technical report research definition

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What is a Technical Report?

What is a Technical Report?  

"A technical report is a document written by a researcher detailing the results of a project and submitted to the sponsor of that project." TRs are not peer-reviewed unless they are subsequently published in a peer-review journal.

Characteristics (TRs vary greatly): Technical reports ....

• may contain data, design criteria, procedures, literature reviews, research history, detailed tables, illustrations/images, explanation of approaches that were unsuccessful.
• may be published before the corresponding journal literature; may have more or different details than  its subsequent journal article.
• may contain less  background information since the sponsor already knows it
• classified and export controlled reports
• may contain obscure acronyms and codes as part of identifying information

Disciplines:

• Physical sciences, engineering, agriculture, biomedical sciences, and the social sciences. education etc.

Documents research and development conducted by:

• government agencies (NASA, Department of Defense (DoD) and Department of Energy (DOE) are top sponsors of research
• commercial companies
• non-profit, non-governmental organizations
• Educational Institutions
• Issued  in print, microform, digital
• Older TRs may have been digitized and are available in fulltext on the Intranet
• Newer TRs should be born digital

Definition used with permission from Georgia Tech. Other sources: Pinelli & Barclay (1994).

• Nation's Report Card: State Reading 2002, Report for Department of Defense Domestic Dependent Elementary and Secondary Schools. U.S. Department of Education Institute of Education Sciences The National Assessment of Educational Progress Reading 2002 The Nation’s
• Study for fabrication, evaluation, and testing of monolayer woven type materials for space suit insulation NASA-CR-166139, ACUREX-TR-79-156. May 1979. Reproduced from the microfiche.
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• Last Updated: Sep 1, 2023 11:06 AM
• URL: https://tamu.libguides.com/TR

Libraries | Research Guides

Technical reports, technical reports: a definition, search engines & databases, multi-disciplinary technical report repositories, topical technical report repositories.

"A technical report is a document that describes the process, progress, or results of technical or scientific research or the state of a technical or scientific research problem. It might also include recommendations and conclusions of the research."      https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_report

Technical reports are produced by corporations, academic institutions, and government agencies at all levels of government, e.g. state, federal, and international.  Technical reports are not included in formal publication and distribution channels and therefore fall into the category of grey literature .

• Science.gov Searches over 60 databases and over 2,200 scientific websites hosted by U.S. federal government agencies. Not limited to tech reports.
• WorldWideScience.org A global science gateway comprised of national and international scientific databases and portals, providing real-time searching and translation of globally-dispersed multilingual scientific literature.
• Open Grey System for Information on Grey Literature in Europe, is your open access to 700.000 bibliographical references. more... less... OpenGrey covers Science, Technology, Biomedical Science, Economics, Social Science and Humanities.
• National Technical Reports Library (NTRL) This link opens in a new window The National Technical Reports Library provides indexing and access to a collection of more than two million historical and current government technical reports of U.S. government-sponsored research. Full-text available for 700,000 of the 2.2 million items described. Dates covered include 1900-present.
• Argonne National Lab: Scientific Publications While sponsored by the US Dept of Energy, research at Argonne National Laboratory is wide ranging (see Research Index )
• Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) The Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC®) has served the information needs of the Defense community for more than 65 years. It provides technical research, development, testing & evaluation information; including but not limited to: journal articles, conference proceedings, test results, theses and dissertations, studies & analyses, and technical reports & memos.
• HathiTrust This repository of books digitized by member libraries includes a large number of technical reports. Search by keywords, specific report title, or identifiers.
• Lawrence Berkeley National Lab (LBNL) LBNL a multiprogram science lab in the national laboratory system supported by the U.S. Department of Energy through its Office of Science. It is managed by the University of California and is charged with conducting unclassified research across a wide range of scientific disciplines.
• National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) NIST is one of the nation's oldest physical science laboratories.
• RAND Corporation RAND's research and analysis address issues that impact people around the world including security, health, education, sustainability, growth, and development. Much of this research is carried out on behalf of public and private grantors and clients.
• TRAIL Technical Report Archive & Image Library Identifies, acquires, catalogs, digitizes and provides unrestricted access to U.S. government agency technical reports. TRAIL is a membership organization . more... less... Majority of content is pre-1976, but some reports after that date are included.

Aerospace / Aviation

• Contrails 20th century aerospace research, hosted at the Illinois Institute of Technology
• Jet Propulsion Laboratory Technical Reports Server repository for digital copies of technical publications authored by JPL employees. It includes preprints, meeting papers, conference presentations, some articles, and other publications cleared for external distribution from 1992 to the present.
• NTRS - NASA Technical Reports Server The NASA STI Repository (also known as the NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)) provides access to NASA metadata records, full-text online documents, images, and videos. The types of information included are conference papers, journal articles, meeting papers, patents, research reports, images, movies, and technical videos – scientific and technical information (STI) created or funded by NASA. Includes NTIS reports.

Computing Research

• Computing Research Repository
• IBM Technical Paper Archive
• Microsoft Research
• INIS International Nuclear Information System One of the world's largest collections of published information on the peaceful uses of nuclear science and technology.
• Oak Ridge National Laboratory Research Library Primary subject areas covered include chemistry, physics, materials science, biological and environmental sciences, computer science, mathematics, engineering, nuclear technology, and homeland security.
• OSTI.gov The primary search tool for DOE science, technology, and engineering research and development results more... less... over 70 years of research results from DOE and its predecessor agencies. Research results include journal articles/accepted manuscripts and related metadata; technical reports; scientific research datasets and collections; scientific software; patents; conference and workshop papers; books and theses; and multimedia
• OSTI Open Net Provides access to over 495,000 bibliographic references and 147,000 recently declassified documents, including information declassified in response to Freedom of Information Act requests. In addition to these documents, OpenNet references older document collections from several DOE sources.

Environment

• National Service Center for Environmental Publications From the Environmental Protection Agency
• US Army Corp of Engineers (USACE) Digital Library See in particular the option to search technical reports by the Waterways Experiment Station, Engineering Research and Development Center, and districts .
• National Clearinghouse for Science, Technology and the Law (NCSTL) Forensic research at the intersection of science, technology and law.

Transportation

• ROSA-P National Transportation Library Full-text digital publications, datasets, and other resources. Legacy print materials that have been digitized are collected if they have historic, technical, or national significance.
• Last Updated: Jul 13, 2022 11:46 AM
• URL: https://libguides.northwestern.edu/techreports

Penn State University Libraries

Technical reports, recognizing technical reports, recommendations for finding technical reports, databases with technical reports, other tools for finding technical reports.

• Direct Links to Organizations with Technical Reports
• Techical report collections at Penn State
• How to Write

Engineering Instruction Librarian

Engineering Librarian

Technical reports describe the process, progress, or results of technical or scientific research and usually include in-depth experimental details, data, and results. Technical reports are usually produced to report on a specific research need and can serve as a report of accountability to the organization funding the research. They provide access to the information before it is published elsewhere. Technical Reports are usually not peer reviewed.  They need to be evaluated on how the problem, research method, and results are described.  

A technical report citation will include a report number and will probably not have journal name. 

Technical reports can be divided into two general categories:

• Non-Governmental Reports- these are published by companies and engineering societies, such as Lockheed-Martin, AIAA (American Institute of Aeronautical and Astronautics), IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), or SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers).
• Governmental Reports- the research conducted in these reports has been sponsored by the United States or an international government body as well as state and local governments.

Some technical reports are cataloged as books, which you can search for in the catalog, while others may be located in databases, or free online. The boxes below list databases and online resources you can use to locate a report. 

If you’re not sure where to start, try to learn more about the report by confirming the full title or learning more about the publication information. 

Confirm the title and locate the report number in NTRL. 

Search Google Scholar, the HathiTrust, or WorldCat. This can verify the accuracy of the citation and determine if the technical report was also published in a journal or conference proceeding or under a different report number. 

Having trouble finding a report through Penn State? If we don’t have access to the report, you can submit an interlibrary loan request and we will get it for you from another library. If you have any questions, you can always contact a librarian! 

• National Technical Reports Library (NTRL) NTRL is the preeminent resource for accessing the latest US government sponsored research, and worldwide scientific, technical, and engineering information. Search by title to determine report number.
• Engineering Village Engineering Village is the most comprehensive interdisciplinary engineering database in the world with over 5,000 engineering journals and conference materials dating from 1884. Has citations to many ASME, ASCE, SAE, and other professional organizations' technical papers. Search by author, title, or report number.
• IEEE Xplore Provides access to articles, papers, reports, and standards from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
• ASABE Technical Library Provides access to all of the recent technical documents published by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
• International Nuclear Information System (INIS) Database Provides access to nuclear science and technology technical reports.
• NASA Technical Reports Server Contains the searchable NACA Technical Reports collection, NASA Technical Reports collection and NIX collection of images, movies, and videos. Includes the full text and bibliographic records of selected unclassified, publicly available NASA-sponsored technical reports. Coverage: NACA reports 1915-1958, NASA reports since 1958.
• OSTI Technical Reports Full-text of Department of Energy (DOE) funded science, technology, and engineering technical reports. OSTI has replaced SciTech Connect as the primary search tool for Department of Energy (DOE) funded science, technology, and engineering research results. It provides access to all the information previously available in SciTech Connect, DOE Information Bridge, and Energy Citations Database.
• ERIC (ProQuest) Provides access to technical reports and other education-related materials. ERIC is sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences (IES).
• Transportation Research International Documentation (TRID) TRID is a newly integrated database that combines the records from TRB's Transportation Research Information Services (TRIS) Database and the OECD's Joint Transport Research Centre's International Transport Research Documentation (ITRD) Database. TRID provides access to over 900,000 records of transportation research worldwide.
• TRAIL Technical Reports Archive & Image Library Provide access to federal technical reports issued prior to 1975.
• Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) The largest central resource for Department of Defense and government-funded scientific, technical, engineering, and business related information.
• Correlation Index of Technical Reports (AD-PB Reports) Publication Date: 1958
• Criss-cross directory of NASA "N" numbers and DOD "AD" numbers, 1962-1986

Print indexes to technical reports :

• Government Reports Announcements & Index (1971-1996)
• Government Reports Announcements (1946-1975)
• U.S. Government Research & Development Reports (1965-1971)
• U.S. Government Research Reports (1954-1964)
• Bibliography of Technical Reports (1949-1954)
• Bibliography of Scientific and Industrial Reports (1946-1949)
• Next: Direct Links to Organizations with Technical Reports >>
• Last Updated: Oct 5, 2023 2:56 PM
• URL: https://guides.libraries.psu.edu/techreports

Technical Report: What is it & How to Write it? (Steps & Structure Included)

A technical report can either act as a cherry on top of your project or can ruin the entire dough.

Everything depends on how you write and present it.

A technical report is a sole medium through which the audience and readers of your project can understand the entire process of your research or experimentation.

So, you basically have to write a report on how you managed to do that research, steps you followed, events that occurred, etc., taking the reader from the ideation of the process and then to the conclusion or findings.

Sounds exhausting, doesn’t it?

Well hopefully after reading this entire article, it won’t.

However, note that there is no specific standard determined to write a technical report. It depends on the type of project and the preference of your project supervisor.

With that in mind, let’s dig right in!

What is a Technical Report? (Definition)

A technical report is described as a written scientific document that conveys information about technical research in an objective and fact-based manner. This technical report consists of the three key features of a research i.e process, progress, and results associated with it.

Some common areas in which technical reports are used are agriculture, engineering, physical, and biomedical science. So, such complicated information must be conveyed by a report that is easily readable and efficient.

Now, how do we decide on the readability level?

The answer is simple – by knowing our target audience.

A technical report is considered as a product that comes with your research, like a guide for it.

You study the target audience of a product before creating it, right?

Similarly, before writing a technical report, you must keep in mind who your reader is going to be.

Whether it is professors, industry professionals, or even customers looking to buy your project – studying the target audience enables you to start structuring your report. It gives you an idea of the existing knowledge level of the reader and how much information you need to put in the report.

