research topics on college football

333 Football Research Topics & Essay Titles

Football is a game that millions of people around the world enjoy watching and playing. With 3.57 billion views of the 2018 FIFA World Cup, this sport appears to be the most popular. Besides, each match is more than just a game — football is all about passion, skill, and teamwork.

In this article, our expert team has collected great football topics to write about and research that you can use for your school or college assignments.

🔝 Top 12 Football Topics to Write About

✍️ football writing prompts, 📝 football titles for essays, 🗣️ football speech topics, 💡 football topics for presentation, 🔎 football research topics, ⚽ football essay outline, 🔗 references.

• The history of football.
• Football as the world’s most popular ball game.
• The development of modern football.
• The greatest football moments.
• Why do tactics play a vital role in football?
• Football as a traumatic kind of sport.
• What is football’s most prestigious competition?
• The legends of American football.
• The impact of football on society.
• Advantages of playing football.
• Men’s and women’s football.
• The issue of racism in football.

Are you looking for some prompts on the football topic? Then you are at the right place! Below, you can find ideas for writing your essay.

Why Football Is the Best Sport: Essay Prompt

Football is a global sport that connects practically everyone on the planet. It has the power to bring an entire city or nation to a standstill. In the essay that explains why football is the best game, you can share your own experience or the emotions of your friend who is passionate about this game. Also, you can list the reasons why people love this sport. For example:

• Football connects millions of people.
• There are no age restrictions to enjoy the match.
• The world’s best talents are football players, such as Lionel Messi.
• Watching or participating in football evokes genuine emotions.

Prompt for Panyee Football Club Essay

Have you ever heard about a football club that is floating on water? Panyee FC is one of them! Since there is not enough space on the island, football fans and players built a football pitch in the middle of the sea. Find the answers to the following questions about Panyee Football Club and use this information in your essay:

• What is the history behind Panyee Football Club?
• Why is a Panyee FC pitch built on water?
• What are the core values of Panyee Football Club?
• Can we say that Panyee FC is a symbol of passion for football?

Why Football Is Dangerous: Essay Prompt

The fact that football has the greatest injury rate of any other kind of sport should not come as a surprise. Football players often incur injuries like ankle sprains, knee injuries, concussions, and acromioclavicular sprains. In your essay on the dangers of football, you can raise the following questions:

• Why is it so easy for football players to get injured?
• What types of injuries are most common during a football game?
• What precautions must be taken to prevent trauma?
• How does injury impact the future career of a football player?

Prompt for Essay on Concussions in Football

While every sport has some risk of getting hurt, football, as a high-impact sport , is infamous for causing severe injuries. Concussions are a common injury among football players. They happen when the head is hit hard enough to cause a minor brain injury. To research the topic of concussions in football, write your essay based on the following aspects:

• The effect of concussion on the brain.
• Statistics on concussion in American football.
• Medical concussion protocol.
• The recovery process after a concussion.
• Screening procedures examining football players for brain damage.

If you’re looking for the most engaging football essay titles, check out the ideas we’ve collected below!

Topics for a Descriptive Essay on a Football Game

• The thrill of a last-minute goal in football.
• The intensity of the players’ warm-up and last-minute preparations.
• Sports psychologist: working with athletes .
• The different styles of play in football around the world.
• The rapid movement of players and the choreography of their tactics.
• The role of a coach in football.
• Capturing the joys and frustrations of the players and fans.
• The interaction between players and referees: decisions, protests, and resolutions.
• A description of a football stadium and its architecture.
• The art of dribbling in football.
• How do players and fans celebrate a goal?
• Describing pre-match rituals and superstitions in football.
• How do fans create a supportive atmosphere for their team during the game?
• The joy and excitement of attending a live football match.
• Describing how coaches handle their emotions on the sidelines.
• The description of food served during the football game.
• The magnetic pull of the scoreboard: watching the numbers change.
• The vibrant fan gear and merchandise in a football stadium.
• The drama of penalty kicks: tension, hope, and heartbreak.
• The description of a goalkeeper’s save.
• The sounds of the football match.

Football Argumentative Essay Topics

• Is football too dangerous for young children to play?
• Does football develop leadership skills and teamwork?
• Title IX in the female sports development .
• College football players should be paid for their performance on the field.
• Should football stadiums have stricter security measures?
• Is the use of performance-enhancing drugs in football acceptable?
• Reasons why the NFL should expand to include more teams.
• Why paying college athletes is beneficial .
• Is the NFL doing enough to prevent concussions and other injuries in players?
• Should football games be played on artificial turf or natural grass?
• Is it ethical for colleges to recruit high school football players?
• Should players be allowed to protest during games?
• Does youth sports play a part in the character formation ?
• Reasons why cheerleading should be considered a sport in football.
• Should the Super Bowl be considered a national holiday?
• The economic influence of football: the benefits and costs.
• Is football too focused on commercialization and profit?
• Should football players be allowed to use marijuana for medical purposes ?
• The NFL should have a shorter season to reduce the risk of injuries to players.
• Using performance-enhancing drugs in the world of sport .
• Should college football teams be allowed to schedule games against non-college teams, such as high school teams?
• Should the NFL have a salary cap to ensure fairness among teams?
• Football players should wear full body armor to reduce injuries.
• Is football too expensive for schools and communities to support?
• Should the NFL allow players to use alternative therapies for pain management ?
• Should football players be required to take regular drug tests ?
• Should the NFL have stricter penalties for players who break the rules, such as suspensions or fines?
• Children participation in sports .
• Football players should take classes on financial management to prepare for life after football.
• Should the NFL have a quota for hiring minority coaches and executives?
• High school football players should pass a physical exam before being allowed to play.
• Should the NFL have stricter rules on player conduct off the field?
• College football players should be allowed to transfer to other schools without penalty.
• Should the NFL have a policy on players using social media ?
• Football players should attend media training to prepare for interviews and press conferences.
• Sport psychology: biases and influence of external rewards .
• Should the NFL have a policy on players participating in political activism ?
• Football players should undergo regular psychological evaluations.
• Should the NFL have a policy on players using alcohol and drugs off the field?
• Should football players be required to wear protective eyewear to reduce eye injuries?
• College football teams should provide mental health resources for their players.
• Should high school football teams limit the number of weekly practices to reduce the risk of injuries?
• Paying college athletes: reinforcing privilege or promoting growth ?
• Should college football players be allowed to unionize?
• Should football be banned in schools to protect students from injuries?
• Is playing football in college detrimental to academics?
• Should college football players be allowed to hire agents?

Ideas for a Narrative Essay about Football

• The first time I stepped onto the football field: an unforgettable experience.
• Overcoming adversity: how I bounced back from a football injury.
• A story of teamwork : how football taught me the value of collaboration.
• The most memorable football match I have ever witnessed.
• Coping with stress in athletes .
• The importance of football in building lifelong friendships.
• From underdog to champion: my journey with the football team.
• A day in the life of a football player: behind the scenes.
• The role of football in shaping my identity.
• A tale of rivalry: the intense football match against our arch-nemesis.
• The impact of football on my physical fitness and well-being.
• How a football coach changed my life.
• The thrill of scoring the winning goal: a football victory to remember.
• The evolution of football: from my grandfather’s time to the modern era.
• A football match that taught me the importance of humility .
• The emotional rollercoaster of supporting a football team.
• Lessons learned from defeat: how football taught me resilience .
• A football game that tested my leadership skills.
• Football and community: how the sport brings people together.
• A football camp experience: training, team building , and friendship.
• From fan to player: fulfilling my football dream.

Football Essay Topics: Compare and Contrast

• Regular football vs. American football: a comparative analysis.
• Lionel Messi vs. Cristiano Ronaldo: contrasting two football legends.
• Comparing football and soccer .
• College football vs. professional football: similarities and differences.
• The World Cup vs. the Super Bowl: contrasting two major football events.
• The roles and impact of offensive and defensive players.
• The Premier League vs. La Liga: comparing two dominant football leagues.
• Contrasting playing styles and cultural significance of football in Europe and South America.
• Club football vs. international football: examining the differences in competition and loyalty.
• Football stadiums vs. arenas: comparing the experiences of live football events.
• The similarities and differences between Olympic football and FIFA World Cup.
• Football in the past vs. modern-day football.
• Comparing the roles and responsibilities of quarterbacks and goalkeepers.
• Football fan culture in Europe vs. the US: contrasting fan traditions and behaviors.
• Amateur football vs. professional football.
• Football uniforms vs. gear: analyzing the equipment used in the sport.
• Comparing and contrasting famous football team rivalries.
• Football team dynamics vs. individual brilliance: contrasting the impact of teamwork and individual performances.
• Football referees vs. video assistant referees (VAR).
• Club vs. country: comparing the passion and loyalty for club and national teams.
• Football and injuries: comparing the risk and types of injuries in the sport.
• Football leagues during the pandemic vs. regular seasons.
• Football commentary vs. live match experience: comparing the different ways of engaging with the sport.
• The impact of football on local vs. global economies.
• Football documentaries vs. fictional football movies.
• The role of football in promoting diversity vs. perpetuating stereotypes.
• Football fandom vs. player idolization: contrasting how fans engage with the sport.
• Comparing the traditional grass pitches vs. artificial turf.
• The impact of social media on football vs. traditional media.
• Comparing the challenges of football in different weather conditions .
• Football in mainstream culture vs. football subcultures.
• The health benefits of football vs. injuries and health risks.
• Betting in football vs. gambling .
• The cultural significance of football in different regions.
• Football literature vs. football films: contrasting different forms of storytelling about the sport.
• Football stadiums: traditional vs. modern architecture .
• College football vs. professional football: differences in gameplay and culture.
• Offensive vs. defensive strategies: which is more important?
• Comparing traditional and modern football training methods.
• The history of football in America and Europe.
• Injuries in football vs. soccer: which sport is more dangerous?

American Football Topics

• The evolution of American football: from its origins to the present day.
• The impact of race on American football.
• Concussions and brain injuries in American football.
• The psychology of football: understanding the mental game of players and coaches.
• The role of women in American football: from cheerleaders to coaches and executives.
• The strategies and tactics used in American football.
• The role of coaches in American football: leadership and game planning.
• The significance of the offensive line in American football.
• The impact of college football on the NFL.
• The influence of the media on American football.
• The role of the head coach in American football.
• The importance of physical fitness in American football.
• The impact of technology on American football: from instant replay to virtual reality training.
• The economic impact and financial aspects of American football.
• The history of Super Bowl halftime shows.
• American football and national identity.
• The impact of weather on American football games.
• The influence of player protests on American football.
• The role of American football in the entertainment industry (movies, TV shows, etc.).
• The development of American football youth programs: benefits and challenges.
• The importance of the running back in the offense in American football.
• The role of the defensive line in stopping the run and rushing the passer in American football.
• The influence of American football on sports marketing and sponsorship.
• The impact of fan behavior on American football.
• Exploring the legacy of American football’s great players and their impact on the sport.
• The influence of a new coach on team culture and performance in American football.
• The consequences of player suspensions in American football.
• Player trades in American football: exploring how teams acquire new talent.
• American football and sportsmanship: fair play and ethical considerations.
• The impact of player injuries on American football: exploring the recovery process.
• The role of American football in building teamwork and camaraderie.
• The impact of American football on society’s perception of masculinity .
• The history and cultural significance of American football rivalries.
• The role of American football in promoting community engagement and volunteerism.
• The influence of American football on US pop culture.
• American football and social justice : protests, activism, and athlete empowerment.
• The role of American football in public health and fitness initiatives.
• The ethics of sports gambling in American football.
• American football and sports diplomacy: international relations and competitions.
• The future of American football: challenges and opportunities.

Are you looking for exciting football topics to talk about? Check out our suggestions for persuasive and informative speeches about this sport!

Football Persuasive Speech Topics

• The benefits of playing football for overall physical fitness.
• The importance of youth football programs in fostering teamwork.
• Kids and sports: lack of professional sports guides .
• The positive impact of football on character development and leadership skills.
• The role of football in promoting gender equality and inclusion.
• The economic benefits of hosting major football events like the World Cup or Super Bowl.
• The need for increased safety measures and concussion protocols in football.
• The necessity of providing proper healthcare and support for retired football players.
• The role of football in breaking down cultural and racial barriers.
• Balancing college sports and academic mission .
• The benefits of investing in football infrastructure and facilities for communities.
• The positive influence of football in reducing youth involvement in crime and drugs.
• The potential of football as a tool for empowering disadvantaged communities.
• The role of football in promoting a healthy and active lifestyle among fans and spectators.
• The benefits of including football as part of the physical education curriculum in schools.
• The positive effects of football in promoting national pride.
• Corporate social responsibility in sports organizations .
• The use of football as a platform for raising awareness and funds for charitable causes.
• The importance of football in boosting tourism and international visibility of cities.
• The potential of football in fostering international diplomacy and cultural exchange.
• The importance of providing equal opportunities for females in football at all levels.
• The impact of football on local economies through job creation and tourism revenue.
• The significance of iconic moments in football history.

Football Informative Speech Topics

• The different positions in football and their roles.
• The psychology of football fans and their passion for the game.
• Agencies in the international football industry .
• Famous football stadiums around the world and their significance.
• The rules and regulations of football: understanding the game’s structure.
• The role of referees and their importance in enforcing the rules of football.
• Positive self-talk and its impact on athletes .
• The evolution of football equipment: from leather balls to high-tech gear.
• The most successful football clubs in history and their achievements.
• Exploring the tactics and strategies used in modern football.
• The science behind successful football coaching.
• Sports coaching career and its history .
• Football rivalries: the history and intensity behind classic match-ups.
• The art of scoring goals: techniques and skills of top goal scorers.
• Football and media: the influence of broadcasting and coverage on the sport.
• The psychological aspects of football: mental preparation and performance.
• The cultural impact of football around the world.
• The development and growth of women’s football.
• Physical therapy services for sports injuries .
• The importance of nutrition and fitness in football.
• The significance of football academies in nurturing young talent.
• The role of technology in modern football: VAR, goal-line technology, and more.
• Football hooliganism : understanding the causes and efforts to combat it.
• Famous football managers and their managerial styles: strategies for success.

If you need compelling topics about football for your presentation, here are some ideas you can consider:

• The FIFA World Cup: the most significant event in international football.
• Techniques and skills in football: dribbling, shooting, passing, and more.
• Leadership development in football management .
• The rules and regulations in football.
• Football tactics: exploring different formations and strategic approaches.
• Famous football players of all times: their achievements and impact on the sport.
• Football and sports injuries: common types, prevention, and treatment.
• Steroid use effects on professional young athletes .
• Football stadiums around the world: architecture and unique features.
• The business side of football: sponsorship, transfer fees, and revenue streams.
• Football and social media: the influence of digital platforms on the sport.
• Football documentaries and films: capturing the drama and passion of the sport.
• The effects of football on fashion and popular culture.
• Virtual reality technology in soccer referee training .
• The financial impact of football on cities and regions.
• Football and sports journalism: media coverage and analysis of the sport.
• Football stats and analytics: how data is revolutionizing the sport.
• The causes and consequences of fan violence in football.
• The cultural rituals and traditions associated with football matches.
• Football and the environment: sustainable practices and stadiums.
• The impact of football on tourism.
• Health care site: fitness, sports, and nutrition .
• Football and celebrity culture: players as icons and brand ambassadors.
• Football in video games: the popularity of virtual football experiences.
• The importance of infrastructure in hosting major football events.
• Football tactics in different eras: from Catenaccio to Tiki-Taka.
• Football and broadcasting: the growth of televised matches and media rights.
• Football training drills for improving agility and speed.
• Physical activity and sports team participation .
• Strategies for effective team communication on the football field.
• The importance of proper warm-up exercises in preventing injuries in football.
• Tips for strengthening and conditioning specific muscle groups for football players.
• Defensive formations and tactics for shutting down opponents in football.
• Analyzing football game films to improve performance and strategy.
• Recovering from football injuries: rehabilitation exercises and protocols.
• Sports-related problems and conflicts .
• Sports psychology techniques for boosting confidence and mental resilience in football.
• Nutrition and hydration guidelines for optimal performance in football.
• The connection between globalization and football.
• The role of stretching routines in preventing muscle imbalances in football players.
• Practical strategies for successful penalty shootouts in football.
• Steroid usage in professional sports .
• Football scouting and player evaluation techniques for talent identification.
• The use of technology in football training and performance analysis.
• Football equipment maintenance and safety guidelines for players.
• Preparing and executing penalty kicks in pressure situations in football.
• Advanced passing techniques in football: long passes, through balls, and more.

