism.” In Biernacki, Loriliai and Philip Clayton, eds. “ Panentheism Across the World’s Traditions .” ↩

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The Challenge of Understanding Religious Diversity in India

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India has the distinct feature of being the birth place from where various religions, namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, have had its roots and have spread to the global level. Yet, the India also has several indigenous faiths and tribal religions, which have existed for centuries. Islam and Christianity came in later and are considered ‘minority’ religions in the Indian Constitution. The regional coexistence of several religious groups, large and small, in the country makes it social phenomenon worthy of studying. According to the Census of 2011, we note the following of six major religions and others clubbed together, Hindu 79.80%, Muslim 14.23%, Christian 2.30%, Sikh 1.72, Buddhist 0.70%, Jain, 0.37%, other religions 0.66%, and religion not stated as 0.24%. Since independence, these figures have more or less remained similar in nature. The religious communities that we see today have faced a continual process of description, interpretation, and categorization. In a multi-religious society like India, it is significant to understand the different worldviews that create the foundation for the organization of social life. Yet, presenting the Indian religious life is a formidable undertaking as India is a home for many religions/faiths. India presents a kaleidoscope —a matrix where many faiths are alive and thriving. And, the process continues even in contemporary India.

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Kapur, P., Misra, G., K. Verma, N. (2022). The Challenge of Understanding Religious Diversity in India. In: Psychological Perspectives on Identity, Religion and Well-Being. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-2844-4_3

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Diversity of India

Last updated on January 24, 2024 by ClearIAS Team

Despite numerous foreign invasions, a vast synthesis of the cultures, faiths, and languages of the people from all castes and communities has maintained its cohesion and unity.

Even if stark economic and social disparities have prevented the formation of egalitarian social relations, national unity and integrity have been preserved. This fusion has transformed India into a singular mosque of cultures. India thus presents a situation that appears to be multicultural within the context of a single, cohesive cultural whole.

Also read: Minorities in India

Table of Contents

What does diversity mean?

The word “diversity” places more emphasis on differences than on unfairness. It refers to group disparities, or distinctions separating one group of individuals from another. These differences could be biological, religious, linguistic, or anything else. Diversity refers to the variety of races, religions, languages, castes, and cultures.

Integrity refers to unity. It is a state of social psychology. It suggests a sense of unity and togetherness. It represents the ties that keep a society’s members together. Essentially, “unity in diversity” means “diversity without fragmentation” and “unity without uniformity.” It is predicated on the idea that diversity enhances interpersonal communication.

When we refer to India as a country with rich cultural diversity, we are referring to the wide variety of social groupings and cultures that call India home. These groups identify primarily through cultural traits like language, religion, sect, race, or caste.

Also read: Environmental Racism

Forms of India’s Diversity

The different forms of India’s diversity include the following.

Religious diversity

India is a country that is home to many different religions. The Indian population is made up of Hindus (82.41%), Muslims (11.6%), Christians (2.32%), Sikhs (1.99%), Buddhists (0.77%), and Jains (0.41%), in addition to the tribal societies, many of which continue to practice animism and magic.

Hindus are divided into several sects, including Vaishnavas, Shaivites, Shaktas, and Smartas. Similarly, there are various Muslim sects, including Shi’ites, Sunnis, Ahmadis, etc.

Language diversity

The major language families among the languages spoken in India are the Dravidian languages, which are spoken by 20% of Indians, and the Indo-Aryan languages, which are spoken by 75% of Indians.

The Austroasiatic, Sino-Tibetan, Tai-Kadai, and a few other minor language families and isolates are home to other languages.

After Papua New Guinea, India has the second-highest number of languages in the world. India’s ethnic variety was divided into the following groups according to the 1931 census: Negrito, Proto-Australoid, Mongoloid, Mediterranean, Western Brachycephals, and Nordic.

Also Read: Endangered Languages of India

The Caste Diversity

The Caste Diversity includes members of all three major world races, namely Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid: India is a nation with Both varna and jati have been referred to as “caste” in the past. According to functional differentiation, society is divided into four groups called Varna. Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras, and an outcaste.

While the term “Jati” designates a hereditary endogamous status group engaged in a certain traditional profession. There are more than 3000 jatis, and there isn’t a single system for classifying and ranking them across all of India. The jati system is dynamic and allows for movement, which has allowed jatis to vary their location throughout time. M. N. Srinivas referred to this method of upward mobility as “Sanskritization.”

Ethnic diversity

Ethnic diversity Regional differences are reflected in cultural patterns. Due to demographic diversity, Indian culture is extremely diverse and is a fusion of many other cultures. Every region, caste, and religion has its unique traditions and culture. As a result, there are variations in music, dance, theatre, and architecture.

Geographic diversity

With a total land area of 3.28 million square kilometers, India is a big nation with a wide variety of natural landscapes , including deserts, evergreen forests, steep mountains, perennial and non-perennial river systems, lengthy coasts, and fertile plains.

In addition to the major forms of variety already mentioned, India also has diversity in many other areas, such as tribal, rural, and urban patterns of habitation, patterns of marriage and kinship along religious and regional lines, and more.

Also read: Salient features of Indian Society – ClearIAS

Factors Promoting Unity in India’s Diversity

• Constitutional identity : A single person is elected to lead the entire nation. Even Nevertheless, the majority of states adhere to a standard 3-tier structure of government, bringing
• Furthermore, regardless of their age, gender, class, caste, or religion, all citizens are guaranteed certain fundamental rights under the Constitution.
• Religion tolerance is the distinctive characteristic of faiths in India, and as a result, many different religions coexist there. The Constitution itself guarantees the freedom of religion and practice. Additionally, the state accords equal preference to all religions and has no official state religion.
• Interstate movement : Article 19 (1) (d) of the Constitution ensures freedom of movement throughout India’s territory, fostering a sense of brotherhood and solidarity among the people.
• Other elements that contribute to consistency in the criminal justice system and policy implementation include the uniformity of the law, penal code, and administrative tasks (such as All India Services).
• Economic integration : The Goods and Service Tax (GST) has paved the way for “one country, one tax, one national market,” thereby facilitating unity among different regions. The Indian Constitution also guarantees the freedom of trade, commerce, and intercourse within the territory of India under Article.
• Institution of pilgrimage and religious practices: Spirituality and religion are very important in India. Religious sites and sacred rivers can be found all over the length and breadth of the country, from Badrinath and Kedarnath in the north to Rameshwaram in the south, Jagannath Puri in the east, and Dwaraka in the west. They are closely tied to the long-standing tradition of pilgrimage, which has always drawn people to different regions of the nation and given them a feeling of geo-cultural identity.
• Fairs and festivals : These serve as integrating factors as well because people from all across the nation participate in them. Hindus around the nation celebrate Diwali, just as Muslims and Christians celebrate Id and Christmas, respectively. In India, interreligious celebrations are also observed.
• Weather integration via the monsoon : The monsoon season affects the entire Indian subcontinent’s flora and fauna, agricultural activities, and way of life, including holidays. Sports and cinema are widely popular throughout the nation, serving as unifying forces. Factors that undermine India’s unity include:
• Regionalism : Regionalism favors the interests of a certain region or region over those of the nation. It may also hurt national integration. Regional demands and the resulting law and order situation
• Polarising politics : Politicians would occasionally invoke ascriptive identities like caste, religion, etc. to gain support. Violence, feelings of mistrust, and suspicion among minorities can emerge from this kind of polarising politics.
• Unbalanced development Backwardness of a region can be brought on by uneven socioeconomic growth, poor economic policies, and the resulting economic inequities. As a result, this may spark acts of violence, ignite migrant waves, or even fuel separatist demands. For instance, numerous examples of secessionist demands and tendencies have emerged as a result of the North East’s economic underdevelopment.
• Ethnic diversity and nativism: Ethnic diversity has frequently resulted in conflicts between various ethnic groups, particularly as a result of reasons like employment competition, a lack of resources, and threats to identity For instance, Bodos and Muslims who speak Bengali frequently fight in Assam. The son of the soil idea, which links people to their place of birth and bestows upon them certain advantages, privileges, duties, and obligations that may not apply to others, has served to emphasize this.
• Geographic isolation: Isolation can also result in separatist thinking and identity problems. Geographically, the North-East is separated from the rest of the nation by a small passageway called the Siliguri corridor, sometimes known as the “Chicken’s Neck.”The area is less developed economically than the rest of the nation and has poor infrastructure. As a result, it has seen several incidents of separatist and cross-border terrorism.
• Inter-religious disputes : Inter-religious disputes not only deteriorate relations between two communities by sowing distrust and fear, but they also damage the nation’s secular fabric.
• Conflicts between states : This may cause feelings of regionalism to grow. Additionally, it may have an impact on interstate commerce and communication. For instance, the Karnataka-Tamil Cauvery River dispute
• External influences : External influences, such as foreign organizations, terrorist organizations, and extremist groups, can occasionally inspire violence and foster feelings of secession. g. Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) is alleged to have supported and trained mujahideen to fight in Jammu and Kashmir and incite separatist sentiment among local groupings.

Despite the difficulties diversity might provide, there is no denying the vital role sociocultural diversity has played in maintaining and advancing Indian culture.

The handling of diversity in Indian society, not diversity itself, is the issue. Because the benefits of growth haven’t been divided fairly or certain groups’ cultures haven’t received the acknowledgment they deserve, problems like regionalism, communalism, and ethnic conflicts have emerged.

Therefore, the Constitution and its ideas must serve as the foundation of our society. Any culture that has attempted to homogenize itself has experienced eventual stagnation and decline. The most notable instance in this situation is Pakistan’s attempt to force its culture on East Pakistan, ultimately leading to Bangladesh’s establishment.

Article Written By: Atheena Fathima Riyas

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15 Religion in India

Dhruba Sinha

Introduction

The module intends to scrutinize the major religions that are prevalent in India, the impact of socio-religious movements and the complex connection between religion and politics. India is often described by an old adage; ‘unity in diversity’. The ambitious project of unity decided to use secularism to fight off the diversity created by religious plurality. Therefore, a study of religion will be incomplete without Indian secularism which will bring with it a brief discussion on communalism. It consists of five sections. The first one will deal with definitions of religion and brief descriptions of a few religions that are prevalent in India. It will explore not only the diverse characters of these religions but also the internal diversities. The second section will discuss three different socio-religious movements which took place in different eras. The third section is on secularism which will focus on its emergence, problems related to it and the issue of communalism. The fourth section will view religion from the perspective of women and the last section will summarise and conclude the module.

1.     Religion

Religion has its origin in fear and ignorance; such is believed by many. In the ancient age, when human beings were merely savages and were unable to explain the forces of nature like lightning, rain, wind and fire. In order to appease these formidable forces they started worshipping them. Thus Gods came into existence.

‘Religion’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Religio’ which denotes bonding. Charles A. Ellwood (1938) described religion as the search for truth and especially for eternal values. Herbert Spencer defined religion as “the recognition that all things are manifestations of a Power which transcends our knowledge” (Hick 1987). According to James Martineau, “Religion is the belief in an ever living God.” The problem with defining religion is that these definitions might be able to capture the essence of a few religions while excluding that of the others. For instance, a definion that stresses on the presence of a divine being overlooks the fact that some religions do not acknowledge such a presence (Clothey 2006).

Karl Marx considered religion as solace to those who are distressed. According to him, religion serves the interest of the exploiters by justifying suffering and  concealing the actual truth. It creates an ‘illusory happiness’ for the oppressed. Weber on the other hand maintained that religious ideas can have a crucial influence on changing the society. In his work on Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber regarded religion as an impetus behind the development of capitalism. Besides other religions, Weber also studied Hinduism and Buddhism.

In India, religion is referred to as ‘Dharma’. The term originated from the Sanskrit word ‘Dharana’ which means ‘to sustain’. In defining religion in the Indian context, T.N. Madan (2003) stressed on some major features such as the difference of conceptualization between dharma and religion. Dharma, according to him denotes the path of righteousness and steadfastness; while religion indicates complete devotion. He pointed to the fact that, religion in India is inseparable from other domains such as politics. Religion in India according to him is marked by pluralism which is evident not only across the religions but within these religions. Acceptance of religious plurality can also be found in the religious reform movements. M. Mohiuddin (1987) referred to the Bhakti and Sufi movements as ‘cross fertilization’ of Hinduism and Islam. Both of these movements stressed on ‘fundamental equality’ of all religions.

India is called home by people whose religious faith varies to a wide range. According to a 2011 census, majority of the population is Hindu while 13.4% are Muslims, 2.3% are Christians, and 1.9% are Sikhs. A significant number of people have their faith in Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism and Judaism.

1.1. Hinduism

Clothey (2006) while discussing the religions in India warned against the romanticized portrayals of religions. He cited the example of glorified representation of Hinduism as ‘sanatana manav dharma’ which evolved as a reaction to colonial criticism. According to K. N. Panikkar, what is known as Hinduism today, was actually different sects, cults and deities who came together after the advent of Islam because of social necessities. Hinduism according to him is synonymous with Brahminism, which claims its origin in the Vedas.

All the sacred scriptures of the Hindus belong to Shruti and Smriti. Shruti refers to those which were heard while Smritis are those which were remembered. Shrutis are also known as eternal truths heard by the sages. Vedas are a part of Shruti. There are four Vedas. RigVeda, YajurVeda, SamaVeda and Atharva-Veda. The Rig Veda is  considered the earliest one and contains hymns. The Sama Veda consists of hymns in musical notes while Yajur Veda provides guidance for rituals. The Atharva Veda is different in character than the other three and is believed to represent folk religions. Each of these Vedas contains four parts namely Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad. The other sacred scriptures such as Puranas1, Itihasas2, Darshanas, Dharma- Shastras, Tantras come under Smritis. The other sacred texts such as Grihya Sutras, Dharma Sutras and Shrauta Sutras which came gradually after the Vedas were guidelines for performing domestic religious ceremonies, public rituals and social ethics (Madan 2003).

These ancient texts divided the society into Varnas, namely Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. According to the spiritual texts, these divisions were made on the basis of qualities (Guna3) and acts (Karma). Purity, energy and ignorance specified Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras respectively. Krishna Chaitanya (1986) described these four castes as “the seers and sensitives, the statesmen or administrators of polities; entrepreneurs and technicians; the unspecialised masses”. Max Weber (1958) defined Indian caste system as a ‘closed status group’, as caste was ascribed on a person during birth and no mobility was allowed. He believed that the success of this system lied in the notion of transmigration and the hope of attaining a dignified life in the next incarnation. However, practice of caste system is not as simple as it sounds. T. N. Madan (2003) noted that the ritualistic practices of these castes vary according to the regions.

Based on people’s perception of Supreme Being, Hinduism was also divided into denominations4 (Sampradaya) such as Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism and

   1 Puranas can be referred to as mythologies. There are 18 Puranas. These are divided into three categories after three major Gods; Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwara.

2 Itihasas are the most popular sacred texts. Ramayana and Mahabharata come under this category.

3 There are three Gunas. Sattva Guna, rajo Guna and tamo Guna. Sattva Guna or, Sattvik refers to purity, Rajo or, rajasik to energy and Tamo-Guna or, Tamasik to ignorance or, inertia.

4 Shaivites worship Shiva while Vaishnavites are devoted to Vishnu and his other forms. Followers of Shatism see the Supreme Being within female deities such as Kali and Durga.

Smartism. These Sampradayas were further divided into sub-sects. While most of these forms were originated from Vedism, Tantrikas were believed to be non-vedic. Currently, eighty percent of India’s total population belong to Hinduism. While Hinduism along with Jainism, Sikhism and Buddhism are considered of Indic origin, Islam came from outside.

Muslims are a majority in Jammu and Kashmir, Lakshadeep, Assam and west Bengal. Islam means “the willing and active recognition of and submission to the command of the one, Allah” (Waines 2004). People who follow this path are known as Muslims. Islam is monotheist in nature and the origin of Islam can be traced back to 610 AD in the preaching of Prophet Muhammad. Prophet Muhammad was born in 570 AD in Mecca. He was believed to be the messenger of God. The Quran, the holy book of the Muslims carries the dictation of Prophet Muhammad. Muslims are divided into two sects; Shiahs and Sunnis. The division was created over the conflict regarding the right successor to carry on Prophet Muhammad’s work. The Sunnis who constitute the majority of the Muslim population believe that Abu Bakr, Prophet Muhammad’s father-in-law is the true successor of the Prophet. Shiahs on the other hand follow Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad.

It is believed that Islamic people first arrived on the Indian subcontinent at the beginning of the eighth century though the actual invasion began in the eleventh century. The invaders and their rich culture over a period of hundreds of years were gradually absorbed. According to T.N. Madan (2003), the spreading of Islam happened more through the efforts of Ulama and the Sufis, though incidences of coercive conversion were not absent.

Islam put great emphasis on compassion for others. The Quran asks its followers to spend one-tenth of their income for the welfare of poor, orphans, widows and those who are in need (Engineer 2011). It also asks to cultivate virtues such as mercy, benevolence, compassion and justice. These virtues have been upheld by the Sufi tradition. Sufism advocates asceticism and relys more on morals than rituals. Sufism has been described by Junayd al-Baghdadi, a sufi master, as “self-annihilation in God”. According to Asghar Ali Engineer (1998), Sufis developed the notion of ‘unity of being’, that is, God is one and is the source of all human beings. Therefore, all  human beings deserve equal respect. Sufis went on the path of finding the essence of being, which lies beyond what one can perceive normally and they live a life of purity in accordance with God’s demand. Sufis, share belongingness with those people who are weak and suffer from social vices. Compassion is a crucial virtue for Sufis. The stories suggest that their compassion extends not only to human beings but all living beings. In India four traditions of Sufism can be found. These are Chishti, Naqshbandi, Qadiri and Suhrawardi (Madan 2003).

Islam too has its internal hierarchies and practices of inequalities. Shiahs all over the World are considered inferior to Sunnis. This schism is a perennial source of conflict between them. Muslims in India can be divided into three categories namely Ashraf or the noble born, Ajlaf or people born in low castes and Arjal or the excluded (Ahmad 2009). Among Muslims, these divisions are referred as jatis and there are complex subdivisions based on occupation, birth and ritualistic practices. Imtiaz Ahmad noted that people who belong to Arjal community maintain distance from other communities. In some places, they even have separate burial grounds and mosques. Sometimes, though their presence is tolerated in a Mosque, they are forbidden to sit in front of upper castes.

