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Continental Drift: The groundbreaking theory of moving continents

Continental drift theory introduced the idea of moving continents.

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Continental drift was a revolutionary theory explaining that continents shift position on Earth's surface. The theory was proposed by geophysicist and meteorologist Alfred Wegener in 1912, but was rejected by mainstream science at the time. Scientists confirmed some of Wegener's ideas decades later, which are now part of the widely accepted theory of plate tectonics .

Wegener's continental drift theory introduced the idea of moving continents to geoscience. He proposed that Earth must have once been a single supercontinent before breaking up to form several different continents. This explained how similar rock formations and plant and animal fossils could exist on separated continents. Modern science recognizes this ancient supercontinent called Pangaea did exist before breaking up about 200 million years ago, as Wegener theorized. 

Related: Massive supercontinent will form hundreds of millions of years from now  

Why did scientists reject Wegener's continental drift theory?

Geologists roundly denounced Wegener's continental drift theory after he published the details in a 1915 book called " The Origin of Continents and Oceans ." Part of the opposition was because Wegener didn't have a good model to explain how the continents moved, something scientists later explained under the umbrella of plate tectonics — the theory that Earth's crust is fractured into plates that move over a rocky inner layer called the mantle . 

"There's an irony that the key objection to continent drift was that there is no mechanism, and plate tectonics was accepted without a mechanism," to move the continents, Henry Frankel (1944–2019), an emeritus professor at the University of Missouri-Kansas City and author of the four volume " The Continental Drift Controversy " (Cambridge University Press, 2012) previously told Live Science.

Though most of Wegener's observations about fossils and rocks were correct, he was outlandishly wrong on a couple of key points. For instance, Wegener thought the continents might have plowed through the ocean crust like icebreakers smashing through ice. 

When Wegener proposed continental drift, many geologists were contractionists. They thought Earth's incredible mountains were created because our planet had been cooling and shrinking since its formation, Frankel said. And to account for the identical fossils discovered on continents such as South America and Africa, scientists invoked ancient land bridges, now vanished beneath the sea. 

Researchers argued over the land bridges right up until the plate tectonics theory was developed from the 1950s to the 1970s, Frankel said. For instance, as geophysicists began to realize that continental rocks were too light to sink down to the ocean floor, prominent paleontologists instead wrongly suggested that the similarities between fossils had been overestimated, Frankel said.

Plate tectonics is like a modern update to continental drift. In the 1960s, scientists discovered plate edges through magnetic surveys of the ocean floor and through the seismic listening networks built to monitor nuclear testing, according to Encyclopedia Britannica . Alternating patterns of magnetic anomalies on the ocean floor indicated seafloor spreading , where new plate material is born. Magnetic minerals aligned in ancient rocks on continents also showed that the continents have shifted relative to one another. 

Related: Plate tectonics are 3.6 billion years old, oldest minerals on Earth reveal  

What evidence is there for continental drift?

A map of the continents inspired Wegener's quest to explain Earth's geologic history. He was intrigued by the interlocking fit of Africa's and South America's shorelines. Wegener then assembled an impressive amount of continental drift evidence to show that Earth's continents were once connected in a single supercontinent.

Wegener knew that fossil plants and animals such as mesosaurs , a freshwater reptile found only in South America and Africa during the Permian period, could be found on many continents. He also matched up rock formations on either side of the Atlantic Ocean like puzzle pieces. For example, the Appalachian Mountains (United States) and Caledonian Mountains (Scotland) fit together, as do the Karoo strata in South Africa and Santa Catarina rocks in Brazil.

In fact, plates moving together created the highest mountains in the world, the Himalayans, and the mountains are still growing due to the plates pushing together, even now, according to National Geographic . Despite his incredible continental drift evidence, Wegener never lived to see his theory gain wider acceptance. He died in 1930 at age 50 just two days after his birthday while on a scientific expedition in Greenland , according to the University of Berkeley .

• Learn more about the history of continental drift and plate tectonics from the U.S. Geological Survey . 
• Learn more about Alfred Wegener from the NASA Earth Observatory . 
• Watch this short video on YouTube about plate tectonics and continental drift, from National Geographic . 

This article was updated on Dec. 14, 2021, by Live Science Staff Writer Patrick Pester. Additional reporting by Alina Bradford, Live Science contributor.  

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The Continental Drift Theory: Revolutionary and Significant

• Plate Tectonics
• Types Of Rocks
• Landforms and Geologic Features
• Weather & Climate

Opposition to Continental Drift Theory

Data supporting continental drift theory.

• Wegener's Search for Scientific Truth

Acceptance of Continental Drift Theory

• MLA, Harvard Graduate School of Design

Continental drift was a revolutionary scientific theory developed in the years 1908-1912 by Alfred Wegener (1880-1930), a German meteorologist, climatologist, and geophysicist, that put forth the hypothesis that the continents had all originally been a part of one enormous landmass or supercontinent about 240 million years ago before breaking apart and drifting to their current locations. Based on the work of previous scientists who had theorized about horizontal movement of the continents over the Earth's surface during different periods of geologic time, and based on his own observations drawing from different fields of science, Wegener postulated that about 200 million years ago, a supercontinent that he called Pangaea (which means "all lands" in Greek) began to break up. Over millions of years the pieces separated, first into two smaller supercontinents, Laurasia and Gondwanaland, during the Jurassic period and then by the end of the Cretaceous period into the continents we know today.

Wegener first presented his ideas in 1912 and then published them in 1915 in his controversial book, "The Origins of Continents and Oceans , " which was received with great skepticism and even hostility. He revised and published subsequent editions of his book in 1920,1922, and 1929. The book (Dover translation of the 1929 fourth German edition) is still available today on Amazon and elsewhere.

Wegener's theory, although not completely correct, and by his own admission, incomplete, sought to explain why similar species of animals and plants, fossil remains, and rock formations exist on disparate lands separated by great distances of sea. It was an important and influential step that ultimately led to the development of the theory of plate tectonics , which is how scientists understand the structure, history, and dynamics of the Earth’s crust.

There was much opposition to Wegener's theory for several reasons. For one, he was not an expert in the field of science in which he was making a hypothesis , and for another, his radical theory threatened conventional and accepted ideas of the time. Furthermore, because he was making observations that were multidisciplinary, there were more scientists to find fault with them.

There were also alternative theories to counter Wegener’s continental drift theory. A commonly held theory to explain the presence of fossils on disparate lands was that there was once a network of land bridges connecting the continents that had sunk into the sea as part of a general cooling and contraction of the earth. Wegener, however, refuted this theory maintaining that continents were made of a less dense rock than that of the deep-sea floor and so would have risen to the surface again once the force weighing them down had been lifted. Since this had not occurred, according to Wegener, the only logical alternative was that the continents themselves had been joined and had since drifted apart.