Do you need to write a research paper about football but don’t know where to start? Consider our list of football research questions and topics:

• How have football tactics evolved over the past decade?
• The impact of technology on decision-making in football.
• Business industry: trend analysis for soccer .
• The psychology of team cohesion and its effects on football performance.
• What is the role of nutrition and diet in optimizing football players’ performance?
• What is the relationship between football and concussions?
• How do FIFA World Cup events affect host countries’ economies?
• What is the carbon footprint of major football events?
• The effects of climate conditions on football matches.
• Shortage of officials at the high school sports level .
• The influence of social media on football players’ image and brand.
• The role of VAR in the fairness of football matches.
• The impact of home-field advantage in professional football.
• How does the football stadium atmosphere affect player performance?
• The rise of women’s football and its impact on gender equality.
• The economic implications of football player transfers and fees.
• The correlation between a team’s wage bill and on-pitch success.
• Factors influencing fan loyalty in football.
• Research handbook of employment relations in sport .
• The role of leadership and coaching in a team’s success.
• The impact of sponsorship deals on football clubs’ financial stability.
• The relationship between player positioning and successful goal scoring.
• The effects of VAR on the emotions and behavior of fans during football matches.
• How does football influence youth development and participation in sport?
• How can big data analytics improve football performance and decision-making?
• The effects of football on cultural identity and national pride.
• How do sports affect disabled people psychologically ?
• The impact of football on the local community and economy.
• The influence of crowd noise on football referee decisions.
• The role of sports psychology in enhancing football performance.
• The impact of financial fair play regulations on football clubs.
• How does football betting affect match outcomes and integrity?
• The cultural significance of football chants and songs in fan culture.
• Steroid abuse in the world of sports .
• The influence of doping scandals on the reputation of football players and clubs.
• The role of football in promoting social inclusion and breaking down barriers.
• How do international football competitions affect tourism?
• The effects of player transfers on team dynamics and performance.
• The correlation between player height and success in football.
• The influence of different playing surfaces on football player performance and injury rates.
• How do referees maintain fairness and order in football matches?
• Achievement motivation theory in sports psychology .
• The impact of football on academic performance and school attendance.
• The role of football hooliganism in shaping public perceptions of the sport.
• The influence of football sponsorship on brand image and consumer behavior.
• The effects of football on social integration and community cohesion.
• How do rule changes affect football game dynamics?
• The influence of football on individual and societal gender norms.
• Sports analysis: steroids and HGH in sports .
• Investigating the impact of celebrity endorsement on football merchandise sales.
• The role of technology in improving football player performance and injury prevention.
• The correlation between alcohol consumption and football-related violence.
• The impact of fan protests and boycotts on football clubs and leagues.
• The effects of retirement on the mental well-being of former professional football players.
• The influence of football on urban development and infrastructure investment.
• How does football affect students’ academic motivation and educational attainment?
• The impact of football on destination marketing in tourism.

Structuring your essay on football is a piece of cake, and we’re going to prove it! Follow our mini guide with valuable tips and examples!

Football Essay Introduction

The first paragraph of an essay is crucial to creating a strong paper. A successful introduction often starts by addressing broad ideas related to the essay’s topic. Follow the steps below to write a compelling introduction:

1. Start with a hook.

Make a good first impression by using a captivating hook . In football essays, it can include a surprising fact, statistics, a question, or a relevant quote. Here’s an example:

What is the one thing that can unite a country and foster its pride? Yes, it is football!

2. Provide background information.

Give essential details on the essay’s main subject. This part can include the history of your topic, an explanation of key terms, and anything that can help your reader understand the context of your issue.

Football is a group of team sports that involve kicking a ball to score goals.

3. End with a thesis statement.

Put a concise thesis statement at the end to outline your motivation for the paper and present central arguments. Let’s talk about this element in detail.

Thesis Statement about Football

The thesis statement is a sentence expressing the primary idea of a piece of writing and guiding the thoughts within the work.

There are several steps that you should take to develop a thesis statement:

• Research information on your issue.
• Limit your topic to a specific area.
• Brainstorm to come up with interesting ideas.

Look at the example of a football thesis statement:

Football offers the chance to feel pride for the favorite team and positively impacts physical, social, and emotional development.

Essay about Football: Body Paragraphs

The main body of an essay is the most crucial part where you deliver your arguments. Here are some tips on writing a good body paragraph:

• Start with a topic sentence to capture the key points.
• Provide additional information to support your opinion.
• Use a transition sentence to get to the next paragraph smoothly.

Here’s an example of what your topic sentence and supporting evidence might look like:

Topic sentence : Football requires effective communication and listening skills since the game will not work without them. Supporting evidence : Communication helps athletes perform and focus better on the pitch and improves the decision-making process.

Conclusion for Football Essay

A conclusion brings your discussion to a close. The following outline may assist you in completing your essay:

• Restate your thesis.
• Explain why your topic is significant.
• Summarize the core points.
• Call for action or provide an overview of future research opportunities

Check out an example of a paraphrased thesis and the summary of the main points:

Rephrased thesis : Football is a fascinating sport with many societal benefits. Summary : To sum up, football can be considered a hobby, a sport, or an obsession. But still, its most important role is to unite people or even entire countries.

We hope you will find our football topics to write about and research beneficial! Want to receive some more ideas? Try our free online title generator ! Just click the button, and the result will not keep you waiting!

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218 Football Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

In your paper, you can talk about famous soccer players, or you could discuss the physics involved in a standard game. Our team came up with 130 football topics to write about in this article to help you find the right idea.

🏈Top 10 Football Research Topics

✅ most interesting football topics to write about, 🏆 best football topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 unique football topics to write about, 🔎 good research topics about football, ⚽ interesting football essay topics, ❓ football research questionss.