Many people tend to put in fewer efforts in the report than what they did in the actual research..which is only fair.

We mean, you’ve already worked so much, why should you go through the entire process again to create a report?

Well then, let’s move to the second section where we talk about why it is absolutely essential to write a technical report accompanying your project.

Read more:  What is a Progress Report and How to Write One?

Importance of Writing a Technical Report 

1. efficient communication.

Technical reports are used by industries to convey pertinent information to upper management. This information is then used to make crucial decisions that would impact the company in the future.

Examples of such technical reports include proposals, regulations, manuals, procedures, requests, progress reports, emails, and memos.

2. Evidence for your work

Most of the technical work is backed by software.

However, graduation projects are not.

So, if you’re a student, your technical report acts as the sole evidence of your work. It shows the steps you took for the research and glorifies your efforts for a better evaluation.

3. Organizes the data 

A technical report is a concise, factual piece of information that is aligned and designed in a standard manner. It is the one place where all the data of a project is written in a compact manner that is easily understandable by a reader.

4. Tool for evaluation of your work 

Professors and supervisors mainly evaluate your research project based on the technical write-up for it. If your report is accurate, clear, and comprehensible, you will surely bag a good grade.

A technical report to research is like Robin to Batman.

Best results occur when both of them work together.

So, how can you write a technical report that leaves the readers in a ‘wow’ mode? Let’s find out!

How to Write a Technical Report? 

When writing a technical report, there are two approaches you can follow, depending on what suits you the best.

• Top-down approach- In this, you structure the entire report from title to sub-sections and conclusion and then start putting in the matter in the respective chapters. This allows your thought process to have a defined flow and thus helps in time management as well.
• Evolutionary delivery- This approach is suitable if you’re someone who believes in ‘go with the flow’. Here the author writes and decides as and when the work progresses. This gives you a broad thinking horizon. You can even add and edit certain parts when some new idea or inspiration strikes.

A technical report must have a defined structure that is easy to navigate and clearly portrays the objective of the report. Here is a list of pages, set in the order that you should include in your technical report.

Cover page- It is the face of your project. So, it must contain details like title, name of the author, name of the institution with its logo. It should be a simple yet eye-catching page.

Title page- In addition to all the information on the cover page, the title page also informs the reader about the status of the project. For instance, technical report part 1, final report, etc. The name of the mentor or supervisor is also mentioned on this page.

Abstract- Also referred to as the executive summary, this page gives a concise and clear overview of the project. It is written in such a manner that a person only reading the abstract can gain complete information on the project.

Preface – It is an announcement page wherein you specify that you have given due credits to all the sources and that no part of your research is plagiarised. The findings are of your own experimentation and research.

Dedication- This is an optional page when an author wants to dedicate their study to a loved one. It is a small sentence in the middle of a new page. It is mostly used in theses.

Acknowledgment- Here, you acknowledge the people parties, and institutions who helped you in the process or inspired you for the idea of it.

Table of contents – Each chapter and its subchapter is carefully divided into this section for easy navigation in the project. If you have included symbols, then a similar nomenclature page is also made. Similarly, if you’ve used a lot of graphs and tables, you need to create a separate content page for that. Each of these lists begins on a new page.

Introduction- Finally comes the introduction, marking the beginning of your project. On this page, you must clearly specify the context of the report. It includes specifying the purpose, objectives of the project, the questions you have answered in your report, and sometimes an overview of the report is also provided. Note that your conclusion should answer the objective questions.

Central Chapter(s)- Each chapter should be clearly defined with sub and sub-sub sections if needed. Every section should serve a purpose. While writing the central chapter, keep in mind the following factors:

• Clearly define the purpose of each chapter in its introduction.
• Any assumptions you are taking for this study should be mentioned. For instance, if your report is targeting globally or a specific country. There can be many assumptions in a report. Your work can be disregarded if it is not mentioned every time you talk about the topic.
• Results you portray must be verifiable and not based upon your opinion. (Big no to opinions!)
• Each conclusion drawn must be connected to some central chapter.

Conclusion- The purpose of the conclusion is to basically conclude any and everything that you talked about in your project. Mention the findings of each chapter, objectives reached, and the extent to which the given objectives were reached. Discuss the implications of the findings and the significant contribution your research made.

Appendices- They are used for complete sets of data, long mathematical formulas, tables, and figures. Items in the appendices should be mentioned in the order they were used in the project.

References- This is a very crucial part of your report. It cites the sources from which the information has been taken from. This may be figures, statistics, graphs, or word-to-word sentences. The absence of this section can pose a legal threat for you. While writing references, give due credit to the sources and show your support to other people who have studied the same genres.

Bibliography- Many people tend to get confused between references and bibliography. Let us clear it out for you. References are the actual material you take into your research, previously published by someone else. Whereas a bibliography is an account of all the data you read, got inspired from, or gained knowledge from, which is not necessarily a direct part of your research.

Style ( Pointers to remember )

Let’s take a look at the writing style you should follow while writing a technical report:

• Avoid using slang or informal words. For instance, use ‘cannot’ instead of can’t.
• Use a third-person tone and avoid using words like I, Me.
• Each sentence should be grammatically complete with an object and subject.
• Two sentences should not be linked via a comma.
• Avoid the use of passive voice.
• Tenses should be carefully employed. Use present for something that is still viable and past for something no longer applicable.
• Readers should be kept in mind while writing. Avoid giving them instructions. Your work is to make their work of evaluation easier.
• Abbreviations should be avoided and if used, the full form should be mentioned.
• Understand the difference between a numbered and bulleted list. Numbering is used when something is explained sequence-wise. Whereas bullets are used to just list out points in which sequence is not important.
• All the preliminary pages (title, abstract, preface..) should be named in small roman numerals. ( i, ii, iv..)
• All the other pages should be named in Arabic numerals (1,2,3..) thus, your report begins with 1 – on the introduction page.
• Separate long texts into small paragraphs to keep the reader engaged. A paragraph should not be more than 10 lines.
• Do not incorporate too many fonts. Use standard times new roman 12pt for the text. You can use bold for headlines.

Proofreading

If you think your work ends when the report ends, think again. Proofreading the report is a very important step. While proofreading you see your work from a reader’s point of view and you can correct any small mistakes you might have done while typing. Check everything from content to layout, and style of writing.

Presentation

Finally comes the presentation of the report in which you submit it to an evaluator.

• It should be printed single-sided on an A4 size paper. double side printing looks chaotic and messy.
• Margins should be equal throughout the report.

• You can use single staples on the left side for binding or use binders if the report is long.

AND VOILA! You’re done.

…and don’t worry, if the above process seems like too much for you, Bit.ai is here to help.

Read more:  Technical Manual: What, Types & How to Create One? (Steps Included)

Bit.ai : The Ultimate Tool for Writing Technical Reports

What if we tell you that the entire structure of a technical report explained in this article is already done and designed for you!

Yes, you read that right.

With Bit.ai’s 70+ templates , all you have to do is insert your text in a pre-formatted document that has been designed to appeal to the creative nerve of the reader.

You can even add collaborators who can proofread or edit your work in real-time. You can also highlight text, @mention collaborators, and make comments!

Wait, there’s more! When you send your document to the evaluators, you can even trace who read it, how much time they spent on it, and more.

Exciting, isn’t it?

Start making your fabulous technical report with Bit.ai today!

Few technical documents templates you might be interested in:

• Status Report Template
• API Documentation
• Product Requirements Document Template
• Software Design Document Template
• Software Requirements Document Template
• UX Research Template
• Issue Tracker Template
• Release Notes Template
• Statement of Work
• Scope of Work Template

Wrap up(Conclusion)

A well structured and designed report adds credibility to your research work. You can rely on bit.ai for that part.

However, the content is still yours so remember to make it worth it.

After finishing up your report, ask yourself:

Does the abstract summarize the objectives and methods employed in the paper?

Are the objective questions answered in your conclusion?

What are the implications of the findings and how is your work making a change in the way that particular topic is read and conceived?

If you find logical answers to these, then you have done a good job!

Remember, writing isn’t an overnight process. ideas won’t just arrive. Give yourself space and time for inspiration to strike and then write it down. Good writing has no shortcuts, it takes practice.

But at least now that you’ve bit.ai in the back of your pocket, you don’t have to worry about the design and formatting!

Have you written any technical reports before? If yes, what tools did you use? Do let us know by tweeting us @bit_docs.

Further reads:

How To Create An Effective Status Report?

7 Types of Reports Your Business Certainly Needs!

What is Project Status Report Documentation?

Scientific Paper: What is it & How to Write it? (Steps and Format)

  Business Report: What is it & How to Write it? (Steps & Format)

How to Write Project Reports that ‘Wow’ Your Clients? (Template Included)

Business Report: What is it & How to Write it? (Steps & Format)

Internship Cover Letter: How to Write a Perfect one?

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What is a Technical Report?

Technical reports publish the results of scientific or technical research, often using federal funds. The research is performed and reports are produced by companies, universities and government laboratories. Most technical reports housed on campus were written under contract to U.S. government agencies.

Technical Reports on Campus

Technical Reports Collection

Campus technical reports come from numerous US government agencies and other institutions and societies (see the list at right).

Most documents and reports can be retrieved from the Middleton Shelving Facility and checked out.

UW Libraries have functioned as an Atomic Energy Commission depository since 1963, with a comprehensive collection of AEC, ERDA and DOE reports in microfiche.

• Large collection of NTIS, Dept of Defense,  and NASA reports on microfiche.

UW Madison is a part of the regional GPO Federal Depository Library Program .

Agencies Funding the Research

Who generated all of the print technical reports on campus?

Army Corps of Engineers

• Department of Energy (DOE)
• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
• National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and its predecessor, NACA
• National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)and its predecessor, National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
• Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and its predecessors, Atomic Energy Comission (AEC) and Energy Research & Development Administration (ERDA)
• Patent and Trademark Office (PTO)
• Department of Transportation (DOT)
• Society of Automotive Engineers: SAE Technical Papers 1965-2002
• Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
• Next: Technical Reports Databases >>
• Last Updated: Mar 18, 2024 2:59 PM
• URL: https://researchguides.library.wisc.edu/tech_reports

Technical Reports

• Technical Reports Databases
• Definition and Thesauri

What is a Technical Report?

A technical report is a document written by a researcher detailing the results of a project and submitted to the sponsor of that project. Many of Georgia Tech's reports are government sponsored and are on microfiche. DOE, NASA and the Department of Defense are top sponsors.  A number of U.S. Government sponsors now make technical reports available full image via the internet .

Although technical reports are very heterogeneous, they tend to possess the following characteristics:

• technical reports may be published before the corresponding journal literature
• content may be more detailed than the corresponding journal literature, although there may be less background information since the sponsor already knows it
• technical reports are usually not peer reviewed unless the report is separately published as journal literature
• classified and export controlled reports have restricted access.
• obscure acronyms and codes are frequently used
• DTIC Thesaurus
• NASA Thesaurus (both volumes):  Volume 1, Hierarchical Listing With Definitions.   Volume 2, Rotated Term Display
• Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms
• Report Series Codes Dictionary. Library Catalog record Z6945.A2 R45 1986

Acknowledgments

The authors of this Guide used material from previous Georgia Tech Library Research Guides.

• << Previous: Technical Reports Databases
• Last Updated: Nov 22, 2023 10:58 AM
• URL: https://libguides.library.gatech.edu/techreports

Technical Reports

Sources for identifying technical reports, what are technical reports, types of reports.

• Government-Based Indexes & Databases
• Subject-Oriented Subscription Databases

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Social Sciences, Public Policy & Government Information Librarian

There are multiple approaches for identifying technical reports, depending on topic; some of these also contain full text for technical reports:

• Technical report indexes and databases (many of these are government-related)
• Some subject-oriented databases index technical reports and other materials in addition to peer-reviewed journal articles.
• Library search box or library catalog for holdings at the UNH Library
• WorldCat for holdings at other libraries (First Search or Books & Media Worldwide)
• References cited in articles

A technical report is a document written by a researcher detailing the results of a project and submitted to the sponsor of that project. Many technical reports are government sponsored with the Department of Energy, NASA, and the Department of Defense among the top sponsors.  A number of U.S. Government sponsors now make technical reports available full image via the internet. Some technical reports may be available in paper or on microfiche in the UNH Library.