1.3.  Sikhism

Sikhism originated from Sant tradition in the early sixteenth century. It started as a philosophy which later converted into a religion. Guru Nanak is considered the founder of this religion. He was born in 1469 in an upper caste Hindu family. However, he soon realised the futility of idol worshipping, rituals and rites. He showed his followers the way to salvation through the continuous remembrance of the divine being or, the ‘Akal Purakh’. ‘Kirat Karo, Vand Chhako, Naam Japo’ (do labour, share and eat, recite God’s name) (McLeod 1989) was the preaching of Guru Nanak. By rejecting the notion of difference among human beings he emphasized on devotion, effort and morality. He also put emphasis on meditation as a mean to realise the omnipresence of ‘Akal Purakh’ (McLeod 1989). People who followed him were known as Nanak-panthis and afterwards Sikhs. Sikh religion had ten Gurus. After Nanak, there were Guru Angad, Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das, Guru Arjan, Guru Hargobind, Guru Har Rai, Guru Harkrishan, Guru Teghbahadur and Guru Govind Singh. Guru Granth Sahib is the sacred scripture of Sikhs that holds the essence of this religion.

According to W. H. Mcleod (1989), after Nanak it was necessary to have a successor to protect this evolving religion from oblivion. He believed, without a successor Nanak-Panth wouldn’t have survived. He also noted that as the followers grew in number, the philosophy of Nanak was ascribed on new members at birth. McLeod pointed to the fact that with growing number of disciples and expansion of geographical area, there was an increasing pressure for certain changes. Therefore, came into existence the system of supervision, through which people were appointed to act on behalf of the guru. The concept of Langar also arrived during this time. Langar system brought inspiration from Nanak’s preaching against caste-system and unequal treatment of human beings.

The story of the establishment of Sikhism is incomplete without a brief glimpse into the emergence of Khalsa. According to the most popular belief, Guru Govind Singh baptised Sikhs to instigate them against the oppressive ruling and injustice of Mughals. Khalsas are those who go through an initiation ceremony and follow certain codes of conduct which consist of abstinence from liquor, tobacco, practice of dowry or, casteism and protecting the defenceless. Their duties also include worshiping one divine being and contributing one-tenth of earnings for religious purpose. McLeod cited a few more traditional explanations of the origin of Khalsa. One of those suggests that after Guru Tegh Bahadur who died a horrifying death at the hands of Mughals, the Sikhs became terrified, which provoked Guru Govind Singh to turn them into Khalsas ‘to ensure that never again would Sikhs be able to take refuge in anonymity”. (McLeod 1989)

Inspite of Guru Nanak’s preaching against outward rites and practices, Sikhism fell prey to institutional worships and rituals such as the Gurudwara and initiation ceremonies. W.H. McLeod explained these changes as responses towards changed situations, which he believed was necessary as “a growing and maturing Panth could never have sustained the informality of the first Guru’s practice”. Like many other religions, Sikhism could not avoid internal divisions and was split into Amritdharis, Keshdharis and Sahajdharis. Baptized Sikhs who follow all the tenets are Amritdharis; while Sikhs who are not baptized are known as Keshdharis. Sahajdhari Sikhs are those who are not born within Sikhism and choose to become one by following the doctrines. McLeod also noted that caste distinction was not absent  among Sikhs though there was no caste based discrimination. By referring to local narratives, he showed that not onlywere all the Gurus were from Khatri caste; but they also followed old traditional practices of marriage. Studies showed that though the lower castes as well as outcastes embraced Sikhism, the way they used to be treated did not change much. The Jats who according to Hindu Varna system were treated as ‘Shudras’, were attracted to egalitarian nature of Sikhism and converted themselves into Sikhs (Puri 2009). Gradually, they earned land, wealth and high social status. Later colonial rulers elevated the position of Jat Sikhs in British Indian Army. Jats were glorified as loyal, courageous and racially ‘pure’ (Puri 2009). Possession of Land became synonymous with ‘dominant caste’. Mazhabi, Balmiki Sikhs, who did not have any right over land and used to perform menial works, became outcastes. Mazhabi, Rahtia, Ramdasia Sikhs along with few other groups were considered untouchables and prohibited from accessing wells and entering into the Golden Temple . The instances of discrimination during Langar are not uncommon. Incidences of prohibiting entry of Dalit Sikhs into Gurdwaras and proscribing them from using common cremation grounds led to establishment of separate Gurdwaras and cremation grounds for Dalits.

While Hinduism, Sikhism and Islam are theistic in nature, Buddhism and Jainism are what Clothey (2006) described as ‘heterodoxies’. According to him, heterodoxies were those who challenged the Vedic authority and put emphasis on action (Karma) rather than on wisdoms. They not only rejected God but refused to accept the existence of life after death. Buddhism and Jainism attracted merchants (Vaishyas) with its simplistic principles which stressed on morality and working ones way towards salvation (Clothey 2006).

1.4. Buddhism

Buddha refers to one who has attained complete spiritual awakening (Lillie 1975). It means ‘the enlightened one’. Gautam Buddha was born in the fifth century BC at Kapilavastu (Kapilavatthu). He was named Siddhartha (Siddhattha) Gautama. At a young age he realised that suffering is inevitable and went in search of truth. The notion of impermanence and suffering is in the core of Buddhism (Frauwallner 2010). The suffering emanates from ignorance about the ‘real nature of things’. Therefore,  Buddha explained four truths5 and eight paths6 that can enable one to live a life without misery (Krishna 2010). There was no concept of God in Buddhism during the nascent period. However, at a later stage Buddha was deified and rituals evolved. The followers were divided into two sects; Mahayana and Hinayana. The Mahayna sect perceives Buddha as a divine being while followers of Hinayana recognize him as an enlightened human being.

‘Human beings are one and the same in their essential characteristics’ (Krishna 2010. P.104); this was the preaching of Buddha. Buddhist philosophy didn’t really go beyond this immediate life and dealt with ‘eternity’; neither did it try to answer questions regarding existence or, non-existence of God. Rather, Buddhism tried to end the suffering of human beings that emanates from desire and greed. The Scholars believe that Buddhism improved the life of women as it emphasized on equal treatment of both genders. Bhikkhuni Sanghas brought rays of hope for women, who got the opportunity to educate themselves. It also criticized the caste system and untouchability that was prevalent among Hindus. Buddha undermined the position of Brahmin by saying that every person has the right to reach the ‘highest perfection’ irrespective of their gender or, socio-economic background. Buddha asked human beings to abstain from violence, killing and practicing slavery. Buddha emphasized on rational thinking and discussion on resolving issues as opposed to believing something blindly on account of its being tradition, old or, written. Buddha’s teachings have been collected in Tripitakas. Buddhism, because of its non-discriminating feature attracted those people who were downtrodden and suffered on account of being at the lowest strata of social order.

Buddhism and Jainism are not only similar in principles, but similarity can also be found in the stories regarding the early life of Buddha and Mahavir. Both were from royal families and renounced their wealth afterwards (Clothey 2006).

1.5. Jainism

5 Existence of suffering, origin of suffering, extinction of suffering and path that lead to cessation of suffering are the four truths. [see The Buddha- The Essence of Dhamma and Its Practice. P.129]

6 Right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right awareness, right concentration are the eight paths.[p. 134]

Jainism is considered as one of the oldest religions of India. The term Jain came from ‘Jina’. Jina is the one who has been liberated from worldly emotions and enlightened with ‘infinite knowledge’ (Sangave 2001). Self-control, morality, meditation, omniscience and non-violence are the pith of Jainism. Jainism is divided into Digambar and Shvetambar sects. However, it has not been possible to figure out the exact reason of this division. The differences between these two sects are also minimal.

It is believed, Jinas, who strive for the liberation of the human beings, appeared as Tirthankaras at different periods of time. According to Jain phiolosophy, there are twenty four Tirthankaras. Mahavir Jain is believed to be the last one of them.

Jainism also encouraged charity or, ‘dana’. In jainism, charity is believed to be a way of controlling ones greed which is the source of violence (Sangave 2001). It promoted charity by means of offering education, medicine, food and shelter.

Unlike all these religions, Christianity came to India at a recent period. It arrived with Christian missionaries who saw the opprtune of proselytisation in people’s indignation towards the prejudiced caste system. Apart from these, there are many other religions as well as cults which are less heard of. Bauls which can be found in Bengal is the example of one such cult which is similar to Sufism. They are wandering minstrels, who renounced their previous connection to Hinduism or, Islam. In north-eastern India old animistic tribal religion still prevails. According to Clothey (2006), origin of some of the Gods and Goddesses in Hinduism can be found in Tribal religions. It can also be assumed that all the religions which claim hegemony over others on account of being old or, ultimate are delusional.

2.     Religious Reform Movements

Asghar Ali Engineer (1998) often referred to religions as Dogmas. A dogma, according to him is an ‘authoritative doctrine’ which gradually over time gains acceptance by a huge mass and becomes unchallengeable. He denoted this stage as ‘doctrinaire syndrome’ and maintained that most of the major religious faiths are affected by it. He said, “As life is full of uncertainties and doubts, human beings are normally in search of certainty, security and sanctity, and dogmas and doctrines provide all three” (1998.P.3). However, while tracing the origins of religion, one can see that these all started with the search for truth. Religions were meant to be guidelines that would lead human beings to the right path. Engineer (1998 stated that  Islam for example, stressed on thinking, reasoning, contemplating and wisdom. It cautioned against accepting tradition without questioning as “blind faith would lead to empty rituals” (Engineer 1998.P.7) However, over time, these religions digressed into meaningless rituals and superstitions. The stagnation of religions gave birth to all the religious reform movements. Since medieval to contemporary period, history has witnessed several reform movements. Some of these movements were conspicuous while others were more subtle. Bhakti and Brahma Samaj movement were of the former type, while Sufi movement and Bauls were less conspicuous. Along with Bhakti movement and Brahma Samaj movement, we will also discuss dalit movement which also started as a revolutionary reaction against caste based oppression and issue of untouchability.

2.1. Bhakti Movement

Bhakti movement originated during the medieval period and occurred at different places in different times throughout the succeeding centuries as a revolutionary response to the decadence of prevalent religions (Khan). Bhakti has been defined as devotion, love, meditation and continuous remembrance and even as prayer. Ramanuja defined it as “absolute self-surrender to God”. T. Chinnathambi (1994) wrote that Bhakti is attainable by “God’s realization through devotion” rather than ritual. An essential feature of Bhakti movement is monotheism. Ramanuja in Tamilnadu, Jayadeva and Namadeva, Ramananda, Kabir, Chaitanya in Bengal, Tulsidas, Mirabai are some of the proponents of Bhakti movement. Bhakti movement was open to people of all kinds of religion, caste, class and gender. People oppressed by caste hierarchies took solace under it. The advocates of this movement preached equality. According to Ramanuja, anyone can attain salvation as devotion knows neither caste, colour or, social status. Bhakti movement, undermined varna system and the superiority of Brahminism. It was characterized by equality of all irrespective of caste, creed, religion or social and economic status, resistance against caste system, opposition to idolatry and ritualistic practices and complete devotion.

Most of the proponents of this movement preferred the vernacular language instead of Sanskrit as local languages were easily understood by the masses. Therefore, the movement had an enormous impact on the vernacular literature. Tulsidas authored ‘Ramcharitmanas’ in Hindi, while Chandidas produced ‘ShriKrishnakirtan in Bengali. Sri Chaitanya preached the messages in Bengali throughout his life. At a  later period, while residing in Puri he encouraged his disciple to use Oriya. Kabir propounded unity, equality and futility of rituals through poems written in Hindi while Marathi was used by Eknath and Tukaram. Such movements arose whenever, there was oppression and suffering and embraced by a large number of people who were otherwise excluded in the name of caste, class or, jati. Rishi movement and Sant tradition are examples of such movements.

Brahma Samaj movement on the other hand emphasized on recovering the “pure intellectuality of Upanisads” and was mostly embraced by few educated ones but failed to attract people from all sections of society.

2.2.  Brahma Samaj Movement

This religious reform movement started in Bengal by Raja Rammohan Roy during nineteenth century. It was an attempt of few enlightened people to redeem the moral character and to liberate the mass from horrid religious and social rites, rituals and superstitions like Sati, child-marriage, witchcraft, polygamy and other social malaise. This movement started with Rammohan’s rejection of idolatry and criticism of priesthood. He translated Vedanta and five Upanishads in order to inform masses that his assertion is true as it is written in the oldest texts of Hinduism. In 1828, he established Brahma Samaj, which was meant to encourage assembly of all those who did not believe in ritualistic practices, idol worship and had faith in the ‘unity of God’. Afterwards the Brahma Samaj got divided into different sects because of internal Schism.

This reform campaign did not restrict itself to religion but took an ambitious step towards social reform as well. It raised awareness for education of women and eradication of ‘Purdah’ system. Schools and colleges were established and journals were published especially for women. The revolutionaries advocated a ban against polygamy and child-marriage while they supported widow-remarriage. The Civil Marriage Act (1872), which proscribed early-marriage, polygamy and authorised intercaste marriage is believed to be in existence because of Keshab Chandra Sen and the Brahma Samaj movement. Brahma Samaj of India, which was separated from the Adi Brahma Samaj of Debendranath Tagore under the leadership of Keshab Chandra Sen also indulged in philanthropical works like famine relief, night school, dispensaries, etc. Towards the end of the nineteenth century the Brahma Samaj movement gradually disappeared into obsolesce.

2.3. Dalit movement

In the recent period, the biggest movement witnessed against Brahminism is the Dalit movement under the leadership of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. It was an attack on the socio-cultural hegemony of so called higher castes. Ambedkar wanted to elevate the social status of Dalits which he realised will not be possible except by conversion to another religion. Buddhism, which stands at the exact opposite of Brahminism with its equality, simplicity and refusal of idolatry, presented a suitable alternative. According to B.R. Ambedkar, Buddha wanted this religion to be such that is open to change as need arises.

“He wished his religion not to be encumbered with the dead wood of the past. He wanted that it should remain evergreen and serviceable at all times.” (1999. P. 188) While Brahminism posed Vedas as infallible and unquestionable, Buddhism taught ‘nothing is infallible’. It stressed on reasoning and transience (Prasad 1993). Ambedkar also stated that while the root of Hinduism lies in ‘social necessities’, Buddhism thrived upon the principal of morality. Ambedkar and a large number of his followers converted to Buddhism in 1956.

Discussion on religion in India cannot be complete without a glance at the post colonial period. Politics in India has always been under too much influence of religion. History has witnessed religion causing conflict and divergent political interests. Therefore, the leaders used the ideology of secularism to unite the whole nation.

3. Emergence of secular India

Though India is defined as a secular country, the debate over its secular characteristics never ceased. India was declared as secular in the 42nd amendment (1976). In western societies, secularism evolved due to conflict between the church and the state. The supreme authority of the church was challenged because it was viewed as a hindrance for growth, which resulted in separation of church or, religion from politics (Engineer 2011). But, in a country like India, where religion is omnipresent, it is not an easy task to separate nation-state from religion. Therefore, it focussed on treating all religions equally.

The term ‘secularism’ was coined by George Holyoake in the mid nineteenth century. He believed that unity of principles can win over the diversity of opinions. Thus he wished to bring all human beings, irrespective of their religious beliefs, under the  term ‘secular’. Various scholars have defined secularism in different manners. But mostly, they have agreed that secularism is the separation of religion from state or, politics (Bhargava). Some scholars have also defined it as separation of the private from public sphere. Secularism ensures the equality of all citizens.

Nehru described secularism as “freedom of religion and conscience, including freedom of those who may have no religion. It means free play of all religions, subject only to their not interfering with each other or with basic conceptions of our state.” Therefore, Nehruvian ideology viewed secularism as a state of separation between religion and public affairs. Indira Gandhi, the third Prime Minister of India referred to secularism as equal alignment with all religions (Chatterji, 1995). According to Amartya Sen, a secular state must treat all the religions equally. P.C. Chatterji (1995) described a secular state as one that forbids discrimination of citizens on the basis of religion. Non-interference of state in religious issues has also been mentioned by him as a crucial feature of a secular state.

In India, secularism evolved due to political prerequisite. In order to fight colonialism, it was necessary to unite everyone. During the 1920s, the Indian National Congress used the notion of secularism in uniting people from all sections of society irrespective of their religious beliefs against colonial rule. However, after independence, instead of refurbishing the old British structure of governance, which relied on consulting people like Maulavis or, Pundits to resolve issues for respective communities, the constitution of independent India to some extent followed the old structure (Anand). Therefore, the new constitution was not free from imperfections and it reinforced the previous asymmetric ways of treating citizens based on their religious faiths. In the absence of a uniform civil code, the constitution depended on varying personal laws for various religious communities in resolving issues regarding marriage, divorce, adoption, succession, inheritance, etc.

Since its introduction, the constitution has gone through numerous modifications. Many of such modifications have been done with the intentions of reforming Hindu personal laws. For instance, divorce and inheritance right of women was introduced. Furthermore, in resolving family matters state got the ultimate jurisdiction in case of Hindus. Such is not the case of other religious communities. Islamic laws did not go  under any reforms and the consequence of applying personal law was witnessed during the Shah Bano Case7.

Whether or not to implement a uniform civil code is a matter of raging controversy, as many religious communities feel that abolishing personal law will inevitably be replaced with laws manifesting Hindu interests. Moreover, after independence, the clause of reservation opened a door for lower caste people to move upward in the status quo; which according to Ornit Shani (2008), created a complex situation. The upper caste felt threatened by the reservation policies as the situation improved for the backward castes. They assumed that the policies are favouring lower caste people, which gave rise to resentment and violence.

Though the caste system is an inherent feature of Hinduism, at present, caste is seen more as a political discourse (Shani 2008). According to the constitution, a person who belongs to any religion other than Hinduism cannot be considered as scheduled caste and if a schedule caste person gives up Hinduism s/he will no more be considered for the right of reservation as other religions do not have any concept of caste. Therefore, the caste system is not a rigid system governed by the religion anymore. It is governed and defined by the state and its reservation policies.

In spite of advocating secularism, India has witnessed communal violence between religious communities numerous times. Killing of Christian missionaries, violence against Sikhs, recent Gujarat carnage and continual atrocities against Dalits are only glimpses of such violence.

