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Contingency planning: 4 steps to prepare for the unexpected

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What is contingency planning?

Why is contingency planning important, 4 steps to develop a contingency plan.

Most days at work are business as usual — you hope. Unfortunately, there are also days where nothing seems to go right. Sometimes, these hiccups are just part of running an organization. And some days, they can be a major disruption in your work.

Because your clients and customers are relying on you to deliver as promised, it’s critical that you have a backup plan in place. There’s no way to prevent all mishaps from occurring, but you can minimize their impact with a little strategic planning .

Rather than waiting for the worst-case scenario to play out, companies — and individuals — can put together a contingency plan. This helps to ensure that normal business operations continue as smoothly as possible.

Learn what a business contingency plan is, why you should have one, and how to start planning in this article.

Contingency planning is a part of a business’ risk management strategy. It’s how companies foresee potential disruptions to the business. 

Contingency planning is an action plan put in place to help individuals, teams, and organizations minimize disruption. In common terms, we think of this as “plan B.” Contingency plans are less about how to mitigate negative events and more about proactively developing problem-solving skills.

While traditionally, contingency planning have been an area of focus for managers and organizations, there are many benefits for individuals as well.

To understand contingency planning, it’s best to take a broad view. Sure, when companies have a crisis management plan in place, everyone sleeps a little better at night. It’s nice to know that you’ll know what to do if something happens.

But in life — as well as in business — the only real constant is change. As Tina Gupta, VP of Talent and Employee Experience at WarnerMedia puts it , “Change is not something to solve for.” Fear of change and uncertainty leads people to hide from it, interpreting every bit of rough air as a sign of an impending crash.

When you embrace a future-minded perspective , you no longer have to be afraid of uncertainty. Contingency planning becomes a strategy to be proactive instead of reactive . It’s an exercise in looking for ways to thrive instead of survive. 

BetterUp calls this type of person a future-minded leader . Rather than running from potential threats or pretending everything is fine, they cultivate an agile mindset . These people combine optimism, pragmatism, and the ability to envision the future (or, what positive psychologists call prospection ).

Contingency planning example:

Let’s look at how WarnerMedia has been able to embrace contingency planning as a tool to build a psychologically safe environment.

Conducting a risk assessment

Before you can create a contingency plan, you need to identify the risks that may impact your business. The best way to do this is with the support of your team. Hold a brainstorming session where you can talk through recent experiences, upcoming initiatives, and common pitfalls.

This type of risk assessment can't protect you from being surprised. Tomorrow will hold unexpected events, many of which never happened before in your organization (months-long pandemic shutdowns anyone?) Instead think of this assessment as surfacing the things you can prepare for and opening up everyone's imagination to the range of possible obstacles and outcomes. This will prime the pump for awareness, a flexible mindset, and solution-seeking orientation.

Don’t make the mistake of limiting the meeting to just managers. Your entry-level employees and individual contributors will have a lot of insight as to what could happen — and how to handle it.

Companies often make strategic planning an annual event, but you should review your contingency plan more frequently. Risk assessment should ideally be a natural part of planning for every new initiative.

Here are 4 steps to develop a contingency plan for your team:

1. Identify the triggers

What are the risks? The first step in contingency planning is knowing which scenarios you’re preparing for. It’s impossible to predict everything, but chances are you can think of one (or ten) worst-case scenarios that would throw operations off.

Put these scenarios in order of likelihood. The most probable and important ones will form the backbone of your contingency plan.

2. Examine the situation

In your hypothetical scenario, what would be the most likely course of action? Write that down, but be sure to ask: is it the best course of action? If your new plan is significantly different from what you’ve done before, you’ll want to talk it over with your leaders.

Get your team involved in this stage of the process. One of the benefits of planning in advance is that you have time to brainstorm responses. If the disruption has happened before, ask them what they did to resolve it and what they wish they had done differently.

3. Determine who needs to know

Once you’ve created a viable plan, determine who the stakeholders are. Identify who needs to know as soon as plans change and who will be responsible for kicking plan B into gear. If anyone needs to authorize purchases, provide access to resources, or otherwise support the plan, make sure that they know as well. 

4. Practice

If you can, do a practice run of your disaster recovery plan. The specifics will vary depending on the “disaster,” but running through the plan is a useful exercise. It will help you spot areas that you might not be able to predict in advance.

For example, when the coronavirus pandemic sent millions of workers into lockdown, companies that already had remote work policies in place were in the ideal position for the change. Companies that relied on brick-and-mortar workplaces had to quickly develop strategies to ensure remote team members had the technology and support they needed to work from home for an extended period of time. 

How to maintain a contingency plan

In general, it’s a good idea to review your contingency plan on (at minimum) an annual basis. However, there may be other events that might trigger a review of your recovery strategies.

There are three main parts to your plan: the trigger (or unexpected event), the planned course of action, and the people involved. If any of these change, you’ll want to update your plan. 

For example, moving to a new system, platform, or workflow would cause a change in both your Plan As and Plan Bs. If you hire for a new role that sits between functions, that may change the people involved.

Final thoughts

Your business continuity plan isn’t just an exercise in preparedness. It’s an opportunity to help your teams learn how to become more agile and creative problem solvers.

Everyone, from a project management team developing a contingency plan for rolling out a new sales incentive, an IT team planning for a new system to go live, or a manager coaching an employee through creating a contingency plan for meeting work deadlines, needs to develop this skill. In a time of uncertainty and constant change, thinking through possible problems and alternatives in advance is part of life. 

Gupta of WarnerMedia says that empowering her team through coaching has helped them "move from overwhelm to thriving through change." When they trust themselves, the company, and the plan, employees become more confident. They’re more willing to take risks and trust each other.

When things go awry, your plan won’t just minimize the potential impact. It will empower your team to thrive in uncertainty as they respond to whatever gets thrown their way.

Allaya Cooks-Campbell

With over 15 years of content experience, Allaya Cooks Campbell has written for outlets such as ScaryMommy, HRzone, and HuffPost. She holds a B.A. in Psychology and is a certified yoga instructor as well as a certified Integrative Wellness & Life Coach. Allaya is passionate about whole-person wellness, yoga, and mental health.

It depends. Understanding the contingency theory of leadership

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Contingency Management Theory: Definition, History, Contributors, and Pros/Cons

Table of Contents

What is Contingency Management Theory?

Contingency Theory of management, also known as the situational theory of management, recognizes that there is no one-size-fits-all solution to management problems. It emphasizes that the best way to lead and make decisions depends on the specific situation.

Different organizations and circumstances require unique approaches for effective management . Contingency management theory posits that managerial effectiveness is contingent upon the interaction between management practices and specific events.

In essence, the theory suggests that managers must adapt their leadership style and decision-making based on the current internal and external circumstances. There is no universal formula for success; instead, managers must analyze the context and tailor their actions accordingly.

This approach of management acknowledges the complexity of each situation and calls for a customized approach to achieve the best outcomes. By understanding and addressing contingencies, managers can enhance their effectiveness and adaptability in diverse organizational settings .

A Brief History of Contingency Theory of Management

Contingency Theory of Management has an intriguing history that revolves around the idea of adapting leadership and decision-making to specific situations. It emerged as a response to the recognition that one-size-fits-all approaches in management don’t always work.

The theory’s roots can be traced back to the mid-20th century when researchers observed that different organizations faced diverse challenges and required tailored solutions.

In the 1960s, Fred Fiedler introduced his contingency model, emphasizing the impact of situations on a leader’s effectiveness. Fiedler proposed that a leader’s style should match the context to achieve success. As the theory evolved, other contributors like Burns and Stalker identified the influence of environmental factors on organizational structure.

Contingency Theory brought a shift in management thinking, embracing the uniqueness of each situation. This approach became crucial for leaders seeking to navigate complex and ever-changing business landscapes, recognizing that adaptability and flexibility are vital traits for effective management.

Related : Management Science Theory: Definition, Contributors, and Pros/Cons

Pros of Contingency Theory of Management

Let’s explore some pros of the contingency approach of management.

Flexibility in Leadership Styles

Contingency theory acknowledges that there is no one-size-fits-all leadership style. It allows managers to be flexible and adapt their approach based on the unique demands of each situation.

This means leaders can leverage their strengths and adjust their management style to fit the needs of their team and the challenges they face, leading to more effective decision-making and better outcomes.

Context-Sensitive Decision Making

The theory emphasizes that effective management decisions are contingent upon the specific circumstances at hand. This approach encourages managers to carefully assess the internal and external factors influencing the organization before making decisions.

By considering the context, managers can better tailor their actions to address challenges and seize opportunities, ensuring that their strategies align with the realities of the situation.

Realistic View of Management

Contingency theory provides a more realistic perspective on management by acknowledging the complexities and uncertainties in the business environment. Instead of relying on rigid principles, it acknowledges that management is situational and that successful strategies may vary depending on the unique context in which they are applied.

Enhanced Problem-Solving

The theory prompts managers to analyze the contingencies surrounding a problem, allowing for a more thorough understanding of the issue. By considering multiple factors, managers can identify the root causes of a problem and devise appropriate solutions. This approach fosters a holistic problem-solving mindset, which is crucial in today’s dynamic business landscape.

Better Employee Relations

Contingency theory emphasizes that a manager’s effectiveness is linked to their ability to build positive relationships with employees. By recognizing the impact of leader-member relations, managers can focus on fostering trust, open communication, and collaboration.