• The differences between American football and rugby.
• The history of football.
• Controversial football scandals.
• Corruption in the football business.
• How football and soccer became different games.
• Psychological strain of losses in football.
• The medicine of soccer training.
• What is Gaelic football?
• Economic impact of football championships.
• Recovery from trauma in rugby players.
• Football and Soccer: Differences and Similarities The team usually consists of eleven players and the game is played on a field that has goals on either end of the field.
• Arsenal Football Club PESTEL Analysis Finally, advertising using the new technologies in the market has helped Arsenal Football Club to reach a large portion of football fans.
• Playing Soccer Game: Personal Experience During the game, I paid the main attention to team strategy and the configuration of players around the point of action.
• Football Impact on England’s Culture This paper will study the various impacts of football both on the social life of people and on the economy of the country.
• Manchester United Football Club The outcomes are measured in the line of success in financial management, performance at the pitch, the number of games won and lost, the number of trophies won within certain duration of time and also […]
• How Football Has Impacted Our Society in Many Ways To observe this, it is best to take a look at the current National Football League system and how it became the most profitable sports league in the U.S.
• Amateur Football Club Database Design For the enhancement of data management, a local amateur football club needs database program to keep personal data of its member in order to have the record of attendance of the club member, best club […]
• Project Charter for Construction of Football Pitch at Coventry University The main purpose of the project is to construct a high-tech football pitch for use of the students at Coventry University, which shall minimize the cost of renting playgrounds and avail easy access of the […]
• American Football’s and Soccer Comparison It is possible to say that the thirst to be better than the rest of people and to be the winner is in the nature of human being.
• FC Barcelona: Achievements and Impact The team also boasts of Lionel Messi who is arguably the best player of the current generation of footballers in the world.
• Which Is More Profitable, Baseball or Football? There are other sports which are more profitable than the two but the argument here boils to which sport between the two is more profitable. In regard to the ticket price, baseball becomes more profitable […]
• National Football League’s Digital Media Strategy Louis and the Riders to Oakland, as well as the creation of the Carolina Panthers and the Jacksonville Jaguars, increased the sport’s popularity.
• Cultural Values Embeded in Soccer One of the cultural values embedded in soccer is socialization; socialization is promoted by the soccer events that are organized by the world soccer governing body FIFA.
• The Developement of Soccer in the Past Century The side that will have put in the most goals at their opponents’ side by the ending of the game is the winner.
• The Development of Soccer Analysis The fifth chapter is devoted to the analysis of interesting and relevant issues of the reasons of low popularity of soccer in the United States where other sports like baseball and basketball are dominant.
• Manchester United – Football and Finance Football is a game that is played all across the globe; millions of fans watch the game each day and enjoy the experience of watching it.
• Subcultures: The American Football Fan According to Anderson, the concept of community was fashioned by regional religious traditions previous to the surfacing of mass access to the printed forms of communication that were not of the church and were written […]
• Real Madrid Football Club: Business Model On the whole, it is difficult to assess who has more power: the players of the club of Real Madrid, or the club itself as an organization.
• Price of Football Players The theory of marginal revenue product of the players demonstrates that the price of a product or marginal revenue of a product depends on the price of the last good that was sold and on […]
• Statistical Analysis: Soccer Premier League Because all of the data used in this project were of the quantitative type, it was relatively easy to calculate the values of the central tendency measures for them.
• The Usage of VR Technologies in Football In sports, VR is on its way to becoming one of the essential tools for a sports organization that aims to acquire a competitive advantage.
• Relation Between Money and Football In the English league, clubs have been spending millions to sign up a player in the hope that the player will turn the fortunes of the company for the good.
• FIFA World Cup The aim of the sport was to direct a ball towards a miniscule hole with players being allowed to touch the ball with any part of part of their body but the hands.
• Football Fundraising Charity Project As for the first one, namely the establishment of the tournament, it is planned to gain profit from selling tickets to see the match.
• Personal Experience and Impressions of Watching a Football Match This restricts Manchester United’s players from accessing the last quarter of the area to Aston Villa’s goal post. The goal of the match was scored by Agbonlahor who shielded off Manchester United’s Wes Brown.
• How Soccer Influences Society and Resolves Issues The fans are interested in the moves of the players and the scores. It is a game which the youngsters and parents alike.
• “Superstar Effect” in Soccer and Its Importance The importance of the “superstar effect” in soccer is hard to overestimate because superstar players generate more revenues for the team by drawing more interest to it, providing it with better sports results, and being […]
• The Problem of Racism in Brazilian Football Skidmore describes it as the relationships that could result into conflict and consciousness and determination of the people’s status in a community or a particular group. In football, racism damages pride of the players and […]
• Real Team Football Club’s Business and Marketing Plan Our mission: “Through commitment, Innovation, and Creativity to raise and sustain the brand of football success on the field by providing moral, physical and psychological support and ensuring financial stability of the group and the […]
• The Use of Technology in Soccer Additionally recent events starting from the 2010 world cup where England’s midfielder Frank Lampard was denied a goal and Chelsea being awarded a goal that the ball had not crossed the line attest to the […]
• How governments and global processes influence football The involvement of government in football activities basically seeks to: promote public order; maintain the health fitness through promotion of the sport; promote the prestige of a community or nation; create and promote a sense […]
• The Social Media Effects on Football Clubs Throughout the season, the English Premier League uses its social media channels to connect with fans, share updates and highlights, and promote the league and its teams.
• Quality of Customer Experience in Football It should be mentioned that Yoshida’s determination of the listed encounters, quality dimensions, and attributes in the sport will be utilized to investigate the phenomenon of the quality of customer experience in football.
• History of the Oakland Raiders in the National Football League The AFL admitted the Raiders partly due to the lobbying of the Los Angeles Chargers owner, effectively inheriting the draft picks of the Minneapolis club.
• Football in Ghana and Its Relationship With the Rest of the World Due to the formation of the first regulating body of soccer in England, 1866 would prove to be one of the most crucial years in the sport’s history.
• The Soccer Industry: Overview Soccer has become a major actor in the business sector around the globe today. In fact it has become a major industry worth billions of dollars a year.
• Football Industry as a Socially Responsible Business The process extends much beyond the mandatory rules and regulations and is more of giving back to the society in which the organisation operates and using resources in a responsible and sustainable manner.
• The 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar For the first time in the history of the FIFA World Cup, it will take place in the Middle Eastern region.
• Negotiation Beetween the National Football League and the National Football League Players Association NFLPA has players and the board to represent in this negotiation. The parties must redefine and broaden the problem to make it tractable.
• Football and media in the UAE The UAE government has been putting in a lot of effort to promote good media relations between stakeholders in the game and the media.
• Brazil’s Bid’s to Host the 2014 FIFA World Cup The main purpose of this section is to elucidate the internal strengths and weaknesses of the FIFA World Cup event which, in the view of the Brazil bidding board, could substantially influence the trajectory and […]
• Football and Rugby The first one is in the measurements of the playing field. Moreover, two rows are marked to run parallel to the side lines and are close to the middle of the field.
• Cranial Brain Injury Implications for a Football Player In the case of a severe blow to the back of the head, the brain performs concussive movements between the back and front walls of the skull.
• Rhetorical Modes to Use When Discussing Soccer The advancement of urbanization and industrialization led to a reduced leisure period coupled with constant violence that undermined and slowed the game’s development. The team that outscores the rival is the winner, while scoring the […]
• Medical Examination Before Joining a Football Team To detect any cardiac issues that may exist but are not manifested in the boy’s daily life, the school uses a stress test or exercise tolerance test can help record the heart’s activity and how […]
• Is Headgear Necessary in Football? Indeed, it is essential to consider the consequences of wearing headwear in football to understand whether it can be mandatory or not.
• Football and Nationalism in Argentina Among the most popular sports in Argentina is football with Boca Juniors and River Plate as some of the best-performing clubs hailing from the country. Despite political turmoil, Boca Juniors and River Plate transformed the […]
• The Scandal during the Soccer Match between Brazil and Tunisia Such incidents interfere with cohesion in society and the state because there is a division between supporters and sympathizers. People and organizations sanction those at the center of the scandal, which, from a sociological point […]
• Innovations and Culture of British Football Consisting of some of the best clubs and with a significant number of fans, this football league is an example of sport as entertainment.
• Inter Families’ Football Competition Event Based on my analysis, the COVID-19 pandemic affected the inter families football competition, the most important and interesting event in my community.
• Sport Management: Analysis of Roy Keane – Football Player In the case of Roy Keane, playing perfectly well was his priority when he joined Nottingham Forest, as that was the only way for him to realize his dream.
• The National Football League Tailgating Rituals The social activities associated with fun that fans enjoy serve as a motivator for members to show their loyalty to the team by attending or watching all of the team’s matches.
• The New Orleans Saints Football Club’s Social Activity The name of the team is a reference to the legacy of New Orleans jazz music. Against this background, the relations of the charitable sector with business and organizations began to develop in a completely […]
• Soccer Participation Issues in New York City My goal today is to describe the problem we as a soccer community face, discuss some of the solutions that would help resolve it, and the projections for the future with the benefits for a […]
• Commercialization of College Football in the United Kingdom The author offers to focus specifically on college football in that it is one of the most popular sports in the United Kingdom.
• Aspects of Intercollegiate Football In the United States, this type of intercollegiate athletics football is supported by many collegiate sports associations, including the NCAA, the NSAIDs, the NCCAA, and the USCAA.
• Football Association of Ireland’s CSR and Sustainability Strategy Analysis The debate over the issue of corporate social responsibility has started in the 1950s and its definition has been changing in practice and meaning since then.
• Player Performance Metrics in National Football League One of the key business issues in regards to the selected sport is the evaluation of player performance metrics, which is especially critical in regards to quarterbacks, who are responsible for scoring touchdowns.
• Emirian Football Fundraising Charity’s Fund-Raising Project Therefore, the project charter for the Emirian Football Fundraising charity project will cover the scope of the goals and the people that will be involved in meeting the project milestones.
• Bobby Bowden, the Greatest College Football Coach Unfettered by his successes as one of the most triumphant college coaches in the history of football, Bowden said his relationship with Jesus was more significant than any of his accomplishments as a player and […]
• Fifa Football Organization: Marketing Strategy Prospective marketing partners are categorically divided as, FIFA partner, FIFA world cup sponsor and national supporter.
• Strategies of Football and Tennis Coaches in the UK To identify the coaching leadership styles used by football and tennis coaches To compare the motivations for using coaching leadership style in football and tennis To uncover the effect of the coaching leadership styles on […]
• Plyometric Training for Female Soccer Players Jump performance capabilities were confirmed to improve in all the studies except the one by Ramirez-Campillo et al, who found the implementation of plyometric training is not associated with the extra impacts on female soccer […]
• Geometry Web Quest for Soccer, Baseball, Basketball, Bowling, Golf, Volleyball and Pool Field for golf is the biggest and made of grass, sand and water and is the biggest and it has no fixed shape. Soccer field is made of grass or synthetic material and is the […]
• Brain Injury While Football Playing The main reason for conducting this research is to understand the dependency of the head injuries got in childhood after the development and changes in the human brain in adulthood.
• Impediments to Football Development This could not be attributed to the standard of the game in the leagues but probably other factors within the administration and the players and fans. Of importance is the structure of the administration of […]
• Academic Economics in International Football Business The contribution of the academic economists is that they help in the integration of the labor impact of football business to the households.
• Legislations and Their Contributions to Football Safety This was largely as a result of a collision between two sets of people who were leaving and entering the stadium; these fans were reacting to the activities going on in the field and most […]
• The Lack of Soccer Popularity in the U.S. Lack of soccer popularity can be traced from historic events as well as the lifestyle of Americans.”American children grow up with the mentality that soccer is to be played for fun which is not an […]
• The Offside Rule Concept in Football An offside position is a situation when a player of the attacking team is closer to the opponent’s goal than the ball and the opponent’s last player except for the goalkeeper during passing.
• FIFA’s Public Image: Issues and Mitigate the Damage It is strongly recommended that the president does everything in their power to assist the FBI and any other authorities in reviewing the conduct of FIFA’s executives.
• 2014 FIFA World Cup Analysis Thus, the given essay will focus on various effects that this event had on Brazil and the challenges that the nation faced while hosting the given international tournament.
• Ernie Davis as a Football Role Model He was an exceptional player born ahead of his time, as he stood out on the football field as the first African American to win the Heisman trophy in 1961, and to be chosen for […]
• Soccer Articles About Kings of Diving Further, it is intriguing to realize that not only is it a commonplace practice, but it is utilized by some of the top players in the league.
• FIFA 10 Football Simulation Video Game A lack of consistency is evident in the various versions of this game as FIFA 10 played on a PC lacks the realism that is exhibited when the game is played on XBOX 360 and […]
• FIFA: The World Football Governing Body This paper examines an article on how FIFA, the world football governing body is successful in marketing activities.”The Federation International de Football Association, an organization that was founded in 1904 by a few cosmopolitan football […]
• Manning’s Leadership Within and Beyond Football Sport is a field where the competition is the core of the whole activity, and the quality of the teamwork defines the whole result.
• Economic Climate Impact on Football Clubs in the UK This raises the question of the impact of the present and future economic trend of the UK on football clubs of the country.
• Soccer and National Identity The jubilation and merry that is evident during the topmost soccer challenge in the world commonly referred to as FIFA world cup is testimony to the immense love that fans have for this game as […]
• The Modernization of the Global Football Industry The popularity and development of the football industry is a result of multiple factors and events which had an impact on football fans and proliferation of facts.
• Marshall University’s Football Team After the 1970 Tragedy The tragedy that befell the Marshall University’s football team on 14th November 1970 and the appointment of the new football coach Jack Lengyel represents a scenario when managers can be faced with difficulties in their […]
• International Relations, Development and the Football Industry The paper is proposed to be divided into two parts: first will deal with football and its usage in political diplomacy will be discussed along with football as a means of creating national identity in […]
• Gold Coast United Football Club Marketing Situation They have made several efforts to ensure the success of this goal by hiring the winner of the golden boot, the goal of the year in 2008/9 Shane Smeltz and Jason Culina, the captain of […]
• European Soccer: The Final UEFA Cup Match On the whole with the rest of Shakhtar players the game spread out on the whole area of the field and change for rather long periods of time the halves of the field provoking alternate […]
• UEFA Cup Football Competition Winners and Histor With the merging of the UEFA Cup Winner’s Cup to the UEFA Cup in 1999, domestic cup competition winners could now enter the UEFA Cup competitions.
• Gaming Industry: FIFA 09 Analysis The advertisement which will be analyzed in this paper is of FIFA 09, the game is a sequel to the FIFA series which is released by EA sports each year.
• The History of Alabama Football: The Stadium, Team and Passion Before the home game began there was a video that was sent showing the famous play from Alabama history which had the voice of the founder of this team that is the bear Bryant and […]
• Football Industry in Africa: Socially Responsible Business? Football is a game that is played all across the globe; millions of fans watch the game each day and enjoy the experience of watching it.
• Soccer in America: Its History, Origin, Evolution, and Popularize This Sport Among Americans The coverage of the history of this game which is also popularly known as soccer is quite diverse and different ideas have been put across as to where the game originated and its evolution to […]
• Canadian Women’s Soccer Team’s Sport Marketing This paper identifies the best sponsor for the Canadian Women’s Soccer Team and how the two can collaborate to deliver positive results.
• Promoting Tumi Bags at the National Football League The audience will want to win Tumi products subconsciously, and in the future, fans will associate the goods of this manufacturer with excitement and victory.
• The First Aid Knowledge of Youth Soccer Coaches To establish the interrelationship between the years of work and success in the First Aid Assessment test, a Pearson Product Correlation was used.
• Soccer: Transmitting Real Information on the Game However, a significant degree of controversy in the ways soccer players are depicted in the media tend to create a negative image of the game of millions.
• Soccer Influence on Sociopolitical Aspects of WWI During this period, many footballers and athletes were tempted or encouraged to join the militaries of their respective countries and become part of the ongoing war.
• Soccer in the US and American Exceptionalism Soccer is one of the most popular sports in the world in terms of viewership and participation. The fact that America is not the best in terms of producing the best soccer talents explains why […]
• Senior Management: Soccer Tournament It is chosen as the central deliverable because the successful organization of the tournament is the most desirable outcome of the project.
• Pharmaceutical Firm as a Football Association Sponsor The image of the pharmaceutical industry is that of a bastion of health which is inconsistent with what most FIFA sponsors the project.
• Medical Marijuana Legalization by National Football League However, it must be realized that some of these players are usually in excruciating pain to the point that some may have lost consciousness.
• Sports Science Principles in Melbourne Football Club The intervention will involve a three-pronged approach designed to tackle most of the causes of poor on-field performance in Melbourne Football Club.
• Racism in Australian Football League Sporting Clubs In the context of the Australian environment, the readiness to accept the ideas of racial tolerance and cultural diversity can be considered the key assets. The theory of ethnocentrism can be used to analyze the […]
• Virtual Reality Technology and Soccer Training Moreover, the level of interactivity needs to be significant, and the most attention should be devoted to the modeling of situations that are viewed as the most problematic.
• Federation International Football Association Management Specifically, in a later section, the paper will highlight issues such as poor governance, the flouting of various ethical principles, and mismanagement of the organization’s resources as key elements that triggered the need for leadership […]
• Concussion Occurring Among Football Athletes Moreover, the criticality of the situation is reflected in the fact that many people believe that a concussion can be obtained as a result of a serious collision solely, but it is not so.
• Virtual Reality Technology in Soccer Training Therefore, it is imperative to invest in this area to protect the safety of our technology and ensure that we have a viable product.
• Superstar Effect in Soccer: When Fame Makes a Difference The Superstar Effect, which manifests itself in football stars receiving incentives and financial rewards that other team members do not, can be viewed as a graphic example of the phenomenon analyzed.
• Soccer Team, Its Positions and Their Roles You are the last player on the field and as such, are at a vantage position to not only see how other players are organized in the field of play, but can actually predict the […]
• Football History and Rule-Based Management The sport is governed by 17 laws that are contained in the official Laws of the Game published by the International Federation of Association Football.
• Soccer in England, Its History and Popularity With this in mind, it is possible to say that is the most popular game nowadays, soccer can be taken as a unique phenomenon in the world of sport.
• Football, Its Objective, Players, and a Coach This game is very intense, and it is hard for one official to keep track of all the action, and assistant referees are needed.
• Arsenal Ladies Football Club’s History and Effects The main intention of the Arsenal Ladies Soccer group is to recognize the outstanding feminine players with football aptitudes and admitting them in the educational and technical programs.
• Soccer Players Market and Transfer Contracts The aim of this essay is to provide the insight into the soccer players market and to describe some of the deals. The increase in the popularity of the game led to the creation of […]
• Professional Soccer Player’s Training Methods As of the disadvantages of this method, it is, for the most part, limiting because using only words cannot help in developing new skills in the case of professional soccer players, as they need visualization […]
• Biosensors in Soccer Players’ Preparation The second step is associated with the formation of the movements and their absorption to specific imperatives in a situation where a few alterations will be required.
• National Football League’s Social Performance The success of NFL is also attributed to the ‘survivalist’ mentality of the organization. Community members are very significant and influential to the operations of NFL.
• Fantasy Football: Gambling Regulation and Outlawing Taking this into consideration, it can be stated that fantasy football and its other iterations on sites like Draft Kings is not a form of gambling.
• Planning for an Intramural Soccer Event The same goes for the organization of games, recruitment of referees, and raising the money required to hold the event. The operational plan was a significant determinant of the success of the event.
• The Australian Football League Expansion The Australian Football League is the most competitive professional competition in the sport of Australian Rules football. The final marks the end of the season and the winning team is crowned as ‘the ‘premiers.
• Total Quality Management in the EU and Football Association The European Commission and the council of the European Union are the chief institutions of the EU. In addition, the court of Justice of the European Union is a key legal institution of the EU.
• Football in Saudi Arabia: The Soccer Al Nasser Club The sport was introduced to the Kingdom following the relations between the Europeans and the Saudis in the 20th century. The club has many supporters in Riyadh and the rest of the country.
• Addicted 2 Football Business Plan Principally, the advertising of the filming will show the quality of the work I will be producing. The equipment to be purchased will show the quality of the professionals.
• Melbourne Football Club Marketing Analysis Members and supporters of the players want to see an overhaul of the operation and management of the Club. Rationale The Demons need to rebuild their brand by making changes to the club and marketing […]
• Virtual Reality in Soccer Training The following work will focus on the analysis of the use of Virtual Reality in the training of soccer players with the evaluation of the practices adopted by particular soccer teams.
• Soccer player – Karl Henning His marketing strategy will also help him increase his customers of the age of 6 to 10 who have a low level of awareness.
• The International Federation of Football Association In addition, FIFA has six components that oversee the progress of football activities in all continents and act as a link between FIFA and other nations of the world. FIFA is an association that has […]
• South Africa World Cup and Destination Marketing The host had to create an African impression in every aspect from architectural designs of the stadiums to the opening ceremony because the event was to be held in Africa.
• Strategy Application in Sports Elements of strategic management in the conduct of the Tour de France emerge in the selection of the team members and in the conduct of the race.
• What Defines Parental Techniques and Strategies: The Case of Soccer Moms However, it seems that Crohn’s idea of positive stepmothering is more relatable to the topic, since the technique of Chinese mothers, in fact, proves positive and does not seem to have any tangible effects on […]
• American Football in American Culture America as a country came about as a melting pot of cultures because many immigrants from different parts of the world moved to the States in search of the American dream.
• Watching Football: Harmless Pastime or Dangerous Obsession? Football is one of the most interesting and entertaining types of games with billions of fans across the world, from the youngest to the oldest.
• Soccer Business as a Possible Investment: When Everything Depends on the Movement of a Foot Hence, there are a number of ways to promote soccer and, thus, increase its popularity, which will make people join soccer clubs and contribute to the development of business based on the given kind of […]
• Comparison Between Football and Basketball
• Analysis of Football as the Most Popular Sport in the World
• Comparison Between Football Stars Ronaldo and Messi
• Analysis of Drugs in Football and Making an Appropriate Decision Breaking the Rules in Football
• Audit Selection in the European Football Industry under Union of European Football Associations Financial Fair Play
• Comparative Investigation of Experts Viewpoints About Impediments of Sponsors Attraction to Iran’s Professional Football
• Analysis of the Roar of Extreme Sound Emanates From a Football Field
• Comparing Men and Women’s Football
• Does a marching band impact college Football game attendance?
• Does Fair Play Matter? UEFA Regulation and Financial Sustainability in the European Football Industry
• Do Football Clubs Benefit from Initial Public Offerings?
• How Does The Super Bowl Affect Football?
• Financial Fair Play in European Club Football What is it all about?
• Football Accidents : Causes And Consequences
• Football And Aristotle ‘s Philosophy Of Friendship
• Football Of Yesterday And Today
• Football vs. American Football
• How Can A Football Club Increase Ticket Sales?
• How does the media portray football hooliganism?
• How Football Has Created A Tradition?
• How Playing Football Can Lead to Developing ?
• Is Football Dangerous For Our Youth?
• Quantitative Analysis for Football Managers
• What Drives European Football Clubs’ Stock Returns and Volatility?
• What Football Has Taught Me?
• What Is Hooliganism In Football Criminology?
• Who Is the Best One Football Player in the World Now?
• Why Football is an Important Sport?
• Why Malaysian’s Football Cannot Go Far?
• Accounting for Football
• Football in the United States and Canada
• Artificial Pitches and Unfair Home Advantage in Professional Football
• Benefits in Youth Football
• Concussions And Violence In Football
• Contemporary Issues In Sport – Football Hooligans UK
• Corporate Social Responsibility In English Football: History And Present
• Sugar Daddies in European Football Clubs
• Factors That Newly Relegated Burnley Football Club Faces
• FIFA stands for Fédération Internationale de Football Association or International
• Football as a Social Phenomenon
• Football Has Impacted Our Society in Many Ways
• Football in Saudi Arabia
• Football Is An Intermittent Team Based Sport
• Fundamentals of Football: Offensive & Defensive Philosophy
• Globalisation, Tradition And Cultural Identity In Spanish Football: Reflections And Observations
• Greatest Football Players Throughout History
• History of England Football
• History of Womens Football in England
• How Do Leadership Styles and Motivational Theories Affect the Success and Failure of the Football Clubs?
• Does Pro Football Have a Positive or Negative Effect on Society?
• What Impact Has the Commercialization of English Football?
• How Does American Football Work?
• Are Football Referees Biased and Inconsistent?
• How Are Concussions Affecting Football in High School?
• Does Football Need More Statistics?
• What Will Football Look Like in the Future?
• How Are Women Portrayed in American Football Compared to Men?
• Did UEFA’s Financial Fair Play Harm Competition in European Football Leagues?
• How Does the Media Portray Football Hooliganism?
• Does Sports Performance Influence Revenues and Economic Results in Spanish Football?
• How Does the Stadium Atmosphere at a College Football Game Affect Behavioral Intentions Across Gender Lines?
• Are Football Wages Out of Control?
• How “Fair” Are Football’s Financial Fair Play Regulations?
• Does College Football Impact the Size of University Applicant Pools and the Quality of Entering Students?
• How Far Football Stadia Resemble the Roman Colosseum in Their Provisions for Spectators?
• Does the Australian Football League Draft Undervalue Indigenous Australian Footballers?
• How Has the NFL Changed Over the History of Football?
• Should College Football Players Be Paid?
• How Much Does the Air Pressure Within a Football Matter?
• Should Girls Have Equal Representation on Football Teams?
• How Does NCAA Division Make Money on College Football?
• Should High School Football Be Banned?
• Why Is Football Called Football?
• Should Parents Let Their Children Play Tackle Football?
• How Does Playing Football Develop Useful Skills?
• How Has Sports Marketing Changed College Football?
• What Does the Motivation of Coaches Effect Football Players?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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150 Football Essay Topics & Soccer Research Topics

Are you a soccer player? If yes, then you will enjoy writing a soccer-themed essay! To make the writing process even easier, we present to you our list of football essay topics and samples. Check them out below!