According to Periyar, religion is nothing but the obstacle of society (Veeramani 2011). He believed that religion is the source of all kinds of inequalities and ‘social injustice’. The tendency to prove that one’s religion is superior to that of others resulted only in conflicts. The Hindutva movement that had started in early 1900s resulted in atrocities against Muslims in different places at different times. The announcement of jihad8 by the student organization SIMI is believed to be a counter 

7 Shah Bano Begum, at the age of 62 filed a law suit against her husband after being divorced with five children. The lower court as well as the Supreme Court gave the verdict in her favour. Although the verdict created a huge sensation and was criticized as it was against Islamic law. It was seen as a threat to Islam. Shah Bano Begum was denied the alimony.

8 Islam in the current period is often being associated with ‘Jihad’. The political situation has aggravated the scenario and highlighted Islam in association with violence. Asghar Ali Engineer,  act against the Hindutva movement by some. Recently, SIMI9 portrayed Prophet Muhammad as the ‘prophet of wars’. Irfan Ahmad (2010) on this account remarked that this was invented in the political context where Muslims are becoming the victims of violence. This is how the religious texts and their meanings undergo change to serve the interests of the people in the time of crisis and need. By crisis, I meant the issue of communalism, which assumes that India is divided into distinct religious communities whose interests are contradictory (Chandra 2004).

Communalism according to Bipan Chandra (1987) emerged in India as a result of modern politics. Communalism gets strength from the notion of serving a certain ‘community’, for e.g. Hindu, Muslim or, Sikh. While talking about communalism, one needs to remember that these communities are by no means homogenous in nature. They are divided in terms of region, language, culture, class, social status, food habits and even in customs and ritualistic practices. Chandra (1987) further explained it by saying that “an upper class Muslim had far more in common culturally with an upper class Hindu than with a lower class Muslim. And a Panjabi Hindu stood closer culturally to a Panjabi Muslim than to a Bengali Hindu”. Moreover, thousands of years of cohabitation made people of different religious faiths to exchange and accept beliefs of others. Scholars argued that while seeking the solutions to certain problems, the boundaries between faiths often dissolve, making people seek refuge of gods of other religions. Thus we have deities like Dakhsin Roy and Banbibi in the Sunderban area of Bengal. These deities are worshipped by both Hindus as well as

while explaining the relation between Islam and Jihaad said that Islam is not merely an abstract doctrine. It does consider the socio-political context. Thus, Quran “opposes violence but permits it contextually” (Engineer 1998). He asked the reader to consider the socio-political as well as socio-economic condition of a society where a religion evolves in order to have better understanding. Islam was originated in a period of oppression and suffering. “Thus the Quran sanctions war if the weak are being persecuted and there is no other way left to rescue them.” Hinduism and Sikhism have also supported violence in times of crisis.

9 Students’ Islamic Movement of India is an organization which has been banned a few times after 9/11, as it has been suspected of being involved in terrorism.

Muslims in the hope of getting protection against tigers. Also, if one looks at the shrines of Muslims in Jammu and Kashmir, one can see the influence of Buddhism as most of the Muslims in Kashmir were converted from Buddhism.

4.  Impact of religon on women

Women are the most vulnerable victims of religion. Women have suffered through practices like dowry system, sati, child marriage, polygamy, and devdasi. Hindu religious scriptures have always glorified those female characters that have showed devotion and obedience in spite of suffering. Sumona Vohra (2003) argued that the existent social and economic inequality is derived from these texts. In Islam, women are considered inferior to men. They are advised to be obedient and cover themselves with a veil. Similarly, sacred Hindu texts made women slaves to their father, husband or, sons. They were even advised to worship their husbands. Women were proscribed to remarry after the death of their husbands and instructed to stay loyal to the deceased (Chatterji 1995). It is believed that some of these rituals were restricted to upper caste people. Gradually they were adopted by other castes as well. For instance, at first Sati was prevalent among Brahmins but later it was found in practice among all. Chatterji (1995) also showed that in Buddhism, bhikkhunis are considered inferior to bhikkhus. Bhikkhus are entitled to admonish and “receive cofession of bhikkhunis, but not vice versa” (1995. P.290).

Religions in India are vast and complex in nature. The above discussions showed that not only are these religions distinct in nature, but their numerous sects and sub-sects also vary in terms of beliefs and practices. Some of these religions are animistic, polytheistic or, monotheistic in nature; while others are atheistic. Many cults and sects evolved gradually from these religions most of which degraded over time and are considered corrupted and exploitative now. It also showed that casteism pervaded other religions as well and conversion could not stop caste related atrocities. To ensure equal treatment for all its citizens, India was declared a secular country. It is a country of assorted religions, cultures, values, beliefs and practices. Respect instead of tolerance can lead it towards realizing the true nature of secularism.

• Metcalf, Barbara D. “A Historical Overview of Islam in South Asia”.
• http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i9061.pdf Anand, Anchal. “The Curious Case of Indian secularism”.
• http://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital‐Library/Publications/Detail/?ots591=0c54e3b3‐1e9c‐be1e‐2c24‐ a6a8c7060233&lng=en&id=152307 Marx, Karl. Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right 1843-44. Trans. Joseph O’Malley. Oxford University Press, 1970.
• www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/download/Marx_Critique_of_Hegels_Philosophy_of_Right.pdf Weber, Max. The Sociology of Religion.
• http://www.e‐reading.link/bookreader.php/145149/The_Sociology_of_Religion.pdf Anand, Anchal.
• “The Curious Case of Indian secularism”.
• http://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital‐Library/Publications/Detail/?ots591=0c54e3b3‐1e9c‐be1e‐2c24‐ a6a8c7060233&lng=en&id=152307
• Sen, Ragini. Wagner, Wolfgang and Howarth, Caroline. “Secularism and religion in Multifaith societies: The Case of India”. Springer Briefs in Political Science.
• http://www.springer.com/psychology/personality+%26+social+psychology/book/978-3-319-01921-5

  REFERENCES:

Bibliography

1.  Shani, Ornit. Communalism, Caste and Hindu Nationalism: The Violence in Gujarat New Delhi: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

2. Mukhyananda,  Swami.  Hinduism  The  Eternal  Dharma:  An  Evolutionary  and  Historical

Perspective. Howrah: Belur Math, 1986.

3. Singh, Dharmdeo N. A Study of Religion. New Delhi: Vikas publishing House Pvt Ltd, 1999.

4. Chaitanya, Krishna.The Gita For Modern Man. New Delhi: Clarion Books, 1986.

5. Waynes, Davis. An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press, 2004.

6. Ellwood, Charles (1938). ‘The World’s Need for Religious Unity’ in The Religions of The World. Vol II. Calcutta: The Ramkrashna Mission, 1938.

7. Engineer, Asghar Ali. The Prophets of Non-Violence: Spirit of Peace, Compassion and

Universality of Islam. New Delhi: Vitasta Publishing Pvt. Ltd, 2011.

8. Hick, John H. Philosophy of Religion. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, 1987.

9.  Engineer, Asghar Ali. Rethinking Issues in Islam. Mumbai: Orient Longman Limited, 1998.

10.  Ahmad, Irfan. Islamism and Democracy in India: The Transformation of Jamaat-e-Islami. Princeton University Press, 2010.

11. Ahmad, Imtiaz. “Can There Be A Category Called Dalit Muslims” in Studies in Inequality and Social Justice: Essays in Honour of Ved Prakash Vatuk. Edited by Kira Hall. Meerut: Archana Publications, 2009.

12. Lillie, Arthur. Buddha and Buddhism.Delhi:Ess Ess publications, 1975.

13.  Frauwallner, Erich. The Philosophy of Buddhism. Trans. Gelong Lodro Sangpo with the assistance of Jigme Sheldron. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2010.

14.  Weber, Max, The Religion of India-The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism (Trans and ed. H.H. Gerth and Don Martindale). Chicago: Free Press, 1958.

15.  Ambedkar, B.R . “Buddha and Future of His religion” in Buddhism: Its Various Manifestations.

Edited by Madan, G. R. New Delhi: Mittal Publications, 1999.

16.  Krishna, Anand S. The Buddha: The Essence of Dhamma and Its Practice. Mumbai:  Samrudh Bharat Publication, 2010.

17.  Chinnathambi, T. “Bhakti Movement in Indian Culture”. in The Contributions of The Tamils To Indian Culture: Religion and Philosophy, Volume-4. Edited by Dr. S. Sasivalli. Madras: International Institute of Tamil Studies, 1994.

18.  Mukherjee, Amitabha . “The Brahma Samaj Movement and Its Social Challenge” in Social Contents of Indian Religious Reform Movements. Edited by S.P.Sen. Calcutta: Institute of Historical Studies, 1978.

19.  Murthy, H.V. Sreenivasa. “Ramanuja And The Bhakti Movement In the South” in Social Contents of Indian Religious Reform Movements. Edited by S.P.Sen. Calcutta: Institute of Historical Studies, 1978.

20.  Valisinha, Devapriya (1987). “The Buddhist Way of Life” in The Religions of The World. Volume 1. Calcutta: The Ramkrishna Mission.

21.  McLeod, W. H. Who is a Sikh: The Problem of Sikh Identity. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.

22.  Puri, Harish K . “Scheduled Castes in Sikh Community” in Studies in Inequality and Social Justice: Essays in Honour of Ved Prakash Vatuk. Edited by Kira Hall. Meerut: Archana Publications, 2009

23.  Chatterji, P.C. Secular Values For Secular India. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers, 1995.

24.  Jain, Ravindra K. The Universe As Audience : Metaphor And Community Among The Jains of  North India. Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 1999.

25.  Sangave, Vilas Adinath. Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion and Culture. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd., 2001.

26.  Madathikunnel, Sabu George. “Secularism and the Crisis of Secularization in India: A Taylorian Response”. A Journal of Religion, Education and the Arts, Issue 7, 2011

27.  Larson, Gerald James, ed.  Religion and Personal Law in Secular India: A Call to Judgment.  Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2001

28.  Madan, T. N. “Religions of India: Plurality and Pluralism” in The Oxford India Companion to Sociology and Social Anthropology edited by Veena Das. Oxford University Press.

29.  Prasad, R. C. Ambedkarism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas Publishers Private Limited, 1993.

30.  Clothey, Fred W. Religion In India: A Historical Introduction. London and New York: Routledge, 2006.

31.  Chandra, Bipan. Communalism: A Primer. New Delhi: Anamika Publishers and Distributors (P) Ltd., 2004.

32.  Selected Writings on Communalism. people’s Publishing House, 1994

33.  Chandra, Bipan. Communalism in Modern India. Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Private Limited, 1987

34. Khan, Rasheeduddin. “The Problematique: The Heritage of Composite Culture As An Input In The Process of Building A New National Identity” in Composite Culture of India and national Integration. Edited by Rasheeduddin Khan. Shimla: Indian Institute of Advancd Study and Allied Publishers, 1987

35. Veeramani, K. Thoughts of Periyar. Chennai: Dravidar Kazhagam Publications, 2011.

How India thinks about religion

A survey of 30,000 indians by pew research centre reveals how religious tolerance and segregation co-exist in indian society..

A  new Pew Research Center report , based on a face-to-face survey of 29,999 Indian adults fielded between late 2019 and early 2020—before the  COVID-19 pandemic —takes a closer look at religious identity, nationalism and tolerance in Indian society. The survey was conducted by local interviewers in 17 languages and covered nearly all of India’s states and union territories. Here are key findings from the report.

1. Indians value religious tolerance, though they also live religiously segregated lives.

Across the country, most people (84%) say that to be “truly Indian,” it is very important to respect all religions. Indians also are united in the view that respecting  other  religions is a very important part of what it means to be a member of  their own  religious community (80%). People in all six major religious groups overwhelmingly say they are very free to practice their faiths, and most say that people of other faiths also are very free to practice their own religion.

But Indians’ commitment to tolerance is accompanied by a strong preference for keeping religious communities segregated. For example, Indians generally say they do not have much in common with members of other religious groups, and large majorities in the six major groups say their close friends come mainly or entirely from their own religious community. That’s true not only for 86% of India’s large Hindu population, but also for smaller groups such as Sikhs (80%) and Jains (72%).

Moreover, roughly two-thirds of Hindus say it is very important to stop Hindu women (67%) or Hindu men (65%) from marrying into other religious communities. Even larger shares of Muslims oppose interreligious marriage: 80% say it is very important to stop Muslim women from marrying outside their religion, and 76% say it is very important to stop Muslim men from doing so.

2. For many Hindus, national identity, religion and language are closely connected.

Nearly two-thirds of Hindus (64%) say it is very important to be Hindu to be truly Indian. Among Hindus who say it is very important to  be Hindu  to be truly Indian, 80% also say it is very important to  speak Hindi  to be truly Indian.

Hindus who strongly link Hindu and Indian identities express a keen desire for religious segregation. For instance, 76% of Hindus who say being Hindu is very important to being truly Indian feel it is very important to stop Hindu women from marrying into another religion. By comparison, 52% of Hindus who place less importance on Hinduism’s role in Indian identity hold this view about religious intermarriage.

Moreover, Hindus in the Northern (69%) and Central (83%) parts of the country are much more likely than those in the South (42%) to strongly link Hindu identity with national identity. Together, the Northern and Central regions cover the country’s “Hindi belt,” where Hindi, one of dozens of languages spoken in India, is most prevalent. The vast majority of Hindus in these regions strongly link Indian identity with being able to speak Hindi.

3. Among Hindus, views of national identity go hand-in-hand with politics.

Support for the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) is greater among Hindus who closely associate their religious identity and the Hindi language with being truly Indian. In the 2019 national elections, 60% of Hindu voters who think it is very important to be Hindu  and  to speak Hindi to be truly Indian cast their vote for the BJP, compared with 33% among Hindu voters who feel less strongly about both these aspects of national identity. These views also map onto regional support for the BJP, which tends to be much higher in the Northern and Central parts of the country than in the South.

4. Dietary laws are central to Indians’ religious identity.

Hindus traditionally view cows as sacred, and laws on cow slaughter have recently been a  flashpoint in India . Nearly three-quarters of Hindus (72%) in India say a person cannot be Hindu if they eat beef. That is larger than the shares of Hindus who say a person cannot be Hindu if they do not believe in God (49%) or never go to a temple (48%).

Similarly, three-quarters of Indian Muslims (77%) say that a person cannot be Muslim if they eat pork, which is greater than the share who say a person cannot be Muslim if they do not believe in God (60%) or never attend mosque (61%).

5. Muslims favor having access to their own religious courts.

Since 1937, India’s Muslims have had the option of resolving family and inheritance-related cases in officially recognized Islamic courts, known as dar-ul-qaza. These courts are overseen by religious magistrates known as qazi and  operate under Shariah  principles, although their decisions are  not legally binding .

Whether or not Muslims  should  be allowed to go to their own religious courts remains a  hotly debated topic . The survey finds that three-quarters of Muslims (74%) support having access to the existing system of Islamic courts, but followers of other religions are far less likely to support Muslim access to this separate court system.

6. Muslims are more likely than Hindus to say the 1947 partition establishing the separate states of India and Pakistan harmed Hindu-Muslim relations. 

More than seven decades after the Indian subcontinent was divided into Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan at the end of British colonial rule, the predominant view among Indian Muslims is that the partition of the subcontinent was a bad thing for Hindu-Muslim relations (48%). Only three-in-ten Muslims say it was a good thing.

Hindus, however, lean in the opposite direction: 43% of Hindus say Partition was beneficial for Hindu-Muslim relations, while 37% say it was harmful. Sikhs, whose historical homeland of Punjab was split by Partition, are even more likely than Muslims to say the event was bad for Hindu-Muslim relations: Two-thirds of Sikhs (66%) take this position.

7. India’s caste system, an ancient social hierarchy with origins in Hindu writings, continues to fracture society. 

Regardless of whether they are Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhist or Jain, Indians nearly universally identify with a caste . Members of lower caste groups historically have  faced discrimination and unequal economic opportunities , but the survey finds that most people—including most members of lower castes—say there is  not  a lot of caste discrimination in India. The  Indian Constitution  prohibits caste-based discrimination, including untouchability, and in recent decades the government has enacted economic advancement policies like  reserved seats in universities and government jobs  for members of some lower-caste communities.

Still, a large majority of Indians overall (70%) say that most or all of their close friends share their caste. Much as they object to interreligious marriages, a large share of Indians (64%) say it is  very  important to stop women in their community from marrying into other castes, and about the same share (62%) say it is very important to stop men in their community from marrying into other castes. These figures vary only modestly across different castes.

8. Religious conversion is rare in India; to the extent that it is occurring, Hindus gain as many people as they lose.

Conversion of people belonging to lower castes away from Hinduism to other religions, especially Christianity, has been  contentious in India , and  some states have laws against proselytism . This survey, though, finds that religious switching has a minimal impact on the size of religious groups. Across India, 98% of survey respondents give the same answer when asked to identify their current religion and, separately, their childhood religion.

An overall pattern of stability in the share of religious groups is accompanied by little net change from movement into, or out of, most religious groups. Among Hindus, for instance, any conversion out of the group is matched by conversion into the group: 0.7% of respondents say they were raised Hindu but now identify as something else, and roughly the same share (0.8%) say they were  not  raised Hindu but now identify as Hindu. For Christians, however, there are some net gains from conversion: 0.4% of survey respondents are former Hindus who now identify as Christian, while 0.1% were raised Christian but have since left Christianity.

9. Most Indians believe in God and say religion is very important in their lives.

Nearly all Indians say they believe in God (97%), and roughly 80% of people in most religious groups say they are  absolutely certain  that God exists. The main exception is Buddhists, one-third of whom say they do not believe in God. (Belief in God is  not central to Buddhist teachings .)

Indians do not always agree about the nature of God: Most Hindus say there is one God with many manifestations, while Muslims and Christians are more likely to say, simply, “there is only one God.” But across all major faiths, the vast majority of Indians say that religion is very important in their lives, and significant portions of each religious group also pray daily and observe a range of other religious rituals.