Another theory was that the fossils of temperate species found in the arctic regions were carried there by warm water currents. Scientists debunked these theories, but at the time they helped stall Wegener’s theory from gaining acceptance.

In addition, many of the geologists who were Wegener's contemporaries were contractionists. They believed that the Earth was in the process of cooling and shrinking, an idea they used to explain the formation of mountains, much like wrinkles on a prune. Wegener, though, pointed out that if this were true, mountains would be scattered evenly all over the Earth's surface rather than lined up in narrow bands, usually at the edge of a continent. He also offered a more plausible explanation for mountain ranges. He said they formed when the edge of a drifting continent crumpled and folded — as when India hit Asia and formed the Himalayas.

One of the biggest flaws of Wegener’s continental drift theory was that he did not have a viable explanation for how continental drift could have occurred. He proposed two different mechanisms, but each was weak and could be disproven. One was based on the centrifugal force caused by the rotation of the Earth, and the other was based on the tidal attraction of the sun and the moon.

Though much of what Wegener theorized was correct, the few things that were wrong were held against him and prevented him from seeing his theory accepted by the scientific community during his lifetime. However, what he got right paved the way for plate tectonics theory.

Fossil remains of similar organisms on widely disparate continents support the theories of continental drift and plate tectonics. Similar fossil remains, such as those of the Triassic land reptile Lystrosaurus and the fossil plant Glossopteris , exist in South America, Africa, India, Antarctica, and Australia, which were the continents comprising Gondwanaland, one of the supercontinents that broke off from Pangaea about 200 million years ago. Another fossil type, that of the ancient reptile Mesosaurus , is only found in southern Africa and South America.  Mesosaurus was a freshwater reptile only one meter long that could not have swum the Atlantic Ocean, indicating that there was once a contiguous landmass that provided a habitat for it of freshwater lakes and rivers.

Wegener found evidence of tropical plant fossils and coal deposits in the frigid arctic near the North Pole, as well as evidence of glaciation on the plains of Africa, suggesting a different configuration and placement of the continents than their present one.

Wegener observed that the continents and their rock strata fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle, particularly the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa, specifically the Karoo strata in South Africa and Santa Catarina rocks in Brazil. South America and Africa were not the only continents with similar geology , though. Wegener discovered that the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States, for instance, were geologically related to the Caledonian Mountains of Scotland. 

Wegener's Search for Scientific Truth

According to Wegener, scientists still did not appear to understand sufficiently that all earth sciences must contribute evidence toward unveiling the state of our planet in earlier times, and that the truth of the matter could only be reached by combing all this evidence. Only by combing the information furnished by all the earth sciences would there be hope to determine "truth," that is to say, to find the picture that sets out all the known facts in the best arrangement and that therefore has the highest degree of probability. Further, Wegener believed that scientists always need to be prepared for a possibility that a new discovery, no matter what science furnishes it, may modify the conclusions we draw.

Wegener had faith in his theory and persisted in using an interdisciplinary approach, drawing on the fields of geology, geography, biology, and paleontology, believing that to be the way to strengthen his case and to keep up the discussion about his theory. His book, "The Origins of Continents and Oceans , " also helped when it was published in multiple languages in 1922, which brought it worldwide and ongoing attention within the scientific community. When Wegener gained new information, he added to or revised his theory, and published new editions. He kept the discussion of the plausibility of the continental drift theory going until his untimely death in 1930 during a meteorologic expedition in Greenland.

The story of the continental drift theory and its contribution to scientific truth is a fascinating example of how the scientific process works and how scientific theory evolves. Science is based on hypothesis, theory, testing, and interpretation of data, but the interpretation can be skewed by the perspective of the scientist and his or her own field of specialty, or denial of facts altogether. As with any new theory or discovery, there are those who will resist it and those who embrace it. But through Wegener’s persistence, perseverance, and open-mindedness to the contributions of others, the theory of continental drift evolved into the widely accepted theory today of plate tectonics. With any great discovery it is through the sifting of data and facts contributed by multiple scientific sources, and ongoing refinements of the theory, that scientific truth emerges.

When Wegener died, discussion of continental drift died with him for a while. It was resurrected, however, with the study of seismology and further exploration of the ocean floors in the 1950s and 1960s that showed mid-ocean ridges, evidence in the seafloor of the Earth's changing magnetic field, and proof of seafloor spreading and mantle convection, leading to the theory of plate tectonics. This was the mechanism that was missing in Wegener's original theory of continental drift. By the late 1960s, plate tectonics was commonly accepted by geologists as accurate.

But the discovery of seafloor spreading disproved a part of Wegener's theory, because it wasn't just the continents that were moving through static oceans, as he had originally thought, but rather entire tectonic plates, consisting of the continents, ocean floors, and parts of the upper mantle. In a process similar to that of a conveyor belt, hot rock rises from the mid-ocean ridges and then sinks down as it cools and becomes denser, creating convection currents that cause movement of the tectonic plates.

The theories of continental drift and plate tectonics are the foundation of modern geology. Scientists believe that there were several supercontinents like Pangaea that formed and broke apart over the course of Earth's 4.5-billion year lifespan. Scientists also now recognize that Earth is constantly changing and that even today, the continents are still moving and changing. For example, the Himalayas, formed by the collision of the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate is still growing, because plate tectonics is still pushing the Indian plate into the Eurasian plate. We may even be heading toward the creation of another supercontinent in 75-80 million years due to the continued movement of tectonic plates.

But scientists are also realizing that plate tectonics does not work merely as a mechanical process but as a complex feedback system, with even things such as climate affecting the movement of the plates, creating yet another quiet revolution in the theory of plate tectonics variable in our understanding of our complex planet.

• Learn About the History and Principles of Plate Tectonics
• Biography of Alfred Wegener, German Scientist
• History of the Supercontinent Pangea
• Alfred Wegener's Pangaea Hypothesis
• All About Supercontinents
• Divergent Plate Boundaries
• Map of Tectonic Plates and Their Boundaries
• The Most Influential Geologists of All Time
• The Age of the Ocean Floor
• Measuring Plate Motion in Plate Tectonics
• Orogeny: How Mountains Form Through Plate Tectonics
• Tectonic Plates' Effect on Evolution
• What Is an Ophiolite?
• What Happens at Transform Boundaries?
• Zealandia: The Drowned Continent of the South
• Everything You Need to Know About the Lithosphere

Continental Drift versus Plate Tectonics

A scientific idea that was initially ridiculed paved the way for the theory of plate tectonics, which explains how Earth’s continents move.

Earth Science, Geology, Geography, Physical Geography

Alfred Wegener in Greenland

Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's land masses are in constant motion. The realization that Earth's land masses move was first proposed by Alfred Wegener, which he called continental drift. He is shown here in Greenland.

