water pollution in australia essay

Australian waters polluted by harmful tiny plastics

Oceanographer, PhD candidate researching plastic pollution and sea turtles., The University of Western Australia

Winthrop Professor of Coastal Oceanography, The University of Western Australia

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Julia Reisser is a PhD candidate at the University of Western Australia, and receives funding and support from the University of Western Australia and CSIRO Wealth from Oceans Flagship.

Charitha Pattiaratchi does not work for, consult to, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article.

University of Western Australia provides funding as a founding partner of The Conversation AU.

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Each square kilometre of Australian sea surface water is contaminated by around 4,000 pieces of tiny plastics, according to our study published today in journal PLOS ONE and data repository Figshare .

These small plastic fragments, mostly less than 5mm across, are loaded with pollutants that can negatively affect several marine species, from tiny fish and zooplankton to large turtles and whales .

Plastic pollution hazards to Australian species and ecological communities are therefore likely broader than those officially recognised .

Understanding the plastic pollution issue

Unfortunately, part of our plastic waste winds up in the oceans. Plastics can be transported from populated areas to the marine environment by rivers, wind, tides, rainwater, storm drains, sewage disposal, and flooding, or can directly reach the sea from boats and offshore installations.

Throughout their marine journey, plastics break down into increasingly smaller pieces mostly due to the effect of sunlight and heat.

These plastic fragments, commonly called microplastics when smaller than 5mm, represent the vast majority of human-made debris present at beaches, seafloor, and in the water column.

The effects of plastics on food webs and ecosystems have become focus of concern over the last decade. It is now known that over half of our plastic objects contain at least one ingredient classified as hazardous .

To make matters worse, plastics that enter the oceans become increasingly toxic by adsorbing oily pollutants on their surface. When plastic is ingested, these concentrated toxins can be delivered to animals and transferred up their food chains.

This biomagnification of toxins is more likely to occur when plastics are small enough to be ingested by low trophic fauna , such as small fish and zooplankton.

These tiny ocean plastics may affect the health of entire food webs, which include humans. For instance, little plastic pieces were found in the stomach of some Southern Bluefin tuna captured off Tasmania and destined for human consumption.

What kind of plastic and where does it come from?

Until now, plastic contamination in Australian waters was mostly inferred from beach clean-up reports. There was no at-sea survey focused on sampling plastic debris in waters around this country.

I wanted to fill this gap. During my PhD research, I went on seven transit voyages aboard three Australian vessels: RV Southern Surveyor , RV Solander , and Comac Enterprise .

During these trips, I used a net called Manta Net to catch floating plastics at the ocean surface.

Small fragments of hard plastic were the most common type, but soft plastics, such as fragments of wrappers, and strings (mostly fishing lines) were also common.

These plastics were mostly made of polyolefins (polyethylene and polypropylene). These polymers account for 52% of our plastic production and are typically used to make throwaway packaging. They are also used for manufacturing fishing equipment such as crates, nets, ropes, and lines.

Our overall mean sea surface plastic concentration was 4,256.4 plastic pieces per km 2 . This mean value is higher than those reported for other regions, such as the Caribbean Sea (1,414 pieces per km 2 ) and Gulf of Maine (1,534 pieces per km 2 ).

However, in the subtropical gyres, plastics tend to accumulate due to converging ocean currents, and mean plastic concentrations are higher: from 20,328 pieces per km 2 in the North Atlantic Gyre , to 334,271 pieces per km 2 in the North Pacific Gyre . The Mediterranean Sea is also a global hotspot for plastics: it has around 116,000 plastics per km 2 .

We observed higher plastic concentrations close to major Australian cities (Sydney, Brisbane) and industrial centres (Karratha) as well as in remote areas where ocean currents converged (such as south-west Tasmania).

These observations, along with our ocean current modelling results, indicate that marine plastics reach Australian waters from multiple sources: domestic and international populated areas, as well as maritime operations.

Plastics, made mostly of oil and gas, are cheaper than the natural materials they replace for the manufacture of many objects, such as packaging and fishing gear.

As a result, incentives to re-use or recycle every-day items have decreased over the last few decades. Meanwhile plastic production has increased from 1,700,00 tonnes in 1950 to 280,000,000 tonnes in 2011 .

In Australia, 1,476,690 tonnes of plastics were used in 2011-2012, of which just 20.5% was recycled . Most of these plastics (around 37%) were used for manufacturing single-use disposable packaging, including plastic bottles, cups, and bags.

Marine plastic pollution is a global issue caused by our massive production of plastic waste. The solution for this recent environmental problem is not simple.

We believe there are three important steps. First, decrease plastic waste: this could be achieved by reducing production of single-use plastic packaging. Second, improve our plastic disposal practices on land at an international level. And last, better enforce the laws prohibiting dumping of plastics at sea.

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5 biggest challenges facing Australian water

World Water Day is a day we can focus our attention on the importance of water and some of the challenges faced managing Australian water catchments and supply. Water is a key driver of economic and social development, it also has a basic function in maintaining the integrity of the natural environment.

We caught up with our Hydrology and Catchment Management experts; Associate Professor Willem Vervoort , Associate Professor Thomas Bishop  and Dr Floris Van Ogtrop , from the  Sydney Institute of Agriculture  and  School of Life and Environmental Sciences ; and asked them what they thought were the 5 biggest challenges facing Australian water. Here is what they had to say:

1. Australia has the global highest variability in climate and streamflow

Australia has complex variations in rainfall patterns in time and space arising from the combination of the geographic structure and the dual effects of Indian and Pacific Ocean. Due to Australia having the global highest  variability in climate and streamflow  water management systems would benefit the most from weather forecasting. Forecasting in such variable conditions is very difficult and  knowledge about future rainfall  is important for agriculture management and planning in arid and semi-arid regions.

2. Water data is still very sparse west of the ranges or away from the coast

Despite all our efforts and investment,  data is still very sparse west of the ranges  or away from the coast, which makes forecasting and management difficult. We are working on novel solutions to integrate satellite data to fill the gaps. Australia is up there with US and Europe in public (water) data accessibility, we are big proponents of open data and increased data access.  Data driven models  are helping discover new developments in predicting water availability and quality.

3. Murray Darling Basin management has no easy solutions

The Murray Darling Basin management is very complex, there are no easy solutions. This means all solutions are negotiated in a high uncertainty environment. "Collaboration and communication between the different states and the people is the only way forward, as none of the solutions for the  Murray Darling Basin plan  are easy, and all will result in pain for some part of the community. But this also means, that the best solutions can only be achieved by negotiation, not by walking away from the process," said Associate Professor Vervoort.

4. Climate change may increase the occurrence of toxic cyanobacteria blooms

Climate change resulting in increasing temperatures and associated increased rainfall intensity will increase the occurrence and risk of eutrophication. Eutrophication is when a body of water becomes overly enriched with minerals and nutrients that induce excessive growth of plants and algae. The factors triggering cyanobacteria bloom formation are found to be especially complex. Recent PhD graduate Liz Symes, investigated the proliferation of  undesirable cyanobacteria within eutrophic freshwaters  which is now reported on a global scale.

5. Foodborne illness may be linked to source waters used for irrigation of fresh produce

Australian health authorities have confirmed the sixth person has died of listeriosis as a result of consuming contaminated rockmelons. Listeria is a bacteria that can be found in the environment including water sources. This highlights the importance of increasing our understanding of contamination in water potentially used for irrigating fresh produce. Our PhD candidate, Emily White, is currently profiling and monitoring  microbial populations in agricultural water . Her research will investigate environmental conditions that influence contamination risk in source waters.

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• Published: 18 December 2019

Australian policies on water management and climate change: are they supporting the sustainable development goals and improved health and well-being?

• Toni Delany-Crowe   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5374-296X 1 ,
• Dora Marinova 2 ,
• Matt Fisher 1 ,
• Michael McGreevy 1 &
• Fran Baum 1  

Globalization and Health volume  15 , Article number:  68 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

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Sustainable management of the natural environment is essential. Continued environmental degradation will lead to worsened health outcomes in countries and across generations. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide a framework for viewing the preservation of natural environments and the promotion of health, well-being and health equity as interconnected pursuits. Within the SDG framework the goals of promoting environmental sustainability and human health are unified through attention to the social determinants of health and health equity (SDH/HE). This paper presents findings from a document analysis of all Australian environment sector policies and selected legislation to examine whether and how current approaches support progress toward achieving SDG goals on water, climate change, and marine ecosystems (Goals 6, 13 and 14), and to consider implications for health and health equity.

Consideration of a broad range of SDH/HE was evident in the analysed documents. Related collaborations between environment and health sectors were identified, but the bulk of proposed actions on SDH/HE were initiated by the environment sector as part of its core business. Strengths of Australian policy in regard to SDGs 6, 13 and 14 are reflected in recognition of the effects of climate change, a strong cohesive approach to marine park protection, and recognition of the need to protect existing water and sanitation systems from future threats. However, climate change strategies focus predominately on resilience, adaptation and heat related health effects, rather than on more comprehensive mitigation policies. The findings emphasise the importance of strengthened cross-sectoral action to address both the drivers and effects of environmental degradation. A lack of policy coherence between jurisdictions was also evident in several areas, compounded by inadequate national guidance, where vague strategies and non-specific devolution of responsibilities are likely to compromise coordination and accountability.

Conclusions

Evidence on planetary health recognises the interconnectedness of environmental and human health and, as such, suggests that ineffective management of climate change and water pose serious risks to both the natural environment and human well-being. To address these risks more effectively, and to achieve the SDGs, our findings indicate that cross-jurisdiction policy coherence and national coordination must be improved. In addition, more action to address global inequities is required, along with more comprehensive approaches to climate change mitigation.

Human well-being is dependent upon the health of the planet. Sustainable management of the natural environment is essential to support the health and health equity of individuals and communities, and is, therefore, a necessary focus for public health efforts.

Australia currently ranks highly in terms of environmental performance globally [ 1 ]. However the Australia: State of the Environment 2016 reports emphasised that if current environmental trends continue, the Australian natural environment will have deteriorated significantly by 2050 [ 2 ]. The main pressures on the Australian environment are resulting from climate change, unsustainable land use and habitat degradation [ 2 ]. Australia is one of the world’s most resource and carbon intensive countries, contributing to depletion of finite resources and climate change [ 1 ]. The detrimental effects of climate change in Australia (including rising temperatures, fluctuating climates, and rainfall changes) are becoming increasingly evident, as is a reduction in groundwater quality [ 3 ]. Biodiversity across ecosystems is also poor and worsening [ 1 , 3 ]. Recently Australia has experienced increased drought, a decline in the numbers of pollinators, and more regular extreme storms, which undermine food production [ 2 ]. Some crops are also becoming less nutritious due to atmospheric and soil changes [ 4 ]. Rising sea levels, ongoing demand for coastal land and severe weather events increase pressure on coasts [ 3 , 5 ]. Pollution in Australian oceans is increasing, and climate change is warming and acidifying ocean waters, compromising marine ecosystem stability and diversity [ 6 ]. All of these trends also threaten human well-being, particularly by increasing the risk of natural disasters and detrimental climate changes, while potentially reducing access to clean air, safe drinking water and adequate food resources [ 2 ]. Such threats may lead to increased chronic and acute disease, particularly type 2 diabetes, obesity and overweight as well as cancers, heart disease and cardiovascular diseases, and reduced life expectancy [ 2 ]. With natural systems currently being degraded to an extent that is unprecedented in human history, both in Australia and around the world [ 7 ], there is an immediate need for action.

The United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [ 8 ] views the preservation of natural environments and the promotion of human well-being and health equity as interconnected pursuits. The Agenda consists of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets that countries across the world have committed to achieve by 2030. Achieving the goals requires countries to strike a balance in integrating social, economic and environmental pursuits. Recognition of human rights underpins the agenda, requiring partnerships between sectoral areas to ensure a standard of living for all that is adequate to sustain well-being. One of the SDGs, Goal 3, focuses explicitly on human health. However, all SDGs are interconnected, and almost all goals have some connection to the systems that influence human well-being and health equity- including governance of the natural environment [ 9 , 10 ]. Recognising the interconnections between SDGs is imperative to mobilise resources for responsible environmental stewardship that will also protect human well-being [ 9 , 11 ].

Our research critically examined Australian governments’ environment sector policies and the extent to which they do or do not address social determinants of health and health equity (SDH/HE). In this paper we draw on findings from the research to: a) examine whether and how the goals, objectives, strategies and values expressed in Australian environment sector policy and legislation documents will support action toward achieving three SDGs: 6, 13 and 14 (see Table  1 ); and b) consider the implications of such actions (or inaction) for health and health equity. The three SDGs have been selected because they are directly related to the core business of government environment departments. However, it is recognised in our research and in World Health Organisation documents on the SDGs, including the Global Action Plan: Healthy Lives and Well-being for All 2019 [ 12 ], that environmental goals (and all goals) in the SDGs have clear links to the social determinants that influence human health, well-being and equity.

The analysis that is presented in this paper applies a planetary health perspective. Planetary health recognises that human health is inseparable from the broader environments and ecosystems in which individuals and communities live [ 7 , 13 ]. This idea stems from the traditional knowledges that have been passed on within Indigenous cultures since time immemorial [ 14 ]. Planetary health views health not merely as absence of disease, but as a state of complete wellness at all levels- local, national and global [ 14 ]. In 2015 the Commission on Planetary Health offered the following definition:

the achievement of the highest attainable standard of health, wellbeing, and equity worldwide through judicious attention to the human systems—political, economic, and social—that shape the future of humanity and the Earth’s natural systems that define the safe environmental limits within which humanity can flourish. Put simply, planetary health is the health of human civilisation and the state of the natural systems on which it depends. [7, 1921].

This perspective situates human health within the context of the human made systems that are used to manage the environment. In doing so, it shifts environmental health risks, such as climate change and pollution, from being abstract forces to risks that can be understood, monitored, managed and mitigated by humans to realise positive change [ 7 ]. This dimension of planetary health justifies and encourages policy analysis as a research method because policy shapes how humans use and govern environmental resources. A planetary health perspective also asserts that humans live within a narrow “safe operating space of planetary existence” [7: 1921]. If the boundaries of that space are pushed too far, the conditions that currently sustain human well-being will be stretched beyond breaking point. This provides impetus for seeking policy change that will reduce risks to human health to fulfil an intergenerational responsibility to protect environmental systems, and allow future generations to thrive [ 7 ]. When it comes to protecting the natural environment, governments hold a lot of power and responsibility to act on behalf of the current and future generations. They exercise these through legislation but also through policies which guide action towards broader societal aims. This study analyses the policy landscape in Australia.

Interwoven throughout our policy analysis are references to neoliberalism. Miller and Orchard [ 15 ] discuss neoliberalism as an ideology that shapes public policy in Australia. Neoliberalism is based on the assumptions that sustained economic growth will have benefits that trickle down to benefit all people, and that free markets are most effective at achieving economic growth [ 15 ]. Neoliberalism also emphasises the importance of minimal state intervention in economic and social affairs [ 15 ], privileging individuals and businesses as entrepreneurial agents in generating capital and new markets. Miller and Orchard [ 15 ] argue that the neoliberal values that shape Australian policy often conflict with social democratic values, such as equity and social justice. Neoliberal politics in Australia has been characterised by the use of state institutions and resources to promote and/or protect private interests. Neoliberal ideas and values have also been used to justify the absence of strong policies on environmental protection by instead privileging narrow economic goals and pursuits. Where relevant, the concept of neoliberalism is drawn upon in this paper to illuminate some of the values that inform the policies, and that operate to shape the policy directions analysed in this paper.

The research informing this paper examined how the policies of Australian governments in the natural environment sector influence population health, well-being and health equity [ 16 ]. It was based on a document analysis of strategic policy documents from environment departments in the state/territory governments and the national government of Australia (current at September 2016). Legislative Acts were also selected where they covered an area not addressed by strategic policy. Policies and legislation documents were selected for analysis because they guide the work of government decision makers as they determine which actions will be implemented and prioritised.

Document sample

To identify the strategic policies and Acts, websites of relevant government departments in each Australian jurisdiction were searched between March and September 2016. A department was deemed relevant if it produced policy on any topic related to environmental protection or natural resource management. A list of relevant strategic policies and Acts was compiled from the website of each department. Documents were considered relevant if they were listed on the department websites at the time of the document search and appeared to still be active (i.e. not archived or superseded). Legislation was selected only if it covered areas of departmental policy that were not addressed by strategic policy from that department. The lists of policies and legislation were checked with public servants in each department to ensure currency and completeness. When additional strategic policies and legislation were suggested by public servants, these were added to the lists.

The final sample consisted of 178 strategic policies and Acts. All these documents were analysed using a coding framework that links the problem framing, values, goals, evidence, objectives and strategies stated within the documents with the various aspects of social determinants of health and health equity (SDH/HE) (see Table  2 ).

Document analysis

Qualitative document analysis was employed to create a systematic procedure for reviewing and evaluating the structure, content and implications of the documents. Qualitative document analysis requires interpretation of data to elicit meaning and develop understanding about what is present and not present in the documents, and to what effect [ 20 ].