Although technical reports are very heterogeneous, they tend to possess the following characteristics:

• technical reports may be published before the corresponding journal literature
• content may be more detailed than the corresponding journal literature, although there may be less background information since the sponsor already knows it
• technical reports are usually not peer reviewed unless the report is separately published as journal literature
• classified and export-controlled reports have restricted access
• obscure acronyms and codes are frequently used

Above text (with minor revisions) is used by permission and is from Georgia Tech Library's Technical Reports guide.

• Types of Technical Reports Committee on Scientific and Technical Information (COSATI) definitions for technical reports (source: Rutgers University Libraries Technical Reports guide)
• Next: Government-Based Indexes & Databases >>
• Last Updated: Aug 30, 2023 3:50 PM
• URL: https://libraryguides.unh.edu/technical-reports

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

1 The Formal Technical Report

For technical reports, formal and informal, readers are generally most interested in process and results. Clear presentation of results is at least as important as the results themselves; therefore, writing a report is an exercise in effective communication of technical information. Results, such as numerical values, designed systems or graphs by themselves are not very useful. To be meaningful to others, results must be supported by a written explanation describing how results were obtained and what significance they hold, or how a designed system actually functions. Although the person reading the report may have a technical background, the author should assume unfamiliarity with related theory and procedures. The author must consider supplying details that may appear obvious or unnecessary. With practice, the technical report writer learns which details to include.

The formal technical report contains a complete, concise, and well-organized description of the work performed and the results obtained. Any given report may contain all of the sections described in these guidelines or a subset, depending upon the report requirements. These requirements are decided by the author and are based on the audience and expected use of the report. Audience and purpose are important considerations in deciding which sections to include and what content to provide. If the purpose is to chronicle work performed in lab, as is typical for an academic lab report, the audience is typically the professor who assigned the work and the contents usually include detailed lab procedure, clear presentation of results, and conclusions based on the evidence provided. For a technical report, the audience may be colleagues, customers, or decision makers. Knowing the audience and what they are expecting to get out of reading the report is of primary consideration when deciding on sections to include and their contents.

There are certain aspects to all reports that are common regardless of audience and expected usage. Rather than relegate these overarching report-writing considerations to a secondary position, these items are presented before detailing the typical organization and contents for technical reports.

Universal Report-Writing Considerations

The items listed in this section are often overlooked by those new to technical report writing. However, these items set the stage for how a technical report is received which can impact the author, positively or negatively. While in an academic setting, the author’s grade could be impacted.  While in a professional setting, it is the author’s career that could be affected. Effective communication can make the difference in career advancement, effective influence on enacting positive change, and propelling ideas from thought to action. The list that follows should become second nature to the technical report writer.

Details to consider that affect credibility:

• Any information in the report that is directly derived or paraphrased from a source must be cited using the proper notation.
• Any information in the report that is directly quoted or copied from a source must be cited using the proper notation.
• Any reference material derived from the web or Internet must come from documentable and credible sources. To evaluate websites critically, begin by verifying the credibility of the author (e.g. – credentials, agency or professional affiliation). Note that peer reviewed materials are generally more dependable sources of information as compared to open source. Peer review involves a community of qualified experts from within a profession who validate the publication of the author. Open source information may be created by non-qualified individuals or agencies which is often not reviewed and/or validated by experts within the field or profession.
• Wikipedia is NOT a credible reference because the information changes over time and authors are not necessarily people with verifiable expertise or credentials.
• Provide an annotated bibliography of all references. Typically, annotations in technical reports indicate what the source was used for and establish the credibility of the source. This is particularly important for sources with credibility issues. However, an annotation can clarify why a source with questionable credibility was used.
• With the increasing availability of Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) such as provided by ChatGPT, where GPT stands for Generative Pre-trained Transformer, credibility will likely be challenged more frequently and will be more difficult to establish. Generative AI models may provide invalid responses and a knowledgeable reader will pick up on that quickly.
• Make sure to know the consequences if you violate rules provided by your instructor in an academic setting or by your employer in a workplace setting for presenting work by another or by AI as if it were your own (without citation). Additionally, there may be rules on how much of your work can be AI-generated and what annotation you are required to provide when using generative AI. Know the rules and if you can’t find the rules, ASK.
• See Appendix A for information about citing sources and AI-generated content.

Details to consider that affect the professional tone:

• Passive voice: “The circuit resistance will be measured with a digital multimeter”.
• Active voice: “Measure the circuit resistance with a digital multimeter”.
• Avoid using personal pronouns such as “you”, “we”, “our”, “they”, “us” and “I”. Personal pronouns tend to personalize the technical information that is generally objective rather than subjective in nature. The exception is if the work as a whole is meant to instruct than to inform. For example, technical textbooks whose only purpose is to instruct employ personal pronouns.
• Avoid using “it”. When “it” is used, the writing often leads to a lack of clarity for the reader as to what idea/concept “it” is referring to, thus negatively impacting overall clarity of the writing.
• Use correct grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Pay attention to and address spell and grammar check cues from writing software such as Microsoft (MS) Word.  

Details to consider that affect the professional appearance:

• All figures and tables must be neatly presented and should be computer generated. Use a computer software package, such as Paint, Multisim, AutoCAD, or SolidWorks, to draw figures. If inserting a full-page figure, insert it so can be read from the bottom or from the right side of the page . ALL figures and tables must fit within or very close to the page margins.
• Generate ALL equations using an equation editor and provide each equation on its own line. Under normal circumstances, there is no reason to embed an equation within a paragraph.  Depending on presentation and how many equations are involved, number the equations for easy reference.
• Refer to appendix B for information on how to automatically create a Table of Contents and properly number pages.
• If the report includes an abstract, it should be on an unnumbered page after the title page and before the Table of Contents or it can be included on the title page.
• For all hard copy reports, all pages of the report must be 8 ½“ X 11” in size. Any larger pages must be folded so as to fit these dimensions. HOWEVER, in this day and age, an electronic submission is most common. Keep in mind that with an electronic submission, it is easier to provide an appealing look with color since a color printer is not required.

Details to consider that affect readability:

• Every section and sub-section of the report needs to start with an introductory paragraph that provides the context for the section or sub-section.
• Every figure, graph, table, and equation needs to be introduced to the reader prior to being presented to the reader. This introduction provides the context.
• ALWAYS NUMBER AND PROVIDE A TITLE FOR ALL FIGURES .
• Make sure that the verb used can actually operate on the noun. For example, stating “the goal for this report is to observe …” implies that the report can observe when it is likely that the goal of the work reported on is to make certain observations.
• Check for spelling and grammar errors which are often highlighted with cues by the text editing software. Follow capitalization, punctuation, and indentation norms. Remember to capitalize the names of proprietary items such as licensed software.
• Define acronyms and abbreviations prior to using them.

Finally, always consider carefully the context of information provided. Know your audience. Thoughtfully consider if a statement is clearly supported by the information provided without leaving your reader confused. Remember that by the time you are writing a report, you should know the information inside and out, but your audience is reading your report to learn.

Standard Components of a Formal Technical Report

Technical reports should be organized into sections and are typically in the order described in this section. While this is the recommended order, certain reports may lend themselves to either reordering sections and/or excluding sections.

The format for this page may vary, however, the following information is always included: report title, who the report was prepared for, who the report was prepared by, and the date of submission. This is not a numbered page of the report.

An abstract is a concise description of the report including its purpose and most important results . An abstract should not be longer than half a page, single-spaced, and must not contain figures or make reference to them. Technical authors are generally so focused on results that they neglect to clearly state the purpose for the work. That purpose is derived from the objectives or goals, most commonly provided by the person who assigned the work. In stating the purpose, it is critical to include key words that would be used in a database search since searches of abstracts are commonly used by professionals to find information they need to do their jobs and make important decisions. Results are summarized in the abstract but how much quantitative information is provided varies with report audience and purpose. It is common to include maximum percent error found in the experimental results as compared to theory. Do not use any specific technical jargon, abbreviations, or acronyms. This is not a numbered page of the report.

Table of Contents

Include all the report sections and appendices. Typically, sub-sections are also listed. This is not a numbered page of the report.

The Table of Contents is easy to include if you properly use the power of the software used to generate the report. The Table of Contents can be automatically generated and updated if the author uses built in report headings provided in the styles menu. It is worth the time and effort to learn these tools since their application are ultimately time-savers for report writers. Directions are provided in Appendix B on creating a Table of Contents in MS Word using section headings.

Introduction

The length of the Introduction depends on the purpose but the author should strive for brevity, clarity, and interest. Provide the objective(s) of the work, a brief description of the problem, and how it is to be attacked. Provide the reader with an overview of why the work was performed, how the work was performed, and the most interesting results. This can usually be accomplished with ease if the work has clearly stated objectives.

Additionally, the introduction of a technical report concludes with a description of the sections that follow the Introduction. This is done to help the reader get some more detailed information about what might be found in each of the report sections included in the body of the report (this does not include appendices). This can feel awkward but providing that information is the accepted standard practice across industries.

Be careful not to use specific technical jargon or abbreviations such as using the term “oscope” instead of “oscilloscope”. Also, make sure to define any acronyms or abbreviations prior to using them. For example, in a surveying lab report a student might want to refer to the electronic distance measuring (EDM) device. The first time the device is referred to, spell out what the acronym stands for before using the acronym, as demonstrated in the previous sentence. Apply this practice throughout wherever an acronym or abbreviation is used but not yet defined within the report.

Background Theory

The purpose of this section is to include, if necessary, a discussion of relevant background theory. Include theory needed to understand subsequent sections that either the reading audience does not already comprehend or is tied to the purpose for the work and report. For example, a report on resistor-capacitor electric circuits that includes measurement of phase shift would likely include a theoretical description of phase shift. In deciding what should or should not be included as background theory, consider presenting any material specific to the work being reported on that you had to learn prior to performing the work including theoretical equations used to calculate theoretical values that are compared to measured values. This section may be divided into subsections if appropriate. Keep the discussion brief without compromising on content relevant to understanding and refer the reader to and cite outside sources of information where appropriate.

The purpose of this section is to provide detailed development of any design included in the report. Do not provide a design section if there is no design aspect to the work. Be sure to introduce and describe the design work within the context of the problem statement using sentences; a series of equations without description and context is insufficient. Use citations if you wish to refer the reader to reference material. Divide this section into subsections where appropriate. For example, a project may consist of designing several circuits that are subsequently interconnected; you may choose to treat each circuit design in its own subsection. The process followed to develop the design should be presented as generally as possible then applied using specific numbers for the work performed. Ultimately, the section must provide the actual design tested and include a clear presentation of how that design was developed.

Theoretical Analysis

Although a theoretical analysis might be part of a design, the author needs to decide if that analysis should be included as part of the design section or a separate section. Typically, any theoretical work performed to develop the design would be included in the design section but any theoretical analysis performed on the design would be included in a separate section. Do not provide a theoretical analysis section if the theoretical work is all described as part of background theory and design sections. However, in most cases, a theoretical analysis section is included to provide important details of all analyses performed. Be brief. It is not necessary to show every step; sentences can be used to describe the intermediate steps. Furthermore, if there are many steps, the reader should be directed to an appendix for complete details. Make sure to perform the analysis with the specific numbers for the work performed leading to the theoretical values reported on and compared to experimental values in the results section of the report. Worth repeating: perform the analyses resulting in the numbers that are included as the theoretical values in the results section of the report. Upon reading the results section, the reader should be familiar with the theoretical values presented there because the reader already saw them in this section.