10. India’s religious groups share several religious practices and beliefs. 

After living side by side for generations, India’s minority groups often engage in practices or hold beliefs that are more closely associated with Hindu traditions than with their own. For instance, many Sikh (29%), Christian (22%) and Muslim (18%) women in India say they wear a bindi—the forehead marking often worn by married women—even though the bindi has Hindu origins. Meanwhile, Muslims in India are just as likely as Hindus to say they believe in karma (77% each), as do 54% of Indian Christians.

Some members of the majority Hindu community celebrate Muslim and Christian festivals: 7% of Indian Hindus say they celebrate the Muslim festival of Eid, and 17% celebrate Christmas.

Note: Here are  the questions used  for this report, along with responses, and  its methodology .

This article was originally published on Pew Research Centre .

India’s massive population is diverse as well as devout. Not only do most of the world’s Hindus, Jains and Sikhs live in India, but it also is home to one […]

Jonathan Evans is a research associate at Pew Research Centre, where he contributes to international polling projects focused on religion and national identity. Jonathan received his master’s degree from Georgetown University and holds a bachelor’s degree from Brigham Young University.

Neha Sahgal is associate director of research at Pew Research Center, specialising in international polling on religion. She is involved in all aspects of survey research, including designing the questionnaire, monitoring field work, evaluating data quality and analysing results.

What is Religious Diversity in India?

Have you ever wondered why India’s religious diversity is widely famous? Religion in India is known all over the world for having unique diversity in terms of religious beliefs and practices. India’s major religions include Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Christianity, Islam, and Jainism. In India, religion holds utmost importance and therefore this is the reason that India got the title of “Land of spirituality and philosophy” all over the world. India has received this title due to its diversity of religion, beliefs, celebrations, culture, and languages etc. Even though India is no state religion country but you will find a diversity of religions ruling different regions. No matter which religion it is, the message of love and brotherhood comes from all the religions, regions and cultures of India.

The rising level of immigration from other Western countries is causing variation in the religious diversity of India. The historical preserved deep religious diversity of Western countries is also entering India’s religious diversity and also the ratio of people belonging to a particular religion keeps on fluctuating.

Different Religions in India

In India, you’ll find Hindus, Muslims, Christians, and aficionados of other religions as well. Let’s have a close look –

Hindus make up almost 80% of the country’s population. You will find Hindus in almost every state of India. Hinduism has no founder or central governing body but the Spectrum of Hindu is very vast which includes deeply religious people, vegetarians, atheists, beef eaters, devotees of Vishnu, devotees of Krishna and much more. Hinduism in itself is very diverse as they have different temples to visit, festivals to celebrate and bhajans and mantras to chant. Hinduism followers comprise of Dravidians, pre-Dravidians, and the Indo Aryans. The followers believe in the principle of Karma, Dharma, rebirth, salvation, and abandonment etc. The different sects of Hinduism include AryaSamaj, BrahmoSamaj, Sakta, Satnami, and Kabirpanthi etc.

Indonesia, Pakistan, and India are the 3 countries with largest Muslims population. You will find Muslims in various States of India including Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Kerala, Jammu and Kashmir, and Agra etc. 14% of the Muslims population is residing in Jammu and Kashmir.  When it comes to the cities then, Mumbai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Bhopal, Aurangabad etc are dotted with the Muslim population. Muslim does not believe in Idol worship. they follow their secret book called Quran which states them to follow the five principal duties details including beliefs in Allah, 5 times prayer a day, giving of charities, a month fast every year and pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime.

The impact of their culture, religion, and beliefs can be seen in Indian architecture, including the TajMahal, Jama Masjid, and Red Fort etc.

If we talk about food cuisines and dishes, then food items like seekh kebab, Tandoori items, biryani etc are influenced by the Muslims culture. Sufi music is one of the popular music forms in India which originated from the Muslim culture only.

It is believed that Christianity has been in India from the time of Apostle Thomas. In the present scenario, Christians make up around 3-4% of total population of India. You will find Christians in the majority of states like Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur, Goa, Kerala, and Mizoram etc. Roman Catholics are one of the largest Christian communities followed by the CSI and Syrian Christians. Christians believe in Jesus Christ who is the son of god for them. They believe in the Day of Judgment which comes after the closure of human life. They believe that a person is rewarded on the judgment day as per the type of life he led.  Indian education system has been adopting Christian School practices because Christian schools were considered as one of the best educational institutions in the world. Sonia Gandhi and the late Mother Teresa were the two significant Christian personalities that later became Indian citizens.

Sikhs make up 1-2% of India’s population and you will find them in the majority in regions like Punjab, Delhi, and Haryana etc. When it comes to Sikhs, the number doesn’t matter but their presence and influence can be seen in almost every state of India. You’ll find them in various dignified positions including military, pilots and other officer ranks and top-level positions in MNCs.

Other Religions

Other significant religious groups in India include Jains, Buddhist, and Parsis.

• Buddhism started long ago in India but there was a decline in their number in India but today we can see Buddhists in almost every part of India especially in the states like Bhutan, Sikkim and Himachal Pradesh etc.
• Jains are a separate community but their practices are similar to the Hindu community. They are strict vegetarians. Not only they avoid chicken, eggs, and fish but also avoid eating root vegetables like onion, garlic etc. They are known for their charitable and educational work in all over the world.
• Last but not the least, Parsis is an extremely small religious group which you can find mostly in Mumbai. One can become Parsi, only if he is born in that family that’s why they are very few in number.

Religion is all about Community

Basically, when an Indian tells you that he is a Hindu or Sikh, it means he is telling you from where he comes from and not about what he believes or worships. Even when you fill government forms in India, you will be requested to list your religion just to let them know about your community.

Diversity in Public Behaviors

When it comes to the diversification of religion then, public behaviors play an important role. Sikh men wearing a turban and Muslim men are seen wearing a cap whereas; Hindu women usually wear a bindi. Therefore every religion has its own outward behaviors that help others to identify them. Christians have different inward and outward behaviors including unique dresses, names, prayers, and festivals. The Sikh religious group is very easy to identify as the Sikh men wear elegant turbans and some of them do not shave their beards. You will also find a bracelet in their hand called “kada”.

Diversity in Names

Religions can be assumed from one’s name also. If your name is Hardeep Singh then Indians will automatically know that you belong to a Sikh community. In the same way, if your name is Tauseef Khan then you will be automatically recognized as a part of Muslim community, Also Sikh men have their last names as “Singh” and women have as “Kaur”. Therefore one’s name plays a very imperative role in depicting one’s religion or community.

Diversity in Worshipping

You’ll find that every religion has its own style of worshipping their God. Hindu people go to temple and believe in Idol worshiping whereas Christians go to church and Islamic place of worship is called Mosque. Muslims read their Namaz but Sikh people go to Gurdwara and read, follow Shri Guru Granth Sahib Ji.

Diversity in Religious Beliefs

Every religion has its own beliefs. Sikh people believe that God Lives in the “Sangat” and if you will serve the “Sangat” god will be pleased automatically. Christians believe that God can be pleased and preached through music and speech also through readings from scriptures.

Unity in Diversity

Respect and diversification have made religion an individual matter for Indians, creating a sense of independence in making individual choices regarding religion as per one’s belief. Though India’s religious diversity is very broad it is very easy for one to recognize one’s religion and community just within few seconds. This inter-communal practice can be seen in India’s constitution also which shows that every religion is given equal importance and every person is free to follow his own religion and beliefs.

The best thing about India’s religious diversity is that India is not identified with a particular religion. Recognitions are granted to multiple religious communities in India. Irrespective of one’s religion, India offers a commitment to values like liberty and equality, etc to all the citizens of India.

Although there are different states that have the majority of people belonging to different religions still there is no wall of separation between the states and the religion. Nobody is restricted to enter Hindu temples or Sikh temples and therefore equal respect is given to all the religions and religious practices.  Muslims can visit the Hindu neighbors on occasions like Diwali and Hindus are also welcomed for Eid preparations in India. No matter whether it’s Christmas or Diwali celebration or any other special occasion, you’ll find Indians celebrating the emotions together without discriminating any religion.  This is due to the religious richness of India that tourists from all over the world visit this popular land to have a glimpse of the religious diversity of India.

Therefore, this unity in diversity is eradicating all the communal violence and period of tense relationships in India.

Related Information:

What is the diversity of India

Unity in Diversity Essay

Speech on Unity in Diversity

Slogans on Unity in Diversity

Related Posts

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Home » Society » Salient features of Indian Society » Features of Indian Society » Diversity in India

India is a plural society both in letter and spirit. It is rightly characterized by its unity and diversity. A grand synthesis of cultures, religions and languages of the people belonging to different castes and communities has upheld its unity and cohesiveness despite multiple foreign invasions.

National unity and integrity have been maintained even through sharp economic and social inequalities have obstructed the emergence of egalitarian social relations. It is this synthesis which has made India a unique mosque of cultures. Thus, India present seemingly multicultural situation within in the framework of a single integrated cultural whole.

The term ‘diversity’ emphasizes differences rather than inequalities. It means collective differences, that is, differences which mark off one group of people from another. These differences may be of any sort: biological, religious, linguistic etc. Thus, diversity means variety of races, of religions, of languages, of castes and of cultures.

Unity means integration. It is a social psychological condition. It connotes a sense of one- ness, a sense of we-ness. It stands for the bonds, which hold the members of a society together.

Unity in diversity essentially means “unity without uniformity” and “diversity without fragmentation”. It is based on the notion that diversity enriches human interaction.

When we say that India is a nation of great cultural diversity, we mean that there are many different types of social groups and communities living here. These are communities defined by cultural markers such as language, religion, sect, race or caste.

Various forms of diversity in India:

• Religious diversity: India is a land of multiple religions. Apart from the tribal societies, many of whom still live in the pre-religious state of animism and magic, the Indian

population consists of the Hindus (82.41%), Muslims (11.6%), Christians (2.32%), Sikhs (1.99%), Buddhists (0.77%) and Jains (0.41%). The Hindus themselves are divided into several sects such as Vaishnavas, Shaivates, Shaktas, Smartas etc. Similarly, the Muslims are divided into sects such as Shias, Sunnis, Ahmadiyas etc.

• Linguistic diversity: Languages spoken in India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo-Aryan languages spoken by 75% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 20% of Indians. Other languages belong to the Austroasiatic, Sino- Tibetan, Tai-Kadai, and a few other minor language families and isolates. India has the world’s second highest number of languages, after Papua New
• Racial diversity: 1931 census classified India’s racial diversity in the following groups- The Negrito, The Proto-Australoid, The Mongoloid, The Mediterranean, The Western Brachycephals and the Nordic. Representatives of all the three major races of the world, namely Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid, are found in the
• Caste diversity: India is a country of The term caste has been used to refer to both varna as well as jati. Varna is the four-fold division of society according to functional differentiation. Thus, the four varnas include Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras and an outcaste group. Whereas Jati refers to a hereditary endogamous status group practicing a specific traditional occupation.. There are more than 3000 jatis and there is no one all India system of ranking them in order and status. The jati system is not static and there is mobility in the system, through which jatis have changed their position over years. This system of upward mobility has been termed as “Sanskritization” by M. N. Srinivas.
• Cultural diversity: Cultural patterns reflect regional variations. Because of population diversity, there is immense variety in Indian culture as it is a blend of various cultures. Different religion, castes, regions follow their own tradition and culture. Thus, there is variation in art, architecture, dance forms, theatre forms, music
• Geographical diversity: Spanning across an area of 3.28 million square kilometre, India is a vast country with great diversity of physical features like dry deserts, evergreen forests, lofty mountains, perennial and non-perennial river systems, long coasts and fertile plains.

In addition to the above described major forms of diversity, India also has diversity of many other types like that of settlement patterns – tribal, rural, urban; marriage and kinship patterns along religious and regional lines and so on.

Factors Leading to Unity amidst Diversity in India:

• Constitutional identity: The entire country is governed by one single Even, most of the states follow a generalised scheme of 3-tier government structure, thus imparting uniformity in national governance framework. Further, the Constitution guarantees certain fundamental rights to all citizens regardless of their age, gender, class, caste, religion, etc.
• Religious co-existence: Religion tolerance is the unique feature of religions in India due to which multiple religions co-exist in Freedom of religion and religious practice is guaranteed by the Constitution itself. Moreover, there is no state religion and all religions are given equal preference by the state.
• Inter-State mobility: The Constitution guarantees freedom to move throughout the territory of India under Article 19 (1) (d), thus promoting a sense of unity and brotherhood among the
• Other factors such as uniform pattern of law, penal code, and administrative works (eg. All India services) too lead to uniformity in the criminal justice system, policy implementation
• Economic integration:    The      Constitution    of India secures the freedom of Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within the Territory of India under Article Further, the Goods and Service Tax (GST) have paved way for ‘one country, one tax, one national market’, thus facilitating unity among different regions.
• Institution of pilgrimage and religious practices: In India, religion and spirituality have great significance. . From Badrinath and Kedarnath in the north to Rameshwaram in the south, Jagannath Puri in the east to Dwaraka in the west the religious shrines and holy rivers are spread throughout the length and breadth of the Closely related to them is the age-old culture of pilgrimage, which has always moved people to various parts of the country and fostered in them a sense of geo-cultural unity.
• Fairs and festivals: They also act as integrating factors as people from all parts of the country celebrate them as per their own local Eg. Diwali is celebrated throughout by Hindus in the country, similarly Id and Christmas are celebrated by Muslims and Christians, respectively. Celebration of inter-religious festivals is also seen in India.
• Climatic integration via monsoon: The flora and fauna in the entire Indian subcontinent, agricultural practices, life of people, including their festivities revolve around the monsoon season in
• Sports and Cinema: These are followed by millions in the country, thus, acting as a binding force across the length and breadth of

Factors that threaten India’s unity:

• Regionalism: Regionalism tends to highlight interests of a particular region/regions over national interests. It can also adversely impact national integration. Law and order situation is hampered due to regional demands and ensuing
• Divisive politics: Sometimes, ascriptive identities such as caste, religion etc. are evoked by politicians in order to garner This type of divisive politics can result in violence, feeling of mistrust and suspicion among minorities.
• Development imbalance: Uneven pattern of socio-economic development, inadequate economic policies and consequent economic disparities can lead to backwardness of a region. Consequently, this can result in violence, kickstart waves of migration and even accelerate demands of separatism.. For instance, due to economic backwardness of the North East region, several instances of separatist demands and secessionist tendencies have sprung up in the
• Ethnic differentiation and nativism: Ethnic differentiation has often led to clashes between different ethnic groups especially due to factors such as job competition, limited resources, threat to identity E.g. frequent clashes between Bodos and Bengali speaking Muslims in Assam. This has been accentuated by son of the soil doctrine, which ties people to their place of birth and confers some benefits, rights, roles and responsibilities on them, which may not apply to others.
• Geographical isolation: Geographical isolation too can lead to identity issues and separatist The North-East is geographically isolated from the rest of the country as it is connected with the rest of the country by a narrow corridor i.e the Siliguri corridor (Chicken’s neck). The region has inadequate infrastructure, is more backward economically as compared to the rest of the country. As a result, ithas witnessed several instances of separatism and cross-border terrorism, among others.
• Inter-religious conflicts: Inter-religious conflicts not only hamper relations between two communities by spreading fear and mistrust but also hinder the secular fabric of the country.
• Inter-state conflicts: This can lead emergence of feelings related to regionalism. It can also affect trade and communications between conflicting states. For instance, Cauvery River dispute between Karnataka and Tamil
• Influence of external factors: Sometimes external factors such as foreign organizations terrorist groups, extremist groups can incite violence and sow feelings of separatism. g. Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) has been accused of supporting and training mujahideen to fight in Jammu and Kashmir and sow separatist tendencies among resident groups.

In-spite of the challenges posed by diversity, there can be no doubt on the role played by socio-cultural diversity in sustaining and developing Indian society.

Problem is not of diversity per se, but the handling of diversity in India society. The problems of regionalism, communalism, ethnic conflicts etc. have arisen because the fruits of development haven’t been distributed equally or the cultures of some groups haven’t been accorded due recognition.

Conclusion:

Hence, Constitution and its values must form guiding principles of our society. Any society which has tried to homogenize itself, has witnessed stagnation in due-course and ultimately decline. The most important example is this case is of Pakistan which tried to impose culture on East-Pakistan ultimately leading to creation of Bangladesh.

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Diversity In India Essay

Diversity in India is a remarkable phenomenon, one that has been celebrated since ancient times. It is a country where different cultures, religions, languages, and traditions coexist in harmony, reflecting its traditional adage of ‘unity in diversity’. India is home to a plethora of different ethnicities, languages, religions and cultures, each with its own unique set of customs and beliefs. Here are a few sample essays on the topic ‘Diversity In India’.

100 Words Essay On Diversity In India

200 words essay on diversity in india, 500 words essay on diversity in india.

India is a country with a rich and diverse cultural heritage, and it is no surprise that it is also home to a variety of people from different religions, ethnicities and backgrounds. Diversity in India is a reflection of the many different groups and cultures that coexist in the country. India’s diversity is not only celebrated but embraced and admired.

When it comes to diversity in India, there are several types. The most common are religious, linguistic, regional, and ethnic diversity. India is one of the most religiously diverse countries in the world, with Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains and many other belief systems calling the country home. Additionally, India is home to several languages including Hindi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Punjabi, Gujarati, and Bengali.

India’s ethnic diversity is also quite remarkable. The population is divided into numerous ethnic groups including the Scheduled Tribes, Scheduled Castes, Other Backward Classes, and many more. Each of these ethnic groups has their own distinct culture, language, and customs, making them unique and inspiring. There are also many dialects of each language and they are spoken throughout the country's states and regions.

Benefits | The many different types of diversity in India are beneficial in several ways. Firstly, it leads to a more harmonious and peaceful environment, as people from different backgrounds are able to share their unique perspectives and experiences, leading to mutual understanding and respect. Secondly, diversity allows for a variety of talents and skills to be cultivated, leading to a more vibrant and successful economy. Lastly, diversity leads to an increased appreciation and understanding of different cultures and beliefs, which is beneficial for the country’s progress and development.

Unity In Diversity | The concept of ‘unity in diversity’ is an integral part of India’s culture and identity. This concept is evident in everything from the country’s festivals and celebrations, to its freedom of expression and equal rights for all. It is this idea of diverse people coming together to form one unified nation that makes India stand out among other countries in the world.