Each strategic policy and Act was entered into NVivo 11 and read at least twice. The first read was relatively superficial, aiding researcher familiarity. This was followed by a second reading which involved closer interpretation, with a focus on coding the content according to pre-defined categories (see Table 2 ). The framing of each strategic policy and Act was examined and the goals, objectives, strategies, and values articulated throughout were assessed to determine how and whether they aligned with the intent of progressing health, well-being and equity. Explicit mentions of words associated with health did not need to appear for segments of text to be coded. Instead, text interpreted as relevant to SDH/HE was also coded, guided by the list in Table 2 .

The researchers identified silences within the strategic policies and Acts, where no aspect of the content could be coded into a particular category. Silences were also identified when the framing and goals of a particular document were inconsistent with its stated objectives and strategies, leaving some aspects relevant to health under-addressed or ignored within the proposed actions.

Peer-checking of the analysis occurred during regular team meetings between all authors, which involved collaborative re-coding and interpretation of policy segments. The implications of policy directions for population health, well-being and health equity were discussed during the meetings, as was the influence of ideology in shaping responses to environmental problems [ 21 ]. The final stage of the analysis involved checking the emerging findings against the SDG action areas to determine the extent of congruence, and identify areas where further action is required in Australian policy.

This section begins with an overview of the main topics and SDH/HE that were addressed within the analysed documents. This is followed by a more focussed presentation of key themes that emerged during the analysis relevant to SDGs 6, 13 and 14.

Australian environment policies address a broad range of topics and social determinants

The analysed documents address an extensive list of topics (see Table  3 ) clearly related to SDH/HE and indirectly or directly related to SDGs 6, 13 and 14.

Multiple links to the SDH/HE were identified in the documents during discussion of these topics, with some links made explicitly and deliberately. Analysis of the goals, objectives and strategies that surround explicit discussion of health within the documents suggests that drawing links between environment sector business and the promotion of population health assists environment departments to establish the importance of their work within the broader agendas of governments. This was particularly apparent in Victoria and South Australia with strong emphasis on the co-benefits produced by ‘ Healthy Parks, Healthy People’ initiatives:

Healthy Parks Healthy People is encapsulated in four key principles: • the wellbeing of all societies depends on healthy ecosystems. • parks nurture healthy ecosystems. • contact with nature is essential for improving emotional, physical. and spiritual health and wellbeing. • parks are fundamental to economic growth. (Parks Victoria Shaping Our Future, page 4)

Climate change was also frequently linked to well-being both explicitly and implicitly, and to a potential decline in future well-being. In most instances an explicit focus on the well-being of vulnerable groups was evident:

… climate change will have direct and indirect impacts on our health and wellbeing, particularly for vulnerable members of the community such as the elderly, those who live in remote settlements, the sick and people on low incomes. Health and community services will be affected across the state. (SA Prospering in a Changing Climate, page 8).

Most often though relationships between the SDH/HE and environment sector business were implied rather than explicit. The SDH/HE coded most frequently in the data were: built environment, climate change, education, employment, land or Country connection, open space and transport. For example, discussion of employment was prominent in policies from all jurisdictions, especially in regard to the potential benefit of “ Supporting and promoting the employment of Aboriginal staff within natural resource management” (NSW Fisheries Strategy and Implementation Plan, page 3). Fears about employment loss as a result of industry transition to cleaner fuels were directly countered by strategies to support increased employment in the renewable energy industry. Similarly, use of more ecologically sustainable waste technologies was advocated on the basis of employment generation:

… there is often a lost employment and economic opportunity in disposing resources to landfill instead of reusing them. The Government will review the Tasmanian Waste and Resource Management Strategy to incorporate actions (Embracing the climate challenge Tasmania’s climate change action plan, page 33).

During the analysis it became clear that countering such fears was one of the primary means through which the creators of the documents justified shifts in government policy away from practices that may support economic development, but damage the environment. Carefully balancing priorities appeared essential to garner support for new initiatives, because justifications based solely on the intrinsic value of environmental conservation may not have been sufficiently well aligned with governments’ neoliberalist economic agendas.

Strong emphasis on preserving safe water and sanitation, but fragmented approach

Ensuring effective management of water and sanitation in all countries is imperative to realise SDG 6, and support health [ 22 ]. In general Australian drinking water and sanitation standards are high; however, the analysis identified several pressures on the sustainability of reliable, affordable and safe service provision. These include population growth, climate change and ageing infrastructure. Governance of drinking water and sanitation systems in Australia is also complicated by the diversity of systems that exist in different jurisdictions:

Local government or local government businesses mostly provide drinking water and sewerage services, while the Queensland Government provides some bulk water supplies. While diverse in ownership, the sector also ranges in size and capacity. The largest service providers in South East Queensland service a population of more than one million people, while very small service providers serve some of the world’s most remote areas in the arid west and wet tropical north. Regardless of size and geography, every service provider needs to deliver services when, where and how they are needed by their local community. (WaterQ: a 30-year strategy for Queensland’s water sector, page 7).

Under the Australian Constitution the states/territories have ultimate responsibility for managing water resources. However, the Commonwealth government also plays a role in developing national strategies because many of the pressures facing water and sanitation supply in each jurisdiction stem from nation-wide issues. Document analysis revealed that governments in all jurisdictions recognise that strengthened, coordinated action is required to ensure a clean sustainable drinking water supply. However, the findings also suggested that current systems are at odds with this because regulatory, governance and pricing mechanisms vary greatly across jurisdictions. Furthermore, the increasing privatisation of services has resulted in a loss of some direct control by governments, further complicating governance of water and sanitation, and management of their human-health impacts.

Much of the discussion in the analysed documents pertained to water and sanitation systems in urban areas. Less attention was directed to rural and remote locations where standards are often below that of urban areas due to poorer infrastructure, remoteness and more extreme climate conditions [ 23 ]. The documents remained almost completely silent on actions to address the greater expense and lack of reliability of services in very remote parts of Australia, which disproportionately affects Aboriginal and Torres Strait Australians, further reinforcing existing social and health inequities [ 24 ].

Drought, rising salinity and rainfall changes are future threats that were discussed in the documents as more likely in Australia as a result of climate change. These factors were identified in all jurisdictions as having the potential to compromise the future quality of Australian drinking water supplies, demanding innovative solutions:

Extreme drought in the Murray-Darling Basin and the Mt Lofty Ranges has meant we can no longer use water as we have in the past – we need to be more efficient and much wiser when using our most precious resource … In future, our water supplies will feature climate-independent water through desalination. This ensures a portion of our water needs is guaranteed, despite increasing climate variability expected in future. (SA Water for Good Plan, foreword).

While climate change is an ever-present threat to water systems, the extent to which effective and innovative action will eventuate to mitigate climate change is questionable. Thus, our analysis suggests that fragmented governance of water and lack of action on climate change are key risks to Australia’s capacity to contribute to SDG 6 and ensure universal access to safe water supply, which as water is a determinant of health will also undermine achievement of SDG 3 (Achieving good health and well-being).

Climate change: considerable attention, but selective focus

In regard to SDG 13, all jurisdictions besides Queensland had policy/ies dedicated to action on climate change ( n  = 10). Furthermore, the need for action on climate change was expressed in nearly all documents ( n  = 124 of 178), even where the documents were primarily focussed on other topics. In the initial problem framing sections of the documents a broad array of climate change causes and impacts were identified:

Our climate is warming at an unprecedented rate, largely as a result of human activity, and is already 1 °C higher than it was 100 years ago … The atmosphere and oceans have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, and sea levels have risen. These changes are having, and will have, widespread impacts on human and natural systems. (ACT Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, page 8).

Much of the explicit discussion about climate change-related health impacts was on the implications of rising temperatures and heatwaves, including more frequent heat-related illnesses and an increased prevalence of vector-borne diseases. Drought was also discussed frequently, with farming communities identified specifically as a vulnerable population. Less direct pathways between climate change and determinants of human health were mentioned only sporadically across the documents. Such pathways include climate change-related psychological stress contributing to mental ill-health and health risks from more frequent or severe weather-related events, including floods, bushfire, and storms [ 4 ]. The links between climate change and increased risks for social dislocation resulting from rising sea levels in Australia and neighbouring island countries were seldom discussed. Similarly the potential for climate change to contribute to food insecurity due to water insecurity and soil quality depletion was rarely mentioned [ 4 ]. Thus we found considerable attention to climate change in Australian policy, but generally inadequate examination of the complex relationships between climate change and social determinants of health.

In addition, the analysis indicated that far greater emphasis was placed on outlining climate change risks, rather than coherent, meaningful plans for action. To illustrate this trend, data on the topic of ocean acidification (relevant to SDG 14) will now be examined.

Acidification of oceans: problem statements with few progressive mitigation strategies

Ocean acidification was identified as a concern in 17 of the documents. It was consistently linked to climate change, and explained as resulting from increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide. Acidification is problematic, particularly because it disrupts growth within marine ecosystems and impedes oceanic uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide, potentially exacerbating climate change [ 25 ]. These environmental effects have major implications for food security and climate change as SDH/HE. Despite recognition of the risks associated with acidification, and understanding of the mechanisms by which it occurs, the inclusion of strategies for action was inconsistent, with few direct actions proposed in most of the 17 documents, and responsibility deferred to other areas of sectoral/government activity.

Where strategies for action were outlined, these were usually superficial and/or a continuation of actions that have already been implemented for a significant period, despite acidification continuing to increase since those actions commenced. An example comes from the Australian Government Reef 2050 Long-Term Sustainability Plan , which establishes clear relationships between acidification, climate change and environmental decline, suggesting dire consequences:

The biggest long-term threat to coral reefs worldwide is climate change and the Great Barrier Reef is no exception. Damage to reefs as a consequence of climate change comes from ocean acidification, sea temperature increases, altered weather patterns (such as more intense storms) and rising sea levels. (page 22). Future predictions indicate sea level rises and temperature increases will continue, the pH of the ocean will gradually decline and weather will be more severe. (page 10).

The few strategies outlined to address ocean acidification in the Plan include repeated water sampling to provide “ Reef managers with information on where, when and how ocean acidification is affecting the Reef ” (page 61), and continued “ constructive participation in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol; through practical cooperation with regional partner countries; and through supporting developing countries to take actions that reduce emissions” (page 61). The Government also committed to a modest objective of reducing emissions to “ five per cent below 2000 levels by the year 2020 ” (page 61) (that is over a period of 5 years as the Plan was released in 2015). If that reduction were achieved it would represent a 19% decrease in emissions from the levels previously projected for 2020, rather than an actual decrease of 19%. As such, these strategies do not match the magnitude nor urgency of the problem of acidification that is conveyed in the problem framing statements, and their likely effectiveness in tackling further acidification, and health implications of this, is doubtful.

Resilience rather than risk mitigation: emphasis on capacity to respond to climate change

Further exacerbating concerns about the likelihood of future effectiveness in tackling climate change is an overemphasis within the documents on achieving climate change resilience . This emphasis directs attention towards strategies such as vulnerability assessments, risk identification and management, and activities to adapt to changing climates:

We will continue to build resilience to a changing climate within our natural environment and in relation to our Aboriginal and historical heritage values for future generations through: • ongoing development and implementation of tools to support decision-making including assessing climate impacts; • ongoing key research and monitoring programs; and. • regulatory activity and collaboration with stakeholders. As our understanding of actual and projected climate impacts increases we will adapt our approach accordingly. (Embracing the climate challenge Tasmania’s climate change action plan, page 16).

While Queensland did not have a dedicated climate change policy at the time of data collection, a focus on achieving climate change resilience was replicated consistently throughout policies on other topics:

This strategy will incorporate measures which contribute to the resilience of the Great Barrier Reef. In addition … A number of local governments are already preparing coastal hazard management plans and other initiatives in response to the anticipated effects of climate change. (Reef 2050 Long-Term Sustainability Plan, page 23).

A focus on resilience can contribute to actions on SDH factors such as urban form or food security to moderate health impacts of climate change. However, our findings suggest that a focus on resilience is far more dominant than strategies to mitigate climate change. This is concerning as it may limit Australia governments’ capacity to contribute to SDG 13 and channel resources away from the more difficult – but essential – task of preventing the major, multiple risks to human health that climate change presents.

Strong leadership on marine parks, but subordinance to mining interests

Consistent with SDG 14, Australia performs strongly in designating marine parks to provide for long term protection and conservation of particular ocean sites. Currently, marine parks exist in all Australian states and territories with coastal borders, covering 3.3 million square kilometres or 36% of Australia’s oceans [ 26 ]. Strict legislation was identified, with national and state/territory Acts that govern and restrict use of marine parks. All state/territory Acts indicate that they are coordinated through national legislation. This is demonstrated by a relatively cohesive approach to marine park management across Australia. Protection of marine parks can make a positive contribution to determinants of health and equity such as Indigenous people’s connection to country, the health of natural environments and food security.

Despite these strengths, analysis of the marine park Acts suggests another concerning theme: the subordinance of environmental conservation to commercial interests, particularly mining interests. A prime example is from the Western Australian Conservation and Land Management Act 1984 (page 8), which states:

nothing in this Act shall derogate from the operation of the Mining Act 1978, the Offshore Minerals Act 2003, the Petroleum and Geothermal Energy Resources Act 1967, the Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Act 1982, (or) any other Act relating to minerals or petroleum .

Such allowances have the potential to reduce Australia’s capacity to meet SDG 14 and to protect the contribution of marine parks to health.

Marine ecosystem preservation: strong understanding of the problems but reactive actions

SDG 14 advocates sustainable use of oceans to manage and mitigate the threats associated with marine pollution, resource depletion and climate change. Action is essential to prevent further pressure on marine ecosystems and the health risks related to determinants such as compromised food security, loss of employment (e.g. tourist industry), and psychological stress from damage to revered ecosystems such as the Great Barrier Reef [ 27 ].

Our analysis reflects clear recognition of the wide variety of threats to marine environments, and the mechanisms causing these threats. Threats stem from increasing coastal development and pollution of coastal waters. The policies emphasised that pollution is driven particularly by fresh-water run-off from stormwater and agricultural lands. This run-off typically contains elevated levels of sediments, pollutants and nutrients, which may slow the growth of seagrasses and other species, while promoting the growth of invasive pest species. However, strategies within the documents focus primarily on reactive actions to counter problems after they have already eventuated.

One driver for the reactive approach is that there is little evidence in the policies of meaningful intersectoral strategising between environment and agricultural departments. Within the policies discussion of the agricultural sector focusses primarily on outlining how climate change will threaten future food production, and on monitoring environmental contaminant levels in food. Furthermore, the need to preserve the health and flow of rivers to service irrigated agriculture is a key driver for three Commonwealth Government policies. The apparent lack of collaboration to change detrimental agricultural practices, limits the power of environment departments to address the root causes of current problems, instead focusing attention on efforts to manage their effects.

Furthermore, it is acknowledged that continuing degradation of coastal ecosystems will exacerbate, and be exacerbated by, climate change. However, coastal protection strategies are largely administered separately from climate change action plans.

Thus there are several ways in which the potential for Australia environment sector polices to contribute to SDG 14 and protect the role of marine ecosystems in health appears to be limited by lack of coordination between relevant areas of policy.

Balancing the human economic value of fisheries with ecosystem conservation

Preventing over-fishing is a key area of action in all jurisdictions and is fundamental to SDG 14, and also a significant factor affecting food security and health of natural environments as determinants of health. All 16 dedicated fishing related policies and Acts covered a range of issues (such as management of fish stock numbers in freshwater and ocean waterways, monitoring long term trends, development of local fisheries management plans, catch limits and fishing licenses). The documents reflected relatively consistent goals, emphasising a need to balance the interests of commercial and private fishers with ecological conservation and fish stock sustainability.

Despite some overall consistency, considerable differences were evident between jurisdictions, driven by the application of different values, about which interests should be prioritised. For example environment sector plans in the geographically small and landlocked Australian Capital Territory (ACT) referred to three primary water uses: Conservation, Water Supply, and Drainage and Open Space . Within each of these categories, a number of secondary uses were permitted provided that they were generally compatible with the primary uses. Such secondary uses included recreation (fishing, boating, swimming). Positioning fishing as a secondary use makes it less important than conservation of waterway ecosystems and biodiversity. It is important to note though because the ACT is landlocked its policies do not govern ocean fishing.

The strong emphasis on conservation in the ACT contrasts to varying extents with the value placed on preserving opportunities for fishing, economic gain and production in other jurisdictions. Although environmental sustainability is still a theme in these jurisdictions, the main focus is on sustaining environmental assets so that these can continue to be used. Fish stocks and associated ecosystems are valued primarily for the purposes of economic development, and to sustain the perceived “right” of individuals and commercial operators to fish for personal consumption or business pursuits:

The Northern Territory’s fish stocks and aquatic habitats will be managed to maintain a quality recreational fishing experience for current and future generations. (Northern Territory Recreational Fishing Development Plan 2012–2022, page 4).

Again, across the data set, few references to fishing practices, or strategies to control these, were included in climate change policies. This was surprising given the strong links between warming oceans, severe weather events, declines in fish numbers and degradation of waterways [ 28 ]. To contribute to SDG 14 and protect fisheries as important contributors to food security, Australian governments should prefer the approach of the ACT, to prioritise protection of the aquatic ecosystems that underpin sustainable fisheries.