This leads to improved employee morale, engagement, and productivity, ultimately contributing to a more harmonious work environment.

Also Read: System Theory of Management

Adaptive Organizational Design

The theory extends beyond leadership styles and also addresses organizational structure. It suggests that an organization’s design should be aligned with the environment it operates in. This flexibility in structuring the organization allows for better adaptation to changing circumstances and enhances the organization’s overall resilience.

Criticisms of Contingency Management Theory

Despite its strengths, contingency management theory has faced some criticisms. One major criticism is the challenge of identifying all relevant contingencies in complex situations. It can be difficult for managers to accurately assess every internal and external factor that might impact decision-making.

Additionally, the theory lacks a clear framework for guiding managers on how to adjust their leadership styles effectively. Critics argue that it doesn’t offer specific guidelines for addressing contingencies, leaving managers to rely on intuition and trial and error.

Read Also: Decision Theory of Management

Moreover, the theory assumes a stable and predictable environment, which may not always reflect the dynamic nature of real-world business scenarios. These criticisms highlight the need for further refinement and practical application of the contingency management approach.

Who are the Major Contributors To Contingency Management Theory?

The major contributors to contingency management theory include:

• Fred Fiedler (1922 – 2017): Fred Fiedler is considered the pioneer of contingency management theory. He developed the Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) scale and proposed the concept of situational favorableness as a crucial factor in leadership effectiveness.
• Joan Woodward (1916 – 1971) : Joan Woodward’s research on technology and organizational structure provided valuable insights into how different environments and technology affect the structure and management of organizations.
• J.W. Lorsch (born 1937) : J.W. Lorsch, along with P.R. Lawrence, conducted influential studies on organizational differentiation and integration, highlighting the importance of environmental uncertainty and information flow.
• P.R. Lawrence (1922 – 2017) : P.R. Lawrence, in collaboration with J.W. Lorsch, contributed to the contingency theory by exploring the relationship between organizations and their environments.
• Burns and Stalker: Burns and Stalker’s work on different types of organizational structures (mechanistic and organic) and their adaptation to stable and dynamic environments contributed significantly to the development of contingency theory.

How To Implement Contingency Theory in the Workplace?

Implementing contingency theory in the workplace can improve decision-making and leadership effectiveness. Here are five effective ways to apply this approach:

Also Read: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Contextual Analysis: Understand the Specific Situation

Take time to analyze the unique context of each decision or task. Consider factors like team dynamics, task complexity, and the external environment.

Tailor your management style to fit the specific requirements of the situation. Just like you dress differently based on the weather, adapt your leadership approach based on the workplace conditions.

Leadership Style Assessment: Know Your Approach

Assess your leadership style using the Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) scale. Identify whether you lean towards a task-oriented or relationship-oriented approach. Knowing your dominant style helps you adapt to different situations. Like a Chameleon changing colors, adjust your leadership to match the needs of your team.

Situational Favorableness: Match Leadership Style with Situation

Evaluate situational favorableness by considering leader-member relations, task structure, and position power. A favorable situation may have good communication and clear tasks.

An unfavorable one may have uncertainty and limited authority. Adjust your leadership style accordingly to achieve the best outcomes. Like a navigator adjusting the sails, adjust your approach to steer in the right direction.

Flexible Decision-Making: Adapt to Changes

Contingency theory recognizes that external and internal factors influence success. Embrace flexibility in decision-making to adapt to changes in the workplace.

Related : Workforce Diversity

Be prepared to adjust strategies, structures, and management approaches as the situation demands. Like a chef creating a new recipe, tweak your methods to fit the ingredients.

Communication and Feedback: Listen to Your Team

Encourage open communication and feedback from your team. Regularly check in to understand their perspectives and experiences. Create a supportive environment where employees feel comfortable sharing their ideas and concerns. Like a radio receiving signals, tune in to your team’s input to make informed decisions.

By implementing these five practices, you can harness the power of contingency theory to lead your team more effectively and achieve success in diverse situations. Remember, being adaptable and context-sensitive is the key to effective management by this contingency management.

Read Next: What is Classical Management?

By profession, Sujan Chaudhary is a BBA (Bachelor in Business Administration) graduate, and by passion a blogger. He loves to share his business knowledge with the rest of the world. While not writing, he will be found reading and exploring the world.

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Article • 10 min read

Contingency Planning

Developing a good "plan b".

By the Mind Tools Content Team

Fires, floods, tornadoes, pandemics – these are the types of events that we often associate with contingency planning.

But what if your main supplier suddenly goes bankrupt, your entire sales force comes down with food poisoning, or your website is held to ransom by hackers?

Contingency planning isn't just about major crises and natural disasters. It can also prepare you for more commonplace problems, such as the loss of data, staff, customers, or business relationships. That's why it's important to make contingency planning a routine part of the way you work.

In this article, we explore how to create and maintain robust contingency plans, so that you've always got a backup option when things go wrong.

Conducting a Risk Assessment

Every organization faces a unique set of risks that it needs to plan for. The key to identifying yours is to conduct a thorough risk assessment.

The first step is to identify your business-critical operations . These are the key processes and functions without which your organization could not operate – for example, your supply chain, your internet connection, or your ability to comply with legal standards.

Next, identify the threats that could harm each critical operation. These could include the loss of key staff, technical failure, or a change in government policy, for example. (Our article, Risk Analysis and Risk Management covers this process in more detail.)

Chances are, you'll end up with a long list of potential threats. It may be unrealistic to attempt contingency planning for all of them, so you need to prioritize.

Risk Impact/Probability Charts are a good way to do this. These charts help you to analyze the impact of each risk and to estimate how likely it is to happen. This reveals which risks require the expense and effort of risk mitigation. Business processes that are essential to your organization's survival, such as maintaining cash flow and market share, are typically at the top of the list.

Contingency planning is one response to risk. But in some cases, it may be safer or more cost-effective to tackle it in other ways: to avoid the risk, by investing in new equipment, for example; or to share the risk, by purchasing an insurance policy. Or you may choose not to formally plan for some lower-priority risks at all, but to manage them if they do happen.

What Does a Contingency Plan Cover?

A good contingency plan can prevent your business from "going under" when unexpected events occur, so it's vital to ensure that it's fit for purpose.

Here are the key elements to include:

Refer to your risk assessment and impact/probability charts and choose the most damaging or most likely scenarios that you want to plan for. Then, map out what should happen in each case (see examples 1 and 2, below).

Aim to include a broad range of scenarios – for instance, cyber attacks, prolonged staff absences, IT malfunctions, loss of suppliers, serious power outages, or structural problems with your business premises.

Specify what, exactly, will cause you to put your contingency plan into action. If you have a plan for heavy snow, will it be triggered by a severe weather warning, or only by actual snowfall?

One event could also have multiple triggers, each of which initiates a different part of your plan (see example 2, below).

Include a brief overview of the strategy that you will follow in response to the event. This provides a context for the actions that you ask your people to take.

Who to Inform

Identify the people who need to know about what's happened. This could include employees, suppliers, customers, and the wider public, as appropriate. Our article, Communicating in a Crisis , explores how to plan and deliver effective communication in difficult situations.

Also, make sure that you're aware of your legal obligations, and that any incidents are reported to the relevant authorities where necessary.

Key Responsibilities

Define who's responsible for each element of the plan, who will be in charge at each stage, and what you expect them to accomplish. The Responsibility Assignment Matrix and the RACI Model are useful tools here.

State what needs to be done within the first hour, day and week of the plan being implemented.

This could be as simple as, "Inform employees of the situation immediately." But you may need far more detailed timelines for certain situations, such as data breaches , serious workplace injuries, or leaks of hazardous materials.

Also include details of when you would expect normal business to resume, and what will signal that your organization is ready for this.

Contingency Plan Examples

Click on the links below to see two scenarios and contingency plans for an online retailer with an office of 20 employees and a warehouse full of stock.

Example 1 – A Minor Business Disruption

Example 2 – A Significant Business Disruption

These examples show just one possible way to present your contingency plan. You may prefer to use another format, such as a flow chart or slideshow. Choose a style that suits your needs, and one that captures all of the necessary information.

Developing Your Contingency Plan

When you develop your contingency plan, remember that your primary aim is to maintain or restore critical business operations, so look closely at how these might be affected by each scenario.

Be aware of knock-on effects. Will your organization be able to function at full capacity when you implement your "Plan B," or will productivity drop? If so, for how long?

Involve Your People

To answer questions like these, it's useful to consult people from across your organization.

Managers from different departments can advise you on the impact of disruptive events on services, staff, resources, and business functions. And "frontline" employees are often best placed to tell you about the minimum tools and support they require to maintain essential operations.

Take the time to share your plan across your organization, so that people can offer feedback and ask questions. Use this process to make your plan even more robust.

And, if possible, conduct drills to assess the efficacy of your plan. This can highlight areas for improvement, and reveal skills gaps or training needs .

People are often poorly motivated to develop a strong "Plan B." They may already be invested in "Plan A," or they may perceive the risks to be low and see no need for a contingency plan. As such, getting people to contribute to your plan can be a challenge.

To offset this resistance, stress the importance of the task and the potential consequences of not having a plan in place. Lead by example , by completing any contingency-plan-related tasks of your own. And, if it's within your power to do so, set people deadlines for submitting their contribution, or make it a performance review objective.