Photograph from Pictoral Press

We don’t perceive that the continents we live on are moving. After all, it’s not as if an airplane flight between Europe and Africa takes five hours one year but only three hours the next. But the continents actually are shifting, very slowly, relative to one another. In the early 20th century, a scientific theory called continental drift was proposed about this migration of the continents . That theory was initially ridiculed, but it paved the way for another theory called plate tectonics that scientists have now accepted to explain how Earth’s continents move. The story begins with Alfred Wegener (1880–1930), a German meteorologist and geophysicist who noticed something curious when he looked at a map of the world. Wegener observed that the continents of South America and Africa looked like they would fit together remarkably well—take away the Atlantic Ocean and these two massive landforms would lock neatly together. He also noted that similar fossils were found on continents separated by oceans, additional evidence that perhaps the landforms had once been joined. He hypothesized that all of the modern-day continents had previously been clumped together in a super continent he called Pangaea (from ancient Greek, meaning “all lands” or “all the Earth”). Over millions of years, Wegener suggested, the continents had drifted apart. He did not know what drove this movement, however. Wegener first presented his idea of continental drift in 1912, but it was widely ridiculed and soon, mostly, forgotten. Wegener never lived to see his theory accepted—he died at the age of 50 while on an expedition in Greenland. Only decades later, in the 1960s, did the idea of continental drift resurface. That’s when technologies adapted from warfare made it possible to more thoroughly study Earth. Those advances included seismometers used to monitor ground shaking caused by nuclear testing and magnetometers to detect submarines. With seismometers , researchers discovered that earthquakes tended to occur in specific places rather than equally all over Earth. And scientists studying the seafloor with magnetometers found evidence of surprising magnetic variations near undersea ridges: alternating stripes of rock recorded a flip-flopping of Earth’s magnetic field . Together, these observations were consistent with a new theory proposed by researchers who built on Wegener’s original idea of continental drift —the theory of plate tectonics . According to this theory , Earth’s crust is broken into roughly 20 sections called tectonic plates on which the continents ride. When these plates press together and then move suddenly, energy is released in the form of earthquakes. That is why earthquakes do not occur everywhere on Earth—they’re clustered around the boundaries of tectonic plates. Plate tectonics also explains the stripes of rock on the seafloor with alternating magnetic properties: As buoyant, molten rock rises up from deep within Earth, it emerges from the space between spreading tectonic plates and hardens, creating a ridge. Because some minerals within rocks record the orientation of Earth’s magnetic poles and this orientation flips every 100,000 years or so, rocks near ocean ridges exhibit alternating magnetic stripes. Plate tectonics explains why Earth’s continents are moving; the theory of continental drift did not provide an explanation. Therefore, the theory of plate tectonics is more complete. It has gained widespread acceptance among scientists. This shift from one theory to another is an example of the scientific process: As more observations are made and measurements are collected, scientists revise their theories to be more accurate and consistent with the natural world. By running computer simulations of how Earth’s tectonic plates are moving, researchers can estimate where the planet's continents will likely be in the future. Because tectonic plates move very slowly—only a few centimeters per year, on average—it takes a long time to observe changes. Scientists have found that the planet’s continents will likely again be joined together in about 250 million years. Researchers have dubbed this future continental configuration “ Pangaea Proxima.” One intriguing aspect of Pangaea Proxima is that it will likely contain a new mountain range with some of the world’s highest mountains. That is because as Africa continues to migrate north it will collide with Europe, a collision that will probably create a Himalaya-scale mountain range. However, Christopher Scotese, one of the scientists who developed these simulations , cautions that it is difficult to predict exactly how the continents will be arranged in millions of years. “We don’t really know the future, obviously,” Scotese told NASA. “All we can do is make predictions of how plate motions will continue, what new things might happen, and where it will all end up.”

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What is Continental Drift?

In 1912, Alfred Wegener published a theory to explain why the Earth looked like a huge jigsaw. He believed the continents were once joined, forming a supercontinent he called Pangaea. Over 180 million years ago, this supercontinent began to “break up” due to continental drift.

Continental drift

During the 20th Century, scientists developed the theory of Plate Tectonics. The theory suggests that the crust of the Earth is split up into seven large plates (see map below) and a few smaller ones, all of which can slowly move around on the Earth’s surface. They lie on the ductile mantle that allows them to move. There are several explanations for the movement of the Earth’s plates, and these are explored in the Why do plates move? page.

The Earth’s main tectonic plates

What is the evidence for continental drift?

Wegener’s evidence for continental drift was that:

• the same types of fossilised plants and animals are found in South America and Africa;
• the east coast of South America fits the west coast of Africa like a jigsaw puzzle;
• rock formations and mountain chains match in South America and Africa;
• similar mineral deposits and natural resources, such as coal, exist along the east coast of Africa and the west coast of South America.

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36 Continental Drift: founding block of the Plate Tectonics Theory

The continental drift hypothesis, the foundation of Plate Tectonics theory was developed in the early part of the twentieth century, mostly by Alfred Wegener who proposed that continents move around on Earth’s surface and that they were once joined together as a single supercontinent called Pangaea. His hypothesis did not stand a trial at that time because nobody could explain the mechanism of the movement of continental plates.

Only with discoveries of ocean structure in 1960-1970s scientists understood the mechanism of plate movement.

See below a short documentary about the discovery of Plate Tectonics theory.

The Continental Drift Idea

Figure 1. The continents fit together like pieces of a puzzle. This is how they looked 250 million years ago.

Alfred Wegener, a German climatologist, proposed that the continents were once united into a single supercontinent named Pangaea, meaning all earth  in ancient Greek . He suggested that Pangaea broke up long ago and that the continents then moved to their current positions. He called his hypothesis  continental drift.

Evidence for Continental Drift

Besides the way the continents fit together, Wegener and his supporters collected a great deal of evidence for the continental drift hypothesis.

• Identical rocks, of the same type and age, are found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Wegener said the rocks had formed side-by-side and that the land had since moved apart.
• Mountain ranges with the same rock types, structures, and ages are now on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachians of the eastern United States and Canada, for example, are just like mountain ranges in eastern Greenland, Ireland, Great Britain, and Norway (figure 2). Wegener concluded that they formed as a single mountain range that was separated as the continents drifted.

Figure 2. The similarities between the Appalachian and the eastern Greenland mountain ranges are evidences for the continental drift hypothesis.

• Fossils of the seed fern  Glossopteris  were too heavy to be carried so far by wind.
• Mesosaurus  was a swimming reptile but could only swim in fresh water.
• Cynognathus  and  Lystrosaurus  were land reptiles and were unable to swim.

• Grooves and rock deposits left by ancient glaciers are found today on different continents very close to the equator. This would indicate that the glaciers either formed in the middle of the ocean and/or covered most of the Earth. Today glaciers only form on land and nearer the poles. Wegener thought that the glaciers were centered over the southern land mass close to the South Pole and the continents moved to their present positions later on.
• Coral reefs and coal-forming swamps are found in tropical and subtropical environments, but ancient coal seams and coral reefs are found in locations where it is much too cold today. Wegener suggested that these creatures were alive in warm climate zones and that the fossils and coal later had drifted to new locations on the continents.