Sporadic leadership detracts from a comprehensive national approach

Our findings indicate that weak national leadership may stifle progress towards SDGs 6, 13 and 14 and weaken environment policy action on SDH/HE. The extent to which national policy documents provide meaningful and effective national leadership is unclear for three reasons.

The Australian Government is directly responsible for few actions within national environment policies. Furthermore, most often Australian Government responsibility is contained to very specific tasks that are unlikely to prompt broad scale change, or to demonstrate leadership, for example:

Audit of existing waste infrastructure and local capability in selected remote Indigenous communities as part of essential services audit under the National Indigenous Housing Partnership. (National Waste Policy, page 15)

Responsibility for implementation in the national policies is largely devolved to state, territory and local governments. However, this generally occurs in a vague and non-specific way. For example, it is made clear that the national policies serve to “guide” or “advise” the work of other governments, or to suggest “what can we do”, rather than designating clear responsibility or accountability for action. Furthermore, in the implementation plans attached to the national policies, specific governments are usually not identified. Responsibility is most often devolved generically to “State and Territory Governments” or “All Governments”. Responsibility is also sometimes assigned to generic groups of non-government stakeholders as in the example below:

(National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy, page 57)

One exception to the generally generic attribution of responsibility is where specific natural resources are discussed, such as the Great Barrier Reef, and more specific jurisdictional designations of responsibility are made.

The wording used in the national policies is vague and left open to interpretation. Use of vague language may limit the power of the national strategies in stimulating meaningful action:

development of appropriate management and, if required, disposal strategies where appropriate … .

Continued government encouragement of best practice waste management and resource recovery for construction and demolition projects. (National Waste Policy, emphasis added)

Doubtful policy translation to action due to relative lack of evaluation and monitoring

Overall, the researchers struggled to identify detailed, consistent plans for ongoing evaluation and monitoring of policy implementation across all policies in any of the jurisdictions. Most of the policies did not explain how progress would be monitored or whether there were budgets allocated to facilitate implementation. This is likely to impede the ability of Australian governments to accurately monitor progress in addressing environmental threats to health, and in achieving SDGs 6, 13 and 14.

Australian policy has several strengths in regard to progressing SDGs 6, 13 and 14 and, simultaneously, this means action is being taken to protect and promote human health by addressing social determinants of health. However, there are weaknesses that must be addressed. Through the lens of planetary health, current themes within Australian policy will now be examined under each of the three SDGs to consider the relevant environmental and human health implications, as well as some of the socio-political dimensions of current problems. As explained earlier, presenting a forward-looking approach to understand and shift the current nexus between environmental problems and human health impacts is a core component of a planetary health lens. As such, this discussion will consider strategies for policy improvement.

SDG 6: ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all

While Australia currently has relatively high quality drinking water and sanitation systems, the water related threats to human health presented by continued environmental degradation and worsened climate change are concerning. Such threats include restricted availability of adequate, clean river flows, food insecurity and potential increases in floods and the resulting social dislocation. A planetary health perspective stresses the importance of optimising governance systems [ 14 ]. The findings highlight a need across jurisdictions for a more cohesive, coordinated national approach to preserve water and sanitation standards and offset threats. Australian governments already invest in a coordinated approach, developed and administered through the Council of Australian Governments. Under the framework of the National Water Initiative, successive governments across Australia have also been working on a water reform agenda, which has the scope to improve coordination. To protect Australia’s water supply and sanitation as determinants of health it is imperative that this type of work continue, and be sustained over the long term , resisting the damaging impacts of short-sighted political visions and jurisdictional power battles that have impeded past reform efforts [ 29 ]. Furthermore, given that the research findings show continued fragmentation in water system management across the country, work must also be undertaken to examine why this is, and how broader adoption of consistent approaches can be facilitated to optimise use of the resources being invested in the national approach. Water reform work must also address the inequalities in secure water access that have emerged between rural and metropolitan systems to ensure that the SDG aspiration of water and sanitation for all can be realised [ 23 ], and that policies on water do not exacerbate existing health inequities between city and country regions in Australia. This is particularly important to support the well-being and health equity of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people living in very remote country areas.

To build greater sustainability in Australia’s water supply, reform efforts must also acknowledge and challenge existing vested interests. A planetary health perspective encourages deep analysis of environmental management systems to consider how power manifests in ways that may compromise effective environmental management and human health improvements. The agriculture industry is a prime example of a powerful player. On average, agriculture uses 50–70% of the water consumed in Australia each year [ 30 ]. This is problematic, especially given that Australia’s water consumption per person is amongst the highest in the world, despite being the driest inhabited continent [ 31 ]. Large water withdrawals are damaging to rivers and thus likely over time to undermine the important roles that rivers have in supporting determinants of health such as food security, relationship to Country, and the health of natural environments.

Currently, the way that water is governed in Australia is not optimal. Siloed divisions of accountability and action direct responsibility for water system management to the environment sector while many of the levers for change remain unaddressed in other sectors. The relative silence on policy strategies to reduce the water consumption of the agricultural industry reflects siloed structures, but also the role of broader neoliberal government ideologies that privilege economic productivity in shaping policy responses. Many of the changes humans have made to freshwater rivers, such as diversions, and to land, such as clearing and deforestation, have occurred to support agricultural activities and other human resource production [ 31 ]. The majority of Australia’s surface water resources are also still used to service irrigated agriculture [ 31 ]. The amount of water used in agricultural production means that current, unsustainable production activities are likely to have much more impact than domestic water use. Furthermore, Australian cities only recently started to pay attention to adopting the principles of water sensitive urban design and have a long way to go before these aspirations become good practices [ 32 ]. This means that while the environment sector can impose water restrictions on private consumers and encourage water saving measures in the areas it controls, its power to conserve water remains limited. To achieve a truly sustainable approach to preserving Australia’s water resources, and protecting access to secure, affordable safe water as a determinants of health, it is, therefore, imperative that stronger synergies be achieved across environment, agricultural and urban planning policies [ 9 ].

SDG 13: take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts

Some understanding of the population health impacts of climate change on human well-being is evident in environment sector policies and so, to a degree, this reflects a planetary health perspective. Recognition of such relationships is an important step in progressing towards SDG 13. However there are areas of climate action where improvements are vital.

While Australian environment policies reflect understanding of the causes of climate change, the predominant focus remains on strategies to build community and system resilience to adapt to and accommodate these changes. It must be acknowledged that Australian mitigation strategies, in and of themselves, can have only a small impact on reducing the global greenhouse gas emissions that drive climate change. However, it is vital that all governments act to mitigate climate change, otherwise a tragedy of the commons will result. The tragedy of the commons is a situation in a shared-resources system, such as the global natural environment, where individual users act independently in pursuit of their own self-interests contrary to the common good to deplete the shared resources that all users depend on [ 33 ]. As such, a focus on resilience in Australian policy is important, but will be futile in protecting human well-being in Australia or globally without concurrent, strong action to mitigate climate change [ 34 ].

The findings of this study suggest that both the siloed organisation of policy and the strong economic focus of governments limit the power of the environment sector to deliver mitigation strategies. Given that decision making in all departments influences climate change, and that climate change is an increasingly influential determinant of human health globally [ 35 ], it does not make sense for action on climate change to be regarded only or primarily as environment sector business. Instead it should be positioned as whole-of-government business, with mandated and genuine collaboration across all sectors to halt environmental degradation and reduce greenhouse gas emissions [ 9 ]. Such a whole-of-government approach can be overseen by a central agency, with particular actions delegated to specific agencies across governments. This approach also offers the potential for more effective integration of a social determinants of health lens across policy areas.

Achieving a whole-of-government approach to climate change will necessitate clear and consistent articulation of the links between climate change and the broader agendas (particularly the economic imperatives) of neoliberal governments [ 34 ]. It will also involve utilising the collaborative intent of the SDG framework as a basis for building innovative and strong partnerships between governments, civil society and willing private sector partners, who can work together to use relevant technologies and build capacity [ 9 , 36 ].

The public health sector of governments could assist by mobilising a planetary health agenda and re-orientating understandings of climate change as an ‘environmental issue’ to understanding of it as a whole-of society issue with major implications for human health [ 30 ]. This could be best done by offering effective, realistic and sustainable solutions for combating global warming, and supporting these with evidence and argument about the value of such measures for health and health equity. Focussing only on problems without also providing feasible strategies for effective change may be counterproductive by representing current environmental problems as bleak and unresolvable [ 34 ] and by underestimating the role Australia can play within this global agenda. Furthermore, the potential for whole-of-society benefit should be articulated, emphasising how human well-being and equity for all can be optimised through effective and well-coordinated mitigation action [ 9 ].

Another issue raised by the research is that currently climate change problem framings and resilience strategies direct disproportionate emphasis to populations living in vulnerable circumstances. Such emphasis is justified to an extent. People in vulnerable circumstances, such as low income earners and Indigenous peoples, are already more likely to experience ill-health and reduced life expectancy in Australia and around the world [ 4 ]. Climate change will worsen living conditions, and disproportionally affect those without good access to supportive systems and infrastructure, further compounding disadvantage [ 4 ]. Furthermore, there are groups for whom climate change effects will be particularly devastating; this includes farmers who suffer greatly during drought, flood and extreme temperatures as well as people living near the coast, whose homes may become inhabitable as a result of rising sea levels. However, the current emphasis on groups living in particular circumstances in policy encourages the perception that impacts will be largely restricted to these groups. This is not true as climate change will affect health and well-being across all population groups [ 34 ]. Therefore, those seeking to influence the debate about climate change and health must emphasise its broad impact, further appealing to the need for action from all sectors. Given the power of economics in influencing governance models, quantifying the likely costs of inaction in all sectors, and contrasting these costs with the enormous public health dividends of more effective reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and natural-resource management could offer an effective strategy [ 34 ].

SDG 14: conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development

A strength of current Australian policy is ongoing commitment to the preservation of protected areas, including marine parks. Evidence on planetary health indicates that maintaining protected areas is essential to preserve biodiversity within marine ecosystems, increase fish numbers and support employment in strong nature based tourism industries [ 37 ]. However, outside of protected areas, current management approaches are concerning.

Policy and legislative control of fishing and ocean use in Australia is fragmented. Australia is already experiencing dwindling populations of some fish species that are caught for consumption and sale [ 6 ]. This is affecting the ecological balance of marine environments. On a global scale, similar problems exist, evidenced by a consistent decline in overall fish stocks and biodiversity during at least the past three decades [ 38 ]. This suggests that the predominant neoliberal values expressed in Australian ocean fishing policies, which prioritise economic interests and a perceived right to fishing over conservation [ 13 ], outside of designated marine parks are not supporting progress towards SDG 14, and may undermine sustainable fisheries contribution to food security as a determinant of health. Our findings suggest a need for stronger national leadership in this area, similar to that provided when marine parks were established, in order to offer strict controls over fisheries. Controls should aim to preserve existing stocks, and prevent further declines. A nationally coordinated approach to governing fishing would need to include multiple sectors, and to incorporate actions to protect natural resources from unfettered commercial interests. A more integrated approach is essential since fish populations are strongly influenced by the overall health of marine ecosystems, and these are currently threatened by various human activities apart from fishing [ 6 , 26 ].

Fish should also be managed as part of the ecosystems in which they live, rather than being treated in isolation. An ecosystem-based approach goes beyond static catch quotas and involves continuous and responsive management to ensure that ecosystems can respond to climate change threats, and that all components of marine environments can be supported to flourish [ 28 ]. SDG 14 advocates for an expansion of research and monitoring to support conservation of marine environments. While regular monitoring is currently supported and resourced in many relevant areas of environmental management, such as monitoring of ocean acidification, this generally does not result in the monitoring of all components of an ecosystem in a way that recognises their intrinsic interconnections. Furthermore, resourced commitment to monitoring and evaluating the success of Australia’s own policy actions appears weak. More evaluation will show whether current policy action in Australia is proving effective in offsetting environmental risks before they translate into worsened human health, and create irreparable, widespread degradation of the environmental systems upon which human life relies.

A planetary health perspective also positions Australia’s responsibility to develop effective marine ecosystem management within a global context. The SDG framework highlights the interconnected nature of decisions made in countries around the world, emphasising shared accountability for positive change. Recognising the global health and health equity implications that will result from poor management of marine ecosystems and climate change mitigation highlights Australia’s obligation to address these issues effectively as a responsible global citizen. For example, food security as a determinants of health in many low-latitude low income nations is dependent on seafood [ 39 ]. Over the past three decades though, the worst declines in fish stocks have been in lower-latitude, low income nations [ 39 ]. Continued ocean warming is likely to drive remaining fish and shellfish species from low to high latitudes, potentially reducing fish catch even further in these regions, and globally by up to 30% by 2050 [ 25 , 28 ]. Reductions in water oxygen levels and ocean warming mean that fish are also likely to get smaller in size, and coral reefs (essential for fish breeding and tourism) will be further degraded [ 28 ]. The implications of these trends are likely to hit low and middle income countries hardest [ 4 ]. Wealthy nations like Australia have compensated for declining fish stocks through intensive aquaculture production, by importing seafood from low and middle income nations at relatively low cost and by developing vitamin supplements [ 39 ]. Low income countries have fewer alternatives to make up for the shortfalls in population access to dietary nutrients, however, particularly as increased exports from these countries to wealthier nations are depleting fish stocks [ 39 ]. Imported fish and vitamin supplements are usually expensive, limiting access for those living in low income nations. As a result, communities are often forced to rely on what they can source locally and, increasingly, on less-nutritious processed foods [ 39 ]. We argue that high income countries, such as Australia, have an obligation to preserve their own local resources, to limit the export demand on low and middle income nations, and to take proactive action to reduce their impact on global marine ecosystems to prevent a worsening of global health inequities – now and in the future.

Limitations of this study

This study conducted a census of all relevant policy documents and selected legislation to generate a comprehensive view of the environment policy landscape in all Australian jurisdictions. However, this approach has some limitations. To ensure a census of policy documents, data collection had to be bounded by set time periods. This meant that new documents could not be analysed as they were released or as policy directions changed. In addition, while the content of policy documents and legislation have a strong influence on the implementation activities of governments, these are not the only documents that influence government activity, and in some instances only parts of policies and legislation will be implemented by governments. As such, a more comprehensive understanding of government intent in the environment sector could be derived from also studying implementation activity and budget allocations. However, this was outside the scope of the current project. The authors also acknowledge that further insights into the topic of this paper could be gleaned from studying policies from all government sectors to determine what actions are being taken in all policy portfolios. The broader research from which this paper is drawn focussed on policies from four sectors (environment, justice, urban planning and energy), and also considered whole-of-government strategies (such as strategic plans) where these included goals related to the sectors of interest. However, government actions beyond this were not examined during the research. Furthermore, the design of the study did not allow direct evaluation of the population well-being impacts of policy interventions, instead links between the content of the documents and population health and equity were theorised by the researchers using existing literature and theoretical perspectives.

The social determinants of health and the SDGs are intimately connected [ 12 ]. This paper has presented an analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of Australian environment sector policy in the pursuit of SDGs 6, 13 and 14, and in addressing social determinants of health to protect and promote human health equitably. We identified some strengths, including recognition of the importance of acting on climate change, the strict control of designated conservation areas and recognition of the need to preserve water and sanitation systems in the context of future threats.

However, a lack of comprehensive frameworks to address all drivers of climate change, and weaknesses in the management of waterways and marine ecosystems, still pose serious risks to the future of the natural environment and human well-being. While it is clear that promising policy directions are being pursued in several jurisdictions of Australia, current environmental risks are being compounded by weak national leadership. To address these risks more effectively, and to achieve the SDGs, our findings indicate that policy coherence across sectors and national coordination must be improved. In particular, a more comprehensive intersectoral approach to climate change mitigation is essential, which must acknowledge the interconnections between all elements of ecosystems, and be supported by cost-benefit analyses. An emphasis on the risks of climate change must also be accompanied by practical strategies for change, emphasising how climate change mitigation can improve quality of life for all.

Action to restore biodiversity and prevent further degradation will require major long term reinvestments to reverse environmental deterioration. This will necessitate political commitment to a vision of a sustainable and health-enhancing natural environment. Planetary ill-health is in part a product of the neoliberal ideology that dominates policy in Australia. This ideology creates policies that emphasise short-term economic interests, at the expense of protection for the natural environment. Shifting this focus and respecting the interconnectedness of human well-being and the natural environment is essential to progress the cohesive social agenda that underpins the SDGs, and, ultimately, will be vital to sustain human life on Planet Earth.

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the contribution of Professor Colin MacDougall, Professor Dennis McDermott and Dr. Patrick Harris who advised on the research design, guided the conduct of the broader research and contributed sectoral-based expertise. Emily Riley also assisted with data collection and analysis.

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This research project has been approved by the Flinders University Social and Behavioural Research Ethics Committee (project number 7176). The results in the paper are drawn from a document analysis, so consent for participation was not relevant here.

This work was supported by the Australian Research Council (ARC) (Grant: DP160100244).

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TDC led the writing of this paper and managed the data collection and analysis. DM provided theoretical and conceptual guidance and critically reviewed drafts of the paper. FB and MF co-designed the study, assisted with interpreting the research findings and critically reviewed drafts of this paper. MM undertook some of the data analysis and critically reviewed paper drafts.