Keep It Simple

When you write your contingency plan, be sure to use simple, plain language . You don't know when the plan will be used, or who will read and implement it when it's needed. For the same reason, use job titles or roles instead of names when you define people's responsibilities. This will help to keep your plan relevant, regardless of any changes in personnel.

And don't forget that your people are business-critical, too. Sudden, unexpected events can be difficult or stressful for them – and for you. At such times, clear communication is essential to reassure everyone that the situation is under control, and to avoid potentially damaging rumors and gossip. Read our article, How to Keep Calm in a Crisis , for more on this.

Maintaining Your Contingency Plan

Your contingency plan must be reviewed and updated regularly if it's to remain useful and credible.

When you review it, take all relevant technological, operational and personnel changes into account and reassess the risks accordingly. Then, discard old versions of the plan.

The coronavirus pandemic demonstrated how quickly whole organizations can change the way they operate – having everyone suddenly working from home, for example. So bear this in mind when you're writing your contingency plan. It needs to work in any workplace scenario, whether everyone's in the office, everyone's remote, or there's a hybrid approach in place.

When new employees join your organization, provide them with the contingency plan as part of their induction so that they're familiar with it, and so that they know what to do if there's a problem.

And finally, keep your plans safe, and make sure that they're accessible by the right people at the right times. If a crisis occurs, you won't want to be searching for passwords or struggling to give people access rights. Treat your contingency plans with the same care that you give to all your business-critical information.

The specifics of disaster recovery are beyond the scope of this article. For more information on this topic, listen to our Expert Interview with Kathy McKee, Leading People Through Disasters .

Contingency plans are an essential part of risk management. They help to ensure that you've always got a backup option when things go wrong, or when the unexpected happens.

To develop a contingency plan, first conduct a risk assessment: identify your business-critical operations, identify the threats to those operations, and analyze the potential impact of each threat.

Then, include the following points for each threat:

• Response overview.
• People to inform.
• Key responsibilities.

To create the most robust plan, consult widely within your organization, conduct trial runs, update the plan regularly, and store it securely.

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How to take a contingency approach in management

February 14, 2024 - 7 min read

There is no “one size fits all” approach in project management . Just as no two projects are identical, no two managers are alike. Each brings a unique blend of skills, experiences, and management styles.

Being flexible and adaptable is the basis of a contingency approach in management. Embracing this not only enhances the effectiveness of management but also creates a more resilient and responsive project environment. OK great, you want a more resilient and responsive project environment … but how do you do it?

In this article, we’ll go through the basics of contingency management and how to use it in your organization — bonus points if you use Wrike to do so!

Try Wrike for free

Understanding the contingency approach in management

In the contingency approach, a manager’s leadership style must match the circumstances of the environment. The need for workplace connectivity and greater alignment across teams has increased significantly over the past few years as organizations adapt to unprecedented workforce changes, economic uncertainty, and, most recently, historically low productivity levels. In fact, according to Wrike’s Dark Matter of Work report, the average total cost of wasted time in the workplace is $50 million.

*The contingency approach in management has entered the chat.*

So, how do you remain productive and agile enough to stay ahead of potential roadblocks or challenges? We’re glad you asked!

Wrike enables the fastest way to productivity with Wrike Lightspeed . Other solutions force teams to work within a rigid workflow template, but Wrike lets people work in whatever way best suits their job. How? With Wrike’s custom item types , you can build a workspace tailored to your role, department, or industry. With a contingency management approach plus Wrike Lightspeed powering your workday, it’s easy to manage projects and automate team workflows across your company.

Benefits of contingency management

Still on the fence about adapting a contingency management style? Here are some of the key benefits of contingency management to help convince you (and how Wrike can help you specifically):

• With Wrike: Structure work in a way that makes sense for your team with custom item types .
• With Wrike: Communicate progress and make decisions in real time with Wrike’s easy-to-use report builder .
• With Wrike: View individual capacity in your team’s workload chart . Spot uneven workloads and instantly reallocate tasks if required.
• With Wrike: Add the necessary security measures and configurability applicable to your team and each user, based on your organization’s needs.
• With Wrike: Cross-tagging in Wrike enables teams to view tasks in context of their unique projects, as well as wider company initiatives.

Assessing your business’s needs

Before establishing a contingency management style, you should use three guidelines to assess your organization’s needs. Let’s check out some scenarios that will help you visualize your business needs.

• Identify contingency approach internal and external factors. Suppose your organization operates in the tech industry. The internal factors within your company, such as hiring skilled staff and conducting specific research, can significantly impact your business operations. New technologies, government policies, and stock market changes are all external factors that can affect your organization’s functions.
• Analyze organizational structure and culture. Organizations that are inflexible and resistant to change may struggle to adjust to new situations. Addressing a change-resistant culture via employee survey or company town hall might be necessary to embrace a contingency approach.
• Evaluate resources and capabilities. Think to yourself: Do I have the resources I need to respond effectively to different scenarios? Are my employees equipped with the necessary skills and knowledge?

When you look at your resources and capabilities, you can figure out which situations you’re best prepared for — and which you might need extra help with.

Developing a contingency plan

So, you know what your business needs — now what? The fun part: developing your contingency plan. Here are some questions to help you guide through setting up your plan.

Setting clear objectives and goals

• What are you trying to achieve with your plan? 
• What are your priorities? 

Setting clear goals helps you focus on your goals and ensure your plan fits your strategy.

Identifying potential risks and challenges

• What are the potential risks associated with your business?
• What challenges could make it difficult to reach your goals and objectives?

Creating contingency strategies and action plans

• If a potential crisis happens and there is suddenly less demand for your product, what will you do?
• What action plan will you have in place if a global pandemic comes out of nowhere and shuts the world down? *Covid PTSD is real.* 

Create different contingency strategies and action plans with specific actions you will take if a particular scenario occurs.

Assigning roles and responsibilities

• Who will be the first point of contact for your plan?
• What other stakeholders need to be involved, and what are their roles and responsibilities to ensure your plan is executed?

This ensures that everyone knows what they are responsible for and can act quickly if the plan needs to be implemented.

Implementing the contingency approach

So now, we have our business needs and our contingency approach mapped out. Are we done? ALMOST! Now we have to implement the approach to ensure the plan is effective and successful.

Communicating the plan to stakeholders

Communicate clearly to all stakeholders, employees, and customers. Use clear and concise language, avoiding technical jargon or complex terminology. By keeping people informed and up to date, everyone will be aligned and work toward the same goals.

Training and development for effective contingency management

It’s essential to provide training and development opportunities for employees so that they have the skills and knowledge they need to implement the contingency plan effectively. Consider workshops, seminars, and online courses, and tailor them to your organization’s and employees’ specific needs. 

Monitoring and adjusting the plan as needed

Finally, it’s essential to monitor the implementation of the contingency plan and make adjustments as needed. This may involve revisiting your assessment of internal and external factors, updating your contingency strategies, or modifying roles and responsibilities. Regularly monitoring the plan is crucial to ensure it remains relevant and practical.

Using Wrike for your business contingency approach

Wrike is an invaluable asset for businesses seeking to bolster their contingency approach. By using Wrike in their contingency plans, organizations can be more flexible and responsive when dealing with unexpected disruptions. The platform helps team members work together in real time and easily adjust to changing situations. 

Wrike has helped companies like Siemens Smart Infrastructure to standardize processes and automate project delivery on a global scale, which has resulted in reduced labor time, increased competitiveness, employee satisfaction, and ROI. Siemens chose Wrike because of its versatile, flexible, intuitive work management platform capabilities. That way, no matter what issue comes at the company, it can adjust and adapt accordingly.

“Wrike provides a flexible system infrastructure that is easily configured to meet our business needs.” Damian Robles, Operations Standards Manager, Siemens Smart Infrastructure

Read the entire case study here to learn more about the Wrike and Siemens Smart Infrastructure story.

Ready to master the contingency approach in management and increase your organization’s adaptability with Wrike? Get started with a free trial of our project management platform to tackle changes head on.

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Free resources, contingency maps for behavior problem-solving (freebie).

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Contingency maps are a cognitive-behavioral method for helping an individual to understand the consequences of behavioral choices.  They are particularly useful for teaching individuals to use functionally equivalent behaviors as alternatives to problem behavior.  

They also are sometimes referred to as consequence maps and they are essentially graphic organizers for behavior.  Michelle Garcia Winner uses similar strategies for Social Thinking that she calls Social Mapping .  

Contingency maps are a visual support that has been around in many forms for a number of years.  The examples below come from a strategy we used to call visual problem solvers about 15 years ago.

How Do Contingency Maps Work? 

Essentially, they are set up so that the student can see the consequence of the alternative behavior and the consequence (typically the naturally occurring consequence) of the negative behavior.  

So in this example, If the student gets worried, and uses his calming strategies, the outcome is usually that he feels better. If he gets worreid and doesn’t use the calming strategies, the outcome is often that he starts to scream and become more upset.

Evidence Base and Effectiveness

As a visual support strategy there is evidence for the use of a variety of visual cues to increase independence and reduce problem behavior , and contingency maps fit in that body of literature.  Specifically there have been two peer-reviewed articles looking at contingency maps as a way to reduce problem behavior.  

Using a single-subject research design, Brown and Mirenda (2006) showed that the use of visual contingency maps were more effective than providing verbal contingencies to an individual for initiating and completing routine tasks [ click here to read the abstract ].  Brown and Mirenda used the contingency map as part of a functional equivalence training program (also known as functional communication training ).  The contingency map showed the alternative behavior that was designed to replace the challenging behavior by serving the same function.