This section varies depending on requirements of the one who assigned the work and the audience. At a minimum, the author discusses the procedure by describing the method used to test a theory, verify a design or conduct a process. Presentation of the procedure may vary significantly for different fields and different audiences, however, for all fields, the author should BE BRIEF and get to the point . Like with any written work, if it is unnecessarily wordy, the reader becomes bored and the author no longer has an audience. Also, the procedure section should never include specific measurements/results, discussion of results, or explanation of possible error sources. Make sure all diagrams provided are numbered, titled, and clearly labeled.

Depending on the situation, there are two likely types of procedure sections. In one case, a detailed procedure may have already been supplied or perhaps it is not desirable to provide a detailed description due to proprietary work. In another case, it might be the author’s job to develop and provide all the detail so work can be duplicated. The latter is more common in academic lab settings. Writing guidelines for these possible procedure sections are provided below.

Procedure Type 1

Use this procedure type if you have been supplied with a detailed procedure describing the steps required to complete the work or detailed procedure is not to be supplied to potential readers (procedure may be proprietary). Briefly describe the method employed to complete the work. This is meant to be a brief procedural description capturing the intention of the work, not the details. The reader may be referred to the appendix for detailed procedure steps. The following list provides considerations for this type of procedure section.

• Example: For measurements made over a range of input settings, provide the actual range without including the details of the specific input settings or order data was taken (unless order affects results).
• If required by the person who assigned the work, include the detailed procedure in the appendix.
• MUST provide detailed diagram(s) of all applicable experimental set-ups (i.e. circuit diagram) that include specific information about the set-up, such as resistor values.
• Provide diagrams and/or pictures that will further assist the reader in understanding the procedural description.
• Provide a details of any work performed for which prescribed steps were not provided and that the author deems necessary for the reader’s comprehension.
• To test the theory of superposition, the circuit shown in Figure 1 is employed. The circuit is constructed on the lab bench and using MultismTM, a circuit simulation software. In both settings, a multimeter is used to measure the output voltage, as shown in Figure 1, for the following three cases: (1) Source 1 on and Source 2 off, (2) Source 1 off and Source 2 on, and (3) both sources on. These measurements are compared to the output voltage derived using theory as described earlier. Refer to the appendix for further detail or procedure.
• In order to test the theory of superposition, first each team member must calculate the output voltage for the circuit shown in Figure 1 for the following three cases: (1) Source 1 on and Source 2 off, (2) Source 1 off and Source 2 on, and (3) both sources on. Then one team member is assigned to build the circuit on the lab bench while the other team member constructs the circuit in Multisim. Once constructed, turn Source 1 on and Source 2 off then connect the positive lead of the meter to the positive end of the output voltage and the negative lead of the meter to the negative end of the output voltage. Record the meter reading. Next turn on Source 2 and turn off Source 1. Again, measure the output voltage using the meter ….

Procedure Type 2

Use this procedure type if you have not been supplied with a detailed description of the steps required to complete the work and/or you were required to develop and report procedure. The reader should be able to repeat the work based on the content supplied in this section.

• Equipment use
• Equipment maintenance
• Define terms specific to the technology
• Measurement techniques and/or calibration
• The description should be sufficiently clear so that the reader could duplicate the work. Do not assume that the reader has prior knowledge or access to prior reports, textbooks, or handouts.
• If part of the procedure was successfully described in a previous report, either repeat the procedure or include that report in the appendix and refer the reader to it.
• Where appropriate, provide additional diagrams and/or pictures to assist the reader in understanding the procedure.

Results and Discussion

Present the results of the work performed, within the context of the problem statement, using neatly organized and completely labeled tables and/or graphs whenever possible. When comparative data is available, present the data in a way that facilitates the comparison. For example, if theoretical and experimental values are available, present the values alongside one another accompanied by percent error. If it would help the reader understand the results, include a few sample calculations but put lengthy calculations in an appendix.

ALWAYS accompany results with a meaningful discussion. The discussion explains what the results mean and points out trends. In some cases, the results speak mostly for themselves and the discussion may be brief, i.e., “Table 2 shows that the designed variable modulus counter works as expected” along with a sentence or two stating how a variable modulus counter works and referring to parts of the table that verify/justify the statement. In other cases, the meaning of the results may not be as clear requiring more detailed discussion. In most cases, the results include data from more than one source to be compared to establish validity. Meaningful discussion immediately follows presentation of results and include:

• commenting on percent difference making sure it is clear to the reader which values are being compared and establishing comparative size of the difference in relation to expectations (negligible, small, large),
• cause for the difference (error sources are discussed further in the next paragraph), and
• how the results inform the reader as framed by the work’s objectives.

All three of the points are important to a meaningful discussion but the third one is most often overlooked. Discussion related to (3) may provide a statement about the theory used to predict the measured data. That statement often includes the theoretical assumptions made to predict the results and what the measured results indicate about the applicability of those theoretical assumptions to the experimental setting.

ALWAYS discuss the possible significant sources of error and how accurate the results need to be in order to be meaningful. Do not include a discussion of possible sources of error that would not add significantly to the observed error. What counts as significant depends on the situation. For example, if the components used have a tolerance of 5% and the accuracy of the equipment is within 0.5% of the measured value, then the equipment does not add significant error. However, if the components used have only a 1% tolerance then equipment with 0.5% accuracy is problematic. In general, it is impossible to obtain error-free results, therefore when there is 0% error there is still cause for discussion to comment on the situation that may result in error-free results or meaningful justification for expectation of error-free results. Expecting some error is not an excuse for lack of attention to detail when conducting procedures that minimize the error. Errors are different from mistakes. It is unacceptable to report mistakes. If a mistake was made, the work must be repeated until acceptable tolerances are achieved before submitting a report. Please find more on discussing percent error or percent difference in Appendix C.

When working in industry, it is imperative to know required level of accuracy for results. Your supervisor or client will expect results within specifications. If that means repetitive measurements to check for accuracy within tolerance, then do it. If it means performing a detailed analysis prior to making measurements, then do it. In an academic setting, the result of laziness or lack of effort may only be a bad grade. In a workplace, you may get fired!

Other information pertaining to writing Results and Discussion section can be found in Appendix C. This information includes

• How to calculate percent difference/error.
• Typical magnitudes of percent error for courses where circuits are constructed.
• What to consider writing about based on questions posed by the person assigning you to write the report.
• Guidelines for graphs provided in a report.

In this final section of the body of the report, the author should briefly bring everything together. It is similar to the abstract except that now specific results are concluded upon in a quantitative way. Therefore, the conclusion should be a concise description of the report including its purpose and most important results providing specific quantitative information. The conclusion should not contain figures or refer to them. As with the abstract, the reader should be able to read this section on its own which means that there should be no specific technical jargon, abbreviations, or acronyms used.

Anywhere within your writing that you have either copied or paraphrased another source, you must cite that source. This entails two steps. One is to provide a parenthetical citation at the location in the report where the material that is not your own resides and the other is to provide the complete bibliographic information in a References page following the Conclusion section of the report. If an annotated bibliography is required, include an annotation for ALL sources describing what the source was used for within the report and establishes the source’s credibility.

Using the APA style, the parenthetical citation at the location in the document where the copied or paraphrased material exists includes: author, publication date, and page number(s). For sources with no author, the name of the reference material is used. All this information is included within parentheses thus being referred to as a “parenthetical citation”.

The full bibliographic information for all reference material cited within your writing is collected on the References page. In technical papers, the referenced sources are usually listed in the order they are referred to in the body of the report and, in fact, many published engineering papers will simply number the references and then use that number in square brackets to replace the parenthetical citation within the body of the report. Those new to this form of technical writing, often ask about how and where to list references used but not explicitly cited in the body of the report. However, if the reference is important enough to list, that generally means that there is an appropriate place to cite it in the body of the report, perhaps in the introduction or background theory. In Appendix A you can find further information about creating citations using citation generators available on the internet that will create a properly formatted citation for you when provided with the relevant information. Although citation generators are readily available, the one I recommend is from Calvin College called KnightCite due to the minimum sponsored advertisements and can be found at http://www.calvin.edu/library/knightcite/ .

The References section begins on a new page; not on the same page with the conclusion. Refer to Appendix A for detailed information on preparing the References section. Also, there is a wealth of information about citation styles, including lengthy guides and short handouts, at https://sunydutchess.libguides.com/citations .

One final note on references and providing bibliographic information concerns use of sources that may appear to be questionable. There is no doubt that information from a wiki is questionable since, by definition, it can be changed by users including unqualified users. Although most wikis are reviewed and erroneous or misleading information corrected, at any given time there could be erroneous and misleading information. However, depending on report content, internet sources, including .com sites that have industry bias and .org sites that have policy bias, may have valuable information. Even .edu sites can be problematic if site is by an individual rather than an educational group within the institution since the former is likely not to have any editors and the latter is likely to be monitored and curated by the group. In order to establish credibility or usefulness of a source, especially a questionable one, provide an annotation to the bibliographic information that provides further information as to why the source was included and perspective on its application to the work reported. Information about annotated bibliographies is provided in Appendix A.

This section may not always be present. Materials included in an appendix may include lab sheets, parts list, diagrams, extensive calculations, error analyses, and lengthy computer programs.  Introduce numbered or lettered appendices rather than putting different items in one appendix.

Technical Report Writing Guidelines Copyright © by Leah M. Akins is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Writing and Creating the Technical Report

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In this chapter you will get many tips and see many examples for the appropriate creation of the Technical Report. Hints for working with word processor systems are mainly collected in Sect.  3.7 . However, before showing the details of this chapter, we want to present some general and summarizing thoughts.

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Chapter 1: Introduction to Technical and Report Writing

Bay College

Learning Objectives

What is Technical Writing? [1]

You’re probably wondering what this “technical writing thing” is. Someone may even have told you, “It’s this course where they make you write about rocket science and brain surgery.” Well, not really, as you will see in a moment. Actually, the field of technical communication is essential in a wide range of fields and occupations. It is a fully professional field with degree programs, certifications, and—yes!—even theory. It’s a good field with a lot of growth and income potential; and an introductory technical-writing course for which this book has been developed is a good way to start if you are interested in a career in this field .

Technical writing is an audience-centered means of communication that provides a reader with clear and easy access to information. In the business world, time equates to profit, and profit is the force behind all business interaction. The technical writer and reader have a vis-à-vis relationship. The writer recognizes, respects, and addresses the importance of time in effective and efficient communication by providing documents written in specific formats, using unambiguous language to send clearly accessible information. The reader in turn thoroughly understands the information in order to give a thoughtful response.

The Meaning of “Technical”

Technical communication—or technical writing, as the course is often called—is not writing about a specific technical topic such as computers, but about any technical topic. The term “technical” refers to knowledge that is not widespread, that is more the territory of experts and specialists. Whatever your major is, you are developing an expertise—you are becoming a specialist in a particular technical area. And whenever you try to write or say anything about your field, you are engaged in technical communication .

Academic Writing Versus Technical Writing    

The definite purpose, strict format and use of appropriate language in technical writing define the differences between technical writing and academic writing.  The academic writer’s purpose may be to write an assignment, a story, a letter, etc.. These works may or may not have a reader. However, technical writing always has a definite purpose and will always have a reader.  Regardless of the number of the intended readers of a document who may or may not read the document, the document will be read by the primary reader.

Workplace Writing

However, the focus for technical-writing courses is not necessarily a career as a technical writer but an introduction to the kinds of writing skills you need in practically any technically oriented professional job. No matter what sort of professional work you do, you’re likely to do lots of writing—and much of it technical in nature. The more you know about some basic technical-writing skills, which are covered in this guide and in technical-writing courses, the better job of writing you’re likely to do. And that will be good for the projects you work on, for the organizations you work in, and—most of all—good for you and your career .