Although Wegener’s evidence was sound, but most geologists at the time rejected his hypothesis of continental drift. Why do you think they did not accept continental drift?

Scientists argued that there was no way to explain how solid continents could plow through solid oceanic crust. Wegener’s idea was nearly forgotten until technological advances presented even more evidence that the continents moved and gave scientists the tools to develop a mechanism for Wegener’s drifting continents.

Magnetic Polarity Evidence

Figure 4. Earth’s magnetic field is like a magnet with its north pole near the geographic North Pole and the south pole near the geographic South Pole.

Puzzling new evidence came in the 1950s from studies on the Earth’s magnetic history (figure 4).

Scientists used  magnetometers , devices capable of measuring the magnetic field intensity, to look at the magnetic properties of rocks in many locations .

Magnetic Pole Moving?

Geologic Approach to Magnetic Pole Wandering

All igneous rocks have magnetite, a mineral consisting mainly of iron. Igneous rocks can be found in many parts of the world.

Magnetite  crystals are like tiny magnets that point to the north magnetic pole as they crystallize from magma. The crystals record both the direction and strength of the  magnetic field  at the time. The direction is known as the field’s  magnetic polarity.

Geologists noted important things about the magnetic polarity of different aged rocks on the same continent:

• Magnetite crystals in fresh volcanic rocks point to the current magnetic north pole  (figure 5) no matter what continent or where on the continent the rocks are located.

• Older rocks that are the same age and are located on the same continent point to the same location, different from the current north magnetic pole.
• Older rock that are of different ages do not point to the same locations or to the current magnetic north pole.

In other words, although the magnetite crystals were pointing to the magnetic north pole, the location of the pole seemed to wander.  Scientists were amazed to find that the north magnetic pole changed location through time (figure 6).

Figure 6. The location of the north magnetic north pole 80 million years before present (mybp), then 60, 40, 20, and now.

There are three possible explanations for this:

1. The continents remained fixed and the north magnetic pole moved.

2. The north magnetic pole stood still and the continents moved.

3. Both the continents and the north pole moved.

During studies of magnetism in various countries geologists noted that for rocks of the same age on different continents , the  magnets pointed to different magnetic north poles .

• 400-million-year-old magnetite in Europe pointed to a different north magnetic pole than the same-aged magnetite in North America.
• 250 million years ago, the north poles were also different for the two continents.

The scientists looked again at the three possible explanations. Only one can be correct.

If the continents had remained fixed while the north magnetic pole moved, there must have been two separate north poles.

Since there is only one north pole,   the only reasonable explanation is that the north magnetic pole has remained fixed but that the continents have moved.

To test this, geologists fitted the continents together as Wegener had done. It worked!

There has only been one magnetic north pole and the continents have drifted (see figure below). The view on this map is from the north down (polar projection).

The maps above show the polar wandering curve through Pangaea as well as through the present day configuration, which provides further evidence for moving tectonic plates.

This evidence for continental drift gave geologists renewed interest in understanding how continents could move about on the planet’s surface.

Lesson Summary

• In the early part of the 20th century, scientists began to put together evidence that the continents could move around on Earth’s surface.
• The evidence for continental drift included the fit of the continents; the distribution of ancient fossils, rocks, and mountain ranges; and the locations of ancient climatic zones.
• Although the evidence for continental drift was extremely strong, scientists rejected the idea because no mechanism for how solid continents could move around on the solid earth was developed.
• The discovery of apparent polar wander renewed scientists interest in continental drift.

Geology 101 for Lehman College (CUNY) Copyright © by Yuri Gorokhovich and Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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5.1: Continental Drift

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What does a scientist do with an interesting observation?

Alfred Wegener made an observation. From that observation, he made a hypothesis. He collected evidence that would support or refute his hypothesis. What did that process look like?

Wegener’s Idea

Alfred Wegener , born in 1880, was a meteorologist and explorer. In 1910, he noticed that South America and Africa appeared to fit together like puzzle pieces. He was certainly not the first person to notice this. But he was intrigued by the idea and thought a lot about it. He wondered if the two continents were once joined and then moved apart? He set out to find evidence to support or refute this idea.

Wegener’s Evidence

Here is the main evidence that Wegener and his supporters collected for his continental drift hypothesis:

Fit of the Continents

The continents appear to fit together, and not just South America and Africa. If the continental margins are included, the fit is even better.

This figure shows the evolution of the continents, from the super-continent Pangaea to the way they look now.

Distribution of Fossils

Wegener found fossil evidence that the continents were once joined ( Figure below). The same type of plant and animal fossils are found on continents that are now widely separated. These organisms would not have been able to travel across the oceans. So how did the fossils get so far apart?

Fossils of the seed fern Glossopteris are found across all of the southern continents. These seeds are too heavy to be carried across the ocean by wind. Mesosaurus fossils are found in South America and South Africa. Mesosaurus could swim, but only in fresh water. Cynognathus and Lystrosaurus were reptiles that lived on land. Both of these animals were unable to swim at all. Their fossils have been found across South America, Africa, India, and Antarctica.

Wegener thought that all of these organisms must have lived side by side. The lands later moved apart so that the fossils are separated.

Wegener used fossil evidence to support his continental drift hypothesis. The fossils of these organisms are found on lands that are now far apart. Wegener suggested that when the organisms were alive, the lands were joined and the organisms were living side-by-side.

Distribution of Rocks and Structures

Wegener found rocks of the same type and age on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. He thought that it could not be a coincidence! He said that the rocks must have formed side by side. These rocks then drifted apart on separate continents.

Wegener also matched up mountain ranges across the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachian Mountains were just like mountain ranges in eastern Greenland, Ireland, Great Britain, and Norway. Wegener concluded that they formed as a single mountain range. This mountain range broke apart as the continents split up. The mountain range separated as the continents drifted.

Climate Zones

Climate is found in zones around the planet. Warm tropical climates are mostly found near the Equator. Glaciers are mostly found nearer the poles. Wegener assumed that these things were true in the ancient past.

Wegener looked at evidence from ancient glaciers. Glaciers are found in very cold climates near the poles. The evidence left by some ancient glaciers is very close to the Equator. Did glaciers once exist near the equator? Wegener knew that this was extremely unlikely! However, if the continents had moved, the glaciers would have been centered close to the South Pole.

Coral reefs are found only in warm water. Coal swamps are also found in tropical and subtropical environments. Wegener discovered ancient coal seams and coral reef fossils in areas that are much too cold today. Wegener thought that ancient coral and coal plants existed at about the same latitude where they are found today. He again stated that it was the continents that moved.