Tobin and Simpson (2012) have a great article in Teaching Exceptional Children describing data with another individual, using a single-subject design, that showed that a contingency map (they refer to it as a consequence map) was effective in reducing challenging behavior (decreased the frequency of disrobing) of a student.  If you are a member of the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) –and I highly recommend it if you are a special education professional–you have access to the article.  If not, the abstract is available here as well .  This article also has a great description of how to implement contingency maps as well as examples.

Developing and Using Contingency Maps

Define the behavior.

Essentially to use a contingency, first you need to identify the specific behavior you want to change.  You need to define it clearly and make sure that you and the student understand what it looks like.  It also helps to take a baseline of the frequency of the behavior so you can determine if your contingency map works.

Determine the function

Next, you need to determine the function that the behavior serves.  That is the topic of another post to cover, however, I have written about in the past and there are some tools available at this post.  

The purpose of knowing the function of the behavior is to determine what appropriate behavior will serve the same function that you can use to replace it with.  For instance, if your student hits to escape from work tasks, think about teaching him to ask for a break.  Then this would be part of your graphic organizer.

Create the visual

Third, you need to create the contingency map, and that’s where I’ve got your back in several formats.

Below is a link to a freebie set of contingency maps along with some universal “no” signs to use with them.  They are editable in PowerPoint and available in the Free Resources Library and in my TpT Store.

Essentially a contingency map makes the statement that

• when this happens (typically the identified trigger for problem behavior from your functional assessment),
• if the student engages in the appropriate alternative behavior (e.g., asking for a break),
• he or she will get a consequence he or she enjoys (i.e., a reinforcer).  
• If he or she engages in the negative behavior then the positive consequence does not occur.

Sometimes the good choices are colored green and the poor choices are colored red, as in the examples below.

Steps for Using Contingency Maps

Contingency maps can be written or visual depending on the skills of your students.  They are good visual cues to use for redirection since they show the consequence of behaviors.

In this example, the student’s behavior has been determined to be functioning to escape work situations.   So, if he raises his hand and asks for a break, he gets a break to sit on the bean bag.  If he doesn’t ask for a break and runs away, he does not get the bean bag.

After you have created the visual, it is not a magic bullet and it won’t work without teaching.  You have to present the visual contingency and provide at least a brief explanation about how it works.  Sometimes a social story or social narrative can be helpful for this. I would also practice the contingencies through a role play and make sure you have it available when it is needed to be used.  

I would present it with as little verbal interaction as possible, just to lessen either the attention from the verbal explanation as a possible reinforcer for the problem behavior or to keep from escalating the behavior with verbal demands for some students.

Make sure to reinforce the alternative behavior with the promised contingency.  It is important to make sure that the reinforcer is meaningful for the alternative behavior and reinforcing.  Tools for finding reinforcers for students with ASD can be found in this post .  

It also helps for the consequence to be naturally occurring to help the behavior maintain in the absence of the map over time.  So for instance, if I ask my friends questions, they will want to talk to me, but if I hit my friends, they will not want to talk to me.

Assess and Fade

Take data on whether the frequency of the behavior is decreasing.  If it is working, then over time you can fade the use of the visual map as the student becomes more independent and the negative behavior reduces in frequency.

Contingency Map Options

Contingency Maps are part of several of my Behavioral Toolkits. I’ve noted where each one came from in the pictures above. But they are available in my Making Mistakes Toolkit (obviously focused on handling making errors) and in my Managing Anxiety Toolkit . Click the pictures below to grab either of them.

Click on either of the pictures below to check out the toolkits in the store

I have also created some templates for you to use.   Click here for the free version through my TPT store.   They are editable in PowerPoint to add your own pictures(or upload to Google Slides) or Keynote to add your own pictures on to them. There are some pictures included in the pdf version as well that you could use with velcro.

  Remember that if students are not great at comprehending what they have read, they may still need pictures.   You could also laminate the chart and use a dry erase marker to make a contingency map on the fly.

Clearly, contingency maps are an invaluable tool for educators working with students who exhibit challenging behavior. By providing a visual representation of expectations and consequences, these maps empower both teachers and students to take proactive steps towards positive behavior management.So, why wait? Grab your contingency maps now and start creating a more conducive learning environment for your students!

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Contingency Planning For Team Managers: The 4 Essential Elements

What is contingency planning, why is contingency planning important for managers, 1. identification of risks and challenges, 2. brainstorming potential solutions, 3. putting a plan into action, 4. monitoring the plan and adjusting as needed.

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• Continuation of operations-  First and foremost, contingency planning is essential for ensuring the continuity of business operations in the event of an unexpected event. By being prepared for potential risk factors and implementing a plan of action should they arise, managers can minimize the disruption caused by an unforeseen situation.
• Manage Risk-  A good contingency plan will help you proactively manage risk. By anticipating potential problems and planning, you reduce the chances that an actual issue will become severe enough to disrupt your team operations.
• Responsiveness-  A good contingency plan will be responsive to changes in the business environment. By being agile and able to adjust your plans as needed rapidly, you can ensure that you are always prepared for whatever might come your way.
• Restore confidence-  Finally, a well-executed contingency plan can help restore confidence in the management team and internal stakeholders. You can do this by demonstrating that you are taking proactive steps to address potential risks. By being open and transparent about your risk management processes, you can build trust and credibility with those who matter most – your employees and customers.
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Elements of a good contingency plan

• The first step is to develop a list of possible solutions
• The second step is to select the most promising solution
• The third step is to create a plan to implement the solution
• The fourth step is to test the plan
• Further, the fifth step is to implement the plan
• At last, the sixth step is to evaluate the results

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Healthcare Leadership in Times of Crisis pp 97–124 Cite as

Management and Containment as Problem Solving Change Strategies

• Dennis W. Tafoya 3 &
• Lindsey Poeth 4  
• First Online: 08 July 2021

Whether in the near or far term, people change as a result of an event or crisis. Sometimes this change is unavoidable. If someone is injured, the change is obvious. However, some people may want to look past the event or crisis after it is contained or under control and simply revert to an earlier, more convenient way of functioning. There are many ways to approach this chapter’s theme, but let’s highlight one thing: the tendency to rush to a solution as a means for demonstrating action is not a good idea when faced with a troublesome event or emerging crisis. Managing a troublesome event has its own challenges, but if the event morphs into a crisis, then different effort, thinking, resources and actions are required.

• Change and change strategies
• Event management vs crisis containment
• Stakeholders and event monitoring
• Performance drivers and event management

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Appendix 1: Pre-Event Preparation and Planning

Introduction The material in this appendix is an example of ways many plans can be used to develop a single, organization-wide pre-event plan. In this appendix different types of plans are sketched which, when taken as part of a whole, may prove relevant for effective healthcare delivery when faced with a troublesome event or emerging crisis. The process begins with assessments of evident vulnerabilities or exposures. These initial assessments guide subsequent actions and the development of the overall plan.

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Tafoya, D.W., Poeth, L. (2021). Management and Containment as Problem Solving Change Strategies. In: Healthcare Leadership in Times of Crisis. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75965-0_5

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Contingency Management Theory | How does it help managers?

Contingency management theory states that the best way to lead a corporation depends on the external and internal situation. The word Contingent means “dependent.”

Back in the 1960s, Professor Fred Fiedler developed the contingency theory. After studying various leaders in different contexts, Fred Fiedler proposed this theory. In this article, we will work out how it helps managers. Before getting into the nitty-gritty of our topic, let’s first understand some of the basics of this theory. Fiedler divides the leaders into two groups:

• Task-oriented
• People-oriented

To understand better, let us go through the main ideas of the contingency theory of management, which are:

• Organizations require careful administration and balanced internal requirements.
• The appropriate way to lead depends on the nature of the work or the environment.
• Management must be concerned about aligning the organization and its environment.
• There is a need for different types of management in various settings.
• There is a requirement for different types of control for multiple domains.

Indeed, management depends on the situation.

Quick write-up -> “ How does Contingency Management Theory help managers. “

This theory sets the organizing and management standards. The contingency management theory has been a reliable source of guidance for management and leadership roles. In this discussion, let us go through the details of this theory.

How does Contingency management theory help managers?

Training is the primary help provided by the contingency theory of management to the managers. This theory shows them a pathway to being successful managers. It also provides the basics of management and training.

Contingency Management Theory can help managers diagnose the solution in specific circumstances and define the management strategy. Furthermore, it allows them to solve problems according to the situation. It helps them to improve productivity and employee morale. Moreover, it will make them alert to the situation.

Strategic Planning to help managers

Strategic planning or driving strategies to manage is one of the critical elements of managing the organization. The contingency management theory can help managers with all the details to make a strategy. As explained, the method of implementation is according to the situation. In contrast, they avoid the traditions and policies to improve productivity. With the contingent approach, managers can draw an efficient strategy.

For example: Consider a sales manager drawing up a product marketing strategy. He can draw a more realistic and efficient marketing strategy with the contingent approach. And emphasize and sell better, all according to the situation of the market and organization.

Efficient Solutions for specific situations

With this theory’s help, the manager can respond to the real cause of the problem. He can understand all influences that led to the problem due to his alertness to the situation. The contingent approach helps managers to achieve a productive solution.