• 🔝 Top 10 Football Research Topics for 2024

🏆 Best Football Topics to Write About

✍️ football essay topics for college, 👍 good football research topics & essay examples, 🎓 most interesting soccer research topics, 💡 simple football essay ideas, ❓ research questions about football, 🔝 top 7 football research topics for 2024.

• The 2022 FIFA World Cup
• Soccer and Basketball Differences
• Football Watching as Entertaining Action
• Liverpool Football Club’s Strategic (PESTLE) Analysis
• Environmental Impact of the Football Stadium Construction
• The Physics Behind Football
• Advertisement in Soccer Overview
• American Football League v. National Football League Case The American Football league, abbreviated as AFL, filed a lawsuit against the national football league (NFL) on the grounds of the Anti-Trust Act breach.
• Spanish Football League Spain is one of the countries that have dominated the game of football over the last couple of years. The country has achieved success with its senior and junior national teams.
• FIFA and Corruption In other words, FIFA is a kind of a football image, and it has to be deprived of various unethical and immoral practices.
• Should Football Be Banned for Being Too Violent and Dangerous? The essay ponders whether the game of football is dangerous and violent, and it should be banned, or are there other ways to reduce the possibility of players’ injuries.
• “Fordson: Faith, Fasting, Football” Documentary “Fordson: Faith, Fasting, Football” is a film about a community of Muslim Americans, who are focused on their passion and support for the Fordson High School football team.
• Organizational Theories in Australian Football League (AFL) This essay applies these two concepts to the operations of the Australian Football League. A brief background to the AFL will be presented before applying the individual theories.
• Football in Ghana and Its Relationship with the Rest of the World (Player Transfers) Football is one of the most popular sports not only in Ghana but in the region of Africa and the global society.
• Soccer in the US, Its Development and Popularity The main factor which impacted the development and popularity of soccer in the United States is the public’s area of interest.
• FIFA World Cup: History and Future The FIFA World cup is a soccer competition that is contested internationally by national soccer teams composed exclusively of male players.
• Event Management Analysis: Local Soccer Championship Even management requires careful and detailed analysis and planning in order to avoid a project failure and create an impressive and amazing setting for visitors.
• Impact of Qatar Hosting FIFA World Cup 2022 This paper discusses the impact of Qatar hosting the FIFA World Cup in 2022, specifically on its brand image and business operations.
• Soccer and Other Sports as a Communication Medium The paper discusses the ways sports communication potential is exploited by companies and organizations and how they use sports personalities charisma.
• Training Programs for a High School Quarterback Football Player The article addresses the specific exercises that the quarterback player should take and the duration, the number of sets, the reps, and the rest intervals.
• The National Football League Team Moving to the City of Omaha Moving the National Football League team to the city of Omaha, Nebraska, will have a positive financial influence on the citizens residing within its boundaries.
• The Football Impact on the European Region The European region has been considered to be the world’s most prominent fan organization, with around three million football fans.
• Reasons Why Kids Should Not Play Tackle Football The brain might repair itself, but the consequences of the injury usually last longer and include memory loss, headaches, and similar cognitive dysfunctions.
• American Sports: Football, Soccer, Basketball Some games have grown to be recognized as official sports with strict rules, governing institutions, and international events.
• Real Madrid and Barcelona Football Clubs History Real Madrid and Barcelona are the top European Football Clubs, which are usually opposed to each other. During the long time they applied different strategies to achievements in sport.
• The Qatar 2022 FIFA World Cup Bid The award of hosting the World Cup in 2022 for Qatar came as a surprise to Australia and the USA, which many people thought could win the rights.
• Goal Line Technology and Football Football matches are not only about the issue of teamwork but also about strict competition and the importance of the defining last-minute goal which can tip the scale between victory and defeat.
• Planning Franz Beckenbauer Charity Football Match Today I will be presenting my event management plan for the upcoming Franz Beckenbauer Charity Football Match.
• The Negotiation Process in Football The main issue being negotiated is the extension of a playing contract for A. J. Washington, a quarterback participating in the Los Angeles Spartans of National Football League.
• Qatar Hosting FIFA World Cup 2022 FIFA World Cup is one of the largest soccer tournaments in the world. It is scheduled to occur in 2022, and the host country will be Qatar.
• How to Play Defense in Football In fact, a strong defense and a well-developed strategy can cause turnovers from the rival, and turnovers can significantly influence football game results.
• Soccer League and Grassroots Strategy Soccer is one of the most popular sports in the world, with over 240 million registered players at all levels, and at least 3.5 billion fans.
• Is Watching Football Morally Acceptable The public opinion on the morality of watching football, or other competitive sports, is divided, as there are clear dangers associated with participating in football matches.
• FIFA, Zidane and Materazzi 2006 Debacle This paper examines FIFA, Zidane and Materazzi 2006 debacle. FIFA punishing both players was fair and helped them preserve their image.
• Opposing American Football Ban Due to Health Reasons One of the opposing views regarding American football from the perspective of players’ health is the dubious nature of the claim that the described risks are universal.
• Rhetorical Strategies of FIFA Franchise The website central to this review provides its viewers with reasons for either pre-ordering or waiting on the newest instalment in the FIFA franchise, FIFA 22.
• Negotiations Between National Football League and NFL Players Association Approving the proposed 2020 NFL CBA faced a significant amount of backlash from the players due to some of the issues that were not addressed in the agreement.
• Sport and Television: Football Support To retain its target audience and remain a popular activity, the sport needs the support of television as one of the main media tools.
• Racial Disparity in Professional Football: Rooney Rule An open conversation about equal rights and workplace diversity is reaching its peak in the form of viral social media campaigns and public demonstrations.
• Football Banned for Being Too Violent and Dangerous American football is a popular kind of sport in the United States, but scientific evidence demonstrates that this activity should be banned for being violent and dangerous.
• The National Football League Anti-trust Law The National Football League (NFL) during its long-lasting development is colored today, as the sphere where business interests seem to be more significant.
• American Football Is Too Dangerous and It Should Be Banned Regardless of American football being a major source of entertainment for many, it should be banned due to significant harm dealt with players’ brains, cognitive performance.
• The Review of Literature: American Football The articles included in the annotated bibliography research how violent and dangerous American football could be.
• American Football as a Popular Kind of Sport in the US American football is a popular kind of sport in the United States. A severe issue refers to the fact that professional players are often subject to health problems.
• Speed Drill: Agility Training in Young Elite Soccer Players The purpose of this paper is to describe and explain a speed drill for a specific athlete, using logical arguments and visual elements.
• Organizational Behavior Analysis: Japanese Soccer School Kurt Lewin’s theory of change is a framework most often used to describe and plan organizational change due to its relative simplicity, intuitive nature, and ease of use.
• Soccer: Effects of Sprint Training Training soccer players is an engaging and demanding activity, and it is crucial to make the most of this process to be a successful coach.
• Football and other Sports: Influence on Children’s Life Football is a very unique sport, as it helps a person establish a framework for life and attitude. It helps develop character and strengthen individuality.
• Training Football Athletes: Key Aspects Monotonous exercises should not bore them; trying activities appear to be more productive. Using many drills similar to deep ball drills in training practice is advantageous.
• 2010 FIFA Soccer World Cup Stadia Development in Cape Town: Resident Perceptions Bob & Swart’s Resident Perceptions of the 2010 FIFA Soccer World Cup Stadia Development in Cape Town assessed suggestions of the people on the venues of the FIFA.
• Nike’s Ad for Football Women’s World Cup 2019 Nike released its empowering advertisement ahead of the FIFA Women’s World Cup 2019 hosted in France. It claims that football is a game enjoyed by people of all races.
• Soccer and Sport as a New Medium of Communication Execution of physical tasks calls for smooth, self-controlled, and concerted effort. Athletes need emotional control if they are to successfully engage in sporting events.
• Soccer and Sport: New Medium of Communication The concentration of wealth in certain clubs and leagues makes them more lucrative and more entertaining. This influences and entices more fanatics to join the clubs and leagues.
• Ranking Systems: FIFA and US College Football The purpose of this paper is to compare the FIFA ranking system for international soccer and the Matrix-based Methods system used in US College football.
• FIFA, Corruption, and Its Effects on Business The paper studies how unethical behavior affects FIFA and how business relates to FIFA will be affected by news and how it can deal with such a situation.
• Football Tactics and How They Evolve over Time
• Long-Term Effects of Concussion on Football Players
• Commercialization’s Impact on Football Club Performance
• Football Hooliganism and Fan Violence
• The Role of Video Assistant Referee in Football
• American Football: Technology and Regulation of Helmet Safety
• Race and Quarterback Survival in the National Football League
• National Football League and Player Compensation Issues
• Competitive Balance and Consumer Demand in the English Football League
• Quarterback Mobility and Its Impact on College Football
• Action Plan For Fundraising for the Penn Hills Football and Cheer Association
• American Football and Coin Toss
• Fitness Requirements for Football
• Broadcaster and Audience Demand for Premier League Football
• Assessing Methods for College Football Rankings
• Football Scholarships and Football Recruiters
• Being Special: The Rise of SuperClubs in European Football
• Ajax Football Club: Strategic Alternatives
• College Football Players Should Get Paid
• Beer Availability and College Football Attendance
• Exercise Program for Football Team
• American Football and Positive Latitude
• Concussions and American Football
• Football Helmets Are Insufficient to Stop Concussions
• American Football and Ice Hockey
• Strategic Behaviour and Risk-Taking in Football
• Professional Asian Football Leagues and the Global Market
• Concussions Are the Most Common Football Injury
• Justice, Professional Football, and Minority Coaches
• Market Size and Attendance in English Premier League Football
• Spanish Football: Competitive Balance and the Impact of the Uefa Champions League
• Cheshire Football Club and Management of a Soccer Team
• College Football and Its Social and Cultural Importance in the USA
• Motor and Cognitive Growth Following a Football Training Program
• High School Football Women Play
• The Growth and Challenges of Women’s Soccer
• Football Talent Identification and Training Programs
• The Impact of Football Events on Local Economies
• Analysis of Mental Strategies in Football
• How Digital Platforms Influence Soccer Fan Engagement
• America’s Football and the World’s Soccer
• Football Concussions and Head Injuries
• Football: The United Kingdom and English Public
• Joe Robbie Professional Football Stadium History
• American Football and High School
• Football Has Impacted Our Society in Many Ways
• Greatest Football Players Throughout History
• Domestic Violence and the National Football League
• British Culture, Economy and Society and the Role of Football
• High School and School Football Team
• Baseball, Football, and Basketball: Models for Business
• Football and Its Effect on Society
• International Women’s Football and Gender Inequality
• College Football Conferences and Competitive Balance
• Globalization and the Future of Indigenous Football Codes
• Football Hooliganism, Society, and Culture
• Acquiring and Performing the Football Passing Skill
• Football: History, Rules, and Influential Individuals
• Floating European Football Clubs in the Stock Market
• Gender-Specific Relative Age Effects in Politics and Football
• Health Risks Involved With Playing Football
• College Football Rivalry Between Ohio and Michigan
• Economics, Uncertainty, and European Football
• Deviations From Equity and Parity in the National Football League
• Professional Sports and Its Impact on the National Football
• Fantasy Football Provides Fans With Interactivity
• Concussions and Head Injuries in the National Football League
• Migrating Football Players, Transfer Fees, and Migration Controls
• Fantasy Sports and Its Effect on the National Football League
• Eliminating College Football Team
• What Are the Risk Factors for Injuries in Football?
• How Does the Players Behavior Off Field Affect the Game of Football?
• What Is the Role of Football in Everyday Life?
• How Did the Financial Crisis Influence European Football?
• What Is the Americanization of European Football?
• What Is Italian Football’s Status in an Age of Globalization?
• What AI Can Do for Football, and What Football Can Do for AI?
• What Are the Dynamics of Group Sports With Special Reference to Football?
• What Is the Data Collection on the Incidence of Injuries in Football?
• What Is the Network Theory Analysis of Football Strategies?
• What Is the Role of Corporate Social Responsibility in the Football Business?
• What Is the Impact of College Football Telecasts on College Football Attendance?
• Is There a Relationship Between Climatic Conditions and Injuries in Football?
• What Are the Determinants of Football Match Attendance?
• What Are the Biomechanical Properties of Concussions in High School Football?
• What Are the Fitness Determinants of Success in Men’s and Women’s Football?
• What Is Bayesian Hierarchical Model for the Prediction of Football Results?
• What Is the Effect of Altitude on Football Performance?
• What Are the Psychological and Sport-specific Characteristics of Football Players?
• What Is the Relationship Between Football Playing Ability and Performance Measures?
• What Is the Predictive Power of Ranking Systems in Association Football?
• What Are the Peculiar International Economics of Professional Football in Europe?
• What Are the Medical, Morphological and Functional Aspects of Football Referees?
• What Is the Epidemiology of Injuries in First Division Spanish Football?
• What Are the Common and Unique Network Dynamics in Football Games?

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StudyCorgi . "150 Football Essay Topics & Soccer Research Topics." March 1, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/football-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "150 Football Essay Topics & Soccer Research Topics." March 1, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/football-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Football were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on December 31, 2023 .

Articles on college football

Displaying 1 - 20 of 22 articles.

College athletes still are not allowed to be paid by universities − here’s why

Cyntrice Thomas , University of Florida

How Black male college athletes deal with anti-Black stereotypes on campus

Jonathan Howe , Temple University

Nick Saban’s ‘epic era’ of coaching is over, but the exploitation of players in big-time college football is not

Joseph N. Cooper , UMass Boston

A tweak to the University of Nebraska’s logo shows how the once benign ‘OK’ sign has entered a ‘purgatory of meaning’

Roger J. Kreuz , University of Memphis

As March Madness looms, growth in legalized sports betting may pose a threat to college athletes

Jason W. Osborne , Miami University

Calling Deion Sanders a sellout ignores the growing role of clout-chasing in college sports

Jabari M. Evans , University of South Carolina

Colleges must choose whether to let athletes wear school gear for paid promotions

John Holden , Oklahoma State University

As U.S. football season kicks off, climate change threatens the game

Madeleine Orr , University of British Columbia

When the NCAA permitted colleges to pay stipends to student-athletes , the colleges also raised their estimated expenses

Willis A. Jones , University of Miami

Why it’s such a big deal that the NFL’s Carl Nassib came out as gay

John Affleck , Penn State

Colleges are eliminating sports teams – and runners and golfers are paying more of a price than football or basketball players

Molly Ott , Arizona State University and Janet Lawrence , University of Michigan

NCAA amateurism appears immune to COVID-19 – despite tide in public support for paying athletes having turned

Chris Knoester , The Ohio State University

Is NCAA football too big to fail?