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Delany-Crowe, T., Marinova, D., Fisher, M. et al. Australian policies on water management and climate change: are they supporting the sustainable development goals and improved health and well-being?. Global Health 15 , 68 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-019-0509-3

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• ENVIRONMENT

Failing Rains and Thirsty Cities: Australia’s Growing Water Problem

Australia is a country on the brink of a water crisis. Understanding why water is scarce and where the water goes will be crucial to keeping Australia’s taps flowing as its population grows.

A koala bear lounges in a eucalyptus tree, lazily chewing leaves in a scene as Australian as one can imagine. But then the koala does something unusual: it climbs down the tree to drink water from a pool. Normally, koalas get nearly all their water from their food, and researchers have linked this new behavior to climate change. Australia is getting hotter and drier, the eucalyptus leaves are less succulent, and now koalas need to drink extra water to survive. It’s a change that seems to reflect a growing awareness among Australians that they need to be more proactive about securing their fresh water.

Straddling the Tropic of Capricorn, Australia’s climate ranges from a tropical north to a temperate south but the vast bulk of its three million square miles is hot and dry. Central Australia’s immense ‘outback’ is made up of semi-arid bush and deserts where temperatures can soar above 50°centigrade and it might not rain for years. This makes Australia the world’s driest inhabited continent—and it’s getting drier. Its average annual rainfall is around 470mm a year, well below the global average, and predictions linked to climate change suggest this could halve again in coming decades. What rain that does fall varies greatly from year to year and is concentrated along the north and east coasts: while most of Australia receives as little as 600mm of rain each year, half the country gets less than 300mm.

2018 was particularly dry, 11% below the recorded mean for 1961-1990 at under 413mm. However, across the continent, Australia’s rainfall is exceptionally varied and individual states felt the effects to different degrees. While Tasmania retained its very wet average with 1,389mm of rain, and Western Australia actually had 10% more rain than usual, other states suffered. The Northern Territory received 7% below average rainfall and Queensland 15% below average; Victoria was 26% below its mean rainfall and South Australia was 24% below with an average rainfall of just 171mm. But it was New South Wales that was among the hardest hit, with its average annual rainfall down 40% on the mean, bringing a devastating drought and severe restrictions across the state.

Australia’s exceptional aridity is the result of a unique combination of factors. Cold ocean currents off the west coast means there is little evaporation to form rainclouds, while the Great Dividing Range that runs down Australia’s east coast prevents rain from penetrating far inland. There are few mountains to force air upwards where it can cool into rain, and the region is dominated by the subtropical high-pressure belt that both warms and dries the air. What’s more, the continent is extremely susceptible to the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, a heating or cooling of the Pacific Ocean that can bring prolonged periods of high temperatures and drought.

From 1996 to 2010 the Millennium Drought scorched much of southern Australia. Its effects were acutely felt in the agricultural heartland of the Murray-Darling basin and in the densely populated southeast and southwest. Major cities including Perth, Adelaide, Canberra, Sydney, Brisbane, and even Tasmania’s famously wet state capital of Hobart, experienced serious water shortages—Melbourne’s water storage dropped to 33%. But more rain isn’t always the answer. Australia’s floods can be equally extreme with tropical cyclones and storms bringing intense bursts of rainfall that overwhelm drainage systems and cause devastating damage. This January, a monsoon strengthened by a low-pressure system flooded Townsville in Queensland with 1.4 meters of rain in two weeks—twice as much as London gets in a year.

For Hungry Minds

Human activity has made matters worse. Widespread deforestation has intensified flooding while also increasing the salinity of the soil so that the water flowing through it becomes brackish—unchecked this could damage millions of hectares of agricultural land. The overgrazing of sheep and cattle, key economic exports, has been a major factor in desertification with vegetation loss leading to a loss of usable water. Until recently farmers were allowed to draw unchecked amounts of water from rivers causing silting, salination, and fierce disputes between competing users. Similarly, groundwater sources such as aquifers have been used up faster than they can be naturally replenished, especially in the arid interior, so that they are now having to be actively refilled with treated wastewater.

Such restorative schemes could prove crucial as Australia’s demand for water rises rapidly. Already one of the world’s thirstiest countries, per capita water consumption averages 100,000 liters per person and the next thirty years will see its population boom by a further 40%. This is important because Australians consume 340 liters of water per person per day. Of this, outdoor use is particularly heavy, accounting for nearly half of household consumption through car washing, hosing driveways, and using garden sprinklers at around 1,000 liters per hour. While many Australians are increasingly water aware, Sydney has cut its average daily use by 200 liters per person since 1990, further water savings will be vital to minimize future water stress.

A key factor will be Australia’s unusual population concentration with 80% living in a few large coastal conurbations. This brings the potential for significant water efficiencies through integrated infrastructure ranging from wastewater recycling to huge desalination plants. However, move away from the coastal cities and access to fresh water becomes more problematic. Many rural households rely on rainwater or bore water which is often tainted by its high mineral content. These local supplies are dwindling and increasingly need to be supplemented by purchasing tankers of freshwater or, where finances allow, laying pipelines for long-distance water transfer schemes to sustain larger towns.

Farming remains by far the biggest drain on Australia’s water supply at nearly 70% of the water footprint. Half of Australia’s agricultural profits comes from irrigated farming which is concentrated in the Murray-Darling Basin. Here, extensive over-extraction forced government intervention during the Millennium Drought with severe water restrictions that saw cotton production quartered, meat production halved, and rice farming stopped almost entirely. This has led to much tighter regulations and ongoing investment in more efficient irrigation schemes. Meanwhile, although industry only uses 16% of Australia’s water footprint, water-heavy industries such as mining are on the rise, especially in the arid interior.

For now, Australia may have sufficient freshwater to meet its needs but the unreliability of its rainfall, the uncertainty of climate change, and the difficulties of supplying fast-growing cities and isolated rural communities poses problems. With river flows expected to drop by 10- 25% within ten years, pressure on Australia’ water systems will grow as demand from population rises. To ensure its water security Australia must continue to adapt—people, as well as koalas, will need to change their behaviors to get the water they need.

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16 Water Pollution Facts and Statistics in Australia: 2024 Update

• Last updated: Mar 09 2024

Note: This article’s statistics come from third-party sources and do not represent the opinions of this website.

Australia is the sixth largest country in the world in terms of area. They have a wide variety of different environments and ecosystems, including rivers, oceans, lakes, mountains, and deserts. These diverse areas are all connected by the water cycle. The unpopulated arid centers of Australia are connected to the densely urban centers on the coasts, which are, in turn, connected to the oceans themselves. What does all of that mean for Australia’s water pollution? Australia has a good track record when it comes to water pollution but not a perfect one.

Here are sixteen facts and statistics about Australia’s water pollution updated for this year.

The 16 Water Pollution Facts and Statistics for Australia

• Australia manages a marine ecosystem that extends over 13 million square kilometers .
• Australia manages the third largest marine ecosystem in the world , and 85% of Australians live within 100 km of a marine environment.
• Australia has one of the cleanest beaches in the world at Fraser Island Beach.
• Australia also has one of the dirtiest beaches in the world at Port Phillip Bay.
• Australian marine waters are contaminated with roughly 4,000 pieces of plastic per square kilometer .
• Large scale urban expansion has caused widespread pollution in Australia’s southeastern estuaries.
• Marine habitat alteration includes the death of kelp forests, bleaching of coral ecosystems, and increased rates of mortality among the local wildlife.
• The Australian Department of Climate Change, Energy, Environment and Water is working on serious pollution issues such as ballast water, toxic antifoulants, introduced marine pests, pollution from shipping operations, and marine debris.
• Australia has the 25th cleanest drinking water in the world.
• Australia has 144 documented incidents of groundwater contamination
• Australia is very dry, and many inland communities rely heavily on groundwater for drinking water and agricultural water.
• Contaminated water can lead to health issues for citizens.
• Large bushfires can cause groundwater pollution by causing effusive runoff in dry areas.
• Flooding can also contaminate groundwater by washing large amounts of toxins and chemicals into the aquifer.
• Contaminated groundwater can have severe economic impacts , including increased healthcare costs and decreases in agricultural productivity.
• Contaminated groundwater can also damage local ecosystems with polluted runoff and mixing.

Australia General Marine Facts

1. australia manages a marine ecosystem that extends over 13 million square kilometers..

(Earth Reminder)

Australia is a country that doubles as a continent. Australia is entirely surrounded by ocean water, and it is responsible for managing this massive coastline. The shoreline, coastline, islands, and offshore waters all fall under the responsibility of the Australian government to manage and observe. Australia has the seventh longest coastline in the world.

2. Australia manages the third largest marine ecosystem in the world, and 85% of Australians live within 100 km of a marine environment.

Australia’s massive coastline creates the third largest marine ecosystem in the world that is managed by a single country. The size of this marine ecosystem is important because the vast majority of Australians live near the coast. The dry interior of the country is largely unpopulated compared to the coasts. That means that millions of Australians are directly affected by the health of the oceans under Australia’s care.

3. Australia has one of the cleanest beaches in the world at Fraser Island Beach.

(The Travel)

Australia’s coastline is home to one of the cleanest beaches in the world at Fraser Island. Fraser Island is located in northeastern Australia and represents Australia’s water quality at its best. The beaches are immaculate, and the freshwater sources on the island feature some of the cleanest water on Earth. Fraser Island is an example of what Australia is striving to achieve with all of its water sources.

4. Australia also has one of the dirtiest beaches in the world at Port Phillip Bay.

Unfortunately, Australia is also home to one of the dirtiest beaches in the world. The beaches around Port Phillip Bay are particularly vulnerable to pollution. The bay is large, enclosed, and shallow. Those features make it easy for bacteria and pollution to build up and infect nearby beaches. Port Phillip Bay is influenced by pollution from the nearby city of Melbourne.

Australia Marine Pollution Statistics

5. australian marine waters are contaminated with roughly 4,000 pieces of plastic per square kilometer..

(The Conversation)

A recent study examined the particulate matter collected while trawling the surface of Australia’s ocean water and found an abundance of small plastic pieces. Many of the plastic particles were 5 mm or less in diameter. That makes them extremely small. These small pieces of plastic can settle on marine wildlife on the ocean floor, like coral and kelp. It can also be ingested by wildlife causing ill health effects. These plastics are a result of land-based pollution along with economic marine activities like shipping and fishing.

6. Large scale urban expansion has caused widespread pollution in Australia’s southeastern estuaries.

(Frontiers)

One problem spot for Australia’s water pollution has been its southeastern estuaries. These estuaries include mangrove patches, coastal streams, and shallow offshore waters. These estuaries have been degrading in quality over the past few years. Researchers have highlighted the recent population growth and expansion in the region as one of the main culprits of the rise in estuary pollution. Construction and home waste can cause contaminated runoff to infect the shallow estuary waters.

7. Marine habitat alteration includes the death of kelp forests, bleaching of coral ecosystems, and increased rates of mortality among the local wildlife.

The increased pollution in these estuaries and other offshore habitats has caused severe alterations to the natural environment. As pollution increases, it causes the health of the ecosystem to diminish. Pollution kills kelp, small mammals, fish, and coral. As these living things die prematurely, it affects the cycle of life that has naturally been occurring in these areas for thousands, if not millions, of years.  This can cause a negative feedback loop that can tank the health of an ecosystem for years and can cause irreparable damage.

8. The Australian Department of Climate Change, Energy, Environment, and Water is working on serious pollution issues such as ballast water, toxic antifoulants, introduced marine pests, pollution from shipping operations, and marine debris.

(The Australian Department of Climate Change, Energy, Environment)

In order to tackle these problems, the Australian Department of Climate Change, Energy, Environment, and Water is working with multiple international agencies to decrease rates of marine pollution. Some of the things they’re working on decreasing include antifoulants which are chemicals used to clean the bottom of boats and ships. They are attempting to reduce the rate of invasive marine pests invading local ecosystems and increasing the mortality rate of native species. They are also working on tackling marine debris, like the microplastics that have been found in Australia’s waters.

Australia Groundwater Pollution Statistics

9. australia has the 25th best water quality in the world..

(World Population Review)

Australia has the 25th highest water quality in the world. That puts it in the 88th percentile worldwide for quality drinking water. Australia ranks ahead of countries like the United States, New Zealand, and Portugal. Australia trails countries like Canada, Belgium, and the United Kingdom in terms of overall water quality.

10. Australia has 144 documented incidents of groundwater contamination incidents.

(Groundwater pollution in Australian regional aquifers)

Australia has had its fair share of groundwater contamination incidents. These incidents have had stark local effects, but the larger incidents have contaminated entire regions. Groundwater contamination largely comes from agricultural runoff and industrial waste. Australia has a large mining economy, and mining causes a lot of groundwater pollution due to heavy metal runoff.

11. Australia is very dry, and many inland communities rely heavily on groundwater for drinking water and agricultural water.

(Department of Health and Aged Care)

Certain regions of Australia, especially arid and inland regions, are particularly vulnerable to groundwater pollution. Since Australia is so dry, many communities rely heavily on groundwater for their needs. Many rural Australians tap into the aquifer for drinking water, livestock water, and crop water. That makes all of these things vulnerable to polluted groundwater.

12. Contaminated water can lead to health issues for citizens, including (but not limited to) cancer, intestinal issues, and cardiovascular problems.

The effects of contaminated groundwater can be severe. Prolonged exposure to dirty or contaminated drinking water can lead to cancer, gut problems, and heart issues. That means that the health of many Australians is directly linked to the health of their drinking water. That makes drinking water health and safety extremely important for the population and the economy.

13. Large bushfires can cause groundwater pollution by causing effusive runoff in dry areas.

Brush fires are causing an increase in groundwater contamination. Brush fires cause large streams of muddy soot to flow into the aquifer. These streams can contain dead animals, chemicals from the local soil, and increased amounts of particulate matter. All of that will eventually make its way into the groundwater after a fire. Brush fires are also becoming larger and more frequent, according to the Australian government.

14. Flooding can also contaminate groundwater by washing large amounts of toxins and chemicals into the aquifer.

Flooding is also causing an increase in groundwater contamination. Like brushfires, flooding causes large amounts of runoff that pick up toxins and pollutants. Flooding in urban areas causes higher rates of pollution than flooding in rural areas. Flooding can take waste, garbage, oil, and chemicals from roadways and carry them into the groundwater system. Australia has been racked by serious flooding in 2022, and this flooding is causing an increased rate of groundwater pollution. The final severity and damage from the 2022 floods in Australia have yet to be determined since it is an ongoing event.

15. Contaminated groundwater can have severe economic impacts, including increased healthcare costs and decreases in agricultural productivity.

(Geosciences Australia)

These increased rates of groundwater pollution can have a large economic effect on the local population. Dirty groundwater can lead to dirty drinking water, which can lead to adverse health effects. Poor health puts a larger strain on hospitals, insurance companies, and worker productivity. Contaminated groundwater can also affect agricultural areas as dirty water hinders plant growth and can sicken livestock. All of that adds up to money taken out of the economy.

16. Contaminated groundwater can also damage local ecosystems with polluted runoff and mixing.

Unfortunately, groundwater runoff can also hurt local water sources. Dirty groundwater ends up in rivers, streams, and lakes. That water can then flow to the sea and contaminate shallow estuaries, like the ones ailing in southeastern Australia. The pollutants in groundwater runoff will then start to affect other freshwater sources over time if the problem is not addressed.

Frequently Asked Questions

Does australia have clean water.

Australia does have relatively clean water. Australia has the 25th cleanest drinking water in the world, which is in the 88th percentile. However, Australia does have room for improvement. In terms of overall water quality, Australia has some problem spots, like any developed nation, but the water is safe to drink, and they do not have any ongoing health emergencies connected to poor drinking water. Australia is suffering from increased groundwater contamination from recent natural disasters and estuary degradation due to increased urban development.

Is Australia a Major Ocean Polluter?

No. Australia is not a major source of ocean pollution. Many nations to Australia’s north, including India, China, and Indonesia, are some of the world’s worst ocean polluters. The plastics being put into the oceans to Australia’s north break down and are carried to other parts of the world on ocean currents. That pollution affects Australia’s waters, but Australia is not the main culprit of ocean plastic contamination, especially nearby ocean plastic contamination.

This passive ocean pollution from nearby nations is one of the reasons that Australia’s government is working diligently with international agencies to try and curb local and international ocean pollution.

Is Water Pollution in Australia Going to Get Better or Worse in the Near Future?

The outlook on Australia’s water pollution is mixed. On the one hand, there are determined efforts underway by the government to study and curb current water pollution in and around Australia. On the other hand, Australia is suffering from increased rates of flooding and brush fires. According to the Australian government, these increases are due to the effects of climate change, and those are not going to decrease in the near future. If Australia continues to be subjected to large-scale cyclical flooding and large brush fires, it will struggle to get a hold of the groundwater pollution issues.

It is impossible to stop or prevent massive flooding or brush fires, so Australia’s hands are tied in those respects. Instead, they will have to work on understanding and mitigating the effects of these natural disasters on their groundwater supply and adapt accordingly.