• Alfred Wegener made an observation. Africa and South America appeared to fit together like puzzle pieces.
• Wegener then asked an important question and set about to answer it. Were the continents once joined and then they drifted apart?
• Wegener collected a great deal of evidence to support his idea. Wegener’s evidence included the fit of the continents, the distribution of ancient fossils, the placement of similar rocks and structures on the opposite sides of oceans, and indicators of ancient climate found in locations where those climates do not exist today.
• What was the scientific question that Wegener asked?
• What did he need to do to explore the question and make it into a hypothesis?
• What evidence did Wegener have to support his idea?
• Describe how Wegener used each type of evidence to support his idea.

Explore More

Use the resources below to answer the questions that follow.

• Who was Alfred Wegener?
• What evidence did Wegener find for Pangaea?
• What was the response to Wegener's hypothesis?

• What is the continental drift hypothesis?
• What do the continental plates consist of?
• What were formed when Pangaea broke apart?
• Is the word "theory" misused in these two videos? What is the better word?

Alfred Wegener: Building a Case for Continental Drift

Continental Drift

The Theory of Continental Drift is defined as the movement of the Earth’s continents relative to each other, thereby appearing to drift together across the oceanic bed. Although Alfred Wegener was able to produce a viable hypothesis with evidence and specifically state the theory, it should be noted there were previous geologists and scientists who thought similar to Wegener. For example, between 1889 and 1909 Roberto Mantovani speculated that all continents had once been conjoined in a “supercontinent,” and even developed an expanding Earth hypothesis.

A depiction of the continents joined together as the “supercontinent,” Pangea, and the path that led them to the positions they reside in today.

Alfred Wegener’s curiosity toward the possibility of continental drift came in 1910 after he noticed how Earth’s continents resembled pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. For example, he noted how South America coast correctly lined up with the coast of Northwest Africa. It wasn’t until 1911, when Wegener came across several scientific documents listing fossils of identical plants and animals found on opposite sides of the Atlantic that his passion for the subject truly showed. Reflecting on this monumental moment in his life, he wrote, “A conviction of the fundamental soundness of the idea took root in my mind.” Alfred Wegener knew massive amounts of evidence needed to be collected in order to justify such a fantastic idea—because with no practical driving force behind it the theory loses most of its credit. In order to maximize evidence for his theory and overlook the absence of a mechanism, he decided to draw from a variety of scientific fields including geology, geography, biology, and paleontology.

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5.5: Continental Drift

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INTRODUCTION

The continental drift hypothesis was developed in the early part of the 20 th century, mostly by Alfred Wegener. Wegener said that continents move around on Earth’s surface and that they were once joined together as a single supercontinent. While Wegener was alive, scientists did not believe that the continents could move.

THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT IDEA

Find a map of the continents and cut each one out. Better yet, use a map where the edges of the continents show the continental shelf. That’s the true size and shape of a continent. Can you fit the pieces together? The easiest link is between the eastern Americas and western Africa and Europe, but the rest can fit together too (figure 1).

Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents were once united into a single supercontinent named Pangaea, meaning all earth in ancient Greek. He suggested that Pangaea broke up long ago and that the continents then moved to their current positions. He called his hypothesis continental drift.

EVIDENCE FOR CONTINENTAL DRIFT

Besides the way the continents fit together, Wegener and his supporters collected a great deal of evidence for the continental drift hypothesis.

• Identical rocks, of the same type and age, are found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Wegener said the rocks had formed side-by-side and that the land had since moved apart.
• Mountain ranges with the same rock types, structures, and ages are now on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachians of the eastern United States and Canada, for example, are just like mountain ranges in eastern Greenland, Ireland, Great Britain, and Norway (figure 2). Wegener concluded that they formed as a single mountain range that was separated as the continents drifted.

• Fossils of the seed fern Glossopteris were too heavy to be carried so far by wind.
• Mesosaurus was a swimming reptile but could only swim in fresh water.
• Cynognathus and Lystrosaurus were land reptiles and were unable to swim

• Grooves and rock deposits left by ancient glaciers are found today on different continents very close to the equator. This would indicate that the glaciers either formed in the middle of the ocean and/or covered most of the Earth. Today glaciers only form on land and nearer the poles. Wegener thought that the glaciers were centered over the southern land mass close to the South Pole and the continents moved to their present positions later on.
• Coral reefs and coal-forming swamps are found in tropical and subtropical environments, but ancient coal seams and coral reefs are found in locations where it is much too cold today. Wegener suggested that these creatures were alive in warm climate zones and that the fossils and coal later had drifted to new locations on the continents.

Take a look at this animation showing that Earth’s climate belts remain in roughly the same position while the continents move and this animation showing how the continents split up.

Although Wegener’s evidence was sound, most geologists at the time rejected his hypothesis of continental drift. Why do you think they did not accept continental drift?

Scientists argued that there was no way to explain how solid continents could plow through solid oceanic crust. Wegener’s idea was nearly forgotten until technological advances presented even more evidence that the continents moved and gave scientists the tools to develop a mechanism for Wegener’s drifting continents.

MAGNETIC POLARITY EVIDENCE

Puzzling new evidence came in the 1950s from studies on the Earth’s magnetic history (figure 4). Scientists used magnetometers , devices capable of measuring the magnetic field intensity, to look at the magnetic properties of rocks in many locations.

Magnetite crystals are like tiny magnets that point to the north magnetic pole as they crystallize from magma. The crystals record both the direction and strength of the magnetic field at the time. The direction is known as the field’s magnetic polarity.

Magnetic Polarity on the Same Continent with Rocks of Different Ages

Geologists noted important things about the magnetic polarity of different aged rocks on the same continent:

• Magnetite crystals in fresh volcanic rocks point to the current magnetic north pole (figure 5) no matter what continent or where on the continent the rocks are located.

• Older rocks that are the same age and are located on the same continent point to the same location, but that location is not the current north magnetic pole.
• Older rock that are of different ages do not point to the same locations or to the current magnetic north pole.

In other words, although the magnetite crystals were pointing to the magnetic north pole, the location of the pole seemed to wander. Scientists were amazed to find that the north magnetic pole changed location through time (figure 6).

There are three possible explanations for this:

• The continents remained fixed and the north magnetic pole moved.
• The north magnetic pole stood still and the continents moved.
• Both the continents and the north pole moved.

Magnetic Polarity on Different Continents with Rocks of the Same Age

Geologists noted that for rocks of the same age but on different continents, the little magnets pointed to different magnetic north poles.

• 400-million-year-old magnetite in Europe pointed to a different north magnetic pole than the same-aged magnetite in North America.
• 250 million years ago, the north poles were also different for the two continents.

The scientists looked again at the three possible explanations. Only one can be correct. If the continents had remained fixed while the north magnetic pole moved, there must have been two separate north poles. Since there is only one north pole today, the only reasonable explanation is that the north magnetic pole has remained fixed but that the continents have moved.