David Ridpath , Ohio University

Colleges expect athletes to work but not to air any grievances – here’s why that’s wrong

Erin Hatton , University at Buffalo

Top football recruits bring in big money for colleges – COVID-19 could threaten revenue

Trevon Logan , The Ohio State University

I traveled to American Samoa 5 times to study the secret to its football success

Rob Ruck , University of Pittsburgh

Let’s get real with college athletes about their chances of going pro

Angela Farmer , Mississippi State University

In the name of ‘amateurism,’ college athletes make money for everyone except themselves

Jasmine Harris , Ursinus College

How big bonuses for winning coaches became a tradition in college football

DJ Durkin’s firing won’t solve college football’s deepest problems

Joseph Cooper , University of Connecticut and Jasmine Harris , Ursinus College

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• College athletics
• College basketball
• Higher ed attainment
• Higher education
• National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)
• Student athletes
• US higher education

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Assistant Professor of Sociology, The University of Texas at San Antonio

Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership, University of Connecticut

Knight Chair in Sports Journalism and Society, Penn State

Associate Professor of Higher & Postsecondary Education, Arizona State University

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Professor of Economics, The Ohio State University

Associate Dean and Professor of Psychology, University of Memphis

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February 9, 2023

We Can Make Football Safer

Through better equipment, improved knowledge of head injury and better medical care, we can mitigate the effects of concussion at all levels of football

By Steven Broglio

Ted Kinsman/Science Source

Several years ago, I was at a pre-season football practice at a high school where I was working with the team on a concussion research project.  The players were lined up in two rows facing each other and with little more instruction from the coach than, “on the whistle, hit the man across from you,” grave concern rushed through my mind.

Professional sports get the lion’s share of attention, but concussions are a significant medical issue at all levels of play. While roughly 1,700 athletes play professional football each year, over three million children and adolescents in the United States play the same game. This squarely places concussions as a significant public health concern in homes from coast to coast.   

For decades, athletes, parents, coaches and medical professionals considered concussion a temporary injury with no long-term consequences. Athletes commonly played through it as a sign of toughness. Our thinking on concussion shifted around 2005, when the brain tissue pathology report of Mike Webster, a retired National Football League player , was published. The report was the first to identify chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) in a football player and suggested the disease was linked to concussions the player had suffered on the field. Since then, public attention has focused on this link between brain injury and blows to the head, and much of that conversation has centered around football.

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Participation in any sport carries injury risk, and concussion will always be part of that calculus. This was never more evident than early in the 2022 season, when Miami Dolphins quarterback Tua Tagovailoa was concussed while playing against the Cincinnati Bengals, his contorted hands on full display in front of a national audience. Concussion prevention and care is better now than it has ever been, but short of ending all sports, we need to do more to prevent them. This means improvements in equipment, better training for coaches and players, and better medical care.

In the early 1900s football was played without helmets, but severe injuries, like skull fractures, lead to the sporadic use of leather helmets in the 1920s. The plastic shell helmet was invented in 1939 and became mandatory a few years later. The first face mask entered the game in the 1950s, and foam padding wasn’t added until the 1960s. Over the years, engineers updated the basic design with more robust face masks and newer internal padding such as air bladders and gel padding. Until recently, these changes were all made with an eye toward reducing the most severe brain injuries such as brain bleeds and skull fractures, and they have been largely successful. But as our understanding of concussion evolved to understand its significance as an injury, so too did the scrutiny of player equipment.

The fundamental problem is that regardless of how much impact force is mitigated by protective equipment, we cannot stabilize the brain inside the skull following an impact – likely making a concussion-proof helmet an impossible engineering challenge. That hasn’t stopped helmet improvements, however. With a new eye toward concussion prevention, researchers at Virginia Tech introduced a helmet rating system specific to concussion risk in 2011. The five-star system (one being the worst, five the best) rates the ability of the helmet to reduce concussion risk. This gives consumers tangible evidence to make an informed purchase. In its first year, only a single helmet was awarded a five-star rating, but now, the most recent rankings list more than 25 five-star helmets. Modern helmets use advanced shell materials that flex upon impact, have moveable panels to absorb forces, and multi-layered padding that responds to different impact velocities. Companies will continue to improve helmets as new materials become available, guided by the newest science .

But engineering limitations should not stop us from closely examining other factors that can reduce concussion risk. For example, in one study of head impacts and concussion across five college football seasons, nearly 50 percent of concussions occurred during the four-week pre-season ; the rest occurred over the next 12 weeks of in-season play. Such data led the NCAA to reduce the number of allowable full contact pre-season practice sessions. Others have shown that reducing the number of high school football practices in which contact is allowed reduces head impacts by as much as 46 percent. Moving the kickoff line forward to the 40-yard line reduced the number of times the ball is run back by the receiving player. This is one of the riskiest plays of the game in terms of concussion.

As players get older and start playing contact football, the coaching staff must teach appropriate tackling technique—not leading with the head and wrapping their opponent up with their arms. Learning how to do this properly has the added benefit of more playing time (i.e., you can't play if you're injured). In addition, having medical providers with training in concussion management at practices and competitions can help identify and rapidly remove injured players, a known factor in reducing injury severity and the time out of sport .

While injury prevention is the best approach, concussions will always be a part of sport participation. This is broader than just football. This injury occurs in all sports and affects athletes regardless of sex. Women, who make up about 45 percent of college athletes, tend to report more concussions in sex-comparable sports , but represent only 20 percent of the medical literature . Some researchers have speculated women are more likely in general to report a medical concern to a health provider, but they also have smaller neck musculature relative to their head mass limiting their ability to stabilize their head when hit. Some data indicate an increased risk of concussion at different points in the menstrual cycle . This all suggests that concussion is not unique to football and unless we intend to ban all sports, it is urgent that we continue working to better understand concussions and how to prevent them.

In the interim, several medical and organizations have created concussion guidelines that did not exist in the early 2000s, and every four years a group of international experts meets to review the relevant medical literature and make recommendations on the best approach to concussion care. The latest guidelines are due later this year. Like all medical advances, change will be incremental and often hard to perceive, but concussion prevention and care is better now than it has ever been. Regardless, many athletes will do just about anything to stay on the field and “play through the pain.” It is imperative to create a culture that supports athletes and encourages them to come forward when injuries happen, empowers them to be their own health advocates, and allows them to protect their overall brain health while playing competitively and safely.

Change is happening in how we view sports-related concussions. In my 20 years of doing concussion research, I can attest that we now take concussion seriously as an injury, better understand impact biomechanics and other risk factors, are making strides to prevent it, and are improving the management and recovery process. Sports are an integral part of American culture, and they give millions of children much-needed exercise. As those children become adults and make sport their hobby or even vocation, ensuring they play safely at all levels is essential.

This is an opinion and analysis article, and the views expressed by the author or authors are not necessarily those of  Scientific American.

Talent Identification and Development in Male Football: A Systematic Review

• Systematic Review
• Published: 03 January 2018
• Volume 48 , pages 907–931, ( 2018 )

Cite this article

• Hugo Sarmento   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8681-0642 1 , 2 ,
• M. Teresa Anguera 3 ,
• Antonino Pereira 4 &
• Duarte Araújo 5  

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Expertise has been extensively studied in several sports over recent years. The specificities of how excellence is achieved in Association Football, a sport practiced worldwide, are being repeatedly investigated by many researchers through a variety of approaches and scientific disciplines.

The aim of this review was to identify and synthesise the most significant literature addressing talent identification and development in football. We identified the most frequently researched topics and characterised their methodologies.

A systematic review of Web of Science™ Core Collection and Scopus databases was performed according to PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses) guidelines. The following keywords were used: “football” and “soccer”. Each word was associated with the terms “talent”, “expert*”, “elite”, “elite athlete”, “identification”, “career transition” or “career progression”. The selection was for the original articles in English containing relevant data about talent development/identification on male footballers.

The search returned 2944 records. After screening against set criteria, a total of 70 manuscripts were fully reviewed. The quality of the evidence reviewed was generally excellent. The most common topics of analysis were (1) task constraints: (a) specificity and volume of practice; (2) performers’ constraints: (a) psychological factors; (b) technical and tactical skills; (c) anthropometric and physiological factors; (3) environmental constraints: (a) relative age effect; (b) socio-cultural influences; and (4) multidimensional analysis. Results indicate that the most successful players present technical, tactical, anthropometric, physiological and psychological advantages that change non-linearly with age, maturational status and playing positions. These findings should be carefully considered by those involved in the identification and development of football players.

This review highlights the need for coaches and scouts to consider the players’ technical and tactical skills combined with their anthropometric and physiological characteristics scaled to age. Moreover, research addressing the psychological and environmental aspects that influence talent identification and development in football is currently lacking. The limitations detected in the reviewed studies suggest that future research should include the best performers and adopt a longitudinal and multidimensional perspective.

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Hugo Sarmento

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Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

M. Teresa Anguera

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Hugo Sarmento is grateful for the support of Centre for the Study of Education, Technologies and Health (CI&DETS), Portugal. Hugo Sarmento and M. Teresa Anguera were funded by two Spanish Government projects (Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad): (1) La actividad física y el deporte como potenciadores del estilo de vida saludable: Evaluación del comportamiento deportivo desde metodologías no intrusivas (grant number DEP2015-66069-P, MINECO/FEDER, UE); (2) Avances metodológicos y tecnológicos en el estudio observacional del comportamiento deportivo (PSI2015-71947-REDP, MINECO/FEDER, UE). Duarte Araújo was partially funded by the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, under Grant UID/DTP/UI447/2013 to CIPER–Centro Interdisciplinar para o Estudo da Performance Humana (unit 447).

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Hugo Sarmento, M. Teresa Anguera, Antonino Pereira and Duarte Araújo declare that they have no conflicts of interest relevant to the content of this review.

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Sarmento, H., Anguera, M., Pereira, A. et al. Talent Identification and Development in Male Football: A Systematic Review. Sports Med 48 , 907–931 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0851-7

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Revenue Redistribution in Big-Time College Sports

Football and basketball, which attract many players from lower-income backgrounds, subsidize money-losing sports which are often played by more affluent athletes.

S trict limitations on player compensation in revenue-generating college sports such as men’s football and basketball result in a transfer of resources away from student-athletes in those sports, who are more likely to be from lower-income households, to those in other sports. The student-athletes in the sports receiving subsidies are more likely to be from affluent backgrounds, according to research reported in Who Profits from Amateurism? Rent-Sharing in Modern College Sports (NBER Working Paper 27734 ).

Craig Garthwaite , Jordan Keener , Matthew J. Notowidigdo , and Nicole F. Ozminkowski examine the socioeconomic impact of collegiate rules that restrict player compensation to scholarships and living expenses. They find that the college football and basketball players who are seen on network television capture less than 7 percent of the revenues they generate. Their professional counterparts receive about 50 percent of the revenues from their sports.

By compensating college players at levels below what they could command in an unfettered market, athletic departments realize economic rents that are used to subsidize non-revenue-generating sports — other sports that would otherwise earn negative net income — to pay the salaries of coaches and other administrative personnel, and to build sports facilities.

The study focuses on schools where most athletic department revenue is generated by ticket sales, media contracts, and promotional deals, primarily from football and basketball. The 65 universities analyzed are members of the Power Five conferences: the Big Ten, Pac-12, Big 12, Southeastern, and Atlantic Coast conferences. More detailed budget breakdowns were available from the 46 public institutions in the sample, but not from sports powerhouse private universities such as Notre Dame and Stanford.

Based on data from the public universities, average revenue for the athletic departments stood at $125 million in 2018, up 60 percent from a decade earlier. The surge in proceeds from football and basketball more than offset a 71 percent increase in the losses incurred by non-revenue-generating sports such as men’s golf and baseball and women’s basketball, soccer, and tennis.

The researchers report stark demographic differences between players in revenue-producing sports and other student-athletes in Power Five athletic programs. Black players account for nearly half the football and basketball players, but only 11 percent of the players in money-losing sports. Revenue-sport athletes attended high schools with a median family income of $58,400; players in other sports came from high schools with a median family income of $80,000. The researchers also note that only 12 percent of the men’s coaches, 9 percent of the women’s coaches, and 16 percent of the athletic directors were Black.

Between 2008 to 2018, when support for athletes rose by 47 percent, the average salaries of Power Five football coaches at public universities more than doubled, and those for coaches of other sports increased by 70 percent.

What if college players were paid? The researchers estimate a wage structure based on collective bargaining agreements in professional sports. They calculate that salaries would range from $2.4 million for starting quarterbacks to $140,000 for backup running backs. Starting basketball players, whose professional pay tends to be more uniform, would make between $800,000 and $1.2 million. The researchers caution that these values may be overestimated, since in the absence of labor unions, such as those representing professional players, the college athletes would likely command lower salaries, and the student-athletes’ pay might also be depressed if their loss of amateur standing reduced fan interest in college competition.

The researchers say the business model of the Power Five athletic departments resembles that of commercial enterprises, with one big difference: “While rent-sharing is theoretically possible in any commercial venture, the potential for rent-sharing in college sports is particularly great because of the NCAA rules limiting the amount of compensation athletes can earn.”

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2023 Michigan Ranks 5th All Time in Billingsley's Top 200.

The 2023 Final Reports have been updated in the Historical Data Section of Billingsley's College Football Encyclopedia. The Wolverine's 385.611 points landed Michigan as #5 on the Top 200 Teams of All-Time list. The updating of the All-Time Scores Section has begun and is scheduled to be completed in May. The question of whether or not the Billingsley Report will be published in 2024 is dependent on Billingsley's health which continues to decline. Stay tuned, a decision will be announced sometime in August. 

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Michigan Wallops Washington 34-13 to Win National Championship

The game never really seemed in doubt, although Washington had moments of momentum and kept the score within 7 points most of the game, the Michigan defense stole the show and the Wolverines walked away with a resounding 34-13 victory. The process of updating the Billingsley Encyclopedia will begin in the next few weeks and all of the files should be updated by early to mid March. 

Washington and Michigan Will Play For Championship

Houston's NRG Stadium will host the 2023 National Championship Game Monday January 8. Washington and Michigan both qualified for the final in dramatic fashion. In the Rose Bowl Michigan topped the Tide in overtime 27-20 and in the Sugar Bowl Washington held off a furious Texas rally to nip the Longhorns 37-31. Billingsley's projection for the title game will be posted tomorrow. 

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Nation Awaits CFP Rankings

The Championship Games are in the record books and chaos reigns in college football after Alabama defeated two time defending National Champ Georgia 27-24 Saturday afternoon. Three teams maneuvered their way through the 2023 regular season unbeaten and will no doubt finish #1,2,3 in some order, but the 4th place will be the hardest decision the playoff committee has ever had to make. Three teams, all 12-1, have a legitimate argument for the #4 position. The just released Billingsley Report shows Alabama rising to secure the final spot, edging out Georgia followed by Ohio State with Texas coming in at #7. The Longhorns certainly have a good claim considering they beat Alabama in Tuscaloosa in September, but the Horns later lost to arch rival Oklahoma and Alabama sailed on to 11 straight victories playing a more difficult schedule. Still, the CFP is known to place a lot of value to head to head competition so it's going to be interesting to see the final results scheduled to begin releasing ay 11 AM this morning CT. The Bowl matchups will be released throughout this afternoon.  