Australia has a good track record when it comes to water pollution but not a great one. It has room to improve the quality of its drinking water. It also continues to battle ocean pollution coming in from other major world polluters that are infecting its massive marine ecosystem. But Australia is aware of the issues they are facing and are taking steps to study and mitigate the problems to the best of its ability.

• Earth Reminder
• The Conversation
• Australian Department of Climate Change, Energy, Environment and Water
• World Population Review
• Groundwater pollution in Australian regional aquifers
• Department of Health and Aged Care
• Geosciences Australia
• World Atlas

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• Privacy policy

Water quality

Water quality guidelines.

The Australian and New Zealand guidelines for fresh and marine water quality are a joint initiative of the Australian and New Zealand governments, in partnership with the Australian states and territories. The objective of the guidelines is to provide authoritative guidance on the management of water quality in Australia and New Zealand. The guidance includes setting objectives for water quality and sediment quality designed to sustain current, or likely future, community values for natural and seminatural water resources.

In 2018, the Australian Government Department of the Environment released the updated and online guidelines ( DAWR 2018 ) ; the series of updated documents allows for more flexibility in how they are used.

To protect the community values of waterways, the Water Quality Management Framework encompasses key requirements for long-term management strategies (Figure 30):

• good understanding of links between human activity and water and sediment quality
• clearly defined community values or uses, including the setting of unambiguous management goals
• clearly identified and appropriate objectives for water and sediment quality
• adoption of cost-effective strategies to achieve water and sediment quality objectives.

Source: DAWR (2017)

The Water Quality Management Framework lists the steps for planning and managing water quality or sediment quality:

• Examine current understanding.
• Define community values and management goals.
• Define relevant indicators.
• Determine water and sediment quality guideline values.
• Define draft water and sediment quality objectives.
• Assess if draft water and sediment quality guidelines are met.
• Consider additional indicators or refine water and sediment quality objectives.
• Consider alternative management strategies.
• Assess if water and sediment quality objectives are achievable.
• Implement agreed management strategy.

One of the updated guidelines supports the development of principles and guidance to preserve and enhance cultural and spiritual values in water planning. Ideally, appropriate upfront and ongoing engagement of relevant Indigenous people is a key element of the process, particularly with regard to ensuring the proper identification, prioritisation and consideration of cultural and spiritual values throughout the water quality planning process (Figure 31). However, these principles have not yet been implemented.

Effective communication with Indigenous people must be based on an understanding of their frame of reference – that is, a holistic approach, with people and all aspects of the environment interconnected. This differs from the usual approach of splitting natural resources management into smaller components, such as water quantity and water quality. To achieve effective communication, this difference must be addressed and, therefore, water quality planning must be linked with:

• the broader management of the landscape, including water allocation planning, natural resources management, environmental protection, sustainable agriculture and land use, and development controls
• day-to-day management of land and marine activities by Indigenous people, other community members, agricultural and other industries, and government land managers
• cultural, economic, social and spiritual considerations that are fundamental to supporting the maintenance and development of Indigenous culture.

Source: DAWR (2018)

In many parts of Australia, soils, surface water and groundwater have a high salt content due to the dry climate and highly weathered landscape. Across Australia, dryland and irrigated agriculture, and clearing of native, perennial vegetation have changed the catchment water balance. These changes in landscapes increase the mobilisation of highly soluble salts from saline aquifers or shallow water tables into streams. This unnatural increase in salinity can present a risk to aquatic ecosystems and vegetation health ( Boulton et al. 2014 ) .

Within the Murray–Darling Basin and in several other areas in Australia, salinity is increasingly managed and monitored through the implementation of jurisdictional Land and Water Management Plans that include water quality. These plans can provide a framework for setting salinity objectives and targets, as well as for developing on-ground measures to improve salinity conditions. Such measures include providing adequate water flows, investing in revegetation, improving irrigation and dryland farming practices, and implementing salt interception schemes that minimise the movement of salts.

To support water quality management and planning, an Australian Government initiative has created the Water Quality Australia website in partnership with state and territory governments. The website provides tools and resources to guide water managers; researchers; industry; and state, territory and local governments in developing and implementing water quality plans and strategies.

Streamflow salinity concentrations determine the suitability of water for various uses (e.g. drinking, irrigation). They can also be an indication of impacts on ecosystems. The broad salinity categories for which water is considered fit for various uses are based on the guidelines provided by the National Health and Medical Research Council ( NHMRC & NRMMC 2011 ) (Table 4).

mg/L = milligrams per litre

Salinity levels vary by region. For example, southern Western Australian streams are naturally more saline than streams in northern Australia and along the eastern divide, where greater rainfall dilutes salt concentrations. In addition, in some areas, the natural salinity has been exacerbated by secondary salinisation such as that caused by irrigation.

Despite the very-low-rainfall conditions that persisted from 2017, the percentage of sites across Australia for each saline category only showed small changes (Table 5; Figure 32). Salinity increased at individual sites, but this did not affect the saline category in which the sites fell. In general, the sites with fresh median water salinities are mostly located in areas with high rainfall along the east coast. In contrast, streams in Western Australia had higher water salinities. Almost three-quarters of the sites in Western Australia were brackish or saline. In South Australia, about a quarter of the sites were brackish or saline.

mg/L = milligrams per litre; TDS = total dissolved solids

Sources: BOM (2018c), BOM (2019c), BOM (2020d), BOM (2021c)

Eutrophication and suspended sediments

Eutrophication (excess nutrients in water) is a naturally occurring phenomenon, which is intensified by human activities such as clearing of land, application of fertilisers and dumping of industrial waste. The effects of eutrophication on Australia’s rivers have been increasing since 1991 when more than 1,000 kilometres (km) of the Baaka/Barka – Darling River were affected by an algal bloom that killed hundreds of sheep and cattle, and caused human health impacts. Since then, 4 similar algal blooms have occurred in the Murray, in 2007, 2009, 2010 and 2016 ( Baldwin 2016 ) . Between December 2018 and January 2019, 3 significant fish deaths occurred in the Baaka/Barka-Darling River, and algal blooms caused by eutrophication were identified as one of the major causes of the death of more than 1 million fish ( Vertessy et al. (2019) ; see Menindee Lakes ).

The burning of an area of more than 170,000 square kilometres (km 2 ) during the 2019–20 bushfires has heightened the potential for development of algal blooms and hypoxic blackwater. Burning of large areas of forest has produced ash-enriched soils, which are highly erodible and will run off into dams and rivers during large rainfall events. The organic carbon in the ash biodegrades in the water, causing deoxygenation and hypoxic blackwater events. Although burned catchments are a major cause of hypoxic blackwater events, such events also occur when flooding washes organic matter such as leaves into rivers. Hypoxic blackwater events can occur in any lowland river system; however, numerous hypoxic blackwater events have occurred in the Murray–Darling Basin during the past decade.

Between October 2019 and May 2020, more than 65 fish death events occurred across the Murray–Darling Basin as a result of run-off from bushfire-affected catchments. Given that early beneficial effects of reforestation of catchments will take several years to be realised, these events will continue.

Source: MDBA Water Quality Advisory Panel, February 2021

Lake Hume is located near Albury (New South Wales)–Wodonga (Victoria) and is the main operating storage of the River Murray system, supplying water for irrigators, cities and towns, and environmental purposes.

During the 2019–20 bushfires, approximately 32% of the Lake Hume catchment was severely burned, making it highly susceptible to increased mobilisation of sediment, ash, nutrients and other contaminants following rainfall events.

In February 2021, significant rainfall was recorded across the bushfire-affected areas of the upper Murray, resulting in run-off containing large amounts of ash, sediment and debris. It also contained large amounts of dissolved organic carbon, iron, manganese and nutrients.

With seasonally warmer temperatures, this material triggered biological and chemical processes within Lake Hume that saw development of a significant layer of water with very low dissolved oxygen.

Across the warmer months, Lake Hume typically becomes layered with thermally stratified water. During the event, the water with little or no dissolved oxygen occurred in a layer at a depth of approximately 20 m, which is around the same level as the Hume Dam offtakes.

This resulted in water being released with low dissolved oxygen levels into the River Murray immediately downstream from Hume Dam with the following impacts:

• Murray crayfish reported to be crawling out of the water in response to low dissolved oxygen
• ‘rotten egg’ odour (hydrogen sulfide) and orange staining of vegetation and some of the crayfish due to oxidation of iron and manganese
• water quality supply issues reported by Albury City Council, with ‘rotten egg’ odour and discolouration.

The Murray–Darling Basin Authority responded by adjusting operations to assist with aeration of the water, and applying compressed air to water flowing through the Hume Dam hydropower station.

Ongoing response includes upgrades to upstream and downstream water quality monitoring sites, adaptive management of releases (if required) and engagement of water quality expertise to quantify potential risks.

Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)

Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of human-made chemicals that have been used since the 1950s in nonstick cookware, waterproof clothing and fabric stain protection. However, the most problematic use of PFAS has been in aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF), which is used to fight liquid fuel fires.

From the 1970s, AFFF was used by the defence forces for firefighting activities and firefighting training. As a consequence, increased PFAS levels have been detected at defence bases, most notably those at Williamtown in New South Wales, Oakey in Queensland, and Katherine in the Northern Territory. Other affected sites include airports and locations where firefighting training takes place.

Increased levels of PFAS are known to be toxic to a range of animals; however, the impact on human health is unknown. The Australian National University was commissioned by the Australian Government to undertake a PFAS Health Study to examine possible links between PFAS exposure and health in communities in Williamtown, Oakey and Katherine. The study is due for completion in mid-2021; initial findings have found links between high cholesterol levels and higher levels of PFAS, and possible links with reduced kidney function, testicular cancer, and the immune response to diphtheria and rubella vaccines ( Kirk et al. 2018, Banwell et al. 2019 ) .

In light of the uncertainties associated with the potential risks of PFAS, a precautionary approach to protect the environment and human health was developed. This took the form of the PFAS National Environmental Management Plan 2018 ( HEPA 2018 ) , which provided guidance on the regulation of PFAS-contaminated sites, and materials and products. Version 2 of the plan, released in 2020, provided guidance on environmental guideline values, soil re-use, wastewater management and onsite containment, which had been identified as priorities in version 1 ( HEPA 2020 ) . In May 2020, the National PFAS Position Statement was endorsed by most Australian states; subsequently, New South Wales implemented a progressive ban on PFAS in March 2021, following similar bans put in place by Queensland in 2016 and South Australia in 2018.

It should be noted that, although firefighting foams were used during the 2019–20 bushfires and that these will have ecological impacts ( Adams & Simmons 1999 ) , AFFF containing PFAS were not used because it is used for fighting liquid fires and not bushfires.

Acid sulfate releases

Acid sulfate releases occur when acid sulfate soils are disturbed by human activities such as drainage works or excavations. They also occur during extended dry periods when water levels in wetlands, swamps and mangrove forests fall and acid sulfate soils are exposed to the air, releasing sulfuric acid and soluble iron into waterways. This results in reduced pH levels (i.e. the water is more acidic) and decreased dissolved oxygen. These conditions kill plants and immobile aquatic species such as oysters, cause red-spot disease in fish, and damage animal habitats.

An acid sulfate release occurred in the Coorong and Lakes Alexandrina and Albert in South Australia when low water levels exposed more than 20,000 hectares of acid sulfate soils, causing the soil and water to become acidic. This endangered the Ramsar wetlands in the Coorong and the Lakes, and threatened the flora and fauna that live in the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The event led to the preparation of the Drought Emergency Framework for Lakes Alexandrina and Albert by the Murray–Darling Basin Authority ( MDBA 2014 ) .

To better manage acid sulfate soils and mitigate the risk of future acid sulfate releases, the Australian Government and the National Committee for Acid Soils have prepared national guidelines for acid sulfate soils ( Sullivan et al. 2018 ) . These guidelines complement those already implemented in states with significant areas of acid sulfate soils. Most guidelines focus on identifying and mapping acid sulfate soils to avoid future disturbance; however, where acid sulfate soils have been disturbed, they can be treated by adding an alkaline material to neutralise the acidity.

Marine Pollution in Australia

Introduction.

The ocean plays a significant role in the economic and social lives of people in Australia. It serves as a major transportation network, a favorite recreational area, and a source of food for millions of Australians. The coastal environment serves as a habitat for numerous flora and fauna species.

It also plays a significant role by providing numerous cultural and recreational benefits to the people living in the coastal area. However, the increase in human activities has led to the intensive degradation of the marine environment over the decades.

Pollution has occurred from two significant venues. On one side, land-based activities such as agriculture, deforestation, urbanization, and industrial development have contributed to the pollution of the marine environment. On the other side, the large traffic of ships that operate in Australian waters has contributed to the degradation of the country’s expansive marine jurisdiction.

Intensive pollution is detrimental to the sustainable use and development of the country’s marine resources. In recognition of this fact, the Australian government has taken measures to protect the marine environment from rampant pollution from various sources.

This paper will set out to engage in a detailed discussion about marine pollution in Australia. It will begin by highlighting the major sources of marine pollution and the impact that this pollution has on the marine environment. It will then discuss the various routes that Australia has taken to prevent marine pollution, including the significant conventions that Australia has joined to prevent marine pollution.

Australia’s Marine Domain

Australia is a large island nation surrounded by the Southern Ocean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and the Timor Sea. While the country is a vast and dry continent, the ocean plays an important part in the national identity and culture of Australians.

Australia has the third-largest ocean jurisdiction, with its marine jurisdiction totaling 11 million square kilometers.[1] In addition to this, the country has over 5million square kilometers of the continental shelf. Australia has a long coastline considering the fact that the country has no land boundaries. This expansive coastline stretches about 61,700 kilometers.[2] The beaches and coastal seas are home to many varieties of marine flora and fauna.

As a result of these vast marine resources, Australia has great interests in its marine environment. Australia’s marine jurisdiction supports a range of industries, which generate considerable income for the Nation. A report by the Australian Government’s Oceans Policy Science Advisory Group reveals that the ocean contributes an impressive $44 billion each year to the Nation’s economy.[3]

This economic contribution of the marine environment is projected to rise to $100 billion by the year 2025 as industrial expansion occurs, and more ways to exploit the marine for energy and food are devised.

The economic impact of the marine environment is therefore significant since this represents 4% of the country’s GDP. Most of the large cities in the country are situated on the coast, and over 80% of the country’s population live within 50 kilometers of the coast.[4]

Compared to other marine environments around the world, Australia has a relatively clean image. Its beaches are considered clean, and some are in pristine condition. There are many safety standards put in place to ensure that the country’s marine environment is protected and used in a sustainable manner.[5]

However, in spite of this good image, Australia’s marine environment faces a serious threat from pollution. There are a number of notable sources of pollution in Australia’s marine environment.

Pollution presents the greatest danger to the sustainable growth and development of the Earth’s ecosystem. Marine Pollution is defined by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) as “the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances into the marine environment, including estuaries, which results or is likely to result in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources and marine life.”[6]

An important point from this definition is that pollution is restricted to activities perpetrated by man. As such, the introduction of harmful products into the marine environment through natural causes is not regarded as pollution. There are a number of prominent causes of pollution in Australia’s marine environment.

Land Pollution

Land pollution has a significant impact on Australia’s marine environment. Studies show that land pollution is the primary source of pollution to seas and oceans since about 80% of marine pollution originates from the land.[7] Land pollution contributes to marine pollution in a number of specific ways. Human activities such as intensive deforestation and the use of farm implements can be detrimental to marine life.

Poor land-use practices and construction activities have led to an increase in soil erosion. This has heightened the level of sediment reaching the Australian marine from rivers flowing through the country and surface runoff during storms.

In the Western Port area of Victoria, the aggressive removal of mangroves to reclaim land for farming has led to high sedimentation. The herbicides and pesticides used in the farms have been transported to the coastal region leading to pollution. Research indicates that this pollution has resulted in a loss of up to 70% of the seagrass in Western Port over a period of 3 decades.[8]

Rapid urbanization in coastal areas also increases the level of land pollution. High population concentration presents a significant problem for waste management. Research indicates that there is a strong correlation between high population densities and pollution of the sea.[9] Most of the pollution originates from the lack of effective waste management programs.

The great volume of wastewater produced often overwhelms the available treatment plants. While all sewage plants are required to treat the waste before releasing it as discharge waste into the environment, the level of treatment varies.[10] The discharged wastewater has a negative effect when it is released into enclosed marine environments.

Untreated or insufficiently treated wastewater can, therefore, leak into the marine environment. This has been the case in Australia, where urban expansion has contributed to the increased marine pollution in Australia. A study by Dunn reveals that The Gold Coast city located in southern Moreton Bay in southeast Queensland is suffering from increased pollution due to the large-scale urban expansion experienced in the area over the last two decades.[11]

Pollution on the land also contributes to marine pollution through atmospheric pollution of the sea. Significant damage caused by atmospheric pollution is acid rain. This rain is caused primarily by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides emissions from the burning of fossil fuels.

Fossil fuels are used prevalently in industries, power plants, and to fuel vehicles in Australia. This polluted air is absorbed into the rainwater, which falls on the sea surface and enters into the water column. The acid rain that results from this is harmful to the marine environment.

Acid rain has led to increased ocean acidification, and this has been a major threat to marine ecosystems.[12] Acidification can render water bodies uninhabitable and even kill biodiversity in areas where the acid concentration is high.