For instance: A restaurant manager is dealing with the problem of decreasing efficiency. With a contingent approach, he realizes that the lack of proper ventilation causes the chef to tire quickly. In other words, he restores efficiency with a contingent process.

Provides a macro-view of the organization

The contingency management theory also stretches managers thinking about decisions and their consequences. It can also help managers to draw the strategy and solve problems based on how they will impact the company.

For example: Consider a manager who finds some problem in any unit. A manager with a contingent approach would keep this problem private. Instead, he works closely with a faulty unit to find the cause and solve the problem.

Increased Discretion

The contingency theory of management can help managers with greater discretion. Since the contingent approach gives the manager different ways to react to problems, it provides meaningful choices in decision-making. This type of freedom results in increased confidence in managers, aiding in their better decision-making. The approach overall increases productivity in the organization.

For example, if a Warehouse manager has to deal with the issue of lack of efficiency of workers. With the contingent approach, the manager has the freedom to make a decision irrespective of any tradition. As a result, decisions made will prove more productive.

Related link -> Five (5) noteworthy Strategies used to Negotiate

      What is Important, Skills or Degree?

The contingent theory of management significantly impacts managers worldwide and is increasing daily. To sum up, it alerts managers to all happenings of the organization and guides them to manage issues better.

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For short posts on different articles, you can visit our Instagram page: @trainthelearner

[This article is written by Ali Hussain Haider   during Train the Learner’s 4 weeks Training Program as an Article Writer]

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The Dissemination and Implementation of Contingency Management for Substance Use Disorders: A Systematic Review

Contingency management is one of the most effective behavioral interventions for substance use. However, the implementation of contingency management has not been as widespread as might be expected given its efficacy. This review summarizes literature that examines the dissemination and implementation of contingency management for substance use in community (e.g., specialized substance use treatment) and clinical (e.g., primary care) settings. A systematic review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA) statement. Databases including Google Scholar, World of Knowledge, PsycINFO and PubMed were searched. Search results yielded 100 articles and after the screening of titles and abstracts 44 were identified. Full-text articles were examined for eligibility and yielded 24 articles that were included in this review. Of the 24 articles included in the review, the majority (n=11) focused on implementing contingency management in methadone clinics and opioid treatment programs. Training methods, implementation strategies, fidelity assessments, and attitudes towards the implementation of contingency management are discussed in greater detail. These findings highlight the importance of organizational input and ongoing supervision and consultation and that there is a need for additional research that is guided by theoretical frameworks and use rigorous study designs.

INTRODUCTION

Approximately 20 million individuals in the U.S. were diagnosed with substance use disorders (SUD) in 2017 ( Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2018 ). In the U.S., SUDs account for roughly $200 billion annually on the health care system and an additional $500 billion on the criminal justice system and social services combined ( Florence, Zhou, Luo, & Xu, 2016 ; Lushniak, Samet, Pechacek, Norman, & Taylor, 2014 ). Individuals diagnosed with a SUD are more likely to experience adverse health events (e.g., cardiovascular disease, overdose), mental health problems, homelessness, and incarceration ( Galea & Vlahov, 2002 ). Although SUDs have a negative impact on quality of life and are a financial burden on the economy, only 15% of adults with SUDs receive treatment and the vast majority of addiction treatment is not evidence-based ( Epstein, Hourani, & Heller, 2004 ; Watkins, Burnam, Kung, & Paddock, 2001 ).

Contingency management (CM) is a behavioral treatment that provides reinforcers (e.g., vouchers, prizes) for a targeted behavior such as abstinence from substance use ( Petry et al., 1998 ). Nancy Petry (2000) , deployed one of the most well-known and widely used CM procedures, “the fishbowl method,” which involves delivering variable magnitudes of reinforcement ( Petry, Martin, Cooney, & Kranzler, 2000 ; Petry & Martin, 2002 ). Using this method, clients who provide a negative drug test result draw a token from a ‘fishbowl’ for a chance of winning a prize equal to the value of the token, that generally ranges from “good job,” “small,” “large,” or “jumbo” (i.e., $0, $1, $20, $100). The ‘fishbowl method’ popularized by Dr. Petry, as well as other CM procedures such as the voucher-based reinforcement therapy developed by Higgins and colleagues ( Higgins et al., 1991 ; Higgins et al., 1993 ), are supported by a large body of literature that has demonstrated the effectiveness of CM in reducing tobacco, alcohol, and other drug use. ( Kaminer, Burleson, Burke, & Litt, 2014 ; Kirby, Marlowe, Festinger, Lamb, & Platt, 1998 ; McDonell et al., 2013 ; McDonell et al., 2017 ; Petry et al., 2000 ; Petry & Martin, 2002 ; Roll, Higgins, & Badger, 1996 ; Roll et al., 2006 ). While CM is one of the most effective treatments for SUDs, only 10–25% of clinicians utilize CM in clinical practice ( McGovern, Fox, Xie, & Drake, 2004 ).

In recent years, there has been a drive to accelerate implementation and dissemination of evidence-based practices for substance use treatment. According to the National Institute of Health (2018) , dissemination is defined as the “targeted distribution of information and intervention materials to a specific public health or clinical practice audience,” and implementation is defined as “strategies to adopt and integrate evidence-based interventions into clinical and community settings.” The widespread dissemination and implementation of CM into clinical and community-based settings has been limited, contributing to the attenuation of its impact and sustainability. The paucity of CM implementation is perpetuated by 1) limited funding for CM-associated urine tests and reinforcers, 2) limited provider understanding and knowledge of CM, 3) a lack of practical implementation tools, and 4) scarcity of documented implementation strategies in a real-world setting ( Kirby, Benishek, Dugosh, & Kerwin, 2006 ).

Several reviews highlight the practical barriers to CM, hindering the widespread implementation of CM ( Petry et al., 2001 ; Petry, 2010 ; Roll, Madden, Rawson, & Petry, 2009 ). These review studies have highlighted various aspects that apply to the implementation (i.e., provider beliefs, adoption) of CM, however, there has yet to be a review examining strategies that have been utilized to further CM dissemination and implementation efforts. To this end, the purpose of this systematic review is to examine current literature on dissemination and implementation strategies of CM for substance use in community and clinical (e.g., primary care) settings.

Database Search Methodology

To guide the selection process, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA) Systematic Review Checklist was used ( Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, & Altman, 2009 ). A systematic literature search on published studies examining the dissemination and implementation of CM was conducted using PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and PsycInfo. Search terms were related to 1) contingency management; 2) motivational incentives; 3) dissemination; 4) implementation; and 5) SUDs. A secondary search included a hand search of reference lists and citations of potential articles included in the review. Titles and abstracts were screened by two independent researchers and full papers were read in detail and excluded according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Articles that were included needed to be specific to substance use populations. Additional inclusion criteria were 1) peer-reviewed, 2) published in English, 3) published between January 2000 and December 2018, 4) clinician delivered, and 5) assessed or described implementation strategies for CM or included details of dissemination efforts. Studies were excluded if 1) delivered by research staff, 2) there were no details on the dissemination or implementation of CM, 3) were systematic reviews, and/or 4) the study’s main purpose was to examine the effectiveness of CM.

Data Abstraction

Three independent researchers extracted data and information that included sample size, settings, study methodology, and study design that are all noted in study characteristics.

Synthesis of these articles revealed major themes that were consistent among all independent researchers. These constructs were organized and summarized into four distinct constructs related to dissemination and implementation: 1) training strategies; 2) implementation fidelity generally defined as a measure of adherence or competence to the standards and principles of delivery an intervention ( Bond, Evans, Salyers, Williams, & Kim, 2000 ); 3) implementation strategies defined as a more than one method and technique to enhance adoption ( Curran, Bauer, Mittman, Pyne, & Stetler, 2012 ); and 4) staff and administrator perceptions toward CM after implementation. Several articles were limited to only one of these constructs, however the majority presented information that were classified into more than one construct.

Search Results

Figure 1 displays the literature searches that yielded a total of 107 results and an additional seven articles were identified through a hand search of references. Duplicate articles ( n =14) were removed and the titles and abstracts of 100 articles were initially screened for inclusion that resulted in 44 full-text articles to be reviewed for inclusion. Of the 44 full-text articles that were assessed for eligibility, 20 were excluded because there was no dissemination or implementation data, or descriptive information related to implementation efforts was not included, was a review article, or was not a peer-reviewed article (i.e., book chapter, technical report). Thus, a total of 24 articles were included in the review.