Rivalry Weekend closes out Regular Season

Although the Army/Navy game officially closes the regular season, the Conference Championship Games are all set with the final piece of the puzzle falling into place this morning when the Mountain West announced Nevada-Las Vegas will host Boise State for the title crown. Friday night Liberty will host New Mexico State for the C-USA title while Oregon and Washington will play for the Pac 12 crown in Las Vegas. Saturday morning games find Texas and Oklahoma State battling for the Big 12 Title in Arlington along with Miami (Ohio) and Toledo squaring off in Detroit. Afternoon games include Boise State at Nevada-Las Vegas, Georgia and Alabama in Atlanta, SMU at Tulane, and Appalachian State at Troy. The night games are Michigan and Iowa in Indianapolis and Louisville and Florida State in Charlotte.  The four teams selected for the CFP will be announced next Sunday morning. Expect some major surprises if Alabama beats Georgia or Iowa beats Michigan. Projections post Monday. 

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Research in football: evolving and lessons we can learn from our mistakes

Affiliations.

• 1 Arsenal Performance and Research Team, Arsenal Football Club, London, UK.
• 2 Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney (UTS), Sydney, Australia.
• 3 School of Applied Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, UK.
• 4 Medical Department, Football Australia, Sydney, Australia.
• PMID: 35077327
• DOI: 10.1080/24733938.2021.1899275

Background : Football is evolving in many ways, including technical and physical demands as well as the scientific research underpinning and providing many recommendations to practitioners on how to optimise performance of players and by default, team performance. Evolution is a natural process and necessary to grow and develop and research into football is no different. Researchers are by nature, curious and inquisitive and trying to push the boundaries of knowledge; however, researchers are also humans and humans are open to making errors. The important point is that researchers learn from both their own and others' mistakes, evolving, growing and developing in response. By doing so will maximise the impact that research can have on the field. Purpose: With this commentary, I discuss lessons that can be learned from some common mistakes I and others have made in football (and sports) related research and some insights to evolve our profession for the better.

Keywords: Soccer; errors; evolution; methodology; science; sports medicine.

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Pitt Leads Breakthrough in Concussion Research

The Pitt Panthers could soon be one of many to benefit from their own university's concussion research.

• Author: Stephen Thompson

In this story:

PITTSBURGH -- The same university that birthed the polio vaccine has engineered another medical breakthrough. And as the University of Pittsburgh pioneers new developments in the world of concussion detection and treatment, it could have lasting effects on the Pitt Panthers' teams.

According to a report from Abby Mackey of the Pittsburgh Post Gazette, Dr. David Okonkwo, a professor of neurological surgery at Pitt, has created an FDA approved a lad-quality device of his team's creation that is capable of detecting concussions quickly. It could be used in hospitals, in the field and, potentially, on the sidelines of football games and other sporting events.

A bedside blood concussion test, with Pitt research, finds FDA approval https://t.co/eVZJMeUSz9 — Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (@PittsburghPG) April 18, 2024

The device, called the i-STAT Alinity, is the next evolution of a device Okonkwo's team had already researched. The i-STAT TBI was similar to the Alinity in that it took bood samples and tested them to diagnose concussion rapidly, but it was limited in scope and use because it took blood serum samples, which had to be processed via centrifuge in a lab. The Alinity takes whole blood samples and doesn't require a lab or centrifuge to process, according to Okonkwo.

According to Mackey's reporting, the Alinity is able to rule out concussions with 96.5% accuracy when patients are assessed within 24 hours of injury and could tell if a CT scan to rule out bleeding in the brain is necessary.

Abbott, the company that manufactures the device, predicts that it will be available for use in emergency rooms and urgent care centers this summer and could begin being used by the United States military at the same time. It hasb't been adopted by health care systems or insurers just yet but Abbott expects it will eventually be treated like any other routine blood diagnostic test.

That said, the use on the sidelines at football games and other sporting events will not come as soon for the Alinity.

“The nature of the studies performed to gain FDA clearance for these tests were done in patients brought to level one trauma centers,” Dr. Okonkwo said. “We have every reason to believe there is significant overlap with the injuries to athletes who sustain a concussion, but we need to do studies specifically in that patient population to confirm that use.”

The device is currently approved for use on patients 18 and older but it will have to gain approval from sports leagues, players' unions and individual teams before it finds its way into the spotlight for big time college or professional sports.

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College football 'super league' proposal has merit but significant obstacles remain if restructuring sport

The latest proposal to adapt to the changing landscape features 80 teams as well as promotion and relegation.

The idea of creating a "super-league" format in college football is doable and brilliant ... in 2031. 

That's right in the timeframe where current media rights contracts for major conferences and the College Football Playoff will be expiring. It's called "coterminous," which is derived from the Latin word for "sharing a common boundary." 

It would be the perfect time to restructure college football to where the sport is owned by the schools and their media rights partners. 

Now is just not even close to the right time to implement those changes. 

That's one conclusion reached after CBS Sports spoke with sources at the Final Four in Glendale, Arizona, the past several days soliciting opinions of stakeholders regarding discussions of a potential "super league," which was first reported last week by The Athletic . A group consisting of college leaders developed an idea to transform college football into a single-entity league, similar to what the NFL morphed into in the 1960s.

Back then, former NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle successfully lobbied his teams to share revenue equally under what was called a "single-entity" structure, a model which has survived into today while withstanding even Supreme Court challenges. 

With college sports strapped to a rocket heading toward an uncertain future, the 20 people involved in the venture dubbed "College Sports Tomorrow" are girding for what seems to be a showdown against a future trying to be created by the Big Ten and SEC.

"I do not believe that leaving it just to commissioners and athletic directors [is the way to go], because when you do, you do not get the view of [the university as a whole]," West Virginia president and CST member Gordon Gee told CBS Sports.

"I think the university presidents have been the root of the problem here," Gee said. "We have ignored. We have not been engaged. We have not paid enough attention. And I am the poster child because … I paid a lot of these coaches millions of dollars. We just thought life was going to go on.

"We should have been thinking more progressively for a long period of time. My view is that is to stimulate the conversation, get enough university presidents together to solve this problem."

The history of presidential involvement in NCAA reform has been uneven. It goes back to 1984 when the Presidents Commission was established to oversee things after a series of high-profile enforcement cases. The corruption persisted, and so did the money. 

When college football commissioners were unable to agree on a 12-team playoff model, it took the CFP Board of Managers  -- specifically Mississippi State president Mark Keenum -- to get it done. FBS commissioners continue to drag out discussions on what the playoff will look like in 2026 and beyond under the new media rights deal. 

College sports is at a point where the money is about to run out. When that happens, the stakeholders always find a way to get more. The schedule moved to 12 regular-season games in 2006. Games were played on Friday night. Don't forget, the College Football Playoff and all its riches are only 10 years old.

Now, schools are preparing for what might be an eight-figure budget hit in upcoming legal settlements. That may lead to hard decisions on whether to cut other sports within the athletic department. 

College football itself is also undervalued, at least in terms of what it could be as the nation's second most-popular sport. One CST member projected annual revenue of a "super league" at between $3 billion and $16 billion annually. 

All of this is preliminary, but it's clear there is a line to be crossed in the future.

At its core, a "super league" would cause a de facto alteration of the Big Ten and SEC (among others) dividing the game at the top into 10, seven-team leagues. It would require the Big Ten and SEC's powerful commissioners -- Tony Petitti and Greg Sankey, respectively -- to at least consider relinquishing some of their power if college football was to be overseen by an overarching commissioner and a board of directors.

That's a deal breaker before the first meeting. 

Also, the new CFP contract wouldn't have been agreed to last month if a "super league" was on the table. Unsurprisingly, the Big Ten and SEC have yet to take a meeting with CST. 

That doesn't mean it's impossible. Any structure can be altered. Anyone can be bought out. (Remember what the bowls  used  to be?)

This is a discussion being had, and it's not like the commissioners have all the answers. 

One powerful Power Four administrator, when asked about a "super league," said, "We have to keep an open mind." That's not just about potential "super league" but also the future of college sports as a whole.   

"People have talked for years about the possibility of creating a separate structure for the schools," NCAA president Charlie Baker said this week. "It's probably a decision that should be made by them [and not the NCAA]." 

That makes the topic something you can't ignore. The concept of a Division IV for college football is at least a decade old. The Knight Commission proposed a separate governing body for FBS 3 ½ years ago.

Based on the conversations, revenue generated from a "super league" would help fund the minor sports at risk. The money would account for compensating players in some fashion. A single entity with which to negotiate gives players, with or without a union, an easier route to collectively bargain.

"What I've heard both sides say is if you aggregate it, the value is going to go up and it's going to be more valuable for the networks," said one CST member. "We all know a monopoly is more valuable than not. That's why they don't allow it.

"You'd have to get a Congressional exemption [for such a league], show them you've got enough money [to pay for everything]."

It's not that easy, of course. When hearing of the "super league" proposal, one TV executive had a wry observation: The schools of two of the leaders involved in this endeavor -- West Virginia (Gee) and Syracuse (chancellor Kent Syverud) -- might be left out. 

"I know we all say we don't have any money," said North Carolina athletic director and CST member Bubba Cunningham. "I look at Stanford. When COVID hit, they dropped 11 sports. They brought them back, but when money gets tight, you're not looking at [taking money from] football and basketball. If we really want to maintain the Olympic sports, we need more money. No one else has said, 'Here's a plan.'"

Let's have a look at some pros and cons surrounding the basic issues of a "super league" changing the landscape of college football. 

Significance of 80 teams

Pro : More noses under the tent with what was reported to be eight, 10-team divisions. Given the recent Big Ten and SEC power grab, such an arrangement would seem to be more equitable to the rest of the FBS. There's a real possibility a "super league" could initiate some version of Pac-12 reform on the West Coast.

Con : Considering realignment happened because the SEC and Big Ten were able to assemble the game's top brands into two leagues (give or take a handful of others), why dilute the pool?

"[Eighty teams is] a floating figure," Gee said. "We are talking at 10,000 feet. When we get to 1,000 feet, all those questions you have might [become clearer]."

In reality, only a handful of schools would need to be added for an elite league's formation. Think of Florida State, Clemson, North Carolina, Notre Dame, Miami. That's about it. If you want a nice, tidy "super league," think of somewhere in the area of 50 schools. 

A long-time TV consultant told CBS Sports last summer that the top 40 teams could be worth $1 billion as a single entity. That figures to $25 million annually. Other sources of income would exist, but the current SEC ($60 million) and Big Ten ($75 million) media rights are far greater. 

Promotion, relegation

Pro : This idea has been gaining traction, and it makes sense. A Boise State assistant athletic director drew up a detailed promotion/relegation system last year. In this "super league" model, the eighth division of 10 schools would change members from year to year. Schools that aren't necessarily additive to the elites would still have access through a promotion/relegation system similar to European soccer. 

The composition of that eighth division would be based on annual accomplishment. Imagine a series of Conference USA/Sun Belt/AAC showdowns with the winners remaining at the top level of college football and competing for a 16-team playoff.

That cutthroat game of football musical chairs would be fascinating. 

Con : What about teams being relegated? There would be about 50 left over annually who would have to play for something  -- and it wouldn't be a CFP berth. In the "super league," that eighth division would provide two qualifiers into the 16-team field; however, those Group of Five leagues might push back because of the guaranteed access granted in the current expanded playoff format.

Promotion/relegation is tradition in European soccer. In fact, a European "super league" similar to the college football's proposal was discussed in 2021. 

"I think that would be so elite," said Alabama basketball consultant Michael Schwimer, who's also a minority owner of English Premier League club Leeds United. "I think people would watch."

Private equity investment

Pro : The "super league" may provide the opening for private money to invest in college football. How would that work? Think of Goldman Sachs owning shares of the "super league." There are major financial stressors on college sports at the moment. One Power Four AD told CBS Sports that if schools are on the hook for a settlement in the upcoming landmark House v. NCAA trial, "That's going to define a new subdivision."

Private equity would address that shortfall. One person close to the situation called such investment "stop-gap funding" to keep athletic departments solvent. Having a "super league" would enhance a portfolio's worth. Imagine a powerful investment house such as RedBird Capital having access to brands like Michigan, Texas, Alabama, USC and others. The big private equity firms are interested. Done right, they would be funding the transition from the collegiate model to a world where college athletes are compensated. 

Con : Of course, the CFP, Big Ten, SEC and Big 12 all recently signed media rights deals that extend to either 2030 or 2031. The ACC's current deal goes to 2036. That leads to the biggest hurdle in establishing the "super league" … 

Untethering media rights deals

Pro : Yeah, about that. The process of unraveling these deals to account for a new entity almost makes this discussion a non-starter. However, there are two look-ins in the new CFP contract that account for more realignment before 2031. Those look-ins probably didn't account for the emergence of a "super league" but could ostensibly be used for it. There's already speculation that a "super league" is a look at the next round of consolidation. Instead of realignment, conferences would "cut" existing members not up to standard.

Example: What happens if, at one point, Alabama questions why Vanderbilt is pulling in the same amount of revenue?

Painful? Yes. But we've already seen the Pac-12 collapse with Oregon State and Washington State cast aside. The Big 12 almost died after Texas and Oklahoma announced their intentions to move to the SEC. The "super league" takes those cuts to the next level, putting in question whether the Vanderbilts, Syracuses and West Virginias would be in that top 50. It's a ruthless world. At some point, it'll get even more ruthless. 

Con : There are billions of dollars wrapped up in those TV deals running into the next decade. FBS commissioners aren't likely to surrender power or money anytime soon. We already know that group isn't known for their consensus and ability to pivot.  In fact, the over/under for time needed to order appetizers at the next CFP meeting is about six hours. Unofficially.

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Americans name a long, diverse list of podcasts they listen to most

Podcasts have become a big part of many Americans’ normal routine – and their news diet . But a new Pew Research Center survey reveals that podcast listening is highly fragmented, and no one show dominates.

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to explore U.S. adults’ views of and experiences with podcasts as a part of the news and information landscape.

To examine the ways Americans get news and information in a digital age, the Center surveyed 5,132 U.S. adults from Dec. 5 to 11, 2022. Everyone who completed the survey is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

In the questionnaire, U.S. adults who said they are currently listening to at least one podcast were asked in an open-ended question to write in the name of the podcast that they listen to most. If respondents answered with the names of more than one podcast, only the first one was coded. In total, 1,563 open-end responses were coded.

Here are the questions used for this report, along with responses, and its methodology .

Pew Research Center is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts, its primary funder. This is the latest report in Pew Research Center’s ongoing investigation of the state of news, information and journalism in the digital age, a research program funded by The Pew Charitable Trusts, with generous support from the John S. and James L. Knight Foundation.

The survey asked adult podcast listeners (those who said they listened to a podcast in the past 12 months) in the United States to name the podcast they listen to most. Overall, 61% of listeners volunteered the name of a podcast, but there was relatively little common ground in these answers.

Only six podcasts were mentioned by at least 1% of those who volunteered an answer: The Joe Rogan Experience (named by 5% of those who gave a response), The New York Times’ The Daily (2%), Crime Junkie (1%), The Dan Bongino Show (1%), NBC’s Dateline (1%) and The Ben Shapiro Show (1%). Looking at all U.S. podcast listeners, as opposed to just those who gave a podcast, no single podcast was named by more than 3% of listeners.

After asking podcast listeners for the single podcast they listen to most, the survey also asked listeners about their sense of connection to that podcast’s host or hosts.