Ballast Pollution

Australia’s marine environment is also prone to pollution from the ballast, which is the water taken by empty ships to assist them in maintaining stability. This water will contain the microorganisms found in the environment from which the water is drawn. The ballast water problem is caused by the fact that Australia is a major exporter of bulk cargoes.

As such, many ships arrive in their ports in ballast and need to discharge large quantities of ballast water in order to load the cargo. Since Australia has many busy ports that serve ships from all over the world, ships containing ballast from a foreign environment frequent Australian waters.

If this water is discharged into Australian waters indiscriminately, it might pollute the marine environment by releasing organisms and pathogens from foreign marine environments.

Studies reveal that some Australian ports have had their marine organisms severely affected by the foreign species introduced into the port waters from the discharging of ballast water from ships.[13] Ballast water can lead to the introduction of pests into the marine environment. The foreign water discharged into Australian waters might contain pests leading to an incursion of these pests into the country’s marine life.

Antifouling Paint

Significant pollution is also introduced into the marine environment through antifouling paints. As has been noted, many national and international vessels traverse Australian waters each day. As the ships travel, they are exposed to the seawater and its constituent organisms.

Without proper protection, the ship’s bottom is exposed to organisms that attach themselves to the ship and greatly reduce its performance and durability. Antifouling paints are used to cover the ship’s hull and therefore protect it from being covered by organisms such as algae and barnacles.[14]

While these paints are effective in their purpose, most of them have toxic metallic compounds as part of their component. These metallic compounds are released into the seawater as the ship travels or as it is docked at various ports. The toxic metal compounds are harmful to a variety of marine life, including fish, mammals, and coral.

Oil Pollution

Another important source of marine pollution in Australia is oil. While oil is not the most prevalent pollutant to Australian waters, oil pollution is given special consideration since the toxins introduced into the marine environment from large oil spills cause the most damage to the marine environment.[15]

Oil presents a major problem since, in the event of large-scale oil pollution, there will be major damage to the marine environment. Oil spills that happen well out to sea have very little environmental damage since oil is a natural substance, and when spilled into the water, it breaks down into its natural constituents over time through the process of bioremediation.

Oil spills are most damaging when they occur in restricted waters or near the shore, where the oil can be moved by the waves onto the beaches.

The focus on oil pollution in Australia was brought about by the Kirki incident in 1991. In this incident, the 97,000-tonne Greek-owned tanker Kirki encountered heavy weather on its way to an oil refinery in Western Australia.[16]

This heavy sea caused part of its bow to break off and sink. As a result of this accident, 16,000 tonnes of oil cargo spilled, but the salvors were able to prevent the ship from sinking, thereby reducing the impact of the damage.

While the large-scale oil spills might cause major environmental pollution, the minor spills and operational discharges that occur every day also pollute the marine environment in Australia. It is estimated that these minor spills, which occur during regular refueling and the operational discharges that occur as the vessels move within Australian waters, release up to 16,000 tonnes of oil into the marine environment.[17]

Waste From Ships

A wide variety of sea vessels sail in Australian waters. These vessels include merchant ships that carry Australia’s trade, which is vital to the country’s economy. These vessels include cargo ships carrying import and product goods and huge tankers that carry petroleum products into Australia. The second category of vessels is the cruise liners that transport tourists.

These tourist’s vessels contribute significantly to the multi-billion dollar tourism industry in Australia. The number of tourist’s vessels plying Australian waters is increasing due to the increase in the number of annual visitors to Australia.

The other major category of vessels found in the vast Australian marine domain is fishing vessels. Fishing supplies essential food products for the domestic and international markets. The fishing vessels act as the supplies to the major seafood industry in Australia. Some of the products are for domestic consumption while the surplus is put into the export markets.

Resource Exploitation

Pollution also occurs as Australia exploits the vast amount of natural resources found in its marine environment. The vast oceans provide numerous fishing grounds that can be exploited for food. There are also mineral and petroleum resources within Australia’s marine jurisdiction. There has been an increasing emphasis on offshore oil exploration in Australia’s vast marine jurisdiction.

At present, there are multiple gas exploration and extraction projects underway in various parts of Australia’s marine environment. In addition to this, the coastal regions are being exploited to build recreational facilities for tourists. Hotels are built at ocean fronts where land is reclaimed by refilling it with material that might be contaminated.

Impacts of Pollution

The effects of marine pollution are generally detrimental to the marine ecosystem. Marine pollution contributes to the death and contamination of fishing stocks in Australian waters. When the ocean is polluted by ships through oil spills or disposal of harmful waste, the fish in the contaminated waters might die.

The waste entering into the ocean has led to an increase in the incidents of fatal choking, poisoning, and entanglement of Australian marine life. Research demonstrates that a rising number of sea life deaths can be attributed to ocean pollution by human activities[18]. This problem leads to a reduction in the population of some species as they die out in large numbers due to ocean pollution.

Marine pollution also poses a potential problem for human health. As has been noted, Marine life is a major source of food resources for human beings. Due to high levels of pollution, there is a high probability that toxins will enter into the food chain as marine creatures consume polluted material.[19]

For example, the industrial activity in the coastal areas and port facilities, mineral contaminants such as zinc, mercury, and lead have been discharged into the water over the decades. This contamination has led to an increase in the level of metals in sea creatures such as shellfish and oysters.

The input of hazardous heavy metals affects not only the marine ecosystem but also human beings who consume seafood. Research indicates that in some parts of Australia, the heavy metal concentration in shellfish and mussels is above what is safe for human consumption.

Marine pollution is responsible for the significant damage caused to Australia’s expansive coral reef. Damage to the coral reef poses a great danger to the sustainability of marine life. To begin with, coral reefs provide food for a diverse number of marine creatures. Coral reefs provide a buffering effect to the shore by shielding it from the storms and surge waters from the ocean.[20]

This makes it possible for planktons and seagrass to grow and flourish. Without the reefs, most of these primary foods would be eroded by large waves leaving the fish and other marine life without their primary source of food.[21]

The reefs also help to maintain balance among the marine ecosystem by supporting a wide range of flora and fauna. In addition to this, the coral reefs play a part in enhancing the quality of the ocean and seawater. This is achieved through the filtration capability of coral reefs. Due to the impact that coral reefs have on the marine ecosystem, some researchers refer to this feature as “the marine equivalent of tropical rainforests.”[22]

Land pollution has contributed significantly to the decline in water quality in Australia’s marine environment. The impact of land pollution is often felt by the coastal seas, which are closer to the landmass, while the deepwater oceans do not feel the pressure from this pollution. Once pollutants from the land get to the marine environment, some are absorbed by marine life while others accumulate at the coast or on the ocean floor.

Pollutants such as fertilizers and pesticides have introduced toxic substances into the water. The increased sediment loads caused by the rampant destruction of vegetation cover have further decreased water quality.[23] In turn, poor water quality has adversely affected the marine ecosystem. It has led to the destruction of corals and a loss of seagrass.

Preventing Marine Pollution

Pollution has a direct negative effect on marine life in the Australian oceans. The government recognizes the importance of the marine environment to Australia’s continued prosperity. For this reason, the Australian government has shown great determination to manage its ocean space through a number of ocean policies.

Due to its recognition that ocean ecosystem health and integrity are fundamental to ecologically sustainable development and the continued economic benefits of the oceans, Australia was the first Nation to attempt the development and implementation of an integrated oceans policy in the years 1998.[24]

The most significant policy developed to address the issues affecting Australia’s marine environment is Australia’s Oceans Policy (AOP) of December 1998. Australia has a large number of policies and laws designed to assist in the management of the country’s vast ocean domain. The AOP was an attempt to integrate the sectoral interests and jurisdictional interests of the State governments and the Australian Commonwealth government.[25]

This document, which is regarded nationally and internationally as a milestone in marine resource management, set out to establish a comprehensive approach to the management of Australia’s ocean domain. A key objective of the AOP was to protect Australia’s marine biological diversity by ensuring that the ocean resources were used in a sustainable manner and protected from pollution.

Over the first three years of the policy’s implementation, the government was supposed to provide funding to implement initiatives to deter marine pollution and raise marine and estuarine water quality standards. Australian authorities agree that the marine environment is suffering from significant stress due to the pollution from the different sources identified.

Land-Based Pollution

Any solution to marine solution must address the problem of land-based sources of pollution, considering that these are the primary source of pollution to seas and oceans.

Eighty percent of marine pollution originates from the land, making it an important area to focus on in order to mitigate marine pollution.[26] Without implementing policies that address marine pollution that originates on land, it will be impossible to minimize ocean pollution currently experienced by Australia.

Australia is a signatory of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), meaning that the country is bound to observe the obligations of individual nations stipulated by this convention. A major obligation imposed by UNCLOS is that the states should adopt laws that regulate or prevent pollution of the marine environment from land-based sources.

In addition to being a party to the UNCLOS, Australia is a signatory to the non-binding “Global Programme of Action of the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities” (GPA).[27] In fulfillment of its obligations as a member of this agreement, Australia has implemented a number of marine protection programs.

The most significant international regime for addressing land-based sources of marine pollution is the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.[28] This global treaty stipulates rules and standards that should be followed to prevent or mitigate land pollution.

It also offers recommended practices which, when adopted, will result in reduced marine pollution from land-based sources. The Australian government prohibits vessels from carrying waste from the land with the intention of dumping it into the ocean.

Ballast Management

To prevent pollution from the ballast, the Australian State authorities have engaged in a number of steps. To begin with, Australia is a signatory to the “International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments.”[29]

This convention aims at ensuring that each country’s marine environment is protected from cross-contamination from foreign environments. The harbormasters at various ports in Australia avoid unnecessary discharge of ballast water from foreign vessels, and if it is to be discharged, the activity takes place at designated facilities.

The Australian marine authorities have specified standards that ballast from foreign seas must mean in order to be considered clean. Only then can a ship be allowed to discharge its ballast into Australian waters. If a ship discharges ballast that does not meet the standards imposed by the Australian Quarantine Inspection Services, then the ship is penalized heavily.

Australia also has a government-sanctioned inspection and quarantine body known as the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS). This body has guidelines and measures to manage ballast water, and all vessels entering into Australian waters must meet the standards set by AQIS.[30]

If upon inspection by AQIS, a vessel is considered high risk, it is required to discharge its entire ballast load while at high sea. The low-risk vessels are allowed to discharge their ballast at designated ports within Australian coastal water.

Antifouling Paint Pollution

Australia has enacted laws to reduce the level of pollution caused by antifouling paint applied to vessels that enter into Australian waters.

In some states such as Western Australia, antifouling paint is banned for small vessels (less than 25 meters), and for large vessels, the quality of the paint is greatly restricted to ensure that it meets regulations that ensure minimal harmful compounds are released into the sea.

Australia is a signatory to the “International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships 2001”. This means that the various States and Territories enforce strict laws to ensure that antifouling paint is not used by Australian ships or when it is used, it meets the standards specified in the regulations.[31]

Waste Disposal

Australia has bound itself to the London Protocol of 1996, which includes the “Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping.” Under this convention, the government is supposed to take proactive action to limit the dumping of waste in its territorial waters.[32]

In accordance with the obligations stipulated by this convention, Australia, through the Federal Ministry of Environment, imposes great control over waste disposal in its waters. Vessels are required to obtain permits from the Environment Ministry for permission to dump waste into Australian waters. Even with the permit, the list of substances that can lawfully be disposed of at sea is greatly restricted.

These substances include fish waste, organic waste obtained from natural sources, material dug up from the sea, and sewage sludge. The permit specifies that the waste substances should be discharged into the ocean in a regulated manner.

The vessel is required to discharge the permitted waste gradually and in diluted form and several miles away from the coastline to reduce the risk of the waste making its way onto the beaches.[33] The state is required to prosecute any vessel that dumps waste within its waters.

The UNCLOS has important implications for how marine pollution by ships is dealt with. This convention introduced the extended offshore zonal system, which stipulates which government authorities have power in various regions in the sea.[34] Under the zonal system, the rights and obligations of the coastal state decrease as the distance offshore increases.

While the coastal state may impose its own laws in the territorial sea, only general laws on protection against marine pollution apply in the contiguous and the exclusive economic zones. The UNCLOS empowers port states to prosecute for pollution damages any vessel found guilty of polluting within the territorial sea or the EEZ of the state.[35]

The Australian Maritime Safety Authority exercises a lot of discretion when it comes to dealing with ship pollution incidents. The coastal authorities are empowered to take whatever steps they deem appropriate to prevent ships from polluting Australia’s marine environment.[36]

If a vessel navigating in the territorial sea is suspected of polluting, the coastal state enforcement officers have the right to approach the vessel and carry out a physical inspection to ascertain the truth of this suspicion. If there is clear proof of pollution, the vessel can be detained to prevent any major damage to the environment.

Oil Related Marine Pollution

The Environmental Defender’s Office of Western Australia acknowledges that most of the pollution-related legislation enacted by the Australian government is aimed at preventing oil spillage within the country’s vast marine domain. A significant authority created to tackle ocean pollution is the Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA).[37]

This authority was created in 1990 under the Australian Maritime Safety Act by the Australian federal government, and it continues to play a crucial role in the protection of the sea. The AMSA is a powerful body, and it ensures the safety of vessels within Australian waters.

This powerful body has programs in place to prevent pollution by oil and respond to any oil spills. In the event of an oil spill incident in Australian waters, the vessel involved in the incident is required to report immediately to the AMSA so that the appropriate damage control measures can be undertaken.

In response to the specific threat that oil spills place on the Marine Environment, the Australian government requires oil tankers to be ready to play an active role in covering the pollution damages of oil spills. Huge oil tankers (those with a capacity of 400 tonnes and above) are required to have a pollution emergency plan in place, and the crew should be well versed with emergency procedures to limit oil pollution into the sea.[38]

Due to the efforts of the AMSA, the total number of oil spills experienced in Australia has been decreasing for many years, and when spills occur, the damage control measures are effective and efficient therefore ensuring that the marine environment is not adversely affected from these incidents.

Australia has an Oil Pollution Compensation Fund that is made up of the annual contributions of all the major oil companies in the country. This fund is not an insurance cover, and the oil industry contributes to it so that any oil vessel can recover some of the losses and damages accrued because of an oil spill.

The compensation scheme in place is supposed to cover the cleanup costs and to compensate those who suffer loss or damages in the event of a major oil spill. In addition to its national Fund, Australia ratified the International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (IOPC) Fund in 1996.[39]

This international fund convention requires member countries to pass legislation that obligates the oil companies operating in the country to report to the IOPC and pay a mandatory levy to the IOPC Fund in London. This fund pays for the damages and for oil spill cleanup costs in the event of an oil spill in any of the participating countries.

An important consideration with the compensation fund is that the costs fall on the oil companies and not the owners of the tankers involved in the accident.[40] In addition to this, this is a mutual fund into which all the major oil companies pay rather than from an insurer.

Mitigating or preventing the frequency of small oil spills in Australia’s marine environment will lead to a marked reduction in marine pollution. As has been observed, a significant amount of oil pollution occurs from small oil spills during operational discharges and refueling of vessels.

Enormous benefits to the marine environment can, therefore, be accrued by taking steps to reduce these minor oil spills, which are often ignored as the main focus remains on the large oil spills. The minor oil spills can be prevented by imposing high marine safety standards for all vessels on Australian waters.[41]

With strict standards in place, ship operators will take proactive measures to ensure that the accidental oil spills that frequently occur as oil carriers are loaded or as they discharge their oil at the destination port are avoided. If these high marine safety standards are maintained, the level of pollution caused by minor spills will be lower, thereby mitigating pollution to the marine environment.

Disaster Management

Australia encourages salvage operators to engage in salvage operations that prevent or minimize damage to the environment by attaching a fixed reward or special compensation to such operations. In the event of an oil spill, salvage operations are crucial to the minimization of damage to the environment.

Salvors, who are the professionals who engage in salvage operations, are best equipped and skilled to deal with marine disasters and reduce the environmental damage that might be caused by damaged vessels. Traditionally, salvors operated under the salvage rule of ‘no cure – no pay.’

This meant that they had to salvage something of worth so that they could be paid for their efforts. However, this old rule did not favor the marine environment since, in most instances, salvors had no incentives to risk their equipment and spend their resources salvaging when there was little prospect of saving the ship or other worthy property.

Australia is a signatory to the Salvage Convention 1989, which recognizes the role that salvage operations play in the protection and preservation of the marine environment.[42] It offers financial incentives for salvors to utilize their equipment on marine accidents were prospects of salvaging the ship are low.

This is done by structuring salvage remuneration such that payment is made for success in preventing or minimizing damage to the environment. To further incentivize salvage operators to take part in operations that protect the marine environment, Australia offers special compensation to the salvors when their salvage operations prevent or minimize damage to the environment.

Australia has strategies in place to deal with the pollution that occurs outside its territorial sea but might affect its marine life. For example, if an oil tanker is to run aground on the High Seas, the ocean currents might move the oil to the Australian shores leading to environmental damages.