Study Selection Flow for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA)

Study Characteristics

The study characteristics of the 24 articles included in this review are described in Table 1 . Overall, articles concentrated primarily on the process of the adoption and implementation of CM or focused on the fidelity and supervision of CM during implementation. Four studies implemented CM in methadone treatment centers ( Andrzejewski, Kirby, Morral, & Iguchi, 2001 ; Kropp, Lewis, & Winhusen, 2016 ; Petry, Alessi, & Ledgerwood, 2012b ; Roman, Abraham, Rothrauff, & Knudsen, 2010 ) and seven were in opioid treatment programs ( Becker et al., 2016 ; Hartzler, Jackson, Jones, Beadnell, & Calsyn, 2014 ; Hartzler, 2015a ; Hartzler, Beadnell, & Donovan, 2017 ; Helseth, Janssen, Scott, Squires, & Becker, 2018 ). Four studies focused their implementation within the Veterans Administration system ( DePhilippis, Petry, Bonn-Miller, Rosenbach, & McKay, 2018 ; Hagedorn et al., 2014 ; Petry, DePhilippis, Rash, Drapkin, & McKay, 2014 ; Rash, DePhilippis, McKay, Drapkin, & Petry, 2013 ; Ruan, Bullock, & Reger, 2017 ). Three articles focused their dissemination and implementation efforts statewide. The first two articles concentrated on substance use and mental health organizations in South Carolina ( Henggeler et al., 2008 ; Henggeler, Chapman, Rowland, Sheidow, & Cunningham, 2013 ; Squires, Gumbley, & Storti, 2008 ) and the third focused on chemical dependency treatment services in New York ( Kellogg et al., 2005 ). One study implemented CM for adolescents with SUD in the juvenile justice system ( Henggeler et al., 2006 ) while another study was implemented in multisystemic therapy programs for adolescent cannabis abuse ( Henggeler, Sheidow, Cunningham, Donohue, & Ford, 2008 ). The remaining studies evaluated the implementation of CM in the context of general substance use treatment programs for adults ( Petry, Alessi, & Ledgerwood, 2012a ; Petry, Alessi, Ledgerwood, & Sierra, 2010 ).

Summary of CM Dissemination and Implementation Articles

All 24 articles ranged in methodology. Three were qualitative studies ( Hartzler, 2015b ; Kellogg et al., 2005 ; Neale, Tompkins, & Strang, 2016 ), five were mixed-methods studies ( Becker et al., 2016 ; DePhilippis et al., 2018 ; Hagedorn et al., 2014 ; Hartzler et al., 2014 ; Roman et al., 2010 ), two were commentaries related to implementation processes ( Petry et al., 2014 ; Ruan et al., 2017 ), and the remaining and overwhelming majority ( n =14) of studies were quantitative studies ( Andrzejewski et al., 2001 ; Hartzler et al., 2015a ; Hartzler et al., 2017 ; Helseth et al., 2018 ; Henggeler et al., 2006 ; Henggeler et al., 2008 ; Henggeler et al., 2008 ; Henggeler et al., 2013 ; Kropp et al., 2016 ; Petry et al., 2012a ; Petry et al., 2012b ; Petry et al., 2010 ; Rash et al., 2013 ; Squires et al., 2008 ). Of the 24 articles, only two used implementation/effectiveness hybrid designs. The first study used a hybrid ‘type 1’ trial guided by the Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, and Maintenance (RE-AIM) framework and Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services (PARIHS) framework ( Hagedorn et al., 2014 ). The RE-AIM and PARIHS are both implementation frameworks used to guide the uptake of an intervention and increase sustainability. The second study used a hybrid ‘type 3’ trial guided by Proctor and colleagues’ (2011) conceptual framework ( Hartzler et al., 2014 ).

Training Strategies

A fundamental step to successful implementation is the dissemination of information which is accomplished through provider training prior to CM implementation. Seventeen of the 24 (71%) studies specifically described the training methods used ( Andrzejewski et al., 2001 ; Becker, Stein, Curry, & Hersh, 2012 ; Hartzler et al., 2014 ; Hartzler, 2015b ; Hartzler et al., 2017 ; Helseth et al., 2018 ; Henggeler et al., 2006 ; Henggeler et al., 2008 ; Henggeler et al., 2008 ; Henggeler et al., 2013 ; Kellogg et al., 2005 ; Kropp et al., 2016 ; Petry et al., 2012a ; Petry et al., 2012b ; Petry et al., 2010 ; Rash et al., 2013 ; Squires et al., 2008 ). All of the studies utilized in-person didactic individual or group training methods, led by individuals with expertise in the delivery of CM. Overall, trainings covered content on the basic principles and foundations of CM, including the presentation of previous and current research, CM procedures (i.e., prize draws), fidelity, and common implementation issues. Of these studies, four prominent training methods were identified.

Low Intensive Training:

The first training method was developed and structured to be a less intensive training strategy that consisted of four half day sessions (one session per week) delivered in-person and onsite ( Hartzler et al., 2014 ; Hartzler, 2015b ; Hartzler et al., 2017 ). Sessions included live trainer demonstrations of the CM procedures, role play activities, performance-based feedback, and small group discussions. All materials and audio-recordings of training sessions were provided as a continuous resource for administrators and providers. The second training method was implemented and specific to the Veterans Administration and were one-and-a-half-day training workshops ( Rash et al., 2013 ). Similar to the first training, these workshops utilized role play, small group discussions, live demonstrations and performance feedback. Because of the large number of substance use programs within the Veterans Administration, CM procedure design (i.e., selecting target behavior, choosing reinforcers, behavioral parameters) was emphasized in addition to the standard training topics. This training method was rated favorably and valued as an important aspect to CM implementation among providers. Further, CM knowledge and provider preparedness significantly increased.

High Fidelity Training:

As opposed to the previously described training methods that were based on participation and attendance, the third training method developed by Petry (2012a ; 2012b ; 2010 ) offered a more intensive performance-driven training, marked by three stages. The first stage involved participation in training sessions that included a majority of the methods noted already and a passing score (≥ 16 correct) on a 20-item CM knowledge test. In the second stage, providers participated in at least three mock CM sessions to demonstrate competency in three main skills: 1) informing new clients of CM; 2) increasing reinforcement for negative tests; and 3) withholding reinforcement for positive tests. To assess competency, the 12-item CM Competence Scale (CMCS) was used and providers had to achieve an acceptable rating on CMCS items. After this stage, providers progressed to the final supervision phase which included the audio recording of provider CM sessions with 2–3 of their clients for up to 12 weeks. Each audio recording was rated, and providers were given weekly feedback on performance. Similar to the competence rating during mock sessions, providers had to achieve acceptable scores on audio recordings and adherence checklists prior to utilizing CM with their entire caseload. This training method was rated favorably among community-based SUD treatment and methadone treatment providers, while also demonstrating the importance of fidelity monitoring.

Computer-Assisted Training:

Among the two studies that examined the use of technology to assist implementation, Henggeler and colleagues (2013) randomized organizations to three CM training methods and Kropp and colleagues (2016) utilized the Motivational Incentives package developed by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) Blending Initiative. Henggeler and colleagues (2013) was the only study to incorporate a computer assisted training (CAT) that included training modules, troubleshooting tips, suggestions for engagement, and additional scripts and video examples component as an ongoing support for providers. The first method was a one-day CM workshop with resources focused on practicing the delivery of CM (i.e., CM protocol, worksheets, scripts, drug test cups, $100 in vouchers). The second method was the CM workshop plus CAT. The third method was the CM workshop and CAT plus supervisory support, designed to train supervisors and provide performance feedback of audio-recordings sessions. Although all training methods improved CM knowledge, providers who received CAT showed significantly greater increases in CM knowledge compared to providers who received the workshop only training methods.

One study leveraged the Promoting Awareness of Motivational Incentives (PAMI), an introductory training product of the NIDA/SAMHSA Motivational Incentives package. The NIDA/SAMHSA Blending Initiative consists of two other products in addition to PAMI: 1) Motivational Incentives: Positive Reinforcers to Enhance Successful Treatment Outcomes (interactive online course), and 2) Motivational Incentives Implementation Software (implementation support on CD-ROM) ( Stitzer, Petry, & Peirce, 2010 ). Providers in this study received a one-hour training from a PAMI trained staff member ( Kropp et al., 2016 ). However, no descriptive details were noted about the training method used. Although not specifically mentioned, Kellogg and colleagues (2005) were the first to utilize the Motivational Incentives package, however no formal evaluation was conducted on this tool or training components.

Implementation Fidelity

While the majority of implementation studies evaluated effectiveness of CM training for the purposes of adoption and implementation, seven studies (29%) additionally ventured into both fidelity to intervention ( Andrzejewski et al., 2001 ; DePhilippis et al., 2018 ) and psychometric properties of CM delivery scales ( Hartzler, 2015a ; Petry et al., 2010 ). Fidelity to CM procedures have been directly tied to the successful implementation of CM and provider satisfaction. Specific monitoring and adherence instruments have been designed or adapted for CM. As an example, Henggeler and colleagues (2008 ; 2008 ; 2013 ) used the CM Therapist Adherence Measure (CM-TAM) to monitor the use of CM by providers and Petry and colleagues (2012b) developed the CM adherence checklist to rate adherence to CM procedures. The Helpful Responses Questionnaire for CM (HRM-CM) was developed to assess communicative aspects needed to delivery CM ( Hartzler, 2015a ). Petry and colleagues (2010) developed the CMCS as a valid and reliable tool to assess the delivery of CM. The CMCS is a 12-item scale, rated from 1 (poor) to 7 (excellent) Likert scale. To date, the CMCS is the only instrument available to evaluate the level of competence among providers for the delivery of CM. One study found that provider competence in the delivery of CM, assessed using the CMCS, was associated with improved client outcomes ( Petry, 2010 ). Monitoring fidelity using the CM-TAM and CMCS requires the resources to audio-record and rate provider sessions, which can be a limitation. Two articles offer an alternative to the CM-TAM and CMCS for organizations with limited resources through use of the Implementation Form ( DePhilippis et al., 2018 ). The Implementation Form can be used to monitor CM after initial implementation and collects information on setting, structure, outcomes, and fidelity. DePhilippis and colleagues (2018) found high fidelity with regard to providers’ ability to relate abstinence to prize draws and low fidelity with regard to same-day results specifically for organizations who outsourced laboratory testing.