About two-thirds (65%) of respondents who named a podcast they listen to most said they feel at least somewhat connected to the host of the podcast they named, including 27% who feel extremely or very connected.

And more frequent listening lines up with a greater sense of connection: Americans who listen to podcasts at least multiple times a week are more likely than less frequent listeners to say they feel extremely or very connected to the host of the podcast they listen to most.

The survey also asked the same group of U.S. adults about the topic of their most-listened-to podcast. Among the most popular topics were politics and government (20%); entertainment, pop culture and the arts (12%); and comedy (12%).

Across a variety of topic areas, news is a regular theme in podcasts. Among those who volunteered the name of a podcast that they listen to most, two-thirds say news has ever been discussed on that podcast.

However, respondents are more likely to say they have heard news discussed if their most-listened-to podcast is about politics and government. Nearly all respondents who say the podcast they listen to most is focused on politics and government (95%) say they have heard news discussed there. The same is true for smaller – but still sizable – shares of those who say the podcast they listen to most is about entertainment (70%), comedy (68%) or true crime (55%).

Note: Here are the questions used for this report, along with responses, and its methodology .

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By a wide margin, americans say football – not baseball – is ‘america’s sport’, teens and internet, device access fact sheet, most americans don’t closely follow professional or college sports, true crime podcasts are popular in the u.s., particularly among women and those with less formal education, most popular.

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NCAA sanctions Michigan with probation and recruiting penalties for football violations

Michigan has been placed on probation for the next three years and will face other penalties from the NCAA due to violations during a COVID-19 dead period and for having non-coaching staff members participate in impermissible roles under former football coach Jim Harbaugh .

The penalties, which also include a fine for Michigan and recruiting penalties, were part of a deal between the NCAA enforcement staff, the University of Michigan, and "five individuals who currently or previously worked for its football program."

According to the release from the NCAA, one former coach did not participate in the agreement, and "that portion of the case will be considered separately by the Committee on Infractions." The coach who did not participate is not named by the NCAA.

Harbaugh served a self-imposed three-game suspension  at the start of the 2023 season because of these violations,, which are separate from the sign-stealing saga involving Connor Stalions , which broke in the second half of the year.

“Today’s joint resolution pertains to the University of Michigan Athletic Department and several former and current employees," Michigan athletic director Warde Manuel said in a statement. "We are pleased to reach a resolution on this matter so that our student-athletes and our football program can move forward. We have no additional information and cannot comment further on other aspects of the NCAA’s inquiries.”

Michigan appeared to have a resolution in place with the NCAA last summer that would’ve suspended Harbaugh for four games, along with new head coach Sherrone Moore and new offensive line coach Grant Newsome for one game, but the deal fell apart in August just before the 2023 season.

Michigan first received a draft notice of allegations related to recruiting violations and coaching activities by noncoaching staff members in January 2023. The violations included in-person recruiting contacts and tryouts during the NCAA-mandated COVID-19 dead period and exceeding the number of allowed coaches participating in both “on- and off-field coaching activities”, according to the NCAA. 

The violations were labeled as Level II violations which are defined as actions deemed “more than a minimal but less than a substantial or extensive recruiting, competitive or other advantage” according to a description adopted in 2019. 

An additional Level I violation was brought against Harbaugh, who told the NCAA he had no recollection of the Level II violations, which the NCAA determined as misleading. A Level I violation is defined as a “severe breach of conduct” that “seriously undermine or threaten the integrity of college sports,”. 

When the official notice of allegations was sent in December, just ahead of the Wolverines’ third consecutive trip to the College Football Playoff, multiple people told the Free Press Michigan acknowledged the Level II violations while Harbaugh maintained his innocence in the Level I violation. 

The Wolverines won the first three games of the season without Harbaugh, who then returned for the next six games before being suspended again by the Big Ten for a different scandal, causing him to miss the final three games of the regular season.

Big Ten commissioner Tony Pettiti handed down the second suspension after Michigan’s alleged sign-stealing operation became public in late October. Shortly after the news became public, Stalions was identified as the ringleader, where he would allegedly purchase tickets to games of future Michigan opponents, send associates to attend games and film the opponent's signals on the sideline that weren't available on television.

Harbaugh and Michigan initially filed a court order seeking to stop the three-game suspension from the Big Ten, but dropped the case before it was scheduled to hit court and accepted the suspension, which was handed down to Harbaugh for violating the conference’s sportsmanship policy.

Harbaugh returned for the postseason, where he led Michigan to another Big Ten Championship and the school's first national title since 1997.

In response to Tuesday's news, Harbaugh's lawyer Tom Mars told the Free Press via a text message he submitted a response on behalf of the former Michigan coach, but that ended Harbaugh's involvement.

"I filed a lengthy response to the NOA on behalf of Coach Harbaugh, which unfortunately hasn’t been made public and will probably never see the light of day," Mars said. "That concluded Coach Harbaugh’s participation in the case."

Since winning the national championship over Washington, Harbaugh has left the Michigan program to take the head coaching gig with the Los Angeles Chargers. Moore, who was interim coach during a November suspension of Harbaugh was promoted to head coach after the season.

Harbaugh's move also spurred a wave of staff turnover, including defensive coordinator Jesse Minter joining Harbaugh, among others.

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Sports analytics in the NFL: classifying the winner of the superbowl

Yazan f. roumani.

Department of Decision and Information Sciences, Oakland University, 342 Elliot Hall, Rochester, MI 48309 USA

Sport teams’ managers, coaches and players are always looking for new ways to win and stay competitive. The sports analytics field can help teams in gaining a competitive advantage by analyzing historical data and formulating strategies and making data driven decisions regarding game plans, play selection and player recruitment. This work focuses on the application of sports analytics in the National Football League. We compare the classification performance of several methods (C4.5, Neural Network and Random Forest) in classifying the winner of the Superbowl using data collected during the regular season. We split the data into a training set and test set and use the synthetic minority oversampling technique to address the data imbalance issue in the training set. The classification performance is compared on the test set using several measures. According to the findings, the Random Forest classifier had the highest recall, AUC, accuracy and specificity as the oversampling percentage was increased. Our results can be used to develop a decision support tool to assist team managers and coaches in developing strategies that would increase the team’s chances of winning.

Introduction

The ultimate objective of any sport’s team owner, manager, coach or player is to win. Team owners, managers and coaches are always looking for new ways to win and stay competitive (Bunker & Thabtah, 2019 ; Baker & Kwartler, 2015 ). One potential area that might provide a team with a competitive advantage is sports analytics. According to Alamar ( 2013 ), sports analytics is the “management of structured historical data, the application of predictive analytic models that utilize that data, and the use of information systems to inform decision makers and enable them to help their organizations in gaining a competitive advantage on the field of play.” Sports analytics can help teams in staying competitive by analyzing historical data and identifying the significant factors associated with winning and therefore in formulating strategies that maximize the team’s chances of winning. Sports analytics can also help team management and coaches in making better and data driven decisions regarding game plans, play selection and player recruitment (Bunker & Thabtah, 2019 ; Baker & Kwartler, 2015 ).

With the vast amount of statistics collected in sports as well as the accessibility of publicly available data, interest in sports analytics has been steadily increasing (Baker & Kwartler, 2015 ). Since the application of analytics in Major League Baseball (MLB) (i.e. Sabermetrics), sports analytics has been applied and implemented in several sport organizations including the English Premier League (EPL), the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the National Football League (NFL) (Baker & Kwartler, 2015 ).

Although there is numerous research in the sports analytics field, many of the existing literature suffer from low accuracy (Haghighat et al., 2013 ; Bunker & Thabtah, 2019 ). Therefore, there is a need for more accurate models (Haghighat et al., 2013 ; Bunker & Thabtah, 2019 ). Moreover, even though Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are the most commonly used machine learning algorithm in sports analytics, they do not consistently perform better than other techniques (Bunker & Susnjak, 2022 ). In fact, decision tree algorithms are the second most commonly used technique, but they are more appealing than ANNs because they do not generate black-box models which makes them more likely to be implemented (Bunker & Susnjak, 2022 ). In addition, according to Delen et al. ( 2012 ), classification and regression tree (CART) models are preferred over other machine learning techniques because they are easier to understand and can be easily integrated into a decision support system. Furthermore, the highest prediction accuracy in American Football was achieved using CART (Bunker & Susnjak, 2022 ).

This work compares the classification performance of C4.5, ANNs, and Random Forest (RF) in classifying the winner of championship game of the NFL (i.e. Superbowl) using data collected during the regular season. Since there is only one Superbowl winner each season, it is difficult to train classification algorithms to correctly identify the Superbowl winner when most of the data consists of teams that did not win the Superbowl. Therefore, we apply the synthetic minority oversampling technique (SMOTE) to account for the data imbalance. The classification performance is compared using recall, area under the receiver operating characteristic (AUC) curve, accuracy and specificity.

This work makes several contributions. First, we account for the data imbalance issue. Second, we compare the classification performance of several methods using several measures on the test set. Third, our findings can be used to develop a decision support tool that aid team managers and coaches in developing game plans, in making play selections and in drafting new players.

The article is organized as follows. In Sect.  2 , a literature review of some of the studies on sports analytics and imbalanced data is given. The utilized approaches, methods and measures are described in Sects.  3 and 4 , respectively. Section  5 provides details of the experimental design and Sect.  6 presents the results. A discussion of the empirical results, practical implications and conclusions are given in Sects.  7 and 8 , respectively.

Literature review

Sports analytics has been applied in different sports including baseball, basketball, football and soccer. Cao ( 2012 ) compared logistic regression, ANNs, Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Naïve Bayes in predicting game outcomes in the National Basketball Association (NBA) using data from 2005 to 2009 seasons as a training set and the 2010 season as a test set. According the author, logistic regression had the highest accuracy of 70%. Delen et al. ( 2012 ) analyzed college football games over eight seasons. They compared the predictive performance of ANNs, CART and SVM using sensitivity, specificity and accuracy in classifying the winner of a bowl game. Using ten-fold cross validation, CART had the highest values across all three measures. Howington & Moates ( 2017 ) used a linear model to analyze data from the 2010 college football season to estimate ratings of team strengths and magnitude of home field advantage. The authors also modified the model to estimate the magnitude of bye week advantage under different scenarios all of which showed that the bye week advantage is a myth. Mamode Khan et al. ( 2017 ) used a bivariate integer-valued first-order autoregressive model to analyze first half and second half number of football goals. The model was assessed using data between 2010 and 2016 on the Arsenal Football Club in England. Carpita et al. ( 2019 ) used data over seven seasons from 10 European soccer leagues to compare the predictive performance of binomial logistic regression with Random Forest, Neural Network, k-NN and Naïve Bayes in estimating the win probability of the home team. The use of role-based indicators improved the performance of all methods considered with binomial logistic regression showing a 10% increase in prediction accuracy. Rudrapal et al. ( 2020 ) proposed a deep Neural Network to predict the result of a soccer game. The data was split into a training and a test set and 40 features (team-related, player-related, and head-to-head game related) were used. The proposed approach had a higher accuracy than SVM, naïve Bayes and Random Forest.

Sports analytics in the NFL

In the NFL, the sports analytics literature covers different topics ranging from predicting the winning team and the next play selection to ranking teams and analyzing player performance. One of the first studies that used ANNs to predict game results in the NFL is by Purucker ( 1996 ). Using data from the first eight weeks of the 1994 season, Purucker found that teams were victorious when they outperformed their opponents in yards gained, rushing yards gained, turnover margin and time of possession. The author compared several types of Neural Networks and found back propagation Neural Network to be the most accurate. Kahn ( 2003 ) analyzed the first 13 weeks of the 2003 NFL season using Neural Networks. Using total yardage differential, time of possession differential and turnover differential, the authors predicted game results for weeks 14 and 15 of the 2003 season using either season average or a three-week average. According to their findings, using the season average achieved a higher accuracy than using a three-week average. Lock & Nettleton ( 2014 ) used Random Forest to predict the win probability before any play of an NFL game. The authors showed that their estimated win probabilities are close to the actual win probabilities and provide an accurate predication of game outcomes especially in the later stages of a game. Baker & McHale ( 2013 ) used a point process model to predict the exact end-of-game scores in the NFL. Using data over eight NFL seasons, the authors showed that their model is marginally outperformed by the betting market when predicting game results but is as good as the market when forecasting exact scores. Quenzel & Shea ( 2016 ) analyzed tied NFL games at half time between 1994 and 2012 to predict the eventual winner. Using logit and linear probability analyses, the authors found that only point spread at the end of the first half to be a statistically significant predictor of the eventual winner. Moreover, according to the authors more time of possession and more running plays during the first half do not matter. Furthermore, the team that receives possession at the start of the second half is not more likely to win. Xia et al. ( 2018 ) proposed a baseline and a weighted network-driven algorithm for predicting game outcomes in the NFL. The baseline algorithm achieved a 60% prediction accuracy while the weighted algorithm achieved a 70% prediction accuracy. The proposed method was also used to develop a power ranking of teams in the league.

While some of the sports analytics literature in the NFL focused on predicting the winning team, other studies focused on predicting play calls and on predicting player’s performance. Baker & Kwartler ( 2015 ) used logistic regression to classify upcoming play type by analyzing data from the Cleveland Browns vs. Pittsburgh Steelers games over 13 seasons. According to the authors, logistic regression classified correctly 66.4% and 66.9% of Cleveland’s offensive and Pittsburgh’s offensive play selection, respectively. Burke ( 2019 ) considered passing options available to the quarterback. Using player tracking data, the author utilized Neural Networks to predict the receiver of the pass. Joash Fernandes et al. ( 2020 ) used data from several NFL seasons to predict play type using different machine learning models. A Neural Network model achieved the highest prediction accuracy of 75.3%. The authors also identified a simple decision tree model that captured 86% of the prediction accuracy of the Neural Network model. Otting ( 2020 ) used hidden Markov models to predict NFL play calls and achieved a 71.5% prediction accuracy for the 2018 season. Reyers & Swartz ( 2022 ) analyzed quarterback performance using player tracking data which considers the speed and location of all players on the field. The authors used machine learning to estimate the probability of success of different passing and running options available to the quarterback and the expected points gained from these options.

Based on the literature review above, it is important to use “differentials” in order to account for both the offensive and defensive performance of each team. Furthermore, using season average seems to provide better accuracy. Moreover, given the varying performance of methods considered in the literature, the classification performance of several methods should be compared.

Imbalanced data

At the end of each season only one team wins the biggest prize (league championship, the world series or the Superbowl). As a result, it becomes very challenging to identify the eventual winner early on during the season due to the imbalanced nature of the data. Data mining techniques can be used to identify the eventual winner. Using approaches to reduce the data imbalance, should help these algorithms further in correctly identifying the winner.

There are two main approaches for handling imbalanced data. The first approach involves balancing the data using resampling techniques such as over-sampling the minority group or under-sampling the majority group. The second approach involves setting a penalty if a member of the minority group is misclassified as being from the majority group. The data imbalance issue has been addressed in several fields and proved to be successful in significantly improving the classifier’s performance. Zhou et al. ( 2013 ) compared the effect of different sampling methods on the classification performance of several bankruptcy prediction models. The authors found that synthetic minority oversampling techniques (SMOTE) is better when there are few instances of bankrupt firms in the data. Menardi & Torelli ( 2014 ) developed a technique called random over sampling examples (ROSE) for handling imbalanced binary data. ROSE generates new artificial examples using a smoothed bootstrap approach. The bootstrap approach reduces the effects of imbalanced class distribution by helping the model estimation and assessment phases. The proposed technique also helps in reducing the risk of model overfitting and was shown to perform extremely well using real and simulated data. Roumani et al. ( 2018 ) compared SMOTE, random under-sampling and misclassification cost ratio for classifying patients who are more likely to be readmitted to the intensive care unit (ICU). The authors found that SMOTE was the best approach for handling the imbalanced data.