Really Technical Writing

Keep relaxing, but you should know that professional technical writers do in fact write about very technical stuff—information that they cannot begin to master unless they go back for a Ph.D. But wait a minute! The technical documents have to ship with the product in less than nine months! How do they manage? Professional technical writers rely on these strategies to ensure the technical accuracy of their work:

• Study of books, articles, reports, websites related to the product
• Product specifications: what the product is supposed to do, how it is designed
• Interviews with subject matter experts: the product specialists, developers, engineers
• Product meetings during the development cycle
• Live demonstrations of the product
• Familiarization with similar, competing products
• Experimenting with working models of the product
• Most importantly, subject matter experts’ review of technical writers’ work for technical accuracy and completeness

Of course, experienced technical writers will tell you that product development moves so fast that specifications are not always possible and that working models of the product are rarely available. That’s why the subject matter experts’ review is often the most important.

Considerations of Technical Documents

There are key components of what makes a document strong. Therefore, writers keep these items in mind while constructing technical documents.

The Importance of Audience

Another key part of the definition of technical communication is the receiver of the information—the audience. Technical communication is the delivery of technical information to readers (or listeners or viewers) in a manner that is adapted to their needs, level of understanding, and background. In fact, this audience element is so important that it is one of the cornerstones of this course: you are challenged to write about highly technical subjects but in a way that a beginner—a nonspecialist—could understand. This ability to “translate” technical information to non-specialists is a key skill to any technical communicator. In a world of rapid technological development, people are constantly falling behind and becoming technological illiterates. Technology companies are constantly struggling to find effective ways to help customers or potential customers understand the advantages or the operation of their new products .

Not only is the the level at which you write important but so are the language choices you make as you do so. Please review the information on the following link for tips: Use Language that is Sensitive to Your Audience [2]

So relax! You don’t have to write about computers or rocket science—write about the area of technical specialization you know or are learning about. Also, plan to write about it in such a way that even Grandad can understand !

Formatting and Language

Formatting and appropriate language are the basic design elements of all technical documents.  A format that shows a hierarchical structure and a coordinate structure of information  le ads the reader thorough text.

Readers should be able to identify a writer’s organizational pattern very quickly when reading a technical document . This sometimes refers to a document being “reader friendly.”  In addition , using appropriate language is significant in providing the reader with a thorough understanding of the purpose of the document, how the document relates to the reader’s needs, and what action is expected of the reader. [3]

A document may also have one reader (the primary reader) or several readers (the secondary readers). A primary reader is the person who ordered the report to be written or the person for whom a report is intended. These readers will usually read the entire report. Secondary readers are those readers who will read only the sections of the report that relate to them, their jobs, their departments, responsibilities, etc. For example, if a report was sent that detailed funding for different departments, a piping superintendent may only want to read the section that relates to piping. This is where format, the use of headings, is significant in allowing the reader easy access to information. When the piping superintendent can scan through the document and clearly find the heading that identifies his department saves time.

Cultural Communication

Technical writers need to be aware of the differences between the behavior and the norms, beliefs and values of specific cultural. According to Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall, In Understanding Cultural Differences, each culture operates according to its own rules (1990, pp. 3-4).  Hall and Hall add that problems occur when members of one culture apply the rules to another culture (1990, pp. 3-4). To communicate effectively with other cultures, the technical writer needs to not only be aware of rules governing behaviors that can be observed but also of the not-so-obvious rules that govern the norms, beliefs, and values of the people of a culture. The invisible rules of a culture dramatically impact the acceptance of ideas, plans, and strategies.  The Cultural Iceberg illustrates patterns of world communication, showing indicators of Institutional Culture (the obvious behavior of a culture), which can be clearly seen as the tip of the iceberg, and People Culture (the norms, beliefs and values of a culture), which cannot be seen and which are the barriers to successful communication .

Figure 2 The Cultural Iceberg

Technical writers have a responsibility to their readers and to their employers to follow ethics when writing reports. 

Technical writers must use words that demonstrate valid appeals to reason, avoiding emotional words and phrases that appea l to basic emotion instead of justifiable reasoning. In addition, technical writers must use valid references to support ideas and strategies, avoiding referencing non experts to sway readers’ support. Also, technical writers must use accurate numbers to report data, avoiding charts and tables that skew data. Using any type of fallacies in technical writing is unethical and could result in dire consequences.

Not only do technical writers have a responsibility to report accurate information, but they also have a responsibility to credit accurate sources of information. At no time is it acceptable to rearrange information in order to attempt to indicate that the writer is the source of someone else’s idea or to indicate that the writer read a report that included information he/she cited, when the primary source of the information was cited in another report.  All sources must be referenced accurately in the text and cited on a reference page.

Daniel G. Riordan (2005), in Technical Report Writing Today, cites Dombrowski to define three threads of ethics:

One major thread is that the communicator must be a good person who cares for the audience. Communicators must tell the truth as convincingly as possible, because truth will lead to the good of the audience. Another thread is that the communicator must do what is right, regardless of possible outcomes. A third thread is that communicators must act for the greatest good for the greatest number of people (p. 16) .

In addition, Riordan (2005) references the “code of ethics of the Society for Technical Writers, and cites five of the code’s tenants:

My commitment to professional excellence and ethical behaviors means that I will …

• Use language and visuals with precision.
• Prefer simple direct expression of ideas.
• Satisfy the audience’s need for information, not my own need for self-expression.
• Hold myself responsible for how well my audience understands my message.
• Report the work of colleagues, knowing that a communication problem may have more than one solution (Riordan, 2005, pp. 15-16) .

Hall, E. T. & Hall, M. R. (1990). Understanding Cultural Differences. Yardmouth: Intercultural Press, Inc.

Riordan, D. G. (2005).  Technical Report Writing Today.  Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Visuals & Readability

To make a document more reader friendly, many technical writers rely on visuals to achieve this goal. [5] For example , la bels, callouts and captions are identifying text for graphics . Labels and callouts identify specific elements or features on a graphic; whereas captions are short phrases or sentences that describe the graphic. Notes, or footnotes, explain, or give credit.

Labels and Callouts

To identify specific elements or features, labels and captions are placed directly on the graphic or near it. “Although the terms are used interchangeably, labels are text identifiers that are self-explanatory in an image, while callouts are labels that require further information outside the image to explain what they are identifying” (Gurak 304). They supplement the visual information. But use them selectively; use them only if readers need them (Rude 116).

The advantage of labels is that the reader gains a basic understanding of elements in the graphic without referring to supplementary explanations. But, too many labels obscure the image. In this case, callouts are the better option. Use numbers or letters to identify each element and the supplementary explanations.

Guidelines for Creating Labels and Callouts

• Determine the number of items to identify in the image (Gurak 308).
• Estimate how much explanation each item requires to determine if labels or callouts are more appropriate (Gurak 308).
• create a consistent visual style (Gurak 308)
• use the same terms on the label or callout as in the text (Rude 116)
• in general, all parts mentioned in the text should have a label or callout, and all parts with a label or callout should be mentioned in the text. (Rude 116)
• Use a standard font and size for readability (Rude 116)
• Align the labels and callouts for a neater appearance (Rude 116)
• If callouts are used, place the explanatory text in a key next to the graphic.

Labels can take different forms (Gurak 304 – 306):

• They may be placed directly on the graphic (whereby they become part of the graphic).
• They may be placed around the graphic and use lines to point to the relevant element in the graphic.
• Online, labels can be links or hotspots whereby more information about the element is displayed on mouse rollover.

This is an example of l abels placed directly on the graphic.

Figure 3 Map of the West Side Central Park, NYC between 102nd and 110th Streets.

Here, the labels are placed around the graphic.

Figure 4 Parts of a flower.

In this sample, when the mouse is rolled over the ‘Firebox’ label, the text will read: “Literally a box containing the fire. It is surrounded by water on the top and all sides. The bottom is a grate with an ash pan below that.” Additional information is displayed .

Figure 5 Labels as hotspots.

Callouts are best used when many parts of the image need to be labeled and each part requires a longer explanation. In fact, the label sequence may be in alphabetical or numerical (as in Figure 6) order. Ensure that the explanation is near the graphic.

Figure 6. How to understand and use the Nutrition Facts Label.

Coded callouts are in numerical sequence; the explanation for each number appears below the graphic. The example above shows part of the explanation of Number 1 explanation only.

Captions, table, and graphics titles must clearly identify information to the reader. Interpretive captions usually require one or more sentences. Captions should be informational, without becoming too lengthy. Captions that are merely a title for a graphic are not very helpful (Franklin 96).

Writing Style for Captions

• Captions for graphics include the title and any explanatory material, immediately under the graphic.
• Words such as Figure, Illustration, and Table should be in bold type.
• The caption should be italicized.
• Treat tables and figures the same.

Good captions are what guide readers not only to see, but also to understand. Captions label graphics with titles and explain to readers what they are seeing, and how to interpret the information captured in the visual. The Franklin Covey Style Guide for Business and Technical Communication provides an excellent source for writing captions (Franklin 39 – 41).

Five Specific Style Rules

• Use interpretive captions whenever possible. I nterpretive captions provide both a title and explanatory information, usually expressed in a complete sentence, to help readers understand the central point(s) that the writer wants to convey. A graphic and its caption should be clear and understandable without requiring readers to search for clarifying information in the text:
• Figure 4. Cabin-Temperature Control System. Constant cabin temperature control is maintained by the system’s modulated cabin sensor.
• This interpretive caption gives the title and then tells the reader the principle message – that the check valve provides near-zero risk. And, it states how the check valve provides near-zero risk (Franklin 39).
• Figure 23. Check Valve . The risk of bad air entering the changer is near zero because the check valve permits air flow in one direction only.
• This interpretive caption gives the title of the figure and emphasizes that the cabin has a constant temperature – a benefit provided by the feature described in the figure. The caption states clearly what the writer wants the reader to learn from the drawing (Franklin 39).
• Avoid using short, often ambiguous, titles to replace interpretive captions. In the past, styles for technical and scientific documents used only short, simple title captions for visuals. These were often superfluous, providing no real information other than the obvious to the reader, i.e. – A Horse. Titles that are so short and cryptic that they sound telegraphic are not useful. Such captions are only useful when the graphics are self-explanatory, and require no interpretation (Franklin 40).
• Number figures and tables sequentially throughout the document, and place the number before the caption. If an important figure or table is presented twice, treat it as two separate visuals and number each. Figure and table numbers should be whole numbers (Franklin 40).
• Captions may appear below or above a visual, but consistency throughout a document is critical. Arguments support both options; choose one, warrant your choice, and be consistent.
• Put the caption above the visual for better visibility when captions are used with slides and other project visual aids. Captions placed at the bottom may be blocked by the heads of those seated in front (Franklin 99).

Notes or footnotes are categorized as either explanatory or source notes. Explanatory footnotes are identified by a superscript number or letter. The order in which notes appear is important; explanatory footnotes are placed above source notes. And both are placed above the caption, if the caption is placed at the bottom of the illustration.

Figure 7. Placement of footnote, source note and caption.

Source: Rude, p. 115, modified.

The Writing Process [6]

Writing, especially when compiling a larger document,  is not something you sit down, complete in one session, and quickly submit. This is especially true when writing for the workplace where accuracy and clarity are necessary. In fact, writing should be seen as a process that is recursive where the writer moves in and out of various stages of writing and often times revisits some of the stages. The writing process might consist of the following:

This is the planning done before writing a document. It may be defining the purpose of the task, analyzing the primary and secondary readers, sketching the document and what will go in each section, or gathering research.

This is writing and compiling a first draft of the document. Sometimes, the writer worries more about getting ideas down more than guaranteeing every punctuation or grammar choice is correct.

When a writer revises, a writer revisits the draft and makes substantial changes to it. This is more than editing. It is adding, deleting, and moving entire sections of the document around to prepare it as a final, comprehensive document. In fact, it is here that many writers ask others for feedback before revising to ensure that another, unbiased set of eyes have looked over the document and easily understand it.

This is the final part of the process. It is reading through the document several times while looking for clarity, consistency, and accuracy. In fact, consider reading your document aloud and listening to it as you do so instead of reading and “seeing” it. Most individuals communicate mostly through talking and listening. Therefore, when you read aloud, you can hear if something in your document doesn’t sound right and then correct it. You should be able to read it in a way that it is understandable and sounds conversational.

