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Echolalia in Autism

Why Autistic Children Echo Words and Sounds

Verywell / Laura Porter

Echolalia in Child Development

Types of echolalia, related behaviors and conditions, echolalia treatment, improving communication, frequently asked questions.

Echolalia is the precise repetition (echoing out loud) of words and sounds. Echolalia can be a symptom of aphasia , dementia, traumatic brain injury, and schizophrenia, but it is most often associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Echolalia is not always a self-calming tool for autistic kids, like rocking or hand-flapping tend to be (these repetitive behaviors are called stimming ). Echolalia has its own patterns—it might even be how your autistic child first uses speech to try to communicate with you.

While echolalia can be an autism trait , it's also a point of entry for a parent or speech-language therapist to start working with your child.

This article will go over what echolalia is and how it's related to child development and conditions like autism. You'll also learn how to help a child manage echolalia if the behavior is not helpful.

Echolalia is actually a part of child development. As neurotypical toddlers learn to speak, they imitate the sounds they hear. Over time, the typically developing child learns language and is able to use it to communicate their needs and ideas by connecting new words together.

By the time they are 3 years old, most children communicate with others by selecting words or crafting phrases using their own unique voices and intonation.

By the time they are 4 or 5, kids are able to ask and answer questions, carry on conversations, and otherwise use language in their own way to communicate with others.

Echolalia can also be a common feature of autism. Autistic children are not always nonverbal—many use words and may even use very complex "adult" words. With echolalia, these words are, in a sense, not their own.

A child says the words in the same order—and usually in the same tone—as they heard them on a TV show, read in a book, or overheard from a teacher or another adult in their life.

One of the difficulties in understanding echolalia in autistic children is that the repetitive echolalia speech patterns can be used for different reasons. Those purposes might change over time. It's also possible for a person to use echolalia for multiple purposes at the same time.

Reasons autistic children use echolalia in speech patterns include:

• Self-stimulation : Often called "stimming," this use of echolalia speech patterns is meant as a calming strategy. The repetition helps an autistic child cope with overwhelming sensory challenges.
• Prefabrication : The use of repeated phrases and scripts helps to communicate when it is too hard for the speaker to form their own original words.
• Self-talk : Memorized phrases may help a child talk themselves through a difficult process. They can use phrases heard from parents, teachers, or on television.

For many autistic children, echolalia is an important part of developing spoken communication.

For example, if a teacher tells an autistic child to "say thank you," the child might repeat "say thank you" back to them instead of just saying "thank you." It may not be the response the teacher was going for, but it's a step in the right direction.

There are different kinds of echolalia. The terms can be a bit confusing because our understanding of echolalia has changed over time. What was once considered a problem to "fix" is now viewed as a possible pathway for speech development.

The different types of echolalia include:

• Functional or interactive echolalia, which is directed toward communication with others
• Non-interactive echolalia, which occurs for reasons other than communication
• Mitigated echolalia, which repeats some words but with changes
• Immediate or delayed echolalia, which describe the timing of the repetitive words

Interactive and Non-Interactive Echolalia

Children speaking in an interactive way are trying to communicate with another person and are using memorized phrases for a real purpose—the challenge is figuring out the meaning.

For example, a child may hear a line from a TV commercial such as "got milk?" Later when they are thirsty, they may say "got milk?" in exactly the same tone and accent as the ad on TV instead of directly asking for a drink.

Another example: A child might say "back off, lieutenant!" when angry, because they heard an angry character say that in a movie. The child has connected the words with the emotion of anger and is using the phrase to indicate that they're mad.

As the listener, it can be confusing at first. You'll need to try to understand how the child has "wired" these words to their ideas.

It's much the same way that idioms—descriptive turns of phrase— get lost between languages. No one literally means that “it’s raining cats and dogs”—but we know what is meant when it's said.

In non-interactive echolalia , the child isn't trying to speak to anyone else. They might be repeating words or phrases to themselves for their own purposes—for example, to "practice" an idea or as a calming mechanism.

The repetition could be stimming, but it may have no meaning at all. It's not always clear if the child is choosing intentional words or repeating words they don't understand.

Either way, what's important is that an autistic child is borrowing the words of others and still needs help finding their own. Tapping into these echolalia patterns may offer a window for caregivers and speech pathologists to build on a child's unique style and work toward original language use.

That's especially true of mitigated echolalia, in which the child makes small changes to the original phrasing.

For example, if you ask a child which cookie they would like for a treat, they might just echo back "cookie" at first. As they gain more language skills and understanding, they might respond in the future by using a phrase they heard on a cookie commercial—like "Oh, oh, Oreo!"—to respond in a more specific way.

In this example, they might eventually drop the "oh, oh" and just echo the word "Oreo" to make their preference known.