India is a land of unique and diverse cultures, religions, languages, and customs. The concept of ‘unity in diversity’ is a cornerstone of India’s culture and identity, and is something that should be celebrated and embraced. The different patterns of culture, religion, language, and customs make India one of the most interesting countries in the world.

Geographical Diversity | India's diversity is also visible in its geographical landscape. India is a land of mountains, valleys, plains, deserts, and seas. It has the highest mountain range, the Himalayas. It also has the largest desert, the Thar Desert, and the longest river, the Ganges.

Social, Economical And Cultural Advantages Of Diversity

India’s diversity is beneficial both economically and socially, allowing the country to prosper and grow.

The diversities in India have been beneficial for its people. One of the most significant benefits is that it has enabled India to be a culturally, socially, politically and economically united nation. The diversity in India has also helped to promote a sense of understanding and tolerance among its people. It is this sense of understanding and tolerance that has enabled India to become a strong and unified nation.

India's unique diversity has enabled the country to be a leader in the field of science, technology, and innovation. India is home to a number of leading technology companies and has been a major player in the global economy.

India's diversity has also been beneficial in terms of promoting cultural exchange and understanding. India has given the world a number of great cultural traditions such as yoga, Ayurveda, and music. This has enabled people from different cultures and religions to come together and exchange ideas and experiences.

Impact of Diversity In India

The diversity in India has had a major positive impact on the country, both in terms of its economy and its culture. The diverse population has enabled India to become a multicultural hub, with people from all walks of life interacting with each other, exchanging ideas, and bringing different perspectives to the table. This has enabled the country to become a melting pot of different cultures, thereby increasing its economic power. The presence of different religions has also resulted in the development of a more tolerant and inclusive society.

The diversity of India has also enabled it to preserve its traditions and practices. By embracing different cultures, India has been able to protect its own culture and customs. This has enabled the country to benefit from its traditional values and practices, while also benefiting from the knowledge and innovation brought in by its diverse population.

India’s diversity is a source of strength and a major source of pride for the country. It has enabled the country to become a major player in the global economy, while preserving its traditional values and customs. The presence of different religions, languages, and cultures has enabled the country to become a more tolerant and inclusive society. It is this unique diversity that has enabled India to become the vibrant, dynamic and economically powerful nation that it is today.

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The field of biomedical engineering opens up a universe of expert chances. An Individual in the biomedical engineering career path work in the field of engineering as well as medicine, in order to find out solutions to common problems of the two fields. The biomedical engineering job opportunities are to collaborate with doctors and researchers to develop medical systems, equipment, or devices that can solve clinical problems. Here we will be discussing jobs after biomedical engineering, how to get a job in biomedical engineering, biomedical engineering scope, and salary. 

Data Administrator

Database professionals use software to store and organise data such as financial information, and customer shipping records. Individuals who opt for a career as data administrators ensure that data is available for users and secured from unauthorised sales. DB administrators may work in various types of industries. It may involve computer systems design, service firms, insurance companies, banks and hospitals.

Ethical Hacker

A career as ethical hacker involves various challenges and provides lucrative opportunities in the digital era where every giant business and startup owns its cyberspace on the world wide web. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path try to find the vulnerabilities in the cyber system to get its authority. If he or she succeeds in it then he or she gets its illegal authority. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path then steal information or delete the file that could affect the business, functioning, or services of the organization.

Data Analyst

The invention of the database has given fresh breath to the people involved in the data analytics career path. Analysis refers to splitting up a whole into its individual components for individual analysis. Data analysis is a method through which raw data are processed and transformed into information that would be beneficial for user strategic thinking.

Data are collected and examined to respond to questions, evaluate hypotheses or contradict theories. It is a tool for analyzing, transforming, modeling, and arranging data with useful knowledge, to assist in decision-making and methods, encompassing various strategies, and is used in different fields of business, research, and social science.

Geothermal Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as geothermal engineers are the professionals involved in the processing of geothermal energy. The responsibilities of geothermal engineers may vary depending on the workplace location. Those who work in fields design facilities to process and distribute geothermal energy. They oversee the functioning of machinery used in the field.

Remote Sensing Technician

Individuals who opt for a career as a remote sensing technician possess unique personalities. Remote sensing analysts seem to be rational human beings, they are strong, independent, persistent, sincere, realistic and resourceful. Some of them are analytical as well, which means they are intelligent, introspective and inquisitive. 

Remote sensing scientists use remote sensing technology to support scientists in fields such as community planning, flight planning or the management of natural resources. Analysing data collected from aircraft, satellites or ground-based platforms using statistical analysis software, image analysis software or Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a significant part of their work. Do you want to learn how to become remote sensing technician? There's no need to be concerned; we've devised a simple remote sensing technician career path for you. Scroll through the pages and read.

Geotechnical engineer

The role of geotechnical engineer starts with reviewing the projects needed to define the required material properties. The work responsibilities are followed by a site investigation of rock, soil, fault distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of interest. The investigation is aimed to improve the ground engineering design and determine their engineering properties that include how they will interact with, on or in a proposed construction. 

The role of geotechnical engineer in mining includes designing and determining the type of foundations, earthworks, and or pavement subgrades required for the intended man-made structures to be made. Geotechnical engineering jobs are involved in earthen and concrete dam construction projects, working under a range of normal and extreme loading conditions. 

Cartographer

How fascinating it is to represent the whole world on just a piece of paper or a sphere. With the help of maps, we are able to represent the real world on a much smaller scale. Individuals who opt for a career as a cartographer are those who make maps. But, cartography is not just limited to maps, it is about a mixture of art , science , and technology. As a cartographer, not only you will create maps but use various geodetic surveys and remote sensing systems to measure, analyse, and create different maps for political, cultural or educational purposes.

Budget Analyst

Budget analysis, in a nutshell, entails thoroughly analyzing the details of a financial budget. The budget analysis aims to better understand and manage revenue. Budget analysts assist in the achievement of financial targets, the preservation of profitability, and the pursuit of long-term growth for a business. Budget analysts generally have a bachelor's degree in accounting, finance, economics, or a closely related field. Knowledge of Financial Management is of prime importance in this career.

Product Manager

A Product Manager is a professional responsible for product planning and marketing. He or she manages the product throughout the Product Life Cycle, gathering and prioritising the product. A product manager job description includes defining the product vision and working closely with team members of other departments to deliver winning products.  

Underwriter

An underwriter is a person who assesses and evaluates the risk of insurance in his or her field like mortgage, loan, health policy, investment, and so on and so forth. The underwriter career path does involve risks as analysing the risks means finding out if there is a way for the insurance underwriter jobs to recover the money from its clients. If the risk turns out to be too much for the company then in the future it is an underwriter who will be held accountable for it. Therefore, one must carry out his or her job with a lot of attention and diligence.

Finance Executive

Operations manager.

Individuals in the operations manager jobs are responsible for ensuring the efficiency of each department to acquire its optimal goal. They plan the use of resources and distribution of materials. The operations manager's job description includes managing budgets, negotiating contracts, and performing administrative tasks.

Bank Probationary Officer (PO)

Investment director.

An investment director is a person who helps corporations and individuals manage their finances. They can help them develop a strategy to achieve their goals, including paying off debts and investing in the future. In addition, he or she can help individuals make informed decisions.

Welding Engineer

Welding Engineer Job Description: A Welding Engineer work involves managing welding projects and supervising welding teams. He or she is responsible for reviewing welding procedures, processes and documentation. A career as Welding Engineer involves conducting failure analyses and causes on welding issues. 

Transportation Planner

A career as Transportation Planner requires technical application of science and technology in engineering, particularly the concepts, equipment and technologies involved in the production of products and services. In fields like land use, infrastructure review, ecological standards and street design, he or she considers issues of health, environment and performance. A Transportation Planner assigns resources for implementing and designing programmes. He or she is responsible for assessing needs, preparing plans and forecasts and compliance with regulations.

An expert in plumbing is aware of building regulations and safety standards and works to make sure these standards are upheld. Testing pipes for leakage using air pressure and other gauges, and also the ability to construct new pipe systems by cutting, fitting, measuring and threading pipes are some of the other more involved aspects of plumbing. Individuals in the plumber career path are self-employed or work for a small business employing less than ten people, though some might find working for larger entities or the government more desirable.

Construction Manager

Individuals who opt for a career as construction managers have a senior-level management role offered in construction firms. Responsibilities in the construction management career path are assigning tasks to workers, inspecting their work, and coordinating with other professionals including architects, subcontractors, and building services engineers.

Urban Planner

Urban Planning careers revolve around the idea of developing a plan to use the land optimally, without affecting the environment. Urban planning jobs are offered to those candidates who are skilled in making the right use of land to distribute the growing population, to create various communities. 

Urban planning careers come with the opportunity to make changes to the existing cities and towns. They identify various community needs and make short and long-term plans accordingly.

Highway Engineer

Highway Engineer Job Description:  A Highway Engineer is a civil engineer who specialises in planning and building thousands of miles of roads that support connectivity and allow transportation across the country. He or she ensures that traffic management schemes are effectively planned concerning economic sustainability and successful implementation.

Environmental Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as an environmental engineer are construction professionals who utilise the skills and knowledge of biology, soil science, chemistry and the concept of engineering to design and develop projects that serve as solutions to various environmental problems. 

Naval Architect

A Naval Architect is a professional who designs, produces and repairs safe and sea-worthy surfaces or underwater structures. A Naval Architect stays involved in creating and designing ships, ferries, submarines and yachts with implementation of various principles such as gravity, ideal hull form, buoyancy and stability. 

Orthotist and Prosthetist

Orthotists and Prosthetists are professionals who provide aid to patients with disabilities. They fix them to artificial limbs (prosthetics) and help them to regain stability. There are times when people lose their limbs in an accident. In some other occasions, they are born without a limb or orthopaedic impairment. Orthotists and prosthetists play a crucial role in their lives with fixing them to assistive devices and provide mobility.

Veterinary Doctor

Pathologist.

A career in pathology in India is filled with several responsibilities as it is a medical branch and affects human lives. The demand for pathologists has been increasing over the past few years as people are getting more aware of different diseases. Not only that, but an increase in population and lifestyle changes have also contributed to the increase in a pathologist’s demand. The pathology careers provide an extremely huge number of opportunities and if you want to be a part of the medical field you can consider being a pathologist. If you want to know more about a career in pathology in India then continue reading this article.

Speech Therapist

Gynaecologist.

Gynaecology can be defined as the study of the female body. The job outlook for gynaecology is excellent since there is evergreen demand for one because of their responsibility of dealing with not only women’s health but also fertility and pregnancy issues. Although most women prefer to have a women obstetrician gynaecologist as their doctor, men also explore a career as a gynaecologist and there are ample amounts of male doctors in the field who are gynaecologists and aid women during delivery and childbirth. 

An oncologist is a specialised doctor responsible for providing medical care to patients diagnosed with cancer. He or she uses several therapies to control the cancer and its effect on the human body such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy and biopsy. An oncologist designs a treatment plan based on a pathology report after diagnosing the type of cancer and where it is spreading inside the body.

Audiologist

The audiologist career involves audiology professionals who are responsible to treat hearing loss and proactively preventing the relevant damage. Individuals who opt for a career as an audiologist use various testing strategies with the aim to determine if someone has a normal sensitivity to sounds or not. After the identification of hearing loss, a hearing doctor is required to determine which sections of the hearing are affected, to what extent they are affected, and where the wound causing the hearing loss is found. As soon as the hearing loss is identified, the patients are provided with recommendations for interventions and rehabilitation such as hearing aids, cochlear implants, and appropriate medical referrals. While audiology is a branch of science that studies and researches hearing, balance, and related disorders.

Hospital Administrator

The hospital Administrator is in charge of organising and supervising the daily operations of medical services and facilities. This organising includes managing of organisation’s staff and its members in service, budgets, service reports, departmental reporting and taking reminders of patient care and services.

For an individual who opts for a career as an actor, the primary responsibility is to completely speak to the character he or she is playing and to persuade the crowd that the character is genuine by connecting with them and bringing them into the story. This applies to significant roles and littler parts, as all roles join to make an effective creation. Here in this article, we will discuss how to become an actor in India, actor exams, actor salary in India, and actor jobs. 

Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats create and direct original routines for themselves, in addition to developing interpretations of existing routines. The work of circus acrobats can be seen in a variety of performance settings, including circus, reality shows, sports events like the Olympics, movies and commercials. Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats must be prepared to face rejections and intermittent periods of work. The creativity of acrobats may extend to other aspects of the performance. For example, acrobats in the circus may work with gym trainers, celebrities or collaborate with other professionals to enhance such performance elements as costume and or maybe at the teaching end of the career.

Video Game Designer

Career as a video game designer is filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. A video game designer is someone who is involved in the process of creating a game from day one. He or she is responsible for fulfilling duties like designing the character of the game, the several levels involved, plot, art and similar other elements. Individuals who opt for a career as a video game designer may also write the codes for the game using different programming languages.

Depending on the video game designer job description and experience they may also have to lead a team and do the early testing of the game in order to suggest changes and find loopholes.

Radio Jockey

Radio Jockey is an exciting, promising career and a great challenge for music lovers. If you are really interested in a career as radio jockey, then it is very important for an RJ to have an automatic, fun, and friendly personality. If you want to get a job done in this field, a strong command of the language and a good voice are always good things. Apart from this, in order to be a good radio jockey, you will also listen to good radio jockeys so that you can understand their style and later make your own by practicing.

A career as radio jockey has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. If you want to know more about a career as radio jockey, and how to become a radio jockey then continue reading the article.

Choreographer

The word “choreography" actually comes from Greek words that mean “dance writing." Individuals who opt for a career as a choreographer create and direct original dances, in addition to developing interpretations of existing dances. A Choreographer dances and utilises his or her creativity in other aspects of dance performance. For example, he or she may work with the music director to select music or collaborate with other famous choreographers to enhance such performance elements as lighting, costume and set design.

Videographer

Multimedia specialist.

A multimedia specialist is a media professional who creates, audio, videos, graphic image files, computer animations for multimedia applications. He or she is responsible for planning, producing, and maintaining websites and applications. 

Social Media Manager

A career as social media manager involves implementing the company’s or brand’s marketing plan across all social media channels. Social media managers help in building or improving a brand’s or a company’s website traffic, build brand awareness, create and implement marketing and brand strategy. Social media managers are key to important social communication as well.

Copy Writer

In a career as a copywriter, one has to consult with the client and understand the brief well. A career as a copywriter has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. Several new mediums of advertising are opening therefore making it a lucrative career choice. Students can pursue various copywriter courses such as Journalism , Advertising , Marketing Management . Here, we have discussed how to become a freelance copywriter, copywriter career path, how to become a copywriter in India, and copywriting career outlook. 

Careers in journalism are filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. One cannot afford to miss out on the details. As it is the small details that provide insights into a story. Depending on those insights a journalist goes about writing a news article. A journalism career can be stressful at times but if you are someone who is passionate about it then it is the right choice for you. If you want to know more about the media field and journalist career then continue reading this article.

For publishing books, newspapers, magazines and digital material, editorial and commercial strategies are set by publishers. Individuals in publishing career paths make choices about the markets their businesses will reach and the type of content that their audience will be served. Individuals in book publisher careers collaborate with editorial staff, designers, authors, and freelance contributors who develop and manage the creation of content.

In a career as a vlogger, one generally works for himself or herself. However, once an individual has gained viewership there are several brands and companies that approach them for paid collaboration. It is one of those fields where an individual can earn well while following his or her passion. 

Ever since internet costs got reduced the viewership for these types of content has increased on a large scale. Therefore, a career as a vlogger has a lot to offer. If you want to know more about the Vlogger eligibility, roles and responsibilities then continue reading the article. 

Individuals in the editor career path is an unsung hero of the news industry who polishes the language of the news stories provided by stringers, reporters, copywriters and content writers and also news agencies. Individuals who opt for a career as an editor make it more persuasive, concise and clear for readers. In this article, we will discuss the details of the editor's career path such as how to become an editor in India, editor salary in India and editor skills and qualities.

Linguistic meaning is related to language or Linguistics which is the study of languages. A career as a linguistic meaning, a profession that is based on the scientific study of language, and it's a very broad field with many specialities. Famous linguists work in academia, researching and teaching different areas of language, such as phonetics (sounds), syntax (word order) and semantics (meaning). 

Other researchers focus on specialities like computational linguistics, which seeks to better match human and computer language capacities, or applied linguistics, which is concerned with improving language education. Still, others work as language experts for the government, advertising companies, dictionary publishers and various other private enterprises. Some might work from home as freelance linguists. Philologist, phonologist, and dialectician are some of Linguist synonym. Linguists can study French , German , Italian . 

Public Relation Executive

Travel journalist.

The career of a travel journalist is full of passion, excitement and responsibility. Journalism as a career could be challenging at times, but if you're someone who has been genuinely enthusiastic about all this, then it is the best decision for you. Travel journalism jobs are all about insightful, artfully written, informative narratives designed to cover the travel industry. Travel Journalist is someone who explores, gathers and presents information as a news article.

Quality Controller

A quality controller plays a crucial role in an organisation. He or she is responsible for performing quality checks on manufactured products. He or she identifies the defects in a product and rejects the product. 

A quality controller records detailed information about products with defects and sends it to the supervisor or plant manager to take necessary actions to improve the production process.

Production Manager

Merchandiser.

A QA Lead is in charge of the QA Team. The role of QA Lead comes with the responsibility of assessing services and products in order to determine that he or she meets the quality standards. He or she develops, implements and manages test plans. 

Metallurgical Engineer

A metallurgical engineer is a professional who studies and produces materials that bring power to our world. He or she extracts metals from ores and rocks and transforms them into alloys, high-purity metals and other materials used in developing infrastructure, transportation and healthcare equipment. 

Azure Administrator

An Azure Administrator is a professional responsible for implementing, monitoring, and maintaining Azure Solutions. He or she manages cloud infrastructure service instances and various cloud servers as well as sets up public and private cloud systems. 

AWS Solution Architect

An AWS Solution Architect is someone who specializes in developing and implementing cloud computing systems. He or she has a good understanding of the various aspects of cloud computing and can confidently deploy and manage their systems. He or she troubleshoots the issues and evaluates the risk from the third party. 