For additional information on the writing process, visit The Writing Center website for the University of Texas: University of Texas Writing Center & The Writing Process .

Using a process in the workplace and in our class will strengthen your documents significantly. In fact, remember that your documents reflect on who you are as student, technical writer, employee, and even researcher.

[1] Technical Writing. Authored by : Dr. Elizabeth Lohman. Provided by : Tidewater Community College. Located at : http://www.tcc.edu/ . Project : Z Degree Program. License : CC BY: Attribution , edited by Amber Kinonen , edits included in italics

[2] Use Language that is Sensitive to Your Audience. Provided by : Writing Commons. Located at : http://writingcommons.org/open-text/collaboration/143-common-comments/word-choice-/575-use-language-that-is-sensitive-to-your-audience . License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives edited by Amber Kinonen , edits included in italics

[3] Image of Textbook. Authored by : Dominik Wagner. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/eoAvCb . License : CC BY: Attribution

[4] Image of Text with Watch. Authored by : Stephen Wu. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/tZ1LP . License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives

[5] Norbert Elliot’s “Labels, Callouts, Captions and Notes” CC-BY Saylor, edited by Amber Kinonen , edits included in italics

[6] The Writing Process CC-BY Amber Kinonen

Chapter 1: Introduction to Technical and Report Writing Copyright © by Bay College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How to Write a Technical Report?

What Is a Technical Report?

The definition of a technical report is the following: a technical report is a document written by a researcher; it describes how the research was conveyed: its phases, steps, results, peculiarities, etc., and may include deeper details like experimental data and outcome. It is a document that literally guides readers through the course of your work.

Who Needs a Technical Report?

Many organizations and companies use this type of technical documentation:

• Educational institutions
• Governmental organizations
• Commercial companies
• Non-profit organizations

As a rule, technical reports are widely used in the following industries: engineering, physical sciences, medical and biomedical fields, social sphere, etc.

Why Use a Technical Report?

If you have one of the following goals, a technical report will surely help you:

• You need to show the process of your work. Readers are interested in how you do it. Of course, results have a great value as well but how to check whether you’ve chosen the right way to get them?
• You need to represent important information. This type of technical documentation is often chosen to provide efficient communication among employees on different levels. For example, top management can make decisions based on the information given in technical reports. It means that a technical report may influence the way a company is going to develop in the future.
• You need to structure data. A technical report helps to represent information logically and show the cause-and-effect relations between the blocks of data.
• Attract the attention of readers to a problem. A technical report is a very good solution to show readers a problem and, of course, why it should be solved as soon as possible.

What Makes a Good Technical Report?

To write a high-quality technical report, you are to follow the rules that are common nearly for all types of technical documentation:

• Write for your readers : define your audience, their level of knowledge, organize the document the way they can easily use it;
• Use accurate, concise, and clear language;
• Eliminate errors: technical errors, inconsistencies, and errors in language;
• Use additional sources of information: references and visuals (diagrams, tables, graphs, etc.). For example, using diagrams can be very helpful if you need to show statistical data analyses. Our post - Using Diagrams in IT Documentation: Best Practices - will tell you more on how to use diagrams in technical documentation and which tools to choose;
• Keep your report short but informative.

What Is the Difference Between a Technical and Non-Technical Report?

Not every report can be called a technical one. Let’s figure out the difference between a technical report and a non-technical one.

So, a technical report is a document that gives in-depth technical information. A non-technical report contains other types of information - more general ones. A popular report is a good example of a non-technical report. A popular report is a short document that describes the state’s or government’s financial performance.

Structure of a Technical Report

A technical report usually contains the following elements:

• Synopses. This is the first element of a technical report, but it should be the last thing to write. It is only a couple of paragraphs long. You are to underline your attitude to the problem, the methods used, the purpose, and the concept of the report.
• Title page. It is not only the title of the project, there should be some information about the author, their position, submission date, etc.
• Abstract. It is a short technical summary. As a rule, it is addressed to the audience. They decide whether to read the report or not, as they may already be acquainted with the problem.
• Table of contents (TOC) . It is a guide to the report’s structure.
• List of illustrations. It is a list of diagrams, graphs, tables, or other materials that support the content of the report.
• Introduction. This is the introduction to the body of the report. Sometimes it contains relevant background information. This section describes the aims and objectives of the report, the scope of work, limitations, etc.
• Body. The longest and most important section of the report. It can be subdivided into logical parts. This is the main scope of work, ideas, methods, etc.
• Conclusion. Contains the answers to the questions that were specified at the beginning or solutions to the problems.
• Appendices. The list of references, books, etc.
• Glossary . The list of terms and symbols used in the report.

Formatting of Technical Reports

Formatting means highlighting some data or information. Formatting may include using corporate style guides to underline that the document belongs to a particular company, or it may include highlighting in order to underline the sense or importance of information. Sometimes, documents have both types of formatting.

Types of Technical Reports

Technical reports can be of various types depending on the industry, goals, and needs:

• Feasibility report. Is the most popular document at the beginning of the software development process. It helps teams make their choice between several options. It shows whether or not the task in question can be fulfilled with the specified resources.
• Business plan. It describes the goals of a business, methods of achievement, resources, timeline, etc.
• Technical specification. Describes requirements for a product or project and information on design and development.
• Research report. Is the result of an investigation: process and findings.
• Recommendation report. Contains recommendations to solve a problem.
• Policies and procedures. Contains guidelines for rational actions.

Even more types of technical reports can be singled out. The above-mentioned ones are considered to be basic.

If you are a newbie technical writer, now you surely know what a technical report is and how to write it; if you are an experienced one, you may find new ideas and sources of inspiration in this post. Whatever document you are creating, make sure you do your best to make it as clear as possible to your readers. Stay safe and create perfect technical documentation with ClickHelp !

Good luck with your technical writing! ClickHelp Team Author, host and deliver documentation across platforms and devices

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2.14: Technical Definitions and Descriptions

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• Page ID 51532

• Tiffani Reardon, Tammy Powell, Jonathan Arnett, Monique Logan, & Cassie Race
• Kennesaw State University

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, readers will be able to:

• Explain and apply the 5 primary characteristics of technical definitions.
• Write a definition using appropriate content, descriptors, details, length, placement, and audience analysis.
• Avoid common technical definition problems.
• Explain and apply the 5 primary characteristics of technical descriptions.
• Write a description using the 6 common parts.
• Organize a description according to the 3 common organizational patterns.

Technical Definitions

When you think of the word "definition," what comes to mind? If you're like most people, you think of a dictionary's contents. What, then, does a dictionary definition contain?

Typically, dictionary definitions include a word's

• Standard spelling
• Syllable breaks
• Pronunciation
• Part of speech
• Current and archaic usage
• Synonyms/antonyms
• Variant spellings
• Variants including suffixes

If you've used a dictionary before, then none of these items should surprise you. Think, though... Are all dictionaries the same? And do they contain the same types of thing?

Not really. All dictionaries contain lists of words, but their contents are otherwise markedly different. A children's dictionary, for example, is much simpler and shorter than a "collegiate" dictionary, which is shorter and simpler than an unabridged dictionary, which pales in comparison to the Oxford English Dictionary, a two-volume monster that comes with a reinforced bookstand and its own magnifying glass.

All these different dictionaries share several characteristics, though, which are characteristics of any technical definition:

• their authors focus on a particular audience ;
• their contents describe the object of attention ;
• their contents clarify ambiguity ;
• readers can use the contents to communicate across expertise levels ; and
• readers can use the contents to solve problems .

At least one of these ideas should sound familiar. For example, focusing on a particular audience...haven't we mentioned that sometime before, in this very class?

As far as the other four elements go, the temptation is to say, "Well, yeah, of course. That's what a definition does." The trick, though, is to include the right information, structure it the right way, and build a good definition. That's what we'll talk about next.

Technical Definition Contents

As the name might suggest, a technical definition should explain what a thing is. But what does "explain what a thing is" actually mean? How long does the explanation have to be? And where does the explanation go?

The answers to these questions depend on the characteristics listed above and the noun (person, place, thing, idea, or process) you're defining, and we see the answers expressed in terms of content, length, and placement.

Descriptors

Let's talk descriptors that can be used in writing a definition. Here's a partial list of possible items you can use to define a noun:

• physical characteristics (a thing's color, shape, size, material, smell, taste, texture, and so on)
• operation (how it works, but not how to work it -- that's what goes in instructions)
• analogies ("It tastes like chicken," for example)
• specific examples

More possible descriptors exist, but these are the usual suspects. You'll choose appropriate ones based on the situation at hand.

Type of Details

The kind of detail you'd include in a technical definition will vary. As with everything you write—and quite literally everything, whether you're writing it for this class, in future classes, or over the rest of your life—you need to consider your audience very carefully. For example, who is your audience? What is s/he like? What kind of language would you use? What medium would the audience respond to best? What kind of words will the audience respond to best? Et cetera... In short, analyze your audience carefully and tailor the content to that audience.

As an illustration of the kind of details you'd choose for a particular audience, let's think about defining the special steel used in the crumple zone of a car's frame. (If you don't know what a crumple zone is, it's an area of a car that's designed to get squished in a crash and absorb all the kinetic energy, thereby making the passengers safer.)

We're going to define the steel in this part of the car for three different audiences: you, a car manufacturer, and a car buyer.

For you, if I defined the steel as boron-doped high-austenite steel that undergoes a martensitic transformation in a crash, that would probably mean nothing because the information is too detailed. However, if I defined the steel in a modern car's crumple zone as relatively soft steel that suddenly stiffens up when it's put under stress, then you'd probably understand just fine.

For a modern car manufacturer, though, neither of those definitions would be detailed enough. The manufacturer would need to know specifics about how much boron went into the steel, how ductile (bendable) the steel is, how much stress the steel can take before it stiffens or breaks, and how quickly the steel stiffens when it's put under stress. For this audience, you'd need to write a highly detailed, highly technical definition.

A car buyer, on the other hand, simply doesn't care what kind of steel goes into a car's crumple zone. The only thing a car buyer wants to know is if the car's NTSA crash test ratings are good.

Another thing to consider is what sort of object/process/thing it is you're documenting. Some nouns just don't require certain types of descriptors.

As an illustration of necessary details for a particular subject, let's consider the same example again: the steel used in a car's crumple zone.

High-austenite steel is relatively ductile; its manufacturing process includes cold rolling, annealing, and quenching; and car manufacturers use high-austenite steel in crumple zones because this steel gets harder and stiffer under pressure, thus protecting drivers.

All of these properties make sense when we're talking about metal. In contrast, saying that a certain piece of highaustenite steel has a mottled gray appearance, makes a clang in the key of C-sharp, or tastes like chocolate chip cookies probably isn't relevant to anybody.

As we've already mentioned, the audience's need for information will drive how much information you provide. If the audience both needs and can handle a lot of information, then get super-detailed. On the other hand, if the audience only needs or only can handle the basics for whatever reason, then keep the definition short and include just the absolutely necessary information.

As an illustration of length, let's consider a dictionary definition.

A person who consults the Oxford English Dictionary probably wants detailed information about the many ways a particular word has been used over the centuries. Accordingly, the OED definition should be very long and full of examples.

In contrast, a middle-school student who just wants to know how to pronounce a word or find out a word's meaning won't want to read pages upon pages of etymology and usage. That student just wants the basic information and nothing more.

The audience's need for information and the type of information you're defining will also drive where you place definitions. Four major options include placing definitions in

• independent sentences
• dependent clauses
• parenthetical asides
• separate sections

If you're using relatively simple terms and have a knowledgeable audience, use simple, short definitions that fit within an ordinary sentence. If the definition is a bit more complex and/or your audience needs a bit more information, use a parenthetical statement. If you're defining complicated or detailed information, even to a knowledgeable audience, insert full paragraphs or subsections.