One study assessed whether graphical feedback on performance would increase provider compliance with implementing a CM protocol for substance use ( Andrzejewski et al., 2001 ). This study demonstrated a 71% increase in performance ratings among providers who received graphical feedback from supervisors and an 81% increase among providers who received an additional reward for positive performance ratings.

Implementation Approaches

Nine of the 24 studies (37%) articulated approaches to implementation that used sequential steps to creating climates both suitable for CM implementation and the subsequent adoption of CM ( Becker et al., 2016 ; DePhilippis et al., 2018 ; Hartzler et al., 2014 ; Hartzler, 2015b ; Hartzler et al., 2017 ; Helseth et al., 2018 ; Petry et al., 2014 ; Ruan et al., 2017 ; Squires et al., 2008 ). The studies described the process of planning and changing organizational structure in addition to the process and effectiveness of training providers on the delivery CM.

High Intensive Strategy:

The three studies utilized the New England Addiction Technology Transfer Center (ATTC) Science to Service Laboratory (SSL) strategy to increase implementation of CM ( Becker et al., 2016 ; Helseth et al., 2018 ; Squires et al., 2008 ). SSL consists of didactic training in CM procedures conducted by a CM expert, followed by nine months of additional support involving four major elements. First, is the assignment of a technology transfer specialist with experience in supervision and management who serves as an external technical coach to support implementation (e.g., monthly conference calls with providers and innovation champions). Second, programs identified an internal innovation champion (e.g., treatment director) to support adoption and to work closely with the technology transfer specialist. Third, in addition to CM training (prior to SSL components) all providers, including innovation champions, received training on the change process. Innovation champions received an additional four-day training focused on organizational change, adoption of evidence-based practices, and strategies for integration. Last, innovation champions and technology transfer specialists led a half day training for providers focused on evidence-based practices, the theory of change, and an overview of the adoption process. The SSL strategy demonstrated a greater likelihood of CM adoption and was rated favorably among participating programs ( Squires et al., 2008 ). Specifically, providers began delivering CM at least four weeks earlier and the adoption rates were approximately two times higher than providers who received training as usual (CM workshop) ( Becker et al., 2016 ; Helseth et al., 2018 ).

Collaborative Design Strategy:

Three studies drawn from a single parent study described an approach that utilizes a collaborative intervention design with four implementation steps ( Hartzler et al., 2014 ; Hartzler, 2015b ; Hartzler et al., 2017 ). Step 1 involved engaging programs and administrators (leadership staff) in order to identify a target population (e.g., adults) and target behavior (e.g., alcohol, attendance), gift cards in $5 increments to local stores, and develop a reinforcement system prior to initial implementation. After these key aspects were defined, expert feedback was provided on how to establish a reinforcement schedule (e.g., warmup phase, reinforcement escalation/reset). Once CM procedures were defined, administrators then met to anticipate and resolve potential fiscal or logical barriers of implementation. Step 2 involved four 30-minute consultative planning meetings identify onsite implementation leaders who were responsible for general oversight (e.g., purchasing reinforcers, proper documentation, case reviews). Step 3 required the identification of a start date for CM. Step 4 involved the initial implementation of CM for 90 days.

Consultation Driven Strategy:

Three studies highlighted the large-scale implementation process of CM within the Veterans Administration system beginning in 2011 ( DePhilippis et al., 2018 ; Petry et al., 2014 ; Ruan et al., 2017 ). This approach involved training workshops followed by a pre-implementation phase consisting of planning conference calls. Calls were used to discuss clinical structure, client characteristics, CM protocol design, expert feedback, and modifications to implementation procedures. Upon initial implementation of CM, programs participated in coaching calls until the first CM client completed treatment. Roughly 75% of all programs ( n =94) participated in at least five coaching calls within 12-months of implementation ( DePhilippis et al., 2018 ).

Staff and Administrator Perceptions of CM after Implementation

Only seven of the 24 studies (29%) included in this review examined provider and administrators (e.g., directors) attitudes toward CM after initial implementation using qualitative methods ( Hagedorn et al., 2014 ; Hartzler et al., 2014 ; Kellogg et al., 2005 ; Kropp et al., 2016 ; Neale et al., 2016 ; Ruan et al., 2017 ) while only one assess barriers after implementation using quantitative methods ( Henggeler et al., 2008 ). The qualitative methodologies used in each of these studies resulted in less comparable, but often more descriptive attitudes and perceptions across studies. Review of these studies revealed that staff and administrators had generally more positive attitudes and perceptions of CM and its implementation in various settings, although none of these studies assessed differences in attitudes pre- and post CM implementation. For instance, Kellogg and colleagues (2005) noted that provider opinions toward CM were viewed more positively after client’s attendance had increased and clients showed appreciation for a more positive environment compared to other SUD programs.

Neale and colleagues (2016) identified a number of barriers in their evaluation of CM delivery at a supervised injectable opioid treatment clinic. They found that implementation of eligibility criteria, rules and processes, stable treatments settings, trusting staff-patient relationships, and stakeholder input into CM design were critical to successful CM implementation. In their descriptive assessment of client, staff, and leadership perspectives following implementation of CM at SUD clinics at two Veterans Administration medical centers, Hagedorn and colleagues (2014) found that all three groups reported favorable experiences of CM, but staff and leadership also reported barriers to implementation. These barriers included a need for secure funding and more flexible staff time. Additional barriers that providers endorsed were the low priority of substance use compared to other clinical issues and lack of time ( Henggeler et al., 2008 ).

In contrast to the previous studies that found funding and staff time to be a barrier, several studies indicated providers and administrators were not overly concerned or burdened by the cost (i.e., cost reinforcers or staff time) of implementing CM ( Hartzler et al., 2014 ; Hartzler, 2015b ; Kropp et al., 2016 ). Through conversations with managerial leadership, Hartzler (2015b) found leadership perceived CM to have a relative advantage through therapeutic benefit and cost-effectiveness, to be compatible to with existing infrastructure, to have simplicity in design, and to have observable positive impacts for staff and patients. In addition, the study found that the 90-day trial enhanced the implementation of CM.

This review describes and highlights the findings of 24 articles relevant to dissemination and implementation strategies for CM and its integration within various substance use treatment programs. The most frequently examined and evaluated implementation constructs were training methods, length of training, implementation strategies, and fidelity assessments. Much of this work was conducted and influenced by Dr. Petry. Training components were fairly consistent across studies and focused on the foundations of CM, current and present research on the effectiveness of CM, CM procedures, and barriers to implementation. Taken together these findings further underscore the importance of organizational input and ongoing supervision and consultation to maximize uptake and sustained implementation of CM. Although not included in this review, several guides have been published that provide suggestions to the practical application of CM in community-based settings ( Petry, 2000 ). This review may also inform researchers and administrators seeking strategies to implement CM.

Overall, the articles identified in this review serve as examples that exemplify the process of implementation. Common elements across the studies that increased adoption included the collaborative involvement to develop CM procedures, identifying an implementation leader, on-going supervision, and fidelity monitoring. To date there has been a considerable amount of research addressing staff and administrator attitudes towards CM ( Aletraris, Shelton, Roman, 2015 ). Interestingly, studies included in this review seem to suggest positive views after implementation and administrators also suggested incorporating periodic booster sessions for providers to reaffirm CM procedures. However, additional barriers seem to remain after implementation related to the cost of CM for an organization and the burden on staff to incorporate another element to an existing heavy load. Along those lines, is the importance of monitoring fidelity that has been linked to increased acceptability and adoption of CM. Fidelity has also been linked to improved client outcomes, in addition to performance-based feedback. However, fidelity monitoring may not be cost-effective for smaller SUD programs seeking to implement CM. For programs lacking the capacity to audio-record and rate CM sessions, there are alternative checklists and forms that can accurately assess fidelity.

Given the emphasis of theoretical frameworks in implementation science, this review raises important questions related study designs. For instance, the studies included in this systematic review have demonstrated the limited use of implementation frameworks to guide the implementation process for CM. Such frameworks are utilized to address common barriers to implementation and bridge the research to practice gap ( Nilsen, 2015 ). Furthermore, only two studies (1%) used hybrid implementation models, which were also the only studies that utilized implementation frameworks. Effectiveness-implementation hybrid designs present the opportunity through the use one of three designs to assess the effectiveness of CM, the delivery of CM, and the implementation in a real-world setting ( Curran et al, 2012 ). Related to this, is the need for more controlled studies to improve the method of implementation and sustainment.

Future research and real-world implementation efforts should focus on the replication of the implementation strategies highlighted in this review, guided by implementation frameworks, with larger sample sizes and more rigorous implementation designs. Previous research has suggested that alternative study designs such as factorial designs, stepped-wedge designs, and interrupted time series may be best suited for dissemination and implementation studies ( Mazzucca et al., 2018 ).

Although several studies have demonstrated that CM is a cost-effective evidence-based practice ( Murphy et al., 2015 ; Olmstead, Sindelar, & Petry, 2007 ) and that there is an economic benefit to implementing CM, what remains one the biggest barriers to the implementation of CM is cost ( Petry, 2010 ; Roll et al., 2009 ). As important as the implementation of evidence-based practices for substance use is, a concept that is equally important is the deimplementation of current practices that have no utility and do not have a significant impact on substance use behaviors or address mechanisms of change. Substance use programs with limited resources may undertake this process first to free up the necessary resources and alleviate provider burden to implement CM. Further, additional resources need to be developed for community-based substance use programs who may be interested in implementing CM. One possible suggestion that builds on the checklist for designing CM programs outlined by Petry (2000) , is the development of a structured guide for administrators that outlines how to obtain a funding source, assess the cost/benefit of implementation, and build the infrastructure to financially support and sustain CM. Roll and colleagues (2009) also suggested that advocacy efforts may be needed to diminish the common misconception that CM is expensive.