To test this, geologists fitted the continents together as Wegener had done. It worked! There has only been one magnetic north pole and the continents have drifted (figure 7). They named the phenomenon of the magnetic pole that seemed to move but actually did not apparent polar wander.

This evidence for continental drift gave geologists renewed interest in understanding how continents could move about on the planet’s surface.

LESSON SUMMARY

• In the early part of the 20th century, scientists began to put together evidence that the continents could move around on Earth’s surface.
• The evidence for continental drift included the fit of the continents; the distribution of ancient fossils, rocks, and mountain ranges; and the locations of ancient climatic zones.
• Although the evidence for continental drift was extremely strong, scientists rejected the idea because no mechanism for how solid continents could move around on the solid earth was developed.
• The discovery of apparent polar wander renewed scientists interest in continental drift.

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Contributors and Attributions

Original content from Kimberly Schulte (Columbia Basin College) and supplemented by Lumen Learning . The content on this page is copyrighted under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

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• NCERT Notes Geography Continental Drift

NCERT Notes: Continental Drift [Geography Notes For UPSC]

NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam . These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams, and so on. This article talks about the Continental Drift Theory.

Continental Drift Theory Download PDF Here

Continental Drift Theory NCERT

• Continental drift theory was proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912.
• It was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596 before fully being developed by Alfred Wegener.
• The theory deals with the distribution of the oceans and the continents.
• According to Wegener’s Continental Drift theory, all the continents were one single continental mass (called a Supercontinent) – Pangaea and a Mega Ocean surrounded this supercontinent. The mega ocean is known by the name Panthalassa.
• Although Wegener’s initial theory did not cover mantle convection until Arthur Holmes later proposed the theory.
• The supercontinent was named Pangaea (Pangea) and the Mega-ocean was called Panthalassa.
• According to this theory, the supercontinent, Pangaea, began to split some two hundred million years back.
• Pangaea first split into 2 big continental masses known as Gondwanaland and Laurasia forming the southern and northern modules respectively.
• Later, Gondwanaland and Laurasia continued to break into several smaller continents that exist today.

• The Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit)
• The coastlines of South America and Africa fronting each other have a remarkable and unique match.
• In 1964, Bullard created a map using a computer program to find the right fit of the Atlantic margin and it proved to be quiet.
• Rocks of the Same Age across the Oceans
• The radiometric dating methods have helped in correlating the formation of rocks present in different continents across the ocean.
• The ancient rocks belts on the coast of Brazil match with those found in Western Africa.
• The old marine deposits found on the coasts of South America and Africa belong to the Jurassic Age. This implies that the ocean never existed before that time.
• It is the sedimentary rock made from glacier deposits.
• The Gondwana system of sediments from India is recognized as having its counterparts in 6 different landmasses in the Southern Hemisphere.
• Counterparts of this series are found in Madagascar, Africa, Antarctica, Falkland Island, and Australia not to mention India.
• At the base, the system has thick tillite signifying widespread and sustained glaciation.
• Generally, the similarity of the Gondwana-type sediments shows that these landmasses had exceptionally similar origins.
• The glacial tillite gives clear evidence for palaeoclimates and the drifting of continents.
• Placer Deposits
• The presence of abundant placer deposits of gold along the Ghana coast and the complete lack of its source rocks in the area is a phenomenal fact.
• The gold-bearing veins are present in Brazil and it is evident that the gold deposits of Ghana in Africa are obtained from the Brazil plateau from the time when the two continents were beside each other.
• The widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments in South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica, and Australia was one of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift.
• The continuity of glaciers, inferred from oriented glacial striations and deposits called tillites, suggested the existence of the supercontinent of Gondwana, which became a central element of the concept of continental drift.
• Distribution of Fossils
• The interpretations that Lemurs occur in India, Africa, and Madagascar led to the theory of a landmass named “Lemuria” connecting these 3 landmasses.
• Mesosaurus was a tiny reptile adapted to shallow brackish water.
• The skeletons of these creatures are found in the Traver formations of Brazil and the Southern Cape Province of South Africa.
• Wegener proposed that the movement accountable for the drifting of the continents was instigated by tidal force and pole-fleeing force.
• The polar-fleeing force relates to the rotation of the earth.
• The shape of the earth
• The second force that was proposed by Wegener, the tidal force.
• However, most scholars considered these forces to be insufficient.

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continental drift

Definition of continental drift

Examples of continental drift in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'continental drift.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

1926, in the meaning defined above

Dictionary Entries Near continental drift

Continental dollar

Continental fingering

Cite this Entry

“Continental drift.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/continental%20drift. Accessed 13 May. 2024.

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Continental Drift Theory: 5 Mind-Blowing Clues That Reveal Earth’s Secret Past

Continental drift: 5 key pieces of evidence that unlocked the secrets of earth's dynamic history..

• Did you know continents were once a giant supercontinent? Discover the proof of continental drift.
• Fossil clues: Identical species found on opposite sides of the ocean reveal Earth's shifting past.
• Mountain ranges matching across continents: A jaw-dropping clue of Earth's ancient jigsaw puzzle.
• Glacial scars in unlikely places? Another mind-blowing piece of evidence for continental drift.
• Earth is not static! Learn how our planet's surface is constantly changing due to plate tectonics.

Continental Drift Theory is an idea from science fiction. But did you know the very ground beneath your feet is constantly shifting? This revolutionary theory explains how our continents transformed from a single landmass into the world we know today.

⫸ What is Continental Drift Theory?

Continental drift theory revolutionized our understanding of Earth. It suggests that the continents we know today were once part of a single supercontinent that gradually broke apart and drifted into their current positions.

Continental Drift Theory - Definition

• Continental drift theory is a ground-breaking scientific concept that proposes Earth’s continents were once joined in a massive supercontinent and have slowly drifted apart over millions of years.
• This ongoing movement reshapes our planet , influencing the formation of mountains, oceans , and the land we walk on.

Continental Drift Theory Proposed By

Alfred Wegener , a German meteorologist and geophysicist , first championed the continental drift theory in the early 20th century.

He faced initial skepticism, but his meticulous observations of coastlines, fossils , and geological features laid the foundation for the modern understanding of how the Earth’s surface changes.

⫸ Evidence Supporting Continental Drift Theory

The idea of continents moving might seem far-fetched, but a wealth of scientific evidence supports continental drift theory.

The Jigsaw Fit of Continents

• The most obvious clue is how the coastlines of certain continents fit together like puzzle pieces.
• South America’s eastern edge and Africa’s western bulge are a striking example.

Continental Drift Theory Fossil Evidence

• Fossils of identical plant and animal species are found on continents now separated by vast oceans.
• One example is the Mesosaurus , a freshwater reptile whose remains are found only in South Africa and Brazil.