Sometimes, depending on the nature of the document that contains a definition, you'll refer readers to entire sections, such as footnotes, a glossary in the back of a textbook, or appendices at the end of formal proposals and reports (hint, hint on this last part).

In a separate sentence: "Peanut butter is a paste made from ground peanuts."

In a dependent clause: "Jim's Steakhouse uses wide-mouth Mason jars, like those used for preserving homemade jam, as water glasses. "

In a parenthetical statement: "Siamese cats—easily identifiable by their blue eyes, triangular-shaped heads, incessant yowling, and self-entitled attitudes—come from Southeast Asia."

Technical Definition Problems

When you write technical definitions, pay special attention to avoiding these three problems:

• audience-inappropriate content/language
• circular definitions
• synonymous definitions

Audience-Inappropriate Material

We've already discussed this, so I'll keep my rap short: Analyze your audience and give your audience members what they need, in a way they can understand it.

Circular Definitions

Some bad definitions depend on the reader already knowing what the defined thing is/does.

Here's an example: "Superchlorination is a swimming pool chemistry technique that enables operators to achieve breakpoint chlorination." Okay...but what is breakpoint chlorination? "Breakpoint chlorination is an elevated level of chlorine that swimming pool operators reach by superchlorinating the water."

Synonymous Definitions

Other bad definitions substitute one synonym for another. Here's an example: "Chloramines are another name for combined chlorine." Okay...but what is combined chlorine? Oops. I've just defined a thing as itself.

Here's a revised version: "Chloramines are molecules of 'free chlorine' (the chemically active form of chlorine that sanitizes, oxidizes, and disinfects pool water) that met an organic substance, chemically bonded to the organic substance, became chemically neutral, and began to give off a foul odor." This version is much better, yes?

Technical Descriptions

Technical descriptions are similar to technical definitions. but technical descriptions can be stand-alone documents, whereas technical definitions are always components of a larger document. Furthermore, technical descriptions

• are usually longer than technical definitions,
• contain more detail,
• focus on functionality,
• often describe complicated subjects with multiple parts, and
• contain technical definitions.

Technical Description Parts

Since technical descriptions are longer and more detailed than technical definitions, descriptions contain two major sections: Introductions and Body sections.

Introduction

The contents of a technical description's introduction are very similar to the contents of a formal letter. In the first paragraph, you need to

• identify the thing to be described;
• provide some basic background information (purpose of writing, context of writing);
• give a brief overview of the thing to be described (what is it like, what is its purpose);
• and preview the rest of the document.

After the Introduction, a technical description's content will vary, depending on your audience and the thing being described. However, there are a few common themes in any technical description's body paragraphs.

The body paragraphs flesh out the background information in more detail. Again, like the body of a formal letter contains details about the letter's subject, the body of a technical description contains details about the background of the thing being documented. Of course, tailor the content based on your audience and the subject at hand.

Parts/Characteristics

The body paragraphs also include details about the various parts that make up the thing being described. If the thing is a physical object, you'll want to list and describe the various parts that make up the whole. If the thing is a place, then what makes it different from or similar to other places? If the thing is a process, then what are its necessary conditions and its various stages/steps?

A technical description's body can also include visual materials (and, conceivably, audio materials if the description is multimedia). These can be pictures, tables, diagrams, charts, graphs...if it's appropriate, put it in. One particular kind of visual material that we need to address under its own heading, though, is the specification.

Specifications

The word "specifications" has two definitions. One of the definitions refers to a list (often a table) of technical details about the object or process you're documenting. These can be part of a technical definition and are often necessary in a technical description.

The second meaning, which we'll address here, refers to images that depict the subject of a description and include callouts (lines or arrows with text attached) to highlight that object's constituent parts.

Please note: Specifications are not descriptions . They may be part of descriptions, but specifications cannot stand alone.

Here's why: Imagine that you bought a new, top-of-the-line TV. You're quite excited, as it's a technologically advanced TV, with one bazillion features that you can program and customize for the world's most amazing TV experience.

You unpack the box and, instead of an owner's manual, all you find is a single piece of paper that pictures the TV's remote control, with labeled arrows to each button. One button is labeled "Skip."

• What will the TV do if you press the button?
• What will be skipped?
• Can you undo a skip?
• What if you press the button twice? Three times?
• Can "Skip" be used while watching regular TV, or just during DVR replay?
• Does "Skip" have meaning for programming your DVR?

All these questions need answering before you dare press the "Skip" button. You'd be very unhappy if you missed recording this week's episode of Game of Thrones or somehow recorded over the Jersey Shore marathon...

Technical Description Organization

Long technical definitions need their own organization strategies, just as any piece of writing does, but technical descriptions usually rely on one of three organization schemes:

• general-to-specific
• chronological

Your choice of an organization strategy will depend on the kind of thing you're describing. In general, you'll always want to go from general to specific, for you need to begin by defining the thing and then proceed by breaking it down thematically. What that theme is, though, depends on the nature of the thing being described.

General-to-Specific

For example, let's say you're documenting a bicycle. Would it do any good to just start naming pieces? " Okay...here's the front wheel, and here's the seat, and here's the handlebars...ooh! My favorite part, the chain guard! " Of course not; you need some sort of internal logic to the parts list. A logical scheme might be to begin with major systems—frame, wheels, gears, brakes—and then describe how the systems work together or go into more detail about the parts that compose each of these systems.

What about describing the construction of a four-barrel carburetor? You'd likely want to describe how the parts fit together, so a spatial organization scheme would make sense, complete with an exploded-view diagram of the parts. (As a completely irrelevant side note, in the year 2000, I met the inventor of the four-barrel carburetor; he was in his early nineties, and he was volunteering as a math tutor at a community college in Arizona. He was a very nice fellow.)

Chronological

But what about describing a process, like smelting iron? Giving a tour of the factory wouldn't make much sense, would it? " Here's the blast furnace, and over here is the rock crusher. And then on this side, we've got the mold-making shop and a pile of spare wheelbarrow tires. "

No...you'd want to proceed chronologically, step-by-step, through the process. " First, dump trucks haul in raw ore and pour it into this bin. Then we use a bucket loader to transfer the ore into this machine, where we pulverize it. Then we load the crushed ore into these crucibles and roast the ore until the iron melts out. From that point, we... " You get the idea.

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Title: jamba: a hybrid transformer-mamba language model.

Abstract: We present Jamba, a new base large language model based on a novel hybrid Transformer-Mamba mixture-of-experts (MoE) architecture. Specifically, Jamba interleaves blocks of Transformer and Mamba layers, enjoying the benefits of both model families. MoE is added in some of these layers to increase model capacity while keeping active parameter usage manageable. This flexible architecture allows resource- and objective-specific configurations. In the particular configuration we have implemented, we end up with a powerful model that fits in a single 80GB GPU. Built at large scale, Jamba provides high throughput and small memory footprint compared to vanilla Transformers, and at the same time state-of-the-art performance on standard language model benchmarks and long-context evaluations. Remarkably, the model presents strong results for up to 256K tokens context length. We study various architectural decisions, such as how to combine Transformer and Mamba layers, and how to mix experts, and show that some of them are crucial in large scale modeling. We also describe several interesting properties of these architectures which the training and evaluation of Jamba have revealed, and plan to release checkpoints from various ablation runs, to encourage further exploration of this novel architecture. We make the weights of our implementation of Jamba publicly available under a permissive license.

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Ignore the sticker price: How have college prices really changed?

Subscribe to the center for economic security and opportunity newsletter, phillip levine phillip levine nonresident senior fellow - economic studies , center for economic security and opportunity @phil_wellesley.

April 12, 2024

• 20 min read

Public discussions regarding rising college costs typically focus on the listed cost of attendance (COA), or “sticker price.” Sticker prices  for four-year colleges and universities are in the tens of thousands of dollars per year and have risen substantially over the past several decades. High and rising college sticker prices are the subject of considerable attention .   

But what matters to students and their families is not the sticker price but rather the amount they actually have to pay. Because of the availability of financial aid, most pay less than the sticker price . The average amount students actually pay (the “net price”) has evolved quite differently over time from the sticker price: it has recently stabilized and even fallen in the last few years . But the average net price is only relevant for families with average finances. What about everyone else?  

This report shows how the actual price of college for families in different economic circumstances has changed since the mid-1990s. I focus on dependent students attending four-year institutions living away from their parents because those are the students who face the highest sticker prices that typically receive the most attention. They represent around 40% of the roughly 9 million dependent college students and two-thirds of those enrolled full time. These institutions often provide financial aid, using their own resources in addition to aid available from the federal and state governments. I separately examine public (for state residents) and private, nonprofit institutions because of the substantial differences in prices between them.   

Several conclusions emerge from this analysis:   

• The sticker price is an increasingly poor indicator of college prices for all students, regardless of family income.   
• The net price paid by students attending public institutions has risen for families at all income levels, but the increases have been larger for higher-income students.  
• At private institutions, the net price is consistently higher than at public institutions, but for more than a decade it has only increased for higher-income students.   
• Adjusted for inflation, net prices paid by students today at public institutions across the income distribution are similar to the prices they would have paid at private institutions in the mid-1990s.  

How are actual college prices determined?

The full “cost of attendance” is defined by law to include tuition and fees, food and housing, and all other educational and living expenses (books, travel, and other personal expenses). Colleges and universities are required to publicly report that amount. It is often colloquially labeled the sticker price. But financial aid drives a wedge between the COA and what students really pay. The amount students actually pay is labeled the “net price,” and it equals COA less any form of “grant-based” financial aid (i.e., not a loan or subsidized work).   

That aid can come in two forms: need-based and merit-based. Eligibility for need-based aid is determined based on the financial information students provide when they complete the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA). 1 That information is used to calculate the “Expected Family Contribution” (EFC). 2 A student’s “financial need” is the difference between the COA and the EFC (need = COA – EFC). Students receiving federal financial aid cannot receive aid in excess of financial need. Institutions are not required to provide the full amount of aid that students are eligible for, and most do not. Those that do are said to “ meet full need.”  

Many institutions also award financial aid that lowers the net price for other reasons. It is typically labeled as merit aid because students with stronger academic records receive larger awards. For students with no financial need, merit aid directly reduces what students pay.   

For students with financial need, though, merit-based aid often substitutes, at least partially, for need-based aid. That is, the need-based award is reduced when a student receives merit aid. This means that merit aid mostly benefits higher-income students who otherwise would pay the full sticker price.   

At many institutions, this form of aid is awarded to a large fraction, and in some cases even all, of its students. Such universal merit aid has the same impact as reducing the sticker price. Colleges choose to offer it for marketing purposes, setting a high sticker price to signal institutional quality while awarding “merit aid” to signal support for admitted students. 3  

The sticker price is the wrong way to track college costs

Most students do not pay the full sticker price. In 2019-2020, 26% of in-state public college students and 16% of students enrolled in private, nonprofit institutions paid the sticker price. 4 Those percentages have dropped from 53% and 29%, respectively, since 1995-1996. More students receive financial aid now, highlighting the importance of relying on net price rather than the sticker price when tracking college costs over time.   

The sticker price is even becoming an increasingly poor indicator of college costs for higher-income students who are not eligible for need-based financial aid. The growing use of merit-based aid at both public and private institutions accounts for this. At public institutions, the vast majority (79%) of those higher-income students paid the full sticker price in 1995-1996. That share dropped to 47% in 2019-2020. At private institutions, the decline was even greater, falling from 64% to 28% over that period.   

The bottom line is that few students now pay the full sticker price, including, perhaps unexpectedly, those from higher-income families. Sticker price is therefore becoming increasingly disconnected from the amount that students actually pay. The practice of tracking it should be exercised with extreme caution.   