One consistent area of focus between this review and previous CM reviews, is the attention given to the use of technology to improve CM through the development of apps and web-based tools ( McPherson et al., 2018 ). Although CAT was the only technology-based tool used to provide ongoing support for providers, the Motivational Incentives package is another tool developed to aid dissemination and implementation efforts. The integration of such technologies offers a potential way to increase CM implementation. However, additional research is needed to further develop, refine, and implement technologies for clinicians to support training, supervision, and monitoring of CM in the real-world settings.

This systematic review has several strengths, but some limitations should be noted. Although, the 24 articles identified were relevant to dissemination and implementation of CM, there may be additional studies that trained clinicians to delivery and implement CM that were not included in this review. Due to the limited data and heterogeneity of articles, a meta-analytic review of studies was not feasible. Overall, this review revealed the wide scope of studies that address various constructs relevant to implementation in multiple settings. Moreover, the studies included in this review were centralized to one geographical location with the exception of one article conducted in Great Britain, which may limit generalizability.

Conclusions

There are a limited number of studies focused on the dissemination and implementation of CM. Although feasibility and effectiveness trials are essential to advancing the delivery of CM and improving reach, additional research addressing the real-world implementation of CM using rigorous study designs (i.e., hybrid models) is needed to increase uptake. Unlike previous reviews, the articles included in this review have the potential to inform to serve as examples for implementation.

This work was supported by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, R01AA020248, R01AA020248-05S1

Financial Disclosures: Dr. McPherson has received research funding from the Bristol-Myers Squibb Foundation, Orthopedic Specialty Institute, Ringful Health, and has consulted for Consistent Care company. This funding is in no way related to the investigation reported here. No disclosures from any other authors.

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What Is Problem Solving in Project Management? Here’s Everything You Need to Know

• Written by Contributing Writer
• Updated on August 4, 2023

In project management , problem-solving is a crucial and necessary skill. Whether you have failed to consider every possible factor impacting a project, a problem arises through no fault of your own, or conditions change that create issues, problems must be addressed promptly to keep projects on track.

In this article, we will define problem-solving and how it impacts projects, provide real-world examples of problem-solving, and give you a structured, step-by-step process to solve problems. We’ll also show you how earning a project management certification can help you gain practical experience in problem-solving methods.

What Is Problem-Solving?

Problem-solving is a process to identify roadblocks or defects that arise during a project. A structured system to define problems, identify root causes, brainstorm and test solutions, and monitor results can affect change to improve performance and overcome challenges.

Effective problem-solving enables teams to deal with uncertainties or gaps in planning to minimize the impact on outcomes.

The Importance of Problem-Solving in Project Management

During a project and operation, problems can arise at any time. You may find that your planning before launching a product, for example, did not consider all the factors that impact results. You may find that you were too optimistic about project timelines, performance, or workforce. Or, as many of us discovered over the past few years, supply chain disruption may make even the best project plans obsolete.

Regardless, your job is identifying, solving, and overcoming these problems. Project managers must be skilled in leading team members through a structured approach to resolving problems.

Proactive problem-solving requires careful consideration of all the variables in a project, including preparation to:

• Achieve project objectives
• Address obstacles before they arise
• Manage project risks and contingency plans
• Manage communication and collaboration
• Provide a framework for time and cost management
• Provide a pathway for continuous improvement

Also Read: 10 Tips on How to Increase Productivity in the Workplace

Problem-Solving Steps in Project Management

While the process you choose to solve problems may vary, here is a seven-step framework many project managers use. This problem-solving method combines primary and secondary problem-solving steps.

#1. Define the Problem

• Gather data and information from key stakeholders, team members, and project documentation. Include any relevant reporting or data analysis
• Itemized key details, such as a description of the problem, timelines, outcomes, and impact
• Frame the issue as a problem statement

A good example of a problem statement might be: An unexpected demand spike has exceeded our current production capacity. How can we still meet customer deadlines for delivery?

#2. Analyze Root Causes

• Break down issues into smaller components to diagnose bottlenecks or problems
• Identify the organizational, mechanical, environmental, or operational factors that contribute
• Distinguish between one-time issues vs. systematic, ongoing areas that need improvement

When analyzing root causes, it’s common to find multiple factors contributing to a problem. As such, it is essential to prioritize issues that have the most significant impact on outcomes.

#3. Brainstorm Potential Solutions

• Holding specific sessions focused on brainstorming ideas to resolve root causes
• Build on ideas or suggest combinations or iterations
• Categorize solutions by types, such as process or input changes, adding additional resources, outsourcing, etc.)

In brainstorming, you should refrain from immediately analyzing suggestions to keep ideas coming.

#4. Evaluate Potential Solutions

• Reframe the problem and concern for team members, providing a framework for evaluation such as cost, timing, and feasibility
• With ideas in hand, it is time to evaluate potential solutions. Project managers often employ strategies such as weighted scoring models to rank ideas.
• Consider the pros and cons in relation to project objectives

As you narrow the list, getting additional insight from subject matter experts to evaluate real-world viability is helpful. For example, if you are proposing a process change in operating a machine, get feedback from skilled operators before implementing changes.

#5. Decide on a Plan of Action

• Make a decision on which course of action you want to pursue and make sure the solution aligns with your organizational goals
• Create an action plan to implement the changes, including key milestones
• Assign project ownership, deadlines, resources, and budgets

Defining what outcomes you need to achieve to declare success is also essential. Are you looking for incremental change or significant improvements, and what timeline are you establishing for measurement?

#6. Implement the Action Plan

• Communicate the plan with key stakeholders
• Provide any training associated with the changes
• Allocate resources necessary for implementation

As part of the action plan, you will also want to detail the measures and monitoring you will put in place to assess process outcomes.

#7. Monitor and Track Results

• Track solution performance against the action plan and key milestones
• Solicit feedback from the project team on problem-solving effectiveness
• Ensure the solution resolves the root cause, creating the desired results without negatively impacting other areas of the operation

You should refine results or start the process over again to increase performance. For example, you may address the root cause but find a need for secondary problem-solving in project management, focusing on other factors.

These problem-solving steps are used repeatedly in lean management and Six Sigma strategies for continuous improvement.

Also Read: 5 Project Management Steps You Need to Know

How Project Management Tools Can Help You in Problem-Solving

Project management software can guide teams through problem-solving, acting as a central repository to provide visibility into the stages of a project.

The best project management software will include the following:

• Issue tracking to capture problems as they arise
• Chat and real-time collaboration for discussion and brainstorming
• Templates for analysis, such as fishbone diagrams
• Action plans, assigning tasks, ownership, and accountability
• Dashboards for updates to monitor solutions
• Reporting on open issues, mitigation, and resolution

Examples of Problem-Solving

Here are some examples of the problem-solving process demonstrating how team members can work through the process to achieve results.

Sign-ups for a New Software Solution Were Well Below First-Month Targets

After analyzing the data, a project team identifies the root cause as inefficient onboarding and account configurations. They then brainstorm solutions. Ideas include re-architecting the software, simplifying onboarding steps, improving the initial training and onboarding process, or applying additional resources to guide customers through the configuration process.

After weighing alternatives, the company invests in streamlining onboarding and developing software to automate configuration.

A Project Was at Risk of Missing a Hard Deadline Due to Supplier Delays

In this case, you already know the root cause: Your supplier cannot deliver the necessary components to complete the project on time. Brainstorming solutions include finding alternative sources for components, considering project redesigns to use different (available) components, negotiating price reductions with customers due to late delivery, or adjusting the scope to complete projects without this component.

After evaluating potential solutions, the project manager might negotiate rush delivery with the original vendor. While this might be more expensive, it enables the business to meet customer deadlines. At the same time, project schedules might be adjusted to account for later-than-expected part delivery.

A Construction Project Is Falling Behind Due to Inclement Weather

Despite months of planning, a major construction project has fallen behind schedule due to bad weather, preventing concrete and masonry work. The problem-solving team brainstorms the problem and evaluates solutions, such as constructing temporary protection from the elements, heating concrete to accelerate curing, and bringing on additional crews once the weather clears.

The project team might decide to focus on tasks not impacted by weather earlier in the process than expected to postpone exterior work until the weather clears.

Also Read: Understanding KPIs in Project Management

Improve Your Problem-Solving and Project Management Skills

This project management course delivered by Simpliearn, in collaboration wiht the University of Massachusetts, can boost your career journey as a project manager. This 24-week online bootcamp aligns with Project Management Institute (PMI) practices, the Project Management Professional (PMP®) certification, and IASSC-Lean Six Sigma.

This program teaches skills such as:

• Agile management
• Customer experience design
• Design thinking
• Digital transformation
• Lean Six Sigma Green Belt

You might also like to read:

5 Essential Project Management Steps You Need to Know

Project Management Frameworks and Methodologies Explained

13 Key Project Management Principles and How to Use Them

Project Management Phases: A Full Breakdown

How To Develop a Great Project Management Plan in 2023

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