Matching Rock Types and Mountain Ranges

• Geologists discovered rock formations and mountain ranges with identical structures and ages on different continents.
• For instance, portions of the Appalachian Mountains in the United States closely match mountain ranges in Scotland and Norway.

Evidence From Ancient Climates

• Evidence of glaciers in present-day tropical regions suggests these landmasses were once near the poles.
• Coal deposits from ancient tropical swamps are found in frigid locations like Antarctica , indicating a warmer past climate.

Matching Geological Formations

• Specific geological features extend across continents as though they were once connected.
• Glacial deposits with unique patterns are found across South America, Africa, India, and Australia in a way that only makes sense if they were once part of a landmass near the South Pole.

⫸ Pangaea - The Supercontinent

Pangaea, meaning “all lands,” was the Earth’s most recent supercontinent, a vast landmass that shaped our planet’s history.

What was Pangaea?

• Pangaea was a C-shaped supercontinent that existed hundreds of millions of years ago.
• It encompassed nearly all of Earth’s landmasses, surrounded by a global ocean called Panthalassa.
• Pangaea’s formation dramatically affected animal and plant life, impacting evolution and biodiversity.

When Did Pangaea Exist?

• Pangaea began to assemble during the late Paleozoic Era , approximately 335 million years ago.
• It reached its final form in the Early Permian Epoch (about 299 million to 273 million years ago).
• During the Early Jurassic Epoch , Pangaea started to break apart roughly 200 million years ago.

Evidence for Pangaea's Existence

• Fossil Distribution: Identical plant and animal fossils found on widely separated continents suggest they were once connected.
• Rock and Mountain Continuity: Matching geological formations and mountain ranges span continents, hinting at a shared origin.
• Paleoclimate Clues: Evidence of glaciers in now tropical regions point to continents previously positioned in colder areas.

Pangaea’s Breakup and the Continents Today

• Tectonic forces caused Pangaea to fragment into two supercontinents: Laurasia (north) and Gondwana (south).
• Continued drifting shaped our modern continents and oceans.
• This process is ongoing; continents continue to move slowly, reshaping the world map even today.

⫸ How Plate Tectonics Explains Continental Movement?

While continental drift theory laid the groundwork, plate tectonics provides a more comprehensive explanation for continental movement. Imagine Earth’s surface as a giant jigsaw puzzle, broken into numerous rigid plates that float on a hot, semi-molten layer of the mantle called the asthenosphere . These plates are constantly in motion, driven by convection currents within the mantle.

Seafloor Spreading : This key process occurs at mid-ocean ridges , where hot magma rises from the mantle, pushing tectonic plates apart. As the plates diverge, the magma cools and solidifies, forming a new ocean floor . This continuous creation of new seafloor explains the immense width of oceans and why continents on either side fit together like puzzle pieces.

Subduction Zones: Not all plate boundaries involve divergence. When plates collide, one plate may be forced beneath the other, a process known as subduction. This subduction zone typically involves a denser oceanic plate diving beneath a less dense continental plate. The subducted plate melts partially due to the immense heat and pressure, and this molten rock can rise again, forming volcanoes on the overriding plate. Subduction is also crucial in mountain building as the continental crust crumples and compresses at the collision zone.

Transform Faults:   These boundaries occur when plates slide past each other horizontally, creating immense friction. This friction can cause massive earthquakes like those along the San Andreas Fault in California. Transform faults don’t directly create or destroy continents but contribute to the overall movement and reshaping of the Earth’s crust.

By understanding these interactions between plates, plate tectonics paints a more vivid picture of continental movement. It explains the ongoing continental drift and the formation of volcanoes, mountain ranges, and even the very shape of our oceans.

⫸ Challenges to Continental Drift Theory

While ground-breaking, Alfred Wegener’s continental drift theory faced significant criticism during its initial proposal. Here’s an examination of the key challenges that cast doubt on its validity:

Lack of a Convincing Mechanism:

Wegener couldn’t provide a strong explanation for the forces powerful enough to move entire continents. He suggested tidal forces and the Earth’s rotation might play a role, but these were deemed too weak.

Contradiction with Prevailing Theories:

Continental drift clashed with the widely accepted geosyncline theory used to explain mountain formation. This theory emphasized long-term, slow Earth crust changes, while continental drift implied rapid, large-scale movements.

Issues with Geological Fit:

While the coastline fit of some continents seemed striking, critics argued that a perfect fit was unlikely. They pointed to factors like erosion and sediment buildup that would alter coastal shapes over time.

Questions about Oceanic Crust:

If continents plowed through the seafloor, what happened to the displaced material? The absence of crumpled and deformed oceanic crust in the path of the continents posed a problem.

Disagreement from the Scientific Community:

The geology establishment of Wegener’s time was hesitant to embrace such a radical concept. Many scientists had built their careers on the existing geosyncline theory and were reluctant to accept a fundamental shift in perspective.

Limitations Fuelling a New Theory

While Wegener’s hypothesis had weaknesses, it sparked crucial questions and observations.  The limitations of continental drift theory ultimately paved the way for the development of plate tectonics, a more comprehensive model that explains the dynamic movement of the Earth’s surface.

⫸ What is the importance of continental drift theory?

Continental drift theory provides a framework for understanding how Earth’s features and life forms have evolved over time. It helps explain major geological events the distribution of plants and animals, and offers insights into the planet’s future.

Earthquakes and Volcanoes – Where Continents Collide

Continental drift underpins the theory of plate tectonics. Where plates collide, immense forces cause earthquakes and volcanic activity. The infamous “Ring of Fire” around the Pacific Ocean is a prime example of this dynamic process.

Formation of Mountains

The Earth’s crust buckles and folds when continents crash together, creating towering mountain ranges. The Himalayas , formed by the collision of India and Asia, are a spectacular testament to this process.

Ocean Basins and Continental Shelves

As continents pull apart, vast ocean basins form between them. The Atlantic Ocean is a result of such a split. Along the edges of continents, the submerged continental shelves provide rich habitat s for marine life .

Predicting Future Continental Movement

Continental drift is a slow but ongoing process. Scientists meticulously track plate movements to model how Earth’s continents might rearrange in the distant future. While change is gradual on a human timescale, it’s dramatic over geological timespans.

⫸ Conclusion

Continental drift theory, once considered outlandish, profoundly changed our understanding of the planet. It’s far from a static image of Earth; it’s a dynamic system constantly in motion. From the fossils of ancient creatures to the earthquakes that rumble beneath our feet, the evidence for continental drift is woven into the very fabric of our world.

The theory highlights the interconnectedness of Earth’s systems and the immense power of change over time.  As we learn more about plate tectonics and geological processes, we become better equipped to predict natural hazards and understand the delicate balance of our planet’s future.

Call to action: If you’re fascinated by the ever-changing Earth, explore resources on plate tectonics and continental drift – your journey of discovery has just begun!