Computer Programmer

Careers in computer programming primarily refer to the systematic act of writing code and moreover include wider computer science areas. The word 'programmer' or 'coder' has entered into practice with the growing number of newly self-taught tech enthusiasts. Computer programming careers involve the use of designs created by software developers and engineers and transforming them into commands that can be implemented by computers. These commands result in regular usage of social media sites, word-processing applications and browsers.

ITSM Manager

Information security manager.

Individuals in the information security manager career path involves in overseeing and controlling all aspects of computer security. The IT security manager job description includes planning and carrying out security measures to protect the business data and information from corruption, theft, unauthorised access, and deliberate attack 

Business Intelligence Developer

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Essay on India the Land of Diversity

Students are often asked to write an essay on India the Land of Diversity in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on India the Land of Diversity

Introduction.

India, a country in South Asia, is known as the land of diversity. It’s a place where numerous cultures, religions, and languages coexist harmoniously.

Cultural Diversity

India is home to diverse cultures. Each state has its unique traditions, festivals, and art forms. This cultural diversity is a testament to India’s rich heritage.

Religious Diversity

India is the birthplace of religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. It also welcomes other religions like Islam and Christianity, promoting religious harmony.

Linguistic Diversity

India has 22 officially recognized languages and hundreds of dialects. This linguistic diversity symbolizes unity in diversity.

India’s diversity is its strength, making it a vibrant and fascinating country. It teaches us the value of unity amidst differences.

250 Words Essay on India the Land of Diversity

India, often referred to as the “Land of Diversity,” is a unique amalgamation of various cultures, religions, languages, and traditions. It is a testament to the country’s rich history and heritage that has molded its identity over millennia.

India’s cultural diversity is one of its most distinguishing features. Each state embodies its unique customs, traditions, and festivals. From the vibrant Bihu of Assam to the grandeur of Rajasthan’s Ghoomar, from the colourful Pongal of Tamil Nadu to the mesmerizing Garba of Gujarat, India’s cultural panorama is vast and varied.

India’s linguistic diversity is equally impressive, with over 2000 distinct languages spoken across its length and breadth. This linguistic richness contributes to a multifaceted society where people communicate in a multitude of languages, yet remain united under the umbrella of being Indian.

India is the birthplace of several major religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, and also warmly embraces other religions like Islam, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Judaism. This religious diversity fosters a spirit of tolerance and mutual respect, which is integral to India’s ethos.

India’s diversity is not just a demographic phenomenon, but a living, breathing reality that shapes the nation’s social, political, and economic life. It is a testament to India’s inherent strength and resilience that despite such immense diversity, it stands united, embodying the essence of the phrase “Unity in Diversity.” This diversity is a symbol of India’s pluralistic society, reflecting a harmonious coexistence of varied cultures and traditions, making it truly the “Land of Diversity.”

500 Words Essay on India the Land of Diversity

India, a country known for its rich cultural heritage and diverse ethnicity, is often referred to as the “Land of Diversity”. This diversity is evident in its geography, culture, languages, religions, and traditions, making it a unique blend of unity in diversity.

Geographical Diversity

India’s geographical diversity is truly astonishing. From the snow-capped Himalayas in the north to the sun-kissed beaches of the south, from the arid deserts of the west to the lush green forests of the east, the country’s landscapes are as diverse as its people. This geographical diversity contributes to a wide range of flora and fauna, making India one of the world’s 17 mega-diverse countries.

Cultural and Linguistic Diversity

The cultural diversity in India is equally intriguing. The country is a mosaic of various cultures, each with its unique traditions, festivals, art, and cuisine. Every state, every region, and even every village has its distinct cultural identity. This cultural richness is further enhanced by the linguistic diversity. With more than 2000 distinct ethnic groups and over 1600 spoken languages, India is linguistically one of the most diverse countries in the world.

India is the birthplace of four major world religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. It also embraces other religions like Islam, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Baha’i with open arms. This religious diversity is a testament to the country’s secular fabric and its acceptance of different faiths.

Social and Economic Diversity

The social structure in India is complex and diverse, with a multitude of castes, tribes, and communities. The economy, too, is characterized by diversity. From agriculture-based rural economy to industrial urban economy, from small-scale cottage industries to giant multinational corporations, the economic landscape of India is a fascinating mix of the traditional and the modern.

Unity in Diversity

Despite these diversities, India has maintained unity in diversity. The Indian Constitution, with its emphasis on secularism, equality, and justice, has played a crucial role in binding the diverse people of India into a single national fabric. The national motto, “Unity in Diversity”, reflects the country’s fundamental ethos of harmonious coexistence amidst diversity.

India, the Land of Diversity, is a testament to the coexistence of varied cultures, religions, languages, and traditions. This diversity, rather than creating divisions, has enriched the Indian society and made it a vibrant, inclusive, and pluralistic nation. As we move forward, it is essential to cherish and preserve this unique diversity, for it is the essence of India’s identity.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

• Essay on India Pakistan Relations
• Essay on India My Pride
• Essay on Increasing Population in India

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Essay on religions in india.

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In this essay we will learn about the various religions of India. After reading this essay you will learn about: 1. Introductory Remarks, Distributional Patterns of Religions in India 2. Vedism and Early Hinduism 3. Buddhism 4. Jainism 5. Sikhism 6. Christianity 7. Islam.

• Essay on Islam

Essay # 1. Introductory Remarks, Distributional Patterns of Religions in India :

If the term ‘religion’ may be used to refer to particular aspects of India’s cultural traditions, the country can be said to have long been the home of all religions that today have a worldwide presence.

Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—the so-called Indie religions—were born here. Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and the Bahai faith arrived here from abroad at different points of time during the last two millennia.

The plurality of religions in India is often obscured by the fact that Hinduism is generally regarded as both the demographically dominant and the culturally characteristic—even hegemonic—religion of the country not only in popular imagination but also by official reckoning—four out of five Indians are Hindus, and they inhabit the length and breadth of the land.

From the cultural perspective, anthropologists and sociologists have provided details of the many components of culture and aspects of social structure of the so-called non-Hindu communities that have either been borrowed from the Hindus, or are survivals from their pre- conversion Hindu past, with or without significant alterations.

The foregoing popular view of the cultural scene in India, buttressed by official statistics, needs to be qualified in several respects. Unlike the other religions of India, Hinduism is a federation of faiths which has a horizontal as well as vertical distribution, rather than a single homogeneous religion.

Not only do the religious beliefs and practices of Hindus vary from one cultural region of the country to another (say, between Bengal and Maharashtra), Hindu castes in each area are also characterized by similar differences. We will go into the details of such internal plurality among the Hindus in section ii below.

Suffice it to note here, first, that Hinduism has a long and eventful history which has resulted in much internal diversity, and second, that there are communities today which are considered Hindu by others but which themselves no longer concur in this judgement.

Most notably, the Scheduled Castes of official literature, including the Constitution of the Republic, who have traditionally comprised the bottom rungs of the caste hierarchy, and were called Harijan (‘the Children of God’) by Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948), are today by self-description the Dalit (‘the Oppressed’).

If their claim that they are not Hindu is accepted, the proportion of Hindus in the total population will come down significantly, from four-fifths to two-thirds.

Whether we have the Indie faiths in mind, or the major religions of non-Indian origin, notably Islam, religion in India is not a discrete element of everyday life that stands wholly apart from the economic or political concerns of the people. To assume so would amount to yielding to the temptation of words.

The point is not that the religious domain is not distinguished from the secular, but rather that the secular is regarded as being encompassed by the religious, even when the former is apparently inimical to the latter.

The relationship is hierarchical. In other words, religion in the Indian cultural setting traditionally permeates virtually all aspects of life, not through mechanical diffusion but in an integrated, holistic perspective.

A second clarification concerns the conception of divinity.

The monotheism characteristic of the Abrahamic religions (much more uncompromisingly in Judaism and Islam than in Christianity) is either absent in the Indie religions (as in the case of Buddhism and Jainism), or we find in its place other conceptions, notably an abstract notion of ‘Essence’ or ‘Being’ as the source of all that truly exists (the Brahman of Vedantic Hinduism), or polytheism (as in Puranic Hinduism), or the exuberant ‘spiritism’ of folk Hinduism.

The non-theism of Buddhism and Jainism, which was a major scandal in the eyes of the Vedic metaphysicians two thousand years ago, persuaded a modern European scholar of comparative religion, Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), himself born into the Jewish faith, to abandon belief in the divinity as an essential element in the constitution (or recognition) of religion anywhere.

Instead he focused on the conception of ‘sacred things’, that is, ‘things set apart or forbidden’ that contribute significantly to the constitution of society as a ‘moral community’. The notion of sacredness is itself problematic in several respects however, but we will not go into this issue here.

Finally, it may be noted here by way of clarification, that the notion and word most widely used in India as a synonym for religion, namely, the Sanskrit dharma (from the root dhr) or its Pali equivalent dharma, denotes the ideas of maintenance, sustenance or upholding, steadfastness and moral virtue, rather than the dependent bonding of the human being with supernatural powers conveyed by the term religion, which is of Latin derivation (religion, obligation, bond).

While a conception of self-sustaining cosmomoral order is found in all Indie religions—subtle differences of nuance notwithstanding—Islam literally stands for submission to the Will of God, conveyed through his Word as recorded in the Quran, which is to be read repeatedly as an essential act of piety. Incidentally, religion also denotes reverence.

Keeping the foregoing observations in mind.Let us begin with the demographic picture (on the basis of the 1991 census figures).

The Hindus (including most of the Scheduled Castes, who account for 16.48 per cent of the total population) number 688 million, constituting 82 per cent of the total population of about 839 million. (The population in India has crossed 1 billion, but the religion-wise proportions are believed to be the same as in 1991.)

Next to the Hindus are the 102 million Muslims (12 per cent), and they are followed by the Christians (20 million, 2.32 per cent) and the Sikhs (16 million, 1.99 per cent). Buddhists (0.77 per cent), Jains (0.41 per cent) and others account for the remaining nearly 2 per cent of the population.

Among the ‘others’ mention may be made of those tribal peoples who adhere to their own traditional faiths—which used to be grouped together arbitrarily as animism under colonial rule—and of the Zoroastrians and the Jews. The total population of the Scheduled Tribes is about 68 million, or 8 per cent of the total population.

Although their religion-wise distribution is not available, it is generally known that most of them either follow Hinduism of the folk type or are Christians; only a minority adhere to their ancestral faiths. As for the Zoroastrians and the Jews, they are counted in mere thousands; both are threatened by declining birth rates and assimilation among other religious communities through intermarriage.

State-wise distribution of the religious communities provides a picture of regional dispersal and variation. The Hindus, spread over virtually the entire country, outnumber all the others in the states of Himachal Pradesh (96 per cent), Orissa (95 per cent), Madhya Pradesh (93 per cent), Andhra Pradesh (89 per cent), Gujarat (89 per cent), Haryana (89 per cent), Rajasthan (89 per cent), Tamil Nadu (89 per cent), Pondicherry (86 per cent), Tripura (86 per cent), Karnataka (85 per cent), Delhi (84 per cent), Bihar (82 per cent), Uttar Pradesh (82 per cent), Maharashtra (81 per cent). West Bengal (75 per cent), Sikkim (68 per cent), Assam (67 per cent), Goa, Daman & Diu (65 per cent), Manipur (58 percentage.), and Kerala (57 per cent).

Similarly, Hindus outnumber all the others in the union territories of Dadra & Nagar Haveli (95 per cent) Chandigarh (76 per cent), and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands (68 per cent). They are the principal minority community in the states of Arunachal Pradesh (37 per cent), Punjab (34 per cent), Meghalaya (15 per cent), Nagaland (10 per cent), and Mizoram (5 per cent), and in the Union Territory of Lakshadweep (5 per cent).

The only other religious community with a perceptible countrywide distribution are the Muslims. They are the majority community in the state of Jammu & Kashmir (64 per cent according to 1981 census) in the extreme north and in the Union Territory of Lakshadweep (94 per cent) in the south.

They are the principal minority in the states of Assam (28 per cent) in the north-east. West Bengal (23 per cent) and Bihar (15 per cent) in the east, Uttar Pradesh (17 per cent), Delhi (9 per cent), Rajasthan (8 per cent), and Haryana (5 per cent) in the north, Maharashtra (10 per cent) and Gujarat (9 per cent) in the west, and Kerala (23 per cent), Karnataka (12 per cent), and Andhra Pradesh (9 per cent) in the south.

Christians are the majority community in three north-eastern states, namely, Nagaland (88 per cent), Mizoram (86 per cent) and Meghalaya (65 per cent). They are the principal minority in the states of Manipur (34 per cent), also in the north-east, and Goa, Daman &C Diu (30 per cent) in the west, and in the Union Territory of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands (24 per cent) in the south.

Sikhs account for 63 per cent of the population in Punjab and are the principal minority in the adjacent state of Haryana (6 per cent) and the Union Territory of Chandigarh (20 per cent).

The state of Arunachal Pradesh in the north-east presents an interesting variation of the general pattern as the followers of traditional (tribal) religions at 36 per cent are about as numerous as Hindus (37 per cent) while Buddhists who account for 13 per cent; Christians (10 per cent) are in the fourth position.

The only other places in the country where the Buddhists are a presence in demographic terms are the district of Ladakh (in Jammu & Kashmir), where they account for four-fifths of the population, and the states of Sikkim and Mizoram where their share in the population is 27 per cent and 8 per cent respectively.

Jains are concentrated in Rajasthan, Delhi, and the west coast states. Zoroastrians, more generally known as Parsees, four-fifths of whose estimated world population of 120,000 lives in India, are concentrated in the urban areas of Gujarat and Maharashtra.

Far fewer than the Parsees are the Jews, who are, however, divided into three distinct groups, namely, the Baghdadi Jews of Calcutta, the Cochin Jews, and the Bene Israeli of Bombay Only the last named group may be called a community; the other two are really clusters of families.

Before turning to the next topic, we may briefly observe here that, among the countries of South Asia, Sri Lanka shares with India the contemporary plurality of religions more than the Other countries do. Although predominantly Buddhist, it harbours sizeable religious minorities, including Hindus, Christians and Muslims.

Nepal is more predominantly Hindu, but Buddhists and Muslims also are present, the latter in very small numbers. Bangladesh is predominantly Muslim (85 per cent), with Hindus and Buddhists as notable religious minorities. Pakistan and the Maldives are almost exclusively Muslim and Bhutan is primarily Buddhist.

Essay # 2. Vedism and Early Hinduism:

The beginnings of religious diversity in India go back to the country’s proto-historic past. There is ample material evidence of the existence of elaborate religious activity in the urban centres associated with the Indus Valley or Harappan civilization five thousand years ago, spread over vast areas in north-western, northern, and western parts of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent.

It is reasonable to infer that religious beliefs and rituals of a somewhat different kind must have been present in the rural hinterlands.

The city cultures, it is generally believed, were overridden by nomadic Aryan-speaking peoples of central Asian origin, around 1500 bc. They brought in their own religious beliefs and practices, and these focused on the creative and destructive powers of nature.

According to this generally accepted view, the Aryans owed little in their religious life to the presumably Dravidian-speaking people they drove out of their homelands.

Scholars who do not accept the general view, but consider the Harappan culture as an unfolding rather than a major break whether wholly internal or aided by a limited migration, maintain that the old and the new cultures coexisted, and that the latter absorbed elements, both religious and linguistic, from the former.

Vedic religion and Sanskrit took several centuries to acquire the forms in which they have been handed down to us.

The resultant religion was characterized by internal diversities reflecting social, theological and scholastic divisions. Scholars have written about a state religion, centred in temples, comprising ritual bathing, worship of gods and goddesses, and perhaps animal sacrifice. Apart from the public (state) and private (domestic) rituals, differences reflecting clan-based cleavages also seem to have existed.

The major source of our knowledge about the religious life of the Aryans, besides the numerous archaeological sites, is the body of sacred literature called the Veda (‘knowledge’, ‘wisdom’), which is believed to be ever-existent (sanatana) and therefore lacking any human author (apaurusheya), and stretches over almost a thousand years.

The earliest of the Vedic texts is the Rig, which has been dated no later than 1200 bc (but is perhaps much older). Its ten books of hymns in praise of divinities presumably represent ten family traditions among the Brahmans (rituals specialists) and took several centuries to compose.

The Sama and Yajur Vedas extend the scope of the Rig into music and ritual respectively Finally, the Atharva Veda is believed to represent the absorption of folk religions into the Vedic corpus, resulting in significant changes in it.

These religions were encountered by the Aryans as they moved east into the Gangetic valley and adopted more settled ways. Indeed, the valley came to be called the home of the Aryas, Aryavrata. Thus, divinities become devalued and magical spells and rites become ascendant.

Further, the Vedas became the basis for an immense textual efflorescence, comprising manuals of ritual performances (Brahmanas, Aranyakas), and discursive speculative treatises (Upanishads, also called Vedanta, the culmination of the Veda), all of which bring us close to 300 bc. Schools of Vedic learning and ritual, called ‘branches’ (shakha), flourished, producing a cultural ambience of, at times, bewildering plurality within the Vedic framework.

But that is not all; Vedism gradually made way for the emergence of what is generally called Hinduism on a sub-continental scale, which brought more texts on more varied subjects into existence, notably the Grihya Sutras, which are guides to the performance of domestic rituals, and the Dharma Sutras, which have social ethics and law as their subject matter.

Besides, there are the Shrauta Sutras which are technical treatises on the correct procedures for the performance of Vedic rituals of public significance.

The Grihya Sutras have a regional character: a text followed in one part of the country may be unknown in another. The Vedic corpus, considered revealed, is said to be based on shruti and constitutes the first source of dharma understood as righteous conduct. With the Sutras we come to the second source, namely, smriti (that which is remembered), and these texts are credited to human authors.

Later still than the Sutras are the Dharma Shastras which continue with the same themes but in much greater detail. The best known of these texts today is the Manav Dharma Shastra, attributed to a seer called Manu, and therefore also known as the Manu Smriti.

It is believed to have been composed between 200 b.c and ad 300, which rules out single authorship. What stands out in this and other similar texts is the institutional framework for the conduct of both domestic life and public affairs.

In domestic life the key principles of varna (social class) and ashrama (stage of life) are adumbrated for the definition of appropriate rituals and worldly affairs. While universal norms (sarva sadharna dharma) are not wholly eliminated, but retained as the foundation of all righteous conduct, it is the varna- and ashrama-specific rules that emerge as preponderant.