A better way to track college costs

If students do not pay the sticker price, how much do they pay? And, critically, how does that amount change as family finances change? To answer this question, I examine the relationship between a family’s financial situation, captured by their EFC, and how much they pay to attend college. This relationship between EFC and net price is a fundamental element of the process colleges use to determine financial aid awards. Other factors matter, but the EFC is critical in determining the amount that students pay. All else equal, the net price rises with EFC. At some point, though, the net price hits a ceiling. That maximum net price is often lower than the sticker price because of the extensive use of merit awards, as I described earlier.  

To better understand how net prices have changed over time for families with different financial circumstances, I use available data to mimic the underlying system that institutions use to determine students’ net price. 5 Separately for each year of data, I estimate the linear relationship between net prices and EFC among students who are eligible for need-based financial aid. I also impose a “maximum net price,” defined as the average amount paid by students who are not eligible for need-based aid. It is not precisely a maximum because some students will pay more, but it represents the typical amount paid by higher-income students whose net price is unrelated to financial need.   

Throughout this analysis, I distinguish state residents attending 4-year public institutions from those attending 4-year private, nonprofit institutions (referred to simply as 4-year public and private institutions going forward). Data for this exercise are available every four years from 1995-1996 through 2019-2020 from the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS). 6 All dollar values are inflation adjusted and represent the price level in 2023.  

To facilitate interpretation, all reported results are distinguished by family income. I converted levels of the EFC to approximate levels of family income, assuming that families’ asset holdings are typical of that income level.   

For a variety of reasons, a literal interpretation of the results of this exercise is inappropriate. The exact amount that any particular student pays will depend on their specific characteristics and those of the institutions they attend. Among students with similar family incomes, other details of their financial situation will affect their net price. Even among students with similar financial circumstances, the net price they pay can vary considerably across institutions and within institutions. But the results presented still provide a useful characterization of the system of college pricing facing students over time.  

Figures 1A and 1B show the key findings. Figure 1A provides the results for students at public institutions. In the 1995-1996 academic year (all years on the graph are labeled by the end of the academic year), students with family incomes under $50,000 typically faced a net price of about $12,500. The typical net price increases with income. Every additional dollar of income translates to around a 16-cent increase in net price. Families with family incomes of roughly $75,000 typically faced a net price of around $16,000. Once income reaches the vicinity of $100,000, the net price hits the maximum of around $19,000.  

In each subsequent year, that relationship has shifted up. 7 By 2019-2020, students from families with incomes below $50,000 faced a typical net price of $18,000. A family with an income of around $125,000 paid the maximum net price of $29,000. The maximum net price increased between 1995-1996 and 2019-2020, so higher-income families became eligible for need-based financial aid.   

This upward drift in net prices at public 4-year institutions indicates that they are becoming increasingly more expensive over time for students at all levels of the income distribution. The increase for higher-income families was larger in dollar terms but roughly similar in percentage terms.    

Figure 1B shows the same relationships for 4-year private institutions. Prices at private institutions were higher than at public institutions for students at all income levels each year. Net prices also increased with incomes at a slightly higher rate (18 cents per dollar of income).  

Pricing patterns over time, though, observed at these institutions are not quite the same as those at public institutions. The fundamental difference is that net prices for lower- and middle-income students stopped rising in 2007-2008. The prices those students pay have remained roughly constant in real terms since then.   

One should not interpret this finding as indicating private colleges are becoming more affordable for low- and middle-income students. Students with incomes under $50,000 are still being asked to pay around $25,000 to attend a typical private institution. But that amount is no longer rising faster than the rate of inflation.  

Net prices charged to higher-income students at these institutions have risen consistently over time. In 1995-1996, the maximum net price at private institutions was $37,000. Students hit that threshold at a family income of around $150,000. By 2019-2020, the maximum net price jumped to $53,000 and it corresponded to income of around $200,000.   

Net prices paid by students enrolled in the small set of private, highly-endowed private colleges and universities that meet full need are unlikely to follow these patterns. Students pay their EFC at these institutions, perhaps along with loan and work expectations. As I have shown elsewhere, their net prices are lower than at other private institutions for all but higher-income students. They are even lower than at public institutions for lower-income students. For students with the same EFC at different points in time, there is no reason their net price would have changed much. But only a small number of institutions fall in this category, making it difficult to analyze them separately. 8  

Note that the scales on the graphs for public and private institutions are different to best illustrate the pricing patterns at each type of institution. Figure 2 is designed to overcome that problem, including data for both sets of institutions for a subset of years on the same scale. It shows that private institutions are clearly more expensive than public institutions, as one might expect. We also see that public institutions in 2019-2020 charge prices that are not unlike those charged at private institutions almost 25 years earlier, particularly for lower- and middle-income families and after factoring in financial aid.  

An important contribution of this analysis is track ing the net price that lower-income students pay over time . I am not aware of any other source that provides this information. Figure 3 focuses specifically on that group, presenting t ypical net price s paid by students from families with incomes below $50,000 over time in the two different types of institutions.

These statistics identify an obvious affordability problem for this group. At public institutions the net price that these students pay has risen from $12,500 to $18,000 between 1995-1996 and 2019-2020. The lower amount would have been difficult for these families to pay then, but these institutions have become even less affordable over time. The cost of a private institution for these students may have stopped rising, but it started and ended the period at a higher level (roughly $20,000 to $25,000, respectively).   

Although net prices have risen for students across the income distribution at both public and private institutions, these increases are considerably smaller than increases in sticker prices. 9 Sticker prices have risen roughly 70% at both types of institutions between 1995-1996 and 2019-2020 ($20,500 to $35,000 at public institutions and $42,000 to $72,000 at private institutions). For lower-income students (defined here as those with incomes below $50,000), net prices have increased by 44% and 24% at public and private institutions, respectively. Those increases are still substantial, but they are considerably smaller than the increase in the sticker price.  

Where do we go from here?

This analysis yields several implications for policy discussions regarding college pricing. First, the nearly universal focus on the sticker price in public discourse is detrimental to our understanding of college costs. It is the easiest measure to track, but it is a misleading statistic that a small and declining number of students pay. Even many higher-income families do not pay the full sticker price.   

Second, we need much better information about how much students in different financial circumstances would have to pay for college and how those prices have changed over time. Understanding how much lower- and middle-income students pay is particularly important if we are seeking to improve college access. That information is limited now. One recent survey found that only 19% of Americans know that lower-income students pay less for college than higher-income students.   

Third, college costs are still too high, and increasingly so over time. College is indeed expensive for higher-income students, but the affordability problem is much greater—and more consequential—for lower- and middle-income students. If they can’t afford it, they can’t go.   

Our current system of setting and communicating college prices simply does not work. We cannot expect students to make sound decisions regarding educational investments if they do not understand how much college will actually cost them. Public officials make strategic decisions affecting the higher education system facing similar blind spots. The media routinely reports on college pricing based on inadequate information. And, ultimately, college costs are too high, particularly for lower- and middle-income students. We cannot expect improvements in the market for higher education if we do not know the facts. This report is a step in that direction.  

Technical Appendix: Data and Methodology

All the analyses reported in this report are based on data from the 1995-1996 through 2019-2020 waves (available every fourth year) of the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS). In each wave, I have restricted the data to dependent students enrolled full-time at a single institution living away from their parents (on or off campus). 10  These seven waves of the NPSAS were conducted during a period when the formula for determining a student’s EFC was largely unchanged. All NPSAS data used in this report is restricted and accessed under a licensing agreement with the Institute for Education Science/National Center for Education Statistics (IES/NCES).  

There are 86,000 students included in these seven waves of NPSAS data that satisfy the sample restrictions. In 2019-2020, over 3 million students satisfy these conditions. I have replicated all the analyses included in this report further restricting the sample to those living on campus (around 2 million students in 2019-2020) and obtained similar results.   

Students are divided into two categories, based on whether they have “financial need” depending on whether their expected family contribution (EFC) is greater than the cost of attendance (COA) at the institution they attend (COA – EFC > 0). For those who have no financial need, I calculate the average net price separately for students attending 4-year public institutions and those attending 4-year private institutions. These statistics are generated separately using data from each NPSAS wave. The results set the upper bound of net prices in each wave in each type of institution in this analysis.  

For students with financial need (EFC < COA), I estimate linear quantile regression models at the 50 th percentile (i.e., the median) relating the net price paid to their EFC. I extended this approach in a preliminary analysis, allowing the year/institution type slope to be non-linear (quadratic). The results indicated some non-nonlinearity exists (increasing at a decreasing rate), but it is minor and I chose to maintain the simplicity of restricting the slope to be linear.  

In the analysis reported in Figures 1A and 1B, a single regression is estimated for each type of institution across all NPSAS waves, restricting the slope coefficient relating net price to EFC to be constant, but the intercept is allowed to change by wave. I tested the sensitivity of this restriction relative to models that estimate this relationship separately by type of institution and academic year. This approach allows for the linear slope to differ in different years. Although there is some variability in slopes of the net price/EFC profile by academic year, they are not dramatic. I therefore impose the constant slope restriction for ease of interpretation, without much loss of detail.  

The results from the regression analysis that imposes a constant slope over time generate the sloped portions of the relationship between approximate family income (EFC) and the net price, as displayed in Figures 1A and 1B. The sloped portion is allowed to increase until it intersects with the average net price paid by students with no financial need in each sector and NPSAS wave. 11    

Separately, I also estimate a linear regression relating family income, measured as the adjusted gross income (AGI) that parents report on their child’s FAFSA form, and the resulting FAFSA EFC. This analysis is also restricted to those students who have financial need. I use the results from this analysis to predict family income for alternative values of EFC. It is those predictions of family income based on EFC that are provided in Figures 1A, 1B, and 2.  

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The Brookings Institution is financed through the support of a diverse array of foundations, corporations, governments, individuals, as well as an endowment. A list of donors can be found in our annual reports published online  here . The findings, interpretations, and conclusions in this report are solely those of its author(s) and are not influenced by any donation.

• A relatively small share of students attends colleges and universities that also require students to complete the CSS Profile. That form asks more detailed questions, and it is  used largely at private institutions with high sticker prices . For this analysis, I do not have access to financial aid data based on the CSS Profile. 
• The  EFC has been relabeled  as the Student Aid Index (SAI) beginning with the 2024-2025 FAFSA. I continue to use the historical EFC label because that is what it was called in all of the data used in this analysis.
• Students would benefit and institutions would not be harmed if all institutions using this pricing policy simply cut their sticker price. They do not do so because they face a “prisoners’ dilemma.” If any one school changed their policy on its own, it would lose students. If all agreed to so simultaneously, that would overcome the problem, but it also likely would be seen as a violation of anti-trust laws. 
• I use data from the 1995-1996 through 2019-2020 waves (available every fourth year) of the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS) to calculate these statistics and in all other analysis in this report. The technical appendix provides greater details regarding the data and methods used. 
• A more traditional approach for providing this information would be to establish categories of EFC or income and compute mean or median net prices within those categories. I conducted such an analysis, but opted for the regression-based approach instead. That approach has the advantage of providing results that are less dependent on having sufficient data within relatively narrow EFC bands. It also provides a better method of determining a typical EFC level at which point net prices stop rising. All the analysis is conducted with the same NPSAS data referenced earlier. 
• Note that the 2019-2020 NPSAS was just released in the fall of 2023. A new wave will not be available for a few more years.
• The slopes in these lines are forced to be the same over time, but a more flexible specification allowing them to change indicates that those changes are minimal. More detail is provided in the appendix.
• At these institutions, a student’s financial need is likely to be determined by information provided on the CSS Profile, not FAFSA, which includes more financial detail and places a heavier emphasis on assets. This information is not available in the NPSAS, further hindering an analysis of their pricing systems.
• This finding is consistent with the analysis conducted by  Cooke and Turner (2022) . 
• The results of this analysis are similar, albeit noisier, when I repeat the exercise separately for those who live on or off campus. A similar pattern is observed for students who live with their parents, albeit at lower levels. Lower-income students who live with their parents are generally able to cover the stated tuition ( ignoring other cost factors  incorporated into the full cost of attendance) throughout this time period at public institutions. 
• Replacing this average with a median generates similar results. 

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