Although the NFL is the largest sports league in terms of revenue, it lags other professional sports in terms of analytics (Reyers & Swartz, 2022 ). Our work attempts to address this gap in the literature by using several data mining techniques to classify the winner of the Superbowl while accounting for the data imbalance issue.

Approaches and methods

Synthetic minority oversampling technique (smote).

After splitting the data into a training set and a test set, we used the synthetic minority oversampling technique (SMOTE) to address the data imbalance issue in the training set which should improve the classifier’s performance. SMOTE increases the minority group instances by creating artificial data based on similarities between existing minority group instances (Chawla et al., 2002 ; He et al., 2009). Let S be a training set with m examples and let subset S min be a set of minority classes in S and x i be an element in S min . For each x i ∈ S min , the K -nearest neighbors are defined as the K elements in S min with the smallest Euclidian distance between itself and the element under consideration. A new data point is created by selecting a random K -nearest neighbor and multiplying a random number between 0 and 1 with the feature vector difference. Then, the vector is added to x i (He et al., 2009 ).

As indicated earlier, ANNs are the most commonly used machine learning algorithms in sports analytics but they do not consistently perform better than other algorithms. Moreover, decision tree algorithms are more appealing because they are simpler and easier to implement. Furthermore, using other machine learning algorithms is among the top recommendations for future research in the sports analytics field (Bunker & Susnjak, 2022 ). Therefore, we decided to compare the classification performance of C4.5, ANNs and RF.

The C4.5 algorithm is a decision tree type classifier where a class is represented by a leaf node and a test is represented by a decision node. The classification of a new sample starts at the root of the tree until a leaf node is reached (Kantardzic, 2011 ). Decision tree type classifiers have several advantages including ease of interpretation and the ability to be graphically represented (Gepp et al., 2010 ). The steps of the C4.5 algorithm are as follows: First, calculate the initial entropy for the sample distribution:

where P i is the probability distribution for a specific category and T is the training sample. Second, calculate entropy as follows: I A , T = ∑ i m T i T I T i where A is a selected attribute. Third, calculate the information gain for A: G A , T = I T - I ( A , T ) . Fourth, calculate the split information and information gain ratio for attribute A:

S p l i t A , T = - ∑ i m T T i log 2 T T i , G R A , T = G ( A , T ) S p l i t ( A , T ) , respectively.

Lastly, select the node with the maximum information ratio as a root node. Steps 2 through 4 are repeated for every level until the attribute of every leaf node belongs to the same category (Wang et al., 2019 ).

Artificial neural networks (ANNs)

ANNs are nonlinear models designed to resemble biological neural systems. They consist of interconnected processing units called neurons. A neuron receives input from other neurons which yields an output. The signals received by a neuron are modulated by weights, which ANNs adjust through training, and this allows ANNs to learn the underlying relations from a set of examples (Pujol & Pinto, 2011 ). There are different types of Neural Networks. The most common type consists of three layers: an input layer, an output layer and a hidden layer. In a feedforward Neural Network, signals can only move from input to output nodes while in a feedback network signals can travel in both directions (Nayak and Ting, 2001 ).

Let X = x 0 , x 1 , ⋯ , x n be an input layer with n neurons, and let f be a rectifier activation function f x = max 0 , x In order to obtain the network output, the output of each unit should be computed in each layer. For a set of hidden layers ( h 1 , h 2 , ⋯ , h N ) , the output of the first hidden layer is h i j = f ∑ k = 1 n i - 1 w k , j 0 x k j = 1 , ⋯ , n i . The neurons’ outputs in the hidden layers are computed as follows: h i j = f ∑ k = 1 n i - 1 w k , j i - 1 h i - 1 k where w k , j N is the weight between the neuron k in the hidden layer i and the neuron j in the hidden layer i + 1 , n i is the number of the neurons in the i th hidden layer. The output of the i th layer can be formulated as follows: h i = h i 1 , h i 2 , ⋯ , h i n i and the network output is computed as follows:

where is the weight between the neuron in the nth hidden layer and the neuron in the output layer, n N is the number of neurons in the Nth hidden layer, is the vector of output layer, is the transfer function and is the matrix of weights (Ramchoun et al., 2016 ).

In recent years, significant progress in research on ANNs has been achieved including the field of deep learning. Deep learning models use multiple layers which makes it possible to represent more complex features and build prediction and classification models using millions of features (Wu et al., 2018 ).

Random forest (RF)

RF is an ensemble method that constructs several decision trees to classify a new instance using a majority vote. Random Forest classifiers have several advantages including their applicability to both classification and regression and the ability to handle categorical and imbalanced data.

Given a binary response variable Y, an input random vector X and a data set D n , a classifier m n is a Borel measurable function of X and D n that estimates Y from X and D n (Biau and Scornet, 2016 ). Using a majority vote among the classification trees, the random forest classifier is obtained (Biau and Scornet, 2016 ),

Given region A represent a leaf, a randomized tree classifier takes the following form

where D n ∗ Θ contains the data points selected in the resampling step (Biau and Scornet, 2016 ). That is, in each leaf, a majority vote is taken over all ( X i , Y i ) for which X i is in the same region and ties are broken in favor of class 0 (Biau and Scornet, 2016 ).

Performance measures

The classification performance of the classifiers on the test set was compared using the following measures: recall, AUC, accuracy and specificity. Recall, also known as sensitivity, is the proportion of actual positives that are correctly classified. AUC measures the ability of a classifier to differentiate between the majority and minority groups. Accuracy is the proportion of actual positives and actual negatives that are correctly classified while specificity is the proportion of actual negatives that are correctly classified. Recall, accuracy and specificity are calculated as follows:

Application

The minority group (positives) consists of teams that won the Superbowl while the majority group (negatives) consists of teams that did not win the Superbowl. We split the data into a training set representing the 2002 through 2015 seasons (78%) and a test set representing the 2016 through 2019 seasons (22%). It is reasonable to assume that past seasons can be used as a training set for future seasons as teams’ strategies for winning games is not likely to change drastically over time (Kahn, 2003 ). This is also due to the fact that NFL teams are fairly consistent over the long run which makes long term data more effective in predicting future outcomes (Kahn, 2003 ). Next, we applied SMOTE using different oversampling percentages (500%, 1200% and 1800%) to the training set to address the data imbalance issue. Once the training set was oversampled, we applied several data mining techniques (C4.5, ANN and RF). The classification performance of the three classifiers was compared on the test set.

The data was collected from NFL.com. The dataset consists of 576 observations representing season-level data of 32 teams over 18 seasons (2002 through 2019). The 2020 season was not included due to the disruptions caused by Covid-19. During each season, every team played 16 regular season games and season-level data was collected for each team. With only one team winning the Superbowl each season, 18 out of 576 (3.125%) won the Superbowl. The data includes season-level information about each team in terms of defensive, offensive and special team performances (i.e. total yards, total penalties, total pass completions, etc.). Table  1 shows a summary of the data.

Data summary

The outcome variable is a binary variable indicating whether a team won the Superbowl or not. Because football is a team sport, differentials (i.e. offense vs. defense) of each team’s performance over the entire season were used to account for both the offensive and defensive performances. Table  2 lists all the team performance measures considered.

Team season-level performance measures

For SMOTE, we used five nearest neighbors and considered the following oversampling percentages for comparison purposes: 500%, 1200%, 1800%. As the oversampling percentage is increased, we would expect recall and AUC to increase while accuracy and specificity to decrease. This is due to the expected increase in the number of true positives and false positives and the expected decrease in the number of true negatives and false negatives as a result of oversampling the minority group. The DMwR package in R was used to perform SMOTE (Torgo, 2010 ).

The C4.5 models were built using the RWeka library in the CARET package in R (Kuhn, 2008 ). Two hyperparameters were tuned: confidence factor (0.1–0.5) and minimum number of instances per leaf (1–10). Using AUC as a criterion to select the best model, the optimal values for the two parameters were (0.2, 1), (0.25, 1), (0.25, 2) and (0.25, 2) for the original (no oversampling), 500% SMOTE, 1200% and 1800% SMOTE models, respectively.

The AutoML function in H 2 O package in R was used to tune the hyperparameters and train and test the Neural Network models (LeDell and Poirier, 2020 ). The AutoML function automates the hyperparameter tuning and provides the “best” model once the stopping criteria is met. For this study, the AutoML function was run for 1 h for each model and the “best” model was selected according to the highest AUC value. The stochastic gradient descent algorithm with backpropagation was used for all Neural Network models. All models were three-layer feedforward networks with 500 epochs and used rectifier with dropout activation function. For the original data (no oversampling), the hidden layer had 20 neuros while for the oversampled data (500%, 1200% and 1800%), the hidden layer had 50 neurons.

The Random Forest models were built using the randomForest library in the CARET package in R (Kuhn, 2008 ). We only considered tuning one parameter which is the number of variables randomly sampled as candidates at each split. We tested a range of values between 1 and 15. The optimal value was determined according to AUC. The optimal values for the parameter were 4, 5, 6 and 6 for the original, 500% SMOTE, 1200% and 1800% SMOTE models, respectively.

Tables  3 , ​ ,4 4 and ​ and5 5 show the summary of the classification performance of each classifier as the oversampling percentage was increased. The classification performance with no oversampling is also shown for reference. It is interesting to note that all three classifiers had a recall of 0% and a specificity of 99% or 100% when applied to the original test set. This is intuitive due to the highly imbalanced nature of the data which makes it much easier for the algorithm to classify instances from the majority group.

C4.5’s classification performance as oversampling percentage is increased

Neural Network’s classification performance as oversampling percentage is increased

Random Forest’s classification performance as oversampling percentage is increased

For each classifier, we plotted the classification performance on the test set as the oversampling percentage was increased. For C4.5, as the oversampling percentage increased, recall and AUC increased while accuracy and specificity decreased (Fig.  1 ). The increase in recall and AUC and the decrease in accuracy and specificity were expected as the increase in oversampling percent of the minority group is helping the classifier in correctly identifying the minority group (i.e. increase the number of true positives) at the expense of the majority group (i.e. decrease in the number of true negatives).

Recall, AUC, Accuracy and Specificity of C4.5 as oversampling percent is increased

For ANN, as the oversampling percentage increased, we saw similar results to C4.5 where recall and AUC increased while accuracy and specificity decreased (Fig.  2 ).

Recall, AUC, Accuracy and Specificity of Neural Network as oversampling percent is increased

For RF, similar results to C4.5 and ANN were observed as the oversampling percentage increased (Fig.  3 ).

Recall, AUC, Accuracy and Specificity of Random Forest as oversampling percent is increased

In addition, for each measure we compared the classification performance of the three methods as the oversampling percentage was increased. As the oversampling percentage was increased, all classifiers showed an increase in recall with RF having the highest recall at 1800% SMOTE (79%), followed by C4.5 (78%) and ANN (76%) (Fig.  4 ). When the training set was not oversampled, all three classifiers had a 0% recall on the test set.

Recall of C4.5, Neural Network and Random Forest as oversampling percent is increased

For the AUC, at 1800% SMOTE, RF had the highest value (93%) followed by C4.5 (91%) and ANN (84%). When the training set was not oversampled, C4.5, Neural Network and Random Forest had AUC values of 52%, 69% and 74%, respectively (Fig. ​ (Fig.5 5 ).

AUC of C4.5, Neural Network and Random Forest as oversampling percent is increased

Looking at the accuracy plot (Fig.  6 ), we can see that Random Forest had the highest value (84%) at 1800% SMOTE followed by C4.5 (82%) and Neural Network (77%). When the training set was not oversampled, the accuracy of C4.5, ANN and RF were 98%, 97% and 96%, respectively. This is due to the highly imbalanced nature of the original data which makes it much easier for the classifier to correctly identify the majority group.

Accuracy of C4.5, Neural Network and Random Forest as oversampling percent is increased

Using specificity, we observed similar results to accuracy where the specificity of all three classifiers decreased as the oversampling percentage was increased (Fig.  7 ). Also, at 1800% SMOTE, Random Forest had the highest specificity (88%) followed by C4.5 (82%) and Neural Network (78%). When the minority group was not oversampled, each of the classifiers had a specificity of 99% or 100% due to the highly imbalanced nature of the data where 96.87% of instances are from the majority group.

Specificity of C4.5, Neural Network and Random Forest as oversampling percent is increased

Figures  8 , ​ ,9 9 and ​ and10 10 show the ROC plot across the three classifiers for each oversampling percentage separately. Across all oversampling percentages, Random Forest has the highest AUC followed by C4.5 and Neural Network.

ROC of C4.5, Neural Network and Random Forest at 500% SMOTE

ROC of C4.5, Neural Network and Random Forest at 1200% SMOTE

Overall, Random Forest was the best classifier as it had the highest recall, AUC, accuracy, and specificity at SMOTE of 1800%. While Neural Network is the most commonly used classifier in the sports analytics literature, our results show that it is not the best classifier. In fact, both C4.5 and Random Forest had a better performance than the Neural Network classifier across all measures. Given the simplicity and ease of interpretation of C4.5 and Random Forest, this increases the applicability of our findings. Our work also shows the importance of accounting for the data imbalance issue. After oversampling was applied, the classification performance of all classifiers significantly improved in identifying the minority group. Moreover, our work shows the ability to use publicly available data collected during the regular season to classify the winner of the Superbowl.

Our results can be used to develop a decision support tool to help team managers and coaches in developing strategies that can increase the team’s chances of winning by making data driven decisions regarding game plans, play selection and player recruitment. Furthermore, our approach, of accounting for the data imbalance issue using SMOTE before applying the classification algorithms, is generalizable so it can be used in other sports and non-sport fields.

Conclusions and future work

Although there is numerous research in the sports analytics field, they suffer from low accuracy. Moreover, although the NFL is the largest sports league in terms of revenue, it lags other professional sports in terms of analytics. According to the existing literature in sports analytics, more accurate models are needed and one of the recommendations for future research in the field is to utilize other data mining techniques. This works attempts to answers these calls and address some of the gaps in the existing literature by comparing the classification performance of C4.5, ANN and RF in classifying the winner of the Superbowl using data collected during the regular season. The data was split into a training set and a test set. SMOTE was used to oversample the minority group of the training set before C4.5, ANN and RF were applied. The classification performance of the three classifiers was compared on the test set using recall, AUC, accuracy and specificity. Overall, Random Forest had the best performance followed by C4.5 and Neural Network.

This study has several limitations. We only considered SMOTE for addressing the data imbalance issue so future studies should consider other approaches. We also compared only three classifiers, so we recommend future studies to consider more classifiers. We used data collected during the regular season to classify the winner of the Superbowl without considering playoffs games. A lot can happen between the end of the season and the final whistle of the Superbowl, such as injuries, so future research should try to consider these issues when attempting to predict the Superbowl winner. Our results are based on data from 18 seasons, so we recommend future studies to consider data from more seasons. We did not consider player level data which are important indicators and measures of team performances. Moreover, every season new players are drafted and players are traded so considering player level data would allow us to account for these season to season variations.

Nevertheless, our work has several significant implications. We highlight the imbalance issue of sports data consisting mainly of losing teams and we show the importance of considering methods for addressing this issue. Our results confirm results obtained by Bunker and Susjnak ( 2022 ) who showed that ANNs do not always perform the best even though they are the most popular technique. In our work, we show how C4.5 and Random Forest outperform ANNs which indicates the importance of using several classification techniques rather than relying on one popular technique.

Acknowledgements

This research was partially supported by a 2022 Oakland University School of Business Administration Spring/Summer Research Fellowship.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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