It is thus that Hinduism has been defined as varna-ashrama-dharma. Not only the householder, but the kings too, are bound by their respective duties defined in terms of varna and ashrama (see Lingat 1973).

As for those who repudiated such divisions, notably the renouncers (sannyasis), even they have been grouped into sects (sampradayas) since at least the time of the composition of the Mahabharata (400 bc-ad 400).

It is obvious that variant regional, varna (including occupation), and ashrama identities defined the appropriateness of behaviour in particular situations. In view of this Hinduism could only have been a family of faiths and the behaviours that went with them, and the Hindu society, a confederation of communities.

The speculative or philosophical concerns of the Brahmanical tradition, were formulated as different systems of orthodox thought (jnan) and termed ‘visions’ (darshana) of life based on the Vedas. Each of these visions, six in number, has its own authoritative texts.

The thought or reflection that follows from each position is not exclusive in the manner of the various guides to ritual performance and social behaviour. The ‘root’ text of each darshana is concerned with extra-referential (paramarthika) knowledge, and transactive (vyavaharika) knowledge is built upon or grafted into it. Together they constitute what can only be called a complex totality

The six schools are:

(i) Samkhya (‘enumeration’) which asserts the ontological duality of matter (prakrti) and the ‘self (purusha)-,

(ii) Yoga (‘joining’, ‘mixing’) which constitutes a pair with Samkhya in terms of its metaphysics;

(iii) Mimamsa (Vedic exegesis) which takes a pluralist view of reality;

(iv) Vedanta (‘culmination of Veda’), grouped with Mimamsa, which denies the reality of the many;

(v) Nyaya (logic) and

(vi) Vaisesika (dialectics), considered a pair, which deal with logical, ontological, and dialectical issues within an empiricist, pluralist (more precisely atomist) framework.

The primacy which the monism of Vedanta has enjoyed in contemporary literature on India does little justice to the internal diversities of Brahmanical thought even when dealing with the same issues, or with its method of dealing with them to preclude mutual incomprehensibility.

The foregoing pluralities of scripture, metaphysics, and social organization that are the background of Hinduism and indeed partly constitute it, are characteristic of Brahmanical orthodoxy. This orthodoxy has not remained unchallenged. Indeed, the challenges came from within long before any major external threat materialized.

The followers of public Vedic ritual, called the Shrautas (shruti, ‘revelation’), first yielded space to those who gave precedence to domestic rituals, whether the Smartas (followers of the Smritis or Dharma Shastras) or the Pauranikas (those who organize their religious life on the basis of the Puranas, which are legendary accounts of the doings of gods, goddesses and other supernatural beings as well as human beings like kings and ascetics).

The latter two categories of Hinduism are not, however, non-Vedic.

It is the Tantras, texts that are claimed by their followers the Tantrikas to be revealed, that are non-Vedic. Tantric rituals reveal considerable variety, but are generally characterized by secret rituals performed often at special sites such as cremation grounds, and frequently at night.

Thus, Tantric rituals that invoke the power of the Supreme Goddess are performed at night in the famous temple of Puri (Orissa), where worship of the Pauranika god Jagannatha (an incarnation of Vishnu, the patron deity of Vaishnavas) and his divine consort is performed publicly during the day. The celebrated yearly ‘car festival’ (ratha yatra) is dedicated to him.

While the worship of Vishnu is combined in the Smartha-Pauranika traditions with that of Devi (the goddess) and Shiva, in some parts of the country, particularly the south, mutually exclusive and often hostile sects have emerged centred on the cults of the two gods.

From as early as the fifth century, the Vaishnavas were divided into the sects of Pancharatras and Vaikhanasas. Similarly, the Pashupata, Kapalika, and Kalamukha sects were prominent among the Shaivas.

Starting in the seventh century, the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas began to generate distinctive liturgical texts called the samhitas and agamas respectively. Each sect claimed the supremacy of its own deity on the latter’s own authority

In the development of these theistic traditions, from around the closing centuries of the last millennium bc, a number of elements from various sources, including the high Sanskritic and folk religious traditions, fused.

Personal devotion to one’s chosen deity (bhakti), whether Vishnu in his various incarnations including most notably those of Rama and Krishna-Vasudeva, or Shiva, is a striking characteristic of these cults, and originated in the south and then spread to the north.

This devotionalism found expression in emotionally charged poetry particularly among the Vaishnavas from the sixth century onward, and later also among the Shaivites, though the latter’s devotion tended to be more austere.

Expectedly, the relationship of the devotee to the deity, whether expressed in human (anthropomorphic) terms or through abstract formulations, constitutes the core of the specu­lative thought of these religious traditions, ranging from absolute monism (advaita), associated with the name Sankara, to qualified non-dualism (vishishtadvaita) of Ramanuja and dualism (dvaita) elucidated by Madhva in the thirteenth century.

The teach­ings of the latter two saints combine the metaphysics of the Upanishads with the theism of Vaishnava and Shaiva cults.

Associated with both of these is a third tradition, namely, the worship of the great goddess. Devi, which emerged virtually independently as the Shakta (from shakti, ‘power’) tradition. Here also the roots go far back in time, perhaps to the Harappan culture, and later developments entail the amalgamation of Puranic, Tantric and folk goddesses and ideas.

As Lakshmi, the divine consort of Vishnu, the great goddess is presented as a benign bearer of auspiciousness; as Uma-Parvati, she is the divine consort of Shiva, mother of the universe; and as Durga or Kali, the highest manifestation of divine power, she is the fearsome destroyer of evil and greater than all the male gods through the pooling of whose powers she comes into being.

At the village level she appears as the goddess who brings and removes illness and misfortune, such as Shitala, the goddess whose visitations were held responsible for small-pox.

The Hindu religious tradition, we have seen, is characterized by strong pluralistic tendencies emanating from various sources and inspirations. It has tended to absorb non-Hindu religious ideas and practices and has dealt with internal dissent through accommodation carried to the furthest extremes.

Occasionally, this strategy has failed and resulted in breakaway sects which in the course of time grew into independent religions such as Buddhism and Jainism, adding a new dimension to the religious plurality of India.

Essay # 3. Buddhism :

The most widely spread religion in Asia today, namely. Buddhism, has adherents in the West also, but it is a minority religion in India, the country of its origin. Named after the title buddha (‘the enlightened one’) of its founder, Gautama, Buddhism began as a revolt against the Vedic preoccupation with the supernatural, rejecting the beliefs as well as the rituals that went with them.

The rejection entailed repudiation of the authority of the Brahmans. Gautama himself belonged to the Kshatriya (warrior) caste and indeed, he was the heir to a kingdom in the Bihar-Nepal area. Following his own awakening to knowledge and wisdom— his enlightenment—the Buddha attracted disciples whom he taught ‘the four noble truths’ which constitute the fundamentals of all schools of Buddhism (see Harvey 1990).

The first truth of life, the Buddha said, is sorrow (suffering); the second, that the source of sorrow is ignorance and desire; the third, that sorrow can be ended if desire is overcome; and the fourth, that the way to the ‘blowing out’ (nibanna) of both desire and sorrow lies through ‘the noble eightfold path’.

This path, which is the path of righteousness (dharma, dhamma) consists of the right views, resolve, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.

The Buddha adopted a stance of silence on the issue of the existence of the divinity but denied the Vedic gods any significance in human affairs, and concentrated on human agency He did, however, retain the root paradigm of karma understood as the doctrine of agency and retribution.

It is doubtful that the Buddha thought of himself as anything more than a reformer within the tradition and his teachings as ‘a new expansion, not against, but within Brahmanism’. Nevertheless, his teachings were said to be negatory (nastika), repudiating Vedic revelation and the notion of divinity by the establishment and attacked as unforgivably heterodox.

The Buddha originated the idea of the monastic community of monks and nuns (sangha), subject to a rigorous regime (vinaya), as the ideal arrangement for the pursuit of true knowledge. An easier way of life was envisaged for the lay community, with the sangha as their exemplar and refuge.

Such was his confidence in this institution that the Buddha did not name a successor nor codify his teachings. He advised resolution of doubts on matters of common concern through discussion and consensus; in the event of failure to reach a consensus the majority view was to be respected. It was thus that the seeds of a plurality of belief and practice among the Buddhists were sown by Gautama himself.

The first great split is believed to have occurred a century after the Buddha’s passing at a council of sanghas convened at Vaishali (Bihar) to settle contentious issues concerning monastic discipline and the character of the Buddha’s personality.

The opposing factions, namely, the orthodox Sthaviras (Elders) and the Mahasanghikas (upholders of the ‘Great Community’), reached a temporary truce, but split formally four decades later. While the former held the Buddha to have been an enlightened human preceptor, the latter claimed for him the status of a transcendent being.

The foregoing and other issues continued to cause disagreements. In the process as many as eighteen viewpoints were formalized and collectively referred to as the Hinayana, or the little (or lesser) vehicles (or approaches).

One of them, the school of Sthaviras emerged as Theravada (the Way of the Elders) in the second century bc in Sri Lanka, where it is now the state religion. It is the only Hinayana school to have escaped extinction. As for the Mahasanghikas, they were the progenitors of the adherents of Mahayana (great vehicle or approach) Buddhism that is today a major religion in East Asia (China, Japan) and elsewhere.

Mention may also be made of a later development (seventh century) in north India where a convergence of Buddhism and Tantrism occurred, resulting in what came to be called the Vajrayana (thunderbolt vehicle).

This in turn spread north into Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir) and the kingdom of Bhutan (three-fourths of the people there are Buddhists) and Tibet where it absorbed further extraneous elements from Shamanism. In the north-eastern states of Tripura, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh in India there are close to 200,000 Buddhists of the Theravada school.

The presence of the Dalai Lama and settlements of refugees in India since their exile from Tibet in 1959, has enhanced general awareness about Buddhism in its different expressions of doctrine and practice in India.

The conversion of large numbers of low-caste Hindus, who call themselves Dalits (the Oppressed) and are generally referred to as Neo-Buddhists, under the charismatic leadership of B.R. Ambedkar (1891-1956), has contributed significantly to the same process. It has, however, explicitly politicized Buddhist identity

Essay # 4. Jainism :

Jainism too arose around the same time as Buddhism in the same area (Bihar), for broadly the same reasons, and in a similar manner. But there are significant differences between the Buddhist and Jain visions of life. The terms Jainism and Jain [Jaina, follower of the religion) are derived from/ma, ‘the conqueror’ (of one’s physical self and thus of karmic action).

This title was bestowed on prince Vardhamana (599-527 bc)—also called the Mahavira, ‘the great hero’—to whom the basic teachings of the faith in their final form are attributed. Actually, he is regarded as the last of a line of teachers called tirthankara (‘ford maker’), who recovered time and again the perennial ‘three jewels’ of right faith, right knowledge, and right action.

They also founded the Jain community comprising ascetics (monks and nuns) and the laity (householders). It is their community that is considered by the Jains as a spiritual ford (tirtha) to help all seekers wash off karma and terminate the cycle of birth-death-rebirth.

Sentiments such as desire, anger, greed, and attachment are the human failings that generate karma (fruit-bearing action). Karma is visualized as material: it contaminates the inner self and is the cause of suffering in one’s own life and of injury to other living beings.

The Jain ideal therefore is to be forever engaged in self-purification (through the suppression of all bodily appetites) and to assiduously refrain from injury to others (this is the ideal of ahimsa, ‘non-injury’).

Renunciation is highly valued and the final worldly goal for the ascetic is to end one’s life through abstinence from food and drink. For laymen, the householder’s life, guarded by numerous rules and regulations, is the ideal.

Paradoxical as it may seem, the Jains in actual practice are also very successful merchants, visible in urban centres. Although there are fewer Jains than Buddhists in India, it is they rather than the latter who are the more visible religious community.

They share many religious practices including fasts and festivals with the upper-caste Hindus, and are often regarded by the latter as a sect of Hindu society, rather than a separate religious community. Their original atheism and repudiation of Vedic revelation had of course earned them, alongside of the Buddhists, the opprobrium of being heterodox in the judgement of the Brahmans.

Among the Jains themselves heresies and sectarian schisms began to make their appearance even while the Mahavira was alive. According to the mainstream Jain tradition, eight such deviations (nihnava, ‘concealment’ of the true teaching) occurred over a period of six centuries.

The last of these resulted in the emergence of a heretical sect. Accounts of this schism are shrouded in rival legends of the so-called mainstream and the breakaway groups, the Shvetambaras (clad in white cloth) and the Digambaras (‘clothed by the sky’, naked).

The mode of clothing refers to the practices of the ascetics rather than the lay householders, but Digambara nuns do wear clothes; only men remain naked. The Shvetambaras use a bowl to receive food given to them, which they also eat from.

Food is important because even those monks who have attained full omniscience (kevalin) must eat to survive. The Digambaras do not use a bowl but their cupped hands to receive alms, and it is from the hands so held together that they eat.

They insist on absolute non-possession: no clothes and no alms bowls. In their judgement true omniscience means, among other things, that one does not need to eat food anymore. Women are deemed unequal to the demands of total conquest of the passions leading to omniscience and deliverance from the fruits of karma.

The two sects are also separated by the scriptures that each acknowledges. On the fundamentals of Jain faith and knowledge, however, there is no serious difference. Sectarian differences seem to have taken very long to acquire their present rigidity and regional distribution—Shvetambaras in the north and the west and Digambaras in the south—seems to have contributed to it.

The differences notwithstanding, the high value that all Jams place upon non-violence has prevented the two sects from adopting aggressive measures to settle scores. Currently, sectarian conflict among the Jains seems to focus on the issues of ownership of and access to places of worship rather than on matters of doctrine and practice. Regrettably the same cannot be said about other communities.

Essay # 5. Sikhism :

The beginnings of Sikhism (Sikh, disciple) early in the sixteenth century followed a major development in the history of religions in India over the previous 800 years, namely, the arrival and growth of Islam. This development is described in the next section, but is mentioned here because it contributed significantly to the making of the new faith.

Like Vardhamana and Gautama before him, Nanak Dev (1469-1539), the founder of Sikhism, was an upper-caste Hindu (of the Khatri caste of traders, originally Kshatriyas). From his experience and reflections he developed an acute dissatisfaction with the ritualism, idol worship, magic, and miracles of the faith into which he was born, and with the stranglehold of the Brahmans over it.

Nanak also took a positive view of worldly existence, and of the householder’s life and productive labour. He rejected caste distinctions and the traditional ideal of renunciation. Above all he extolled the virtue of a life of religious obedience and devotion focused on an abstract conception of the divinity, and affirming the same through ‘name remembrance’ (nam simrarn), that is, recitation and singing of hymns.

Declaring that there were no true Hindus or Muslims to be found anywhere, he called for a third path comprising moral duty (dharma), human effort (karma), spiritual knowledge, truth, and divine benevolence.

In all this Nanak was carrying forward the medieval Sant tradition of syncretic religious devotionalism, which had given rise to many ‘paths’ (panth) or sects. The disciples who gathered around him and carried forward his teachings after his death came to be called the Nanak Panthis or, later, Sikhs.

Some of his followers did not follow all of his core teachings and, like his son who became a renouncer, founded other sects. Other changes and dilutions of dogma and practice, particularly the latter, occurred over the next two centuries, blurring the distinction between Sikhism and caste Hinduism, and rendering the Sikh identity rather ‘misty’.

Simultaneously, changing historical circumstances—which brought the Jats into the Sikh fold in large numbers, and also created suspicions in the minds of the Muslim rulers about the loyalty of the Sikhs—radically altered the pacifist character of the Sikh community.

The tenth guru of the Sikhs, Gobind Rai (1666-1708), intervened effectively on all fronts— theological, practical, social and political—and created a sharpened sense of identity among the Sikhs by instituting (in 1699) a ritual of initiation (called pahul), and laying down norms of conduct including, most visibly, the injunction to retain bodily hair unshorn.

He also asked all Sikh men to uniformly substitute Singh (‘lion’, the caste name of Rajputs) for their various last names; the women were to call themselves ‘Kaur’ (‘lioness’).

The institution of these requirements also created unintended divisions among the Sikhs between:

(i) Those who went through pahul and came to be called Amritdhari (‘bearers of nectar’, the baptismal water);

(ii) Those who kept their hair and beard and were called Keshdhari (bearers of hair); and

(iii) Those who affirmed Sikh identity but did not immediately follow the new injunctions, called the Sahajdhari (bearers of the spontaneous, inner light). The first category also called themselves the Khalsa, or the ‘pure’ and ‘the chosen of God’, and were to play a hegemonistic role in the second half of the nineteenth century in defining Sikh identity

A hundred years after Guru Gobind established the Khalsa, a Jat Sikh chieftain, Ranjit Singh (1780-1839) established the Kingdom of Lahore, which did not, however, last long after his death. In the aftermath of the defeat of the Sikhs at the hands of the British in 1846, several reformist movements emerged among the Sikhs.

Of these, the most notable were the Nirankari and Namdhari (or Kuka) movements. Both were sectarian in character and acknowl­edged gurus subsequent to Gobind Singh, who had proclaimed closure of the line of personal gurus. The beliefs of these sects were therefore considered violative of the true Khalsa faith by orthodox Sikhs.

The Nirankaris called for a return to the teachings of Guru Nanak who had characterized the divinity as ‘formless’ (nirankar). The Namdharis focused their attention on regenerating the Khalsa as instituted by Guru Gobind. A modernist version of the same effort (namely, Khalsa rejuvenation) was the agenda of the so-called Singh Sabhas which also had a considerable agenda of secular goals.

Currently, the Namdharis are not very much in the news, but conflicts between the Nirankaris and the orthodox Akalis have resulted in violence and loss of life. The fundamentalist preacher Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, who later came into conflict with the government on the issue of Sikh grievances, originally appeared in public (in 1978) as a fierce opponent of the Nirankaris.

From the foregoing account of developments in the long history of Indie religions, it is clear that pluralistic tendencies characterize them all, particularly Hinduism, which lacks a founder or a set of fundamentals of belief and practice or a ‘church’.

And yet they share a concern with unity in diversity, or the Absolute transcending its myriad expressions. The notions of dharma and karma are key ideas in the metaphysical foundations of each.