As a party to the 1973 Intervention Protocol passed by the IMO and ratified by Australia in November 1983, Australia is empowered to intervene when a ship outside its jurisdiction is releasing pollutants into the high Seas.[43]

Other Pollution Prevention Efforts

In addition to the measures taken to prevent and mitigate pollution of the Australian marine environment, the country is also active in conducting research programs to measure pollution of the seas. This is in accordance with section 2 of the UNCLOS part XII, which requires cooperation on a global and regional basis to monitor and deter pollution.[44]

By engaging in research, Australia is able to establish scientific criteria and provide a baseline for the level of pollution at a given time. With this baseline, it is possible to compare results and establish the changes that have occurred over time. This comparison is crucial since it helps to determine if the particular mitigation efforts put in place are effective in reducing the level of pollution.[45]

Australia takes into consideration the environmental impacts of exploiting the natural resources available in its marine jurisdiction. This is in accordance with the regulations of the UNCLOS, which stipulates that nations have a right to natural resources in their marine jurisdictions but only subject to protecting and preserving the marine environment.

Australia has the will and the resources to implement and enforce the provisions of the many marine environments related conventions; it is a party to. The different State and tribal authorities are responsible for protecting coastal and marine waters from all forms of pollution.

Through the efforts of these respective authorities, the country has achieved remarkable outcomes in terms of ocean safety and pollution reduction. Australia has gained a reputation for taking its obligations under the various conventions seriously. The country takes many measures to ensure that all activities that cause damage to the marine are prevented or minimized.

Due to the vastness of Australia’s marine environment and the use of the federal system of government, there is no one authority with absolute authority over the entire marine environment of the country. However, this has not prevented Australia from coming up with a cohesive system for dealing with pollution.

By utilizing the various conventions available, Australia has been able to mitigate pollution and enhance the safety of its waters. Even so, these efforts have been challenged by increasing pollution due to rapid urbanization and the growing ship traffic on Australian waters. The various governments will need to enforce the various laws for deterring pollution more aggressively in order to achieve the desired results of a pollution-free marine environment.

This paper set out to discuss marine pollution and highlight the various routes that Australia has taken to prevent pollution to its vast marine domain. The paper began by elaborating on the economic, social, and cultural significance of Australia’s marine environment to the Nation.

It demonstrated that the national interests of the country are deeply connected to its enormous marine resources. The paper then discussed the major sources of pollution in Australia’s marine environment. It then proceeded to articulate the measures taken to mitigate or prevent pollution.

The paper has given a detailed discussion of the various strategies adopted by the Australian authorities to reduce and control marine pollution and hence, ensure the sustainability of the country’s vast marine environment. It was noted that Australia is a signatory to many major international conventions that relate to the regulation and protection of the marine environment.

The paper has demonstrated that most of the conventions that Australia has ratified the deal with oil pollution. This emphasis on oil pollution arises from the fact that major oil spills can cause monumental damages to the marine environment.

However, the paper has noted that there are other important sources of pollution that should be given more attention in order to mitigate marine pollution. By observing the various requirements stipulated by the conventions that Australia is a party to, the country will be able to prevent or reduce marine pollution.

[1] Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (NRC), Australia’s National Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities, Canberra, Department of the Environment and Heritage Community Information Unit, 2006, p.1.

[2] ibid., p. 2.

[3] OPSAG, Marine Nation 2025, 2013.

[4] ibid., p. 1.

[5] Environmental Defender’s Office of Western Australia (EDOWA), Marine Pollution, Perth, Environmental Defender’s Office, 2010, p.1

[6] M. White., Australasian Marine Pollution Laws, Canberra, Federation Press, 2007, p.9.

[7] D. Hassan. Protecting the Marine Environment from Land-based Sources of Pollution: Towards Effective International Cooperation. Melbourne, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006. p.54.

[8] NRMMC., op. cit., p.5.

[9] M. White., op. cit., p. 11.

[10] R. Dunn, ‘Short-Term Variability of Nutrients and Fecal Indicator Bacteria within the Gold Coast Seaway, Southern Moreton Bay (Australia),’ Journal of Coastal Research, vol. 28. No. 1, 2012, p. 81.

[11] ibid., op. cit., p. 82.

[12] D. Hassan., op. cit., p.54.

[13] E. Franckx., Vessel-Source Pollution and Coastal State Jurisdiction: The Work of the Ila Committee on Coastal State Jurisdiction Relating to Marine Pollution (1991-2000), Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001, p.154.

[14] Ibid., p.155.

[15] United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)., Global Environment Outlook 3: Past, Present, and Future Perspectives, London, Earthscan, 2002., 154.

[16] M. White., op. cit., p.8.

[17] OPSAG, op. cit., p.4.

[18] L. Parker. ‘Oceans of Rubbish.’ Australian Geographic, vol. 14. no. 101, 2011, p. 114.

[19] D. Hassan., op. cit., p.31.

[20] M. Creary., ‘Impacts of Climate Change on Coral Reefs and the Marine Environment,’ UN Chronicle, vol. 50. No. 1, 2013, p. 27.

[21] ibid., p. 25.

[22] A. Dua and D. Esty., Sustaining the Asia Pacific Miracle: Environmental Protection and Economic Integration, NJ, Peterson Institute, 2007, p.44.

[23] NRMMC., op. cit., p.7.

[24] M. Tsamenyi and R. Kenchington, ‘Australian Oceans Policymaking,’ Coastal Management, vol. 40, no. 1, 2012, p. 119.

[25] E. Franckx., op. cit.. 157.

[26] D. Hassan. Protecting the Marine Environment from Land-based Sources of Pollution: Towards Effective International Cooperation. Melbourne, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006. p.54.

[27] Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council. Australia’s National Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities. Canberra, Department of the Environment and Heritage Community Information Unit, 2006, p.1.

[28] UNEP., op. cit., p.42.

[29] OPSAG., op. cit., p.11.

[30] ibid., p.12.

[31] NRMMC, op. cit., p.3.

[32] EDOWA., op. cit., p.3.

[33] ibid., p.5.

[34] M. White., op. cit., p.29.

[35] ibid., p.30.

[36] Ibid., p.33.

[37] E. Franckx, op. cit., p.157.

[38] UNEP, op. cit., p.143.

[39] E. Franckx, op. cit., p.156.

[40] ibid., p. 156.

[41] NRMMC, op. cit., p.6.

[42] M. White., op. cit., p.167.

[43] E. Franckx., op. cit., p.154.

[44] M. Tsamenyi, and R. Kenchington., op. cit.. 121.

[45] ibid., p.122.

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Dua, A. and Esty, D., Sustaining the Asia Pacific Miracle: Environmental Protection and Economic Integration , NJ, Peterson Institute, 2007.

Dunn, R. ‘Short-Term Variability of Nutrients and Fecal Indicator Bacteria within the Gold Coast Seaway, Southern Moreton Bay (Australia)’, Journal of Coastal Research, vol. 28. no. 1, 2012, pp. 80-88.

Environmental Defender’s Office of Western Australia (EDOWA), Marine Pollution, Perth, Environmental Defender’s Office, 2010.

Franckx, E., Vessel-Source Pollution and Coastal State Jurisdiction: The Work of the Ila Committee on Coastal State Jurisdiction Relating to Marine Pollution (1991-2000), Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001.

Hassan, D., Protecting the Marine Environment from Land-based Sources of Pollution: Towards Effective International Cooperation , Melbourne, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006.

Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council (NRMMC), Australia’s National Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities, Canberra, Department of the Environment and Heritage Community Information Unit, 2006.

OPSAG , Marine Nation 2025 , 2013.

Parker, L. ‘Oceans of Rubbish’. Australian Geographic , vol. 14. no. 101, 2011, pp. 114-118.

Tsamenyi, M. and Kenchington, R. ‘Australian Oceans Policymaking’, Coastal Management , vol. 40, no. 1, 2012, pp. 119–132.

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White, M.W., Australasian Marine Pollution Laws , Canberra, Federation Press, 2007.

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Water pollution and water quality

Chemicals, litter and waste in our waterways and oceans can have serious impacts on human health, drinking water quality and the environment.

Water pollution

Learn about the causes and sources of water pollution and what you can do to help stop water pollution to look after the health of our waterways and oceans.

• Report water pollution
• Managing water pollution in NSW
• Sources of pollution in catchments
• Monitoring beach water quality
• How to reduce stormwater pollution
• How water quality is monitored

Management to protect drinking water quality

WaterNSW is a State-Owned Corporation established under the Water NSW Act 2014.

• They operate the state’s rivers and water supply systems in accordance with the rules set out by regulators.
• With more than 40 dams across the state, they supply two-thirds of water used in NSW to regional towns, irrigators, Sydney Water Corporation and local water utilities.
• They also own and operate the largest surface and groundwater monitoring network in the southern hemisphere and build, maintain and operate essential infrastructure.

WaterNSW takes a multi-barrier approach to manage water quality which means water quality is tested and monitored at multiple points of the water collection, storage and delivery process.

• NSW Guidelines for Drinking Water Management Systems
• Multi-barrier approach to managing water quality
• Monitoring water quality
• Water quality reports
• Greater Sydney's drinking water catchments

Improving water quality for healthy waterways

Our water resources are of major environmental, social, health and economic value. 

The Department of Planning and Environment helps protect the health of our waterways by supporting water quality managers to improve water quality.

The tools, resources and information they provide for water quality managers include:

• water quality and river flow objectives 
• monitoring programs
• support for local councils and decision-makers to manage water quality.
• Water quality management
• Monitoring and reporting on water quality
• Promoting healthy waterways
• Check water quality in the catchments
• Water research

Related information

Beach water quality, drinking water quality.

How Climate Change Impacts Water Access

The water cycle is part of our everyday lives, but climate change may have dire consequences for everyday water access.

Biology, Health, Conservation, Earth Science

Herder Collecting Water

Climate change is already hurting water access for people around the world. Here, a Samburu herder collects water for his flock in Sahara Conservancy, Kenya.

Photograph from the National Geographic image collection

Climate change is already affecting water access for people around the world, causing more severe droughts and floods. Increasing global temperatures are one of the main contributors to this problem. Climate change impacts the water cycle by influencing when, where, and how much precipitation falls. It also leads to more severe weather events over time. Increasing global temperatures cause water to evaporate in larger amounts, which will lead to higher levels of atmospheric water vapor and more frequent, heavy, and intense rains in the coming years.

Climate scientists predict that this shift will lead to more floods since more water will fall than vegetation and soil can absorb. The remaining water, or runoff , drains into nearby waterways, picking up contaminants like fertilizer on the way. Excess runoff eventually travels to larger bodies of water like lakes, estuaries, and the ocean, polluting the water supply and limiting water access for humans and ecosystems .

When fertilizers from farming wash into lakes and the ocean, they promote the rapid growth of algae. These resulting algal blooms clog coasts and waterways with clouds of green, blue-green, red, or brown algae. The blooms block sunlight from reaching underwater life and diminish oxygen levels within the water. Toxins from the blooms can kill off fish and other aquatic animals, make people sick, and even kill humans. These toxins are especially dangerous because they can survive purification processes, making tap water unfit to consume once contaminated. Algal blooms also impact industries that rely on the water for business, and often cause local waterfronts to shut down during blooms. As the climate warms, harmful algal blooms happen more often and become more severe.

As the ocean warms, freshwater glaciers around Earth begin to melt at an unsustainable rate, which results in rising sea levels. The freshwater from the melted glaciers eventually runs into the ocean. With the rising of sea levels, salt water can more easily contaminate underground freshwater-bearing rocks, called aquifers. A process called desalination removes salt from salt water, but it is a last-resort, energy-intensive, costly process for places where there are persistent droughts and freshwater is lacking. The Middle East, North Africa, and the Caribbean use desalination to produce freshwater out of necessity.

In the Northern Hemisphere—where snow, a freshwater source, typically accumulates—warmer temperatures mean less snowfall, which leaves less water available in local reservoirs after winter. This negatively impacts farmers, who are left without enough water to irrigate their crops in the growing season.

There are many things that everyone can do to lessen the impact of climate change . Some measures include growing your own fruits and vegetables or buying locally grown produce, since produce is often transported to grocery stores from far away by trucks, which add more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere . You could also walk or ride a bike instead of driving a car. On a larger scale, industries that are dependent on fossil fuels need to make the switch to renewable, cleaner energy sources to influence our planet for the better.

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Essay on Water Pollution: Samples in 200, 500 Words

• Updated on  
• Mar 23, 2024

Essay on Water Pollution: Water pollution occurs when human activities introduce toxic substances into freshwater ecosystems such as lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater, leading to the degradation of water quality. The combination of harmful chemicals with water has a negative impact on these ecosystems. 

Various human actions, particularly those affecting land, water, and underwater surfaces, contribute to this pollution, disrupting the natural supply of clean water and posing a significant danger to all forms of life, including humans.

Table of Contents

• 1 What is Water Pollution?
• 2.1 Contaminants 
• 2.2 Solution 
• 3.1 Reasons for Water Pollution
• 3.2 Methods of Water Pollution Management
• 3.3 Real-Life Encounter

Also Read: Types of Water Pollution

What is Water Pollution?

When many pollutants such as garbage, chemicals, bacteria, household waste, industrial waste, etc get mixed in the water resources and make the water unfit for cooking, drinking, cleaning, etc. it is known as water pollution. Water pollution damages the quality of water. lakes, water streams, rivers, etc may become polluted and eventually they will pollute the oceans. All this will directly or indirectly affect the lives of us humans and the animals deteriorating our health.

Essay on Water Pollution in 200 Words

Water is plentiful on Earth, present both above and beneath its surface. A variety of water bodies, such as rivers, ponds, seas, and oceans, can be found on the planet’s surface. Despite Earth’s ability to naturally replenish its water, we are gradually depleting and mishandling this abundant resource. 

Although water covers 71% of the Earth’s surface and land constitutes the remaining 29%, the rapid expansion of water pollution is impacting both marine life and humans. 

Contaminants 

Water pollution stems significantly from city sewage and industrial waste discharge. Indirect sources of water pollution include contaminants that reach water supplies via soil, groundwater systems, and precipitation. 

Chemical pollutants pose a greater challenge in terms of removal compared to visible impurities, which can be filtered out through physical cleaning. The addition of chemicals alters water’s properties, rendering it unsafe and potentially lethal for consumption.

Solution 

Prioritizing water infrastructure enhancement is vital for sustainable water management, with a focus on water efficiency and conservation. 

Furthermore, rainwater harvesting and reuse serve as effective strategies to curb water pollution. Reclaimed wastewater and collected rainwater alleviate stress on groundwater and other natural water sources. 

Groundwater recharge, which transfers water from surface sources to groundwater, is a well-known approach to mitigate water scarcity. These measures collectively contribute to safeguarding the planet’s water resources for present and future generations.

Here is a list of Major Landforms of the Earth !

Essay on Water Pollution in 500 Words

The term “water pollution” is employed when human or natural factors lead to contamination of bodies of water, such as rivers, lakes, and oceans. Responsible management is now imperative to address this significant environmental concern. The primary sources of water contamination are human-related activities like urbanization, industrialization, deforestation, improper waste disposal, and the establishment of landfills.

Reasons for Water Pollution

The availability of freshwater on our planet is limited, and pollution only increases this scarcity. Every year, a substantial amount of fresh water is lost due to industrial and various other types of pollution. Pollutants encompass visible waste items of varying sizes as well as intangible, hazardous, and lethal compounds.

Numerous factories are situated in proximity to water bodies, utilizing freshwater to transport their waste. This industrial waste carries inherent toxicity, jeopardizing the well-being of both plant and animal life. Individuals living close to polluted water sources frequently suffer from skin problems, respiratory ailments, and occasionally even life-threatening health conditions.

Water contamination is also intensified by urban waste and sewage, adding to the problem. Each household generates considerable waste annually, including plastic, chemicals, wood, and other materials. Inadequate waste disposal methods result in this refusal to infiltrate aquatic ecosystems like rivers, lakes, and streams, leading to pollution.

Methods of Water Pollution Management

Raising awareness about the causes and consequences of water pollution is crucial in significantly reducing its prevalence. Encouraging community or organizational clean-up initiatives on a weekly or monthly basis plays a pivotal role. 

To eradicate water contamination completely, stringent legislation needs to be formulated and diligently enforced. Rigorous oversight would promote accountability, potentially deterring individuals and groups from polluting. Each individual should recognize the impact of their daily actions and take steps to contribute to a better world for generations to come.

Real-Life Encounter

My affection for my town has always been heightened by its abundant lakes, rivers, and forests. During one of my walks alongside the river that flowed through my village, I was struck by the unusual hues swirling within the water. The once-familiar crystal-clear blue had been replaced by a murky brown shade, accompanied by a potent, unpleasant odour. Intrigued, I decided to investigate further, descending to the riverbank for a closer look at the source of the peculiar colours and smells. Upon closer inspection, I observed peculiar foam bubbles floating on the water’s surface.

Suddenly, a commotion behind me caught my attention, and I turned to witness a group of people hastening toward the river. Their frantic shouts and vigorous gestures conveyed their panic, prompting me to realize that a grave situation was unfolding. As the group reached the river, they were confronted with the distressing sight of numerous lifeless fish floating on the water’s surface. 

Following a comprehensive investigation, it was revealed that a local factory had been releasing toxic chemicals into the river, resulting in extensive pollution and the devastation of the ecosystem. This investigation left me stunned and disheartened, acknowledging the significant effort required to restore the river to its own form.