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The Continental Drift Theory proposes that Earth’s continents were once part of a single supercontinent called Pangaea, which later fragmented and drifted to their current positions over millions of years. This theory, initially proposed by Alfred Wegener, is supported by evidence such as matching coastlines, geological similarities, and fossil distribution across continents. The concept laid the foundation for the modern understanding of plate tectonics.

In this article, We have discussed the Continental Drift Theory and supporting evidence for the Drift Theory, and limitations of the theory, and many more.

Let’s dive right in.

Continental Drift Theory

Continental Drift Theory explains that all the continents once were merged in a single landform called PANGEA and the large water body surrounding it was called PANTHELASA. With time the land was further divided into parts and today’s world was formed.

The following is a Complete overview of Continental Drift Theory:

• Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist and geophysicist, proposed the Continental Drift Theory.
• Suggests that continents were once part of a single supercontinent called Pangaea.
• Hypothetical supercontinent that existed about 200 million years ago.
• Noted the remarkable fit of coastlines, especially between South America and Africa.
• Observed similar geological formations and rock layers on continents that are now separated by oceans.
• Pointed out the presence of identical fossils on continents that are currently distant.
• Used evidence from paleoclimatology, such as glacial deposits, to support his theory.
• Faced skepticism due to the lack of a convincing mechanism for the movement of continents.
• The theory gained acceptance with the development of plate tectonics in the 1960s.
• Explains that the Earth’s lithosphere is divided into plates that move on the semi-fluid asthenosphere.
• Plates can move apart at mid-ocean ridges, collide at convergent boundaries, or slide past each other at transform boundaries.
• The Continental Drift Theory, coupled with plate tectonics, is now widely accepted in the scientific community.
• Revolutionized the understanding of the Earth’s dynamic processes and the constantly changing configuration of its surface.
• Integral to explaining phenomena like earthquakes, volcanic activity, and the formation of ocean basins.
• Ongoing research continues to refine our understanding of plate tectonics and continental drift.

Evidence for Continental Drift Theory

The following is the list of Evidence for Continental Drift Theory:

Continental Drift Theory – Groundbreaking Theory

Continental Drift theory is also called the Groundbreaking Theory of Moving Continents, as according to this theory the major landmass of earth moved with a very slow rate and with time it broke down into smaller landmass that we see in the present day. Earthquake – Definition, Causes, Effects, Protection

• The major land mass Pangea broke into lauresia and gondwana land and futher boke into the present day continents.
• Due to the drift and movement we observe a lot of similarities in the structure and biological creatures in different continents.
• After observing we can see that there are jig-saw attachment in the shapes of different contents.
• India was previously a part of African continent with time it moved towards Asia and merged with it.

Various Stages of Continental Drift Theory

The Continental Drift Theory is a continuous process and it takes a lot of time ( in billion years). The period of continental Drift theory is divided into 5 stages .

• First Stage : During the Carboniferous epoch, Panthalassa, a mega-ocean, encircled Pangea, a supercontinent, in the first stage.
• Second Stage : Around 200 million years ago, the supercontinent Pangaea began to break apart in the second stage of the Jurassic epoch. The northern and southern components of Pangaea, Laurasia, and Gondwanaland were the first large continental masses to break apart.
• Third Stage : In the third stage of the Mesozoic epoch, the Tethys Sea steadily filled and broadened the territory between Laurasia and Gondwanaland.
• Fourth stage : It began at 100 million years ago, when North and South America pushed westward, forming the Atlantic Ocean. The Rockies and Andes were formed by North and South America’s westward migration.
• Fifth Stage : Mountain-building activity occurred during the fifth Orogenetic Stage.

Forces Responsible for Continental Drift

Many forces were responsible for the occurrence of continental drift theory. few of the major are given below and to note is that these forces are still active and responsible for the structural formation of the world landmasses in future.

• Towards the equator due to the interaction of forces of gravity , pole-fleeing force (due to centrifugal force caused by earth’s rotation), and buoyancy (ship floats in water due to buoyant force offered by water).
• Westwards due to tidal currents because of the earth’s motion (the earth rotates from west to east, so tidal currents act from east to west, according to Wegener).
• Wegener proposed that tidal forces , primarily influenced by the gravitational pull of the moon and, to a lesser extent, the sun, played a significant role in his continental drift theory.
• The polar-fleeing force is associated with the Earth’s rotation. Earth’s shape deviates from a perfect sphere, exhibiting a bulge at the equator induced by the planet’s rotation, which results in a greater centrifugal force at the equator.
• According to Wegener, the phenomenon of pole fleeing is attributed to the escalating centrifugal force experienced as one moves from the poles toward the equator. This increase in centrifugal force is a key element in Wegener’s explanation of continental drift.
• However, most of the scholars considered these forces to be insufficient.

Limitations Of Continental Drift Theory

The Continental Drift Theory had some limitations they are mentioned below:

• Wegener was unable to clarify why the drift started during the Mesozoic epoch.
• According to Wegner, the forces that propelled the movement of continents were buoyancy, tidal currents, and gravity, but these forces were too weak to move continents.
• Pangaea is acknowledged by contemporary ideas (Plate Tectonics), although the explanation disproves Wegner’s theory of drifting.
• His explanation of how the SIAL (Silica-Aluminum)-based continental crust, which is floating over the SIMA (Silica-Magnesium)-based ocean floor, formed island arcs that, according to him, were formed during the drifting of continents as a result of friction, fell short.
• Later Plate Tectonic Theory demonstrated that the entirety of SIAL and SIMA is floating over the asthenosphere

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FAQs on Continental Drift Theory

1. what is continental drift theory.

Continental drift theory is a hypothesis that states that the major landmass of the earth moves and the form different structural differnece with a long span of time.

2. What was Taylor’s theory of continental drift?

The arcuate (bow-shaped) mountain belts of Asia and Europe resulted from the creep of the continents toward the Equator.

3. Who is the father of the continental drift theory?

Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, is credited as the progenitor of the Continental Drift Theory, presenting a comprehensive argument in 1912 about the arrangement of continents and oceans. His theory marked a groundbreaking exploration into the dynamic history of Earth’s landmasses.

4. Who first discovered continental drift?

In 1912, German meteorologist Alfred Wegener revolutionized geoscience by introducing the Continental Drift Theory. His comprehensive argument delved into the distribution of continents and oceans, reshaping our understanding of Earth’s geological evolution.

5. Who discovered Pangea?

The concept of Pangaea, the ancient supercontinent, was developed by the German meteorologist and geophysicist Alfred Wegener. He proposed the idea as part of his Continental Drift Theory in the early 20th century, suggesting that continents were once connected in a single landmass before drifting apart over geological time.

7. What was the first supercontinent?

Pangea is known as the first supercontinent.

8. When was the continental drift theory proposed?

The Continental Drift Theory was proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912.

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