Essay # 6. Christianity :

Of the religions that originated outside India but found a home here, Christianity is the oldest. If tradition is to be believed, it was brought to Kerala by the Apostle St Thomas under the auspices of the Nestorian Church.

Written records testify to the presence of Christians in India from the sixth century onwards. The Thomas Christians are also known as Syrian Christians for, originally, their liturgy was in Syriac and they acknowledged the jurisdiction of the Syrian Patriarch of the East in Damascus (Syria).

Conversions seem to have been made locally among upper-caste Hindus only. The community has remained confined to Kerala. It subscribes to the various fundamentals of Christian faith—such as Immaculate Conception, the divinity of Jesus, and the status of the Bible as revealed scripture—and practice (for example, celebration of the Eucharist).

In the middle of the sixteenth century Jesuit missionaries made Goa their base after it became a part of the Portuguese colonial empire, and spread out to other parts of south India and Sri Lanka and even ventured north.

Inevitably, they encountered the Thomas Christians who were asked to sever ties with the Nestorian Church and come under the jurisdiction of Rome. This led to a split among them: while about one-half of the community complied, the rest resisted, and reaffirmed their loyalty to the Syrian Patriarch of Antioch.

A long-lasting issue causing dissension among the Thomas Christians as well as the Jesuits was whether missionary activity was to be confined among the upper castes, and whether caste was to be deemed a religious institution and abolished, or only a secular social arrangement and therefore tolerated.

The arrival of the British in India in the mid-eighteenth century had at first no impact on the spread of Christianity as the East India Company in deference to the wishes of the home government did not allow missionary activity. It was only in the early nineteenth century that the British Parliament removed the restriction and chaplains of the Company began to make converts.

The Anglican diocese of Calcutta was founded in 1814. To begin with, Anglican chaplains administered to the spiritual needs of the British in India, but an Indian Church had also come into existence by the end of the nineteenth century.

A close association of the Church with the State (the colonial dispensation) was a liability and came to be loosened by the 1930s (see Gibbs 1972). Meanwhile, Anglicans, Protestants, and Non-conformist societies had sent out missions, producing a plurality of churches and an interflow between congregations.

Thus, some Thomas Christians became Protestants and established the Mar Thomas (Syriac for St Thomas) Church. The majority, however, remained loyal to the Syrian Patriarch, nominally acknowledging his spiritual authority, but otherwise independent. They are known as the members of the Jacobite or Orthodox Church.

In 1947, the year of India’s independence, the Anglican, Methodist and other Protestant churches came together to establish the Church of South India. Similar efforts in the north resulted in the establishment of a united Protestant Church in 1970.

The predominance of Roman Catholics (nearly 60 per cent) is a noteworthy feature of the Christian community in India. Also noteworthy has been the search for Indian idioms of expression.

Christians of all denominations have retained many of their pre-conversion beliefs, attitudes, and ceremonies, incorporating them into Christianity. Evangelicalism has also remained alive, however, and is indeed a cherished goal. The fundamental right to propagate one’s religion, and not merely to profess and practice it, was written into the Indian Constitution to accommodate Christian sentiment on the subject.

Essay # 7. Islam :

The third and the youngest member of the family of Abrahamic religions, Islam (‘submission to the will of God’) is dated back to ad 622 when its promulgator, the Prophet Muhammad (ad 571-632) migrated from his native city of Makkah (in Arabia), where he did not receive the support he desired, to Madinah.

In the latter city he established the first ever Islamic state. He accommodated resident Jews and Christians in it, since they too were judged to be in possession of books of divinely revealed knowledge and, therefore, entitled to protection.

The fundamentals of religious faith and practice among Muslims (‘the submitters’) are explicit and universally binding. They must affirm the oneness of God and the status of the Quran (‘the text to be read and recited’) as the word of God.

Besides, they must believe in God’s angels and messengers (of whom Muhammad was the most perfect and therefore the last); and in the Last Day, when God will judge the actions of one and all, and despatch the pious to heaven and the sinners to hell.

Moreover, every true Muslim must recite the creed (kalimah, ‘the word’), which affirms the oneness of God and the finality of Muhammad’s prophethood; say daily prayers (namaz) at the appointed times; observe the yearly month of fasting by day (rozah) to burn away sins; give alms (zakat); and, if circumstances allow it, go in pilgrimage to Makkah (hajj) so as to be there on Idu’l-Azha.

(This day, it is generally believed, commemorates the willingness of Ibrahim [Abraham] to sacrifice his son Ismail [Ishmael] on God’s command.) It is noteworthy that Indian Muslims do not include the waging of war (jihad) for the extermination of unbelief and the propagation of Islam among the obligations of a Muslim, as is done in many Muslim countries.

Islam is, however, more than the foregoing and similar other fundamentals. Everywhere it incorporates much that is local and pre-Islamic, whether this be in the Arab heartlands or in distant places such as India.

Students of Islam have commented on this internal tension owing to its character as a world religion that admits of no variation (for instance, the daily prayers are everywhere said in Arabic) and with its regional, country or national characteristics, for example, the worship of saints and relics which is common in India.

It is widely believed among South Asian Muslims that the Prophet Muhammad had himself wanted to bring the people of India into the universal Islamic community (umma).

Since Arab traders already had contact with the western seaboard of India from pre-Islamic days (the Mapillas of Kerala were born of mixed marriages of Arab men and Malayali women), they must have been the first carriers of the new faith to the subcontinent.

Islam arrived here as a political force in ad 712, when Sind was conquered on behalf of the Umayyad caliphate and incorporated in it. With the new rulers came their advisers on matters concerning Muslim holy law, the shariah.

The numbers of the immigrants were naturally not large, and they were strangers who knew neither the culture, languages and religions (Buddhism and Hinduism both were present) of Sind, nor the prevailing system of governance.

In the circumstances, native support was necessary, but this in turn entailed a conciliatory attitude towards Indians, which included the assurance that, by and large, there would be few restrictions on non-Islamic religions. In terms of strict Islamic orthodoxy, however, these religions could only be called ignorance (jahalat, incorrect belief).

The long-term consequence of this initial compromise made for reasons of the State was twofold: first, it laid the foundations of multi-religious polities in which Islam and the Indie religions would coexist, much to the chagrin of the guardians of orthodoxy; second, it sowed the seeds of an Indian Islam, accommodating Indian cultural traits and forms of social organization (notably caste).

From the time of major incursions of political Islam into India, beginning with the invasions of Mahmud, king of Ghazni, in the early years of the eleventh century, two kinds of religious specialists became prominent. These were the ulama (doctors of shariah or the holy law) and the Sufis, (mystics in search of direct religious experience).

The ulama urged the kings to uphold shariah and be vigilant on behalf of their own religion rather than being tolerant of other misguided faiths.

One such outstanding medieval scholar, Zia ud-din Barani , was of the opinion that the Muslim kings could not be the refuge of Islam unless they completely destroyed unbelief, polytheism, and idolatory. If the kings cannot actually exterminate the unbelievers (because they are so many), they surely should deny them authority and honour, he advised.

SSuch extremist opinions, however, never became general among the ulama or ascendant in the ruling circles. The ulama actually split into two categories: while some of them confined themselves to their specialized duties and kept aloof from statecraft, others opted for a close relationship with the kings.

The latter supported the actions of the rulers even when these were grounded in statecraft rather than true faith as interpreted by the ulama.

Islam spread throughout the length and breadth of India, less by the episodic coercion and violence of the kings, and more by the generally peaceful efforts of the ulama and the Sufis. In areas of mass conversion, notably East Bengal (or what is today Bangladesh) and the Kashmir valley, other factors also contributed (directly or indirectly) to the phenomenon.

It is noteworthy, however, that at the time of partition in 1947, after 800 years of Muslim rule, no more than a quarter of all the people of India (400 million) were Muslims. In the Gangetic valley, where Muslims provided enormous support to the demand for Pakistan, fewer than two out of every ten Indians professed Islam.

When Islam reached India, it was already marked by divisions of various kinds. According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself had prophesized that there would be more sects (firqah) in Islam than among the children of Israel, but that they would all be sent to hell by God. Only those who followed his words and deeds and of his closest companions would be the ones to be saved (najiyah).

They came to be called the Sunni (from sunnah, customary way of life) or traditionalists, and account for the great majority of Indian Muslims. Their opponents are the Shiahs (‘followers’), who came into being following Muhammad’s death as the partisans of Ali, the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law, whom they considered the legitimate successor (khalifah) and leader (imam).

It was not Ali, however, bur Muhammad’s father-in- law, Abu Bakr, who was chosen, resulting in the Sunni-Shiah split which even today leads to violence in both India and Pakistan.

Besides the Shiahs it is the Sufis who are excoriated by the traditionalists. A connection has been sought to be established between the two heterodoxies by claiming Ali as one of the founders of Sufism (tasawwuf).

According to another view, the Arabian philosophy derived from the teaching of al-Ghazzli was absorbed into Islam in the form of a mystical theology, but this locates Sufism late in the fifth century of Islam.

Some scholars including the renowned early medieval historian al-Biruni (ad 973-1048), found similarities between some key ideas of Sufism and the Brahmanical philosophy of Yoga or the magical Tantra.

Indeed, it has been suggested that Abu Yazid Tayfur of Iran, a key figure in the development of Sufism, may have learned the principles of Brahmanical and Buddhist mysticism from Abu Ali of Sind who himself may have been a convert to Islam.

Be that as it may, two general observations can be made. First, a considerable number of Indie elements are recognizable in Sufism in India, but only some of these are pure borrowals, the others being adaptations of classical Islamic Sufi ideas in the Indian cultural environment.

Second, Sunni orthodoxy has always frowned upon both Shiahs and Sufis. Four major worldwide Sufi orders—namely, Chishti, Naqshbandi, Qadiri, and Suhrawardi—are present in India. Besides, there are numerous local orders of Faqirs and Darveshs- while some of them are seriously devout; the devotion to higher spiritual goals among others who are often given to excesses of various kinds including drug abuse, is highly suspect.

Among the former, mention may be made of the Rishi order of the Kashmir valley.

Islam was brought to Kashmir, it is generally believed, by the Kubrawi Sufi Sayyid Ali Hamadani late in the fourteenth century, but his efforts seem to have been confined to a small group of neo-converts in the city of Srinagar including the sultan. It was Shaikh Nuruddin (ad 1379-1442), the founder of the Rishi order, who carried the new faith to the masses.

His success owed much to not only his amiable disposition and peaceful methods of preaching, but also to his familiarity with and adaptation of prevailing Brahmanical religious ideas and practices (Kashmir Shaivism). His choice of the name Rishi (a Sanskrit word meaning ‘seer’) for his order is itself revelatory.

He adopted vegetarianism for himself and his followers out of his compassion for animals, and thus abjured the universal Muslim practice of animal sacrifice.

While some historians have written of two types of Sufism in Kashmir, the immigrant and the native, or the classical and the folk, others have denied the existence of this dichotomy, pointing out that Sufis of the Suhrawardi order and even the Kubrawis, befriended and eulogized the Rishis.

According to the latter, the Rishis’ very rootedness in Kashmir’s old religious traditions, combined with their exposure to the ideas of classical Sufism made them the ideal agents of the Islamization of Kashmiri masses. It is noteworthy that Nuruddin claimed the Prophet of Islam himself as the real founder of his order, locating himself at least notionally in shariah, the ‘highway’ of Islam.

It is not the Sufis alone who have contributed to the culture of religious diversity in Indian Islam. The reputedly more stringent ulama have also done so. Thus, in the late nineteenth century three groups of these doctors of the holy law of Islam led sectarian movements, differentiated from one another by big issues (such as matters of belief and law) as well as small (including minutia of everyday life).

The most influential of these were the ulama of a famous seminary called the Darul Uloom at Deoband in north India (founded in 1867). Their educational programme too was grounded in the traditional curriculum and thus opposed to the innovations and accommodations of western science that characterized the efforts of the modernists at the Mohammadan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh (founded in 1874).

Besides the Deobandis, the two other prominent reformist groups were the Ahl-i Hadis (‘people of the tradition’) and the ulama of Bareilly popularly known as the Barelwis, who were opposed to both the other groups. In their disputations one or the other of the four recognized schools of Islamic law (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii, Hanbali) were invoked, but the Hanafi school has always been the dominant one in India.

Finally, mention must be made of the Ahmadiyah sect which was formally proclaimed to be heretical and therefore a non-Muslim minority in Pakistan in 1974. Its founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1839-1908) was born in Qadiyan, a village in north Punjab.

Not trained as a Sufi, he was a law clerk by occupation. He also claimed to be the recipient of divine revelation and therefore the messiah (mahdi) promised to the Muslims. Although Ahmad did not dispute the Islamic belief in the closure of prophecy with Muhammad, he asserted that he belonged to a line of secondary prophets.

Provoked and influenced by the work of Christian missionaries and the activities of the Hindu revivalist Arya Samaj movement, he organized his response on similar lines, and gathered a considerable following. The sect called Ahmadiyah, or Qadiyani, continues to be recognized as Muslim in India, but it really survives on sufferance.

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What to Know About Holi, India’s Most Colorful Tradition

The ancient festival has Hindu roots, but growing numbers worldwide are taking part in the celebration, which features bonfires, singing, dancing, prayer, feasting and clouds of pigmented powder.

By John Yoon and Hari Kumar

A rainbow haze swirls through India, where raucous laughter rings out as friends and strangers douse one another with fists full of pigmented powder. It is time for the ancient Hindu tradition of Holi, an annual celebration of spring.

In 2024, crimson, emerald, indigo and saffron clouds will hover over the country on March 25 for one of its most vibrant, joyful and colorful festivals.

“Playing Holi,” as Indians say, has spread far beyond India’s borders.

The revelry starts at sundown.

Holi (pronounced “holy”), also known as the “festival of colors,” starts on the evening of the full moon during the Hindu calendar month of Phalguna, which falls around February or March.

It begins with the kindling of bonfires. People gather around the flames to sing, dance and pray for an evening ritual called Holika Dahan, which re-enacts the demise of a Hindu demoness, Holika.

All sorts of things are thrown into the fires, like wood, leaves and food, in a symbolic purge of evil and triumph of good.

From Delhi, Archie Singhal, 24, visits her family in Gujarat the day before Holi, when the fire is lit in the evening. The next morning, she prepares for the bursts of powder, called gulal, by applying oil on her body so the colors don’t stick to her skin. She puts on old clothes she doesn’t mind tossing.

Why the colors?

Holi’s roots are in Hinduism. The god Krishna, cursed by a demon with blue skin, complained to his mother, asking why his love interest Radha is fair while he is not. His mother, Yashoda, playfully suggests that he paint Radha’s face with any colors he wishes. So Krishna smears color on her so they look alike.

Holi is in part a celebration of the love between Krishna and Radha that looks past differences. Today, some of the gulal used during Holi is synthetic. But the colors traditionally come from natural ingredients, such as dried flowers, turmeric, dried leaves, grapes, berries, beetroot and tea.

“There is an environment of freedom,” Ms. Singhal said, adding that she doesn’t hesitate to throw colors on her younger brother, parents, aunts, uncles and neighbors.

Everyone takes part.

The ancient Hindu festival eschews the religious, societal, caste and political divisions that underpin India’s often sectarian society . Hindu or not, anybody can be splashed with brightly colored dust, or even eggs and beer.

Some partake in worship, called puja, offering prayers to the gods. For others, Holi is a celebration of community. The festival gets everyone involved — including innocent passers-by.

“People forget their misunderstandings or enmity during this occasion and again become friends,” said Ratikanta Singh, 63, who writes, sometimes about Holi, in Assam, in northeastern India.

There’s a feast.

When not throwing around gulal, friends, families and neighbors partake in a buffet of traditional dishes and drinks. They include gujiya, dumpling-like fried sweets filled with dried fruits and nuts; dahi vada, deep-fried lentil fritters served with yogurt; and kanji, a traditional drink made by fermenting carrots in water and spices.

Some celebrate Holi with thandai, a light green concoction of milk, rose petals, cardamom, almonds, fennel seeds and other ingredients. For thousands of years, the drink has sometimes been laced with bhang, or crushed marijuana leaves, which add to the mood of revelry.

Holi has ancient roots.

Holi has been documented for centuries in Hindu texts. The tradition is observed by people young and old, particularly in Northern India and Nepal, where the stories behind the festival originated.

Holi also marks the harvesting of crops with the arrival of spring in India, where more than half of the population lives in rural areas.

Traditions vary across India.

Holi celebrations are as diverse as the Indian subcontinent. They are particularly wild in North India, considered the birthplace of the Hindu god Krishna, where celebrations can last more than a week.

In Mathura, a northern city where Krishna is said to have been born, people recreate a Hindu story in which Krishna visits Radha to romance her, and her cowherd friends, taking offense at his advances, drive him out with sticks.

In the eastern state of Odisha, people hold a dayslong festival called Dola Purnima . Grand processions of people shouldering richly decorated carriages with idols of Hindu gods are a large part of the festivities there. The processions are full of drumbeats, songs, colorful powder and flower petals thrown into the air.

In southern India, where Holi is not celebrated as widely, many temples carry out religious rites. In the Kudumbi tribal community, in the southwest, temples cut areca palms and transport their trunks to the shrine in a ritual that symbolizes the victory good over evil.

It’s not just in India.

Holi is celebrated around the world, wherever the Indian diaspora has gone. More than 32 million Indians and people of Indian origin are overseas, most in the United States, where 4.4 million reside, according to the Indian government.

It is also widely enjoyed in countries as varied as Fiji, Mauritius, South Africa, Britain and other parts of Europe.

Holi is known as Phagwah in the Indian communities of the Caribbean, including in Guyana , Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago.

The festival has also been used by the Indian government to project soft power and reshape its image as part of its “ Incredible India ” tourism campaign.

On Holi, “the world is a global village,” said Shubham Sachdeva, 29, from an eastern Delhi suburb, who added that his friends in the United States were celebrating Holi with their roommates whether they were Indian or not. “All this brings the world close to each other.”

An earlier version of a picture caption with this article misstated the location of a Holika Dahan celebration. It was in Durban, South Africa, not India.

How we handle corrections

John Yoon is a Times reporter based in Seoul who covers breaking and trending news. More about John Yoon

Hari Kumar covers India, based out of New Delhi. He has been a journalist for more than two decades. More about Hari Kumar