Related Reads:-     

A. Water pollution refers to the contamination of water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, oceans, and groundwater, due to the introduction of harmful substances. These substances can include chemicals, industrial waste, sewage, and pollutants that adversely affect the quality of water, making it unsafe for human consumption and harmful to aquatic life.

A. The primary sources of water pollution include city sewage and industrial waste discharge. Chemical contaminants from factories and agricultural runoff, as well as oil spills and plastic waste, contribute significantly to water pollution. Runoff from paved surfaces and improper waste disposal also play a role in introducing pollutants into water bodies.

A. Water pollution has far-reaching consequences. It poses a threat to aquatic ecosystems by harming marine life, disrupting food chains, and damaging habitats. Additionally, contaminated water can lead to the spread of waterborne diseases among humans. Toxic chemicals in polluted water can cause serious health issues, affecting the skin, and respiratory systems, and even leading to long-term illnesses. 

This brings us to the end of our blog on Essay on Water Pollution. Hope you find this information useful. For more information on such informative topics for your school, visit our  essay writing  and follow  Leverage Edu

Aditi Gupta

A bachelors in Journalism and Mass Communication graduate, I am an enthusiastic writer. I love to write about impactful content which can help others. I love to binge watch and listen to music during my free time.

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• Water Pollution Essay

Water Pollution and How it Harms the Environment

Global pollution is a problem. Pollution can spread to remote areas where no one lives, despite the fact that urban areas are typically more polluted than the countryside. Air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution are the three main categories of pollution. Some contaminated water has a terrible smell, a muddy appearance, and floating trash. Some contaminated water appears clean, but it contains dangerous substances that you can't see or smell.

Together, developed and developing nations must fight to conserve the environment for present and future generations. Today, we dig deep into the subject of Water Pollution. This article can be an introduction to water pollution for kids as we will read many things such as the causes of water pollution further in the article.

What is Water Pollution?

Water contamination occurs when pollutants pollute water sources and make the water unfit for use in drinking, cooking, cleaning, swimming, and other activities. Chemicals, garbage, bacteria, and parasites are examples of pollutants. Water is eventually damaged by all types of pollution. Lakes and oceans become contaminated by air pollution. Land contamination may contaminate an underground stream, a river, and ultimately the ocean. As a result, trash thrown on an empty lot can eventually contaminate a water source.

(Image will be uploaded soon)

Water Pollution

The water cycle, called  the hydrological cycle, involves the following steps:

Evaporation- Because of the sun's heat, the water bodies such as oceans, lakes, seas etc., get heated up, and water evaporates in the air, forming water vapours.

Transpiration- Like evaporation, the plants and trees also lose water from them which goes to the atmosphere. This process is called transpiration.

Condensation- As the water evaporates, it starts to become cool because of the cold atmosphere in the air and because of this cooling down of water leads to the formation of clouds.

Precipitation- Because of the high movements of the wings, the clouds start to collide and then fall back to the earth’s surface in the form of rain. Sometimes they also fall back in the form of snow, hail, sleet etc., depending upon the temperature.

Runoff or Infiltration- After precipitation, the water either flows to the water bodies called runoff or is absorbed into the soil, called infiltration.

Causes of Water Pollution

There are many reasons for water pollution. Some of the reasons are directly affected by water pollution and some indirectly. Many factories and industries are dumping contaminated water, chemicals, and heavy metals into major waterways as a result of direct water pollution. 

One more reason for water pollution is the use of modern techniques in farms. Farmers apply nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium in the form of chemical fertilizers, manure, and sludge. It causes farms to discharge large quantities of agrochemicals, organic matter, and saline drainage into water bodies. It indirectly affects water pollution.

Pollutants can be of various types such as organic, inorganic, radioactive etc. Water pollutants are discharged either from one point from pipes, channels etc., which are called point sources or from various other sources. They can be agricultural areas, industries etc., called dispersed sources. 

Some of the major forms of water pollutants are as follows:

Sewage- Domestic sewage from homes contains various forms of pathogens that threaten the human body. Sewage treatment reduces the risk of pathogens, but this risk is not eliminated. 

Domestic sewage majorly contains nitrates and phosphates, and excess of these substances allows the algae to grow on the surface of water bodies. Due to this, the clean water bodies become nutrient-rich water body and then slowly, the oxygen level of water bodies reduces. This is called eutrophication or cultural eutrophication (if this step rapidly takes place by the activities of humans). This leads to the early death of water bodies.

Toxins- The industrial or factory wastes that are not disposed of properly and contain chemicals such as mercury and lead are disposed of in the water bodies making the bodies toxic, radioactive, explosive and cancerous.

Sediments- Sediments are the result of soil erosion that is formed in the water bodies. These sediments imbalances the water bodies ecologically. They also interfere in the reproductive cycle of various aquatic animals living in the water.

Thermal pollution- Water bodies get polluted because of heat, and excess heat reduces the oxygen level of the water bodies. Some of the species of fish cannot live in such water bodies with very low oxygen levels. The disposal of cold waters from the power plants leads to increased thermal pollution in the water bodies.

Petroleum oil pollution- The runoff of oil into the water bodies, either accidentally as happened in 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico, or intentionally, leads to an increase in water pollution.

As water is an important element of human health, polluted water directly affects the human body. Water pollution causes various diseases like typhoid, cholera, hepatitis, cancer, etc. Water pollution damages the plants and aquatic animals present in the river by reducing the oxygen content from the water. Polluted water washes the essential nutrients which plants need out of the soil and also leaves large amounts of aluminium in the soil, which can be harmful to plants. 

Wastewater and sewage are a by-product of daily life and thus produced by each household through various activities like using soap, toilets, and detergents. Such sewage contains chemicals and bacteria which are harmful to human life and environmental health. Water pollution also leads to an imbalance in our ecosystem. Lastly, it also affects the food chain as the toxins in the water bodies are consumed by aquatic animals like fish, crabs etc., and then humans consume those animals forming turmoil. 

Sometimes our tradition also becomes a cause for water pollution. Some people throw the statues of deities, flowers, pots, and ashes in rivers.

There are various standards to define water quality standards. Water meant for swimming may not be clean enough for drinking, or water meant for bathing may not be good for cooking. Therefore, there are different water standards for defined:

Stream standards- Standards that define streams, lakes, oceans or seas based on their maximum use.

Effluent standards- Define the specific standards for the level of contaminants or effluents allowed during the final discharge of those into the water bodies.

Drinking water standards- Define the level of contamination allowed in water that will be supplied for drinking or cooking in the domestic areas.

Different countries regulate their water quality standards through different acts and amendments.

While many of the solutions for water pollution need to be applied on a broader macro-level for that individual, companies, and communities can have a significant and responsible impact on the water quality. Companies, factories have to dispose of leftover chemicals and containers properly as per the product instructions. Farmers also have to reduce the use of nitrates and phosphates from fertilizers, pesticides, and contamination of groundwater. 

The Swachh Bharat Mission of the government had led to reduced groundwater contamination. Under the Namami Ganga program, the government has initiated several major projects to clean Ganga. Along with all these steps, conservation of water is the very basic and important step towards water conservation and should be followed globally, treatment of sewage before their disposal in the water bodies and using environment-friendly products that do not form toxins when dissolved in water. These are some small steps that have to be taken into consideration by every human being.

As we all know, “Water is life’s matter and matrix, mother and medium. There is no life without water.” We have to save water. We must keep the water clean. If everyone will follow their responsibility against water to protect it from getting polluted then it will be easy to get clean and healthy drinking water. Clean water is a must for us and our kids' present, future, and healthy environment. 

We cannot just live with contaminated waters filled with toxins and no oxygen. We cannot see our wildlife being destroyed and therefore, immediate steps have to be taken by groups of people to first clean the already contaminated water bodies and then keep a check on all the surrounding water bodies. Small steps by every individual can make a huge difference in controlling water pollution.

Water Pollution Prevention

Conserve Water 

Our first priority should be to conserve water. Water wasting could be a big problem for the entire world, but we are just now becoming aware of it.

Sewage Treatment 

Cleaning up waste materials before disposing of them in waterways reduces pollution on a large scale. By lowering its dangerous elements, this wastewater will be used in other sectors or in agriculture.

Usage of Eco-Friendly Materials

We will reduce the amount of pollution produced by choosing soluble products that do not alter to become pollutants.

Water contamination is the discharge of pollutants into the water body, where they dissolve, are suspended, are deposited on the bottom, and collect to the point where they hinder the aquatic ecosystem's ability to function. Water contamination is brought on by toxic compounds that easily dissolve and combine with it and come from factories, municipalities, and farms.

Healthy ecosystems depend on a complex network of organisms, including animals, plants, bacteria, and fungi, all of which interact with one another either directly or indirectly. In this article, we read about water pollution, its causes and prevention. With this, we have come to the end of our article, in case of any other doubts, feel free to ask in the comments.

FAQs on Water Pollution Essay

1. What are the effects of water pollution?

Water pollution has a great impact on human health. Water pollution kills. It's been recorded that in 2015 nearly 1.8 million people died because of water pollution. People with low income are exposed to contaminated water coming out from the industries. Presence of disease causing pathogens in drinking water are the major cause of illness which includes cholera, giardia, and typhoid. Water pollution not only affects human health but also our environment by causing algal bloom in a lake or marine environment. Water pollution also causes eutrophication which suffocates plants and animals and thus causes dead zones. Chemicals and heavy metals from industrial and municipal wastewater contaminate waterways and harm aquatic life.

2. What are the causes of Water pollution?

Water being a universal solvent is vulnerable to pollution as it dissolves more substances than any other liquid on earth. Therefore, water is easily polluted. Toxic substances from farms, towns, and factories readily dissolve into water and mix with it, resulting in water pollution. Agricultural pollution is one of the major causes of contamination in rivers and streams. The use of excessive fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste from farms and livestock operations lets the rain wash the nutrients and pathogens—such as bacteria and viruses—into our waterways. The other major cause of water pollution is used water,  termed as wastewater which comes from our sinks, showers, toilets and from commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities. It's been reported that the world's 80% wastewater flows back into the environment without being treated or reused. Oil spills and radioactive waste also cause water pollution to a great extent.

3. How to prevent water pollution?

It is important to keep our water bodies clean so we can take the following preventive measures to prevent from water pollution:

Chemicals like bleach, paint, paint thinner, ammonia, and many chemicals are becoming a serious problem. Dumping toxic chemicals down the drain or flushing them down the toilet can cause water pollution. Thus, proper disposal is important. Also, household chemicals need to be recycled.

Avoid buying products that contain persistent and dangerous chemicals. Buying non-toxic cleaners and biodegradable cleaners and pesticides cut down on water pollution.

Prevent from pouring fats or greasy substances down the drain as it might clog the drain resulting in the dumping of waste into yards or basement which can contaminate the local water bodies.

4. What is the role of medical institutions in polluting the water?

Pharmaceutical pollution affects aquatic life and thus there is a need to take preventive measures. Consumers are responsible for winding up pharmaceutical and personal care products in lakes, rivers, and streams. There's a lot of unused and expired medication that can potentially get into the water if not disposed of properly.

5. What are the major kinds of pollution?

The three main types of pollution are air pollution, water pollution or soil pollution. Some artificial pollution is also there, such as noise pollution. Factors leading to such pollution include:

Air Pollution: Industrial emissions, fires, traffic and transportation, burning of chemical waste, etc.

Water Pollution: No proper sewage disposal, pesticides in farms leaking into water bodies, industrial waste dumped into water bodies, etc.

Soil Pollution:  Oil spills, acid rains, irresponsible disposal of trash, chemical waste, etc.

Noise Pollution: Honking of horns, construction activities, loud parties, etc.

Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Human Impact — Water Pollution

Essays on Water Pollution

Hook examples for water pollution essays, "the hidden peril: unveiling the depths of water pollution" hook.

"Beneath the serene surface of water lies a hidden peril. Dive into the depths of water pollution, uncovering the threats to our environment, wildlife, and health."

"From Crystal Clear to Murky: The Transformation of Water Bodies" Hook

"Once-pristine water bodies now bear scars of pollution. Explore the transformation of lakes, rivers, and oceans from crystal clear to murky, and the factors responsible."

"A Taste of Contamination: The Effects of Polluted Water on Health" Hook

"What we drink and consume affects our health. Discuss the alarming consequences of consuming contaminated water, from diseases to long-term health issues."

"Industrial Giants and the Price of Progress: Pollution's Impact" Hook

"Industrialization has brought progress, but at a cost. Analyze the role of industries in water pollution and their responsibility in mitigating environmental damage."

"The Ripple Effect: How Water Pollution Impacts Ecosystems" Hook

"Water pollution's effects ripple through ecosystems, disrupting fragile balances. Explore its impact on aquatic life, biodiversity, and the delicate web of life."

"Turning the Tide: Solutions for Combatting Water Pollution" Hook

"It's not too late to turn the tide against water pollution. Discuss innovative solutions, policies, and individual actions aimed at safeguarding our water resources."

"Guardians of the Waters: Inspiring Stories of Environmental Activism" Hook

"Meet the guardians of our waters—environmental activists who dedicate their lives to fighting pollution. Share their inspiring stories of dedication and change."

Ocean Pollution: a Threat to Marine Ecosystems

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Water: a Vital Resource in Debate

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Conserving Water and Controlling Water Pollution

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The Crucial Importance of Clean Drinking Water Access

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Water pollution is the release of substances into subsurface groundwater or into lakes, streams, rivers, estuaries, and oceans to the point where the substances interfere with beneficial use of the water or with the natural functioning of ecosystems.

Some of the primary sources water pollution are: domestic sewage, solid waste, toxic waste, sediment, thermal pollution, petroleum (oil) pollution.

Water pollution can result in the degradation of aquatic ecosystems, spread of gastrointestinal diseases and parasitic infections, eutrophication, and ocean acidification.

Around 70% of industrial waste is dumped to water. 80% of the water pollution is caused due to domestic sewage. More than 6 billion pounds of garbage, mainly plastic end up in the oceans every year. 15 million children under the age of five years die every year from diseases caused by drinking contaminated water. The Ganges river in India is considered the most polluted river in the world.

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The Story of Water: A series that teaches primary students about a precious, finite resource

By Marita Tripp

• X (formerly Twitter)

ABC Education and Melbourne Water have launched a series of classroom resources to teach primary students all about the water cycle, waterways and wastewater.

The Story of Water is a four-video series that incorporates lesson ideas and activities that teachers can use in the classroom.

The series covers all aspects of the natural and urban water cycle, with an overarching theme that water is a valuable and finite resource that needs to be looked after.

The series also explains the link between the water cycle and climate change.

The videos can be used individually or together, in any sequence, and they use distinctly Australian examples — you won't see snow covered mountains, but you will see platypuses and kangaroos!

These great teaching resources include both formative and summative assessment questions, with engaging tasks that encourage students to think about what actions we can take to protect this precious resource, water.

The water cycle

Where does the water in your tap come from? To answer this question, students will need to know the key processes of the water cycle — and the continuous movement of water around the Earth.

This video explains water cycle evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration and run-off.

It also shows how the natural cycle has been altered by the construction of dams and reservoirs that store the water that's piped into our taps.

What can we do to protect our water supplies? The accompanying activities ask students to consider their everyday use and how they can conserve water — they need to know how they use water before thinking of actions to reduce their use.

Wastewater treatment

What happens to sewage (wastewater) when it leaves our homes? This is a mystery to many people, and the management of sewage is often one of the least understood aspects of the urban water cycle.

This video shows how our sewage is piped to a sewage treatment plant and why sewage treatment is important to our health and wellbeing.

Wastewater isn't just "waste". When it's treated and recycled, it can be re-used for different purposes.

One of the suggested activities asks students to find out where their sewage is sent, if it's recycled and, if so, where it's re-used.

Water and waterways

How does rubbish get into our rivers and creeks? To answer this question, it's important that students know the difference between the pipes in our homes and the pipes that form stormwater drainage systems.

This video explains how stormwater drains have been built to remove water from our streets.

When rain falls, it bounces off hard surfaces like roads and footpaths, and then it enters our drains. But anything on these hard surfaces (like rubbish and other pollutants) also flows into the stormwater system and eventually into waterways.

In the accompanying activities , students can find out where the drains are located near their school and the location of their local waterway — and how rubbish could end up there. They can also come up with ideas on how to reduce rubbish.

Water, weather and climate

How will climate change affect our water supply? To answer this question, students need to know there's a set amount of water on Earth, and they need to understand the link between climate, weather and rainfall.

This video explains the difference between weather and climate, and it shows the main climate zones in Australia. It shows how climate influences rainfall and all aspects of water and the water cycle.

The video also explains how global warming is causing climate change and impacting severe weather events, like floods and droughts.

By completing the accompanying tasks , students can find out more about their local climate, investigate different water sources and discuss ways to conserve water.

Find all the Story of Water videos and teaching resources below. 

Marita Tripp is the Water Literacy Program Lead at Melbourne Water. She has worked as a secondary school teacher for 10 years and in educational publishing for 12 years. Marita is passionate about environmental education. At Melbourne Water, she develops and implements educational programs that advance water literacy and promote positive attitudes about water conservation.