Immediate and Delayed Echolalia

Sometimes echolalia is immediate and the child is echoing the words they hear. For example, a caregiver asks the child, "Do you want a drink?" and the child responds with "You want a drink."

The inability to switch pronouns is common. The child might be responding appropriately and may actually want a drink. However, instead of using an original phrase in the flow of normal conversation (like "yes, please," or "I'd like lemonade"), the child echoes the precise language.

Echolalia can also be delayed. For example, a child watches an episode of "Sesame Street" and later that day they recite the interactions between Bert and Ernie or sing a line from the theme song.

A child may also use Ernie's words intentionally, or the words are just repeated sounds. In delayed echolalia, there's a distance between hearing and using the words.

There are some other behaviors and conditions that are similar to echolalia that may occur in autism.

Palilalia is a speech disorder that's marked by the involuntary repetition of words and phrases. In that sense, it is like echolalia but there are some key differences.

One difference is that in echolalia, the repetition or echoing is focused on other people's words and is received when the child hears them.

Palilalia often involves increasingly rapid speech with the same repeated sounds.

Echolalia and palilalia are not limited to autism; in fact, palilalia tends to be seen more in Tourette's syndrome, Parkinson's disease , and seizure disorders. Palilalia can even be a side effect of some drugs.

Echolalia is sometimes confused with a term that sounds similar— echopraxia .

In echopraxia, a person repeats a movement that they see another person doing. However, they are not doing it intentionally—it's more like a reflexive action that they may not even be fully conscious of.

For example, they see a person scratch their head and they automatically move to scratch their head, too.

An autistic child may have echopraxia, but it also occurs in Tourette's syndrome .

Scripting is another tool many autistic people use. It's a little like echolalia since they are saying words or phrases that they heard somewhere.

However, scripting is generally an intentional strategy. For example, an autistic child might repeat a catchphrase from a character on a TV show when they're talking with their classmates because they are not sure what to say.

Much as you may wish to limit your child's echolalia, especially in public, the reality is that echolalia can serve a valuable function. It can be a very positive behavior in the right circumstances.

Even if your child's echolalia requires more support than others, it's a good starting point for interventions like speech therapy. For example, a child might memorize entire segments of a favorite video and recite them repeatedly as a way to  calm themselves down and reduce anxiety .

The recitation may also indicate a real fascination for aspects of the video, just as it does in neurotypical children.

Echolalia that's purposeful gives you a reason to celebrate—it means that your child has developed a tool for verbally communicating their wants and needs.

They can keep building skills with the help of a speech therapist and will benefit from having caring adults around them who are intentional about words when talking with them.

While it can be difficult to effectively communicate with your child when they’re exhibiting echolalia, there are multiple exercises that speech therapists use that can be directly applied to home practice, interaction, and engagement. Some of these techniques include: 

Limiting the “WH” Questions 

You may routinely ask “who," “what,” “when," “where,” and “why” questions just as a matter of daily interaction with your child, and this is perfectly normal. Unfortunately, however, they may not understand or internalize the nature of the question and continue to repeat it. 

Instead of asking them open questions, such as: “What do you want for a snack?” or “How are you feeling?” give them choice questions, such as “Do you want an orange or cheese?”

Once they are more comfortable with this exercise, you can start gradually working the “WH” questions back in.   

This will help your child to learn how to answer your questions and cut down on the potential for repetition.

Communicate Visually

When asking choice questions, try and show them their options (clothes, food, books, etc.) so they can take visual cues and make their choice. You can also animate their choices by shaking your head “yes” or “no” so they can easily understand. 

Using visual aids improves vocabulary and comprehension while giving your child a clear and simple choice while building communication skills.

Follow Through Immediately on Their Answers 

Once they make their choice, complete the dialogue by accommodating their selection. This fulfillment is a language lesson in and of itself and helps them identify objects by name. Repeat the name of the object as often as possible so they can understand. 

You can also use special intonations to let them know which options are good (foods, books, toys, pets) and which are dangerous (fire, knives, needles, medications, etc.).

Conversational Modeling with Relevant Terms

You can use key terms to help your child improve their communication and understanding of certain items. Try removing the actual question from the dialogue and just focus on the key word itself.

For instance, if you want to know if your child is tired, just repeat the word "tired" or "sleepy" instead of asking them if "they are" tired. This will help to reduce repetition of questions while expanding vocabulary.

You can practice these techniques and others for about 10-15 minutes per day, or however long or frequently is recommended by your child’s speech therapist. It’s important to realize that these techniques take time and repetition. Try not to get overwhelmed or discouraged if they don’t work immediately. 

Echolalia is the repetition of words or phrases. It's a common behavior in autistic people and can have many functions. For many autistic children, the different types of echolalia are steps toward developing their language skills and learning how to communicate.

If you're not sure how to make sense of your child's use of echolalia (or even if it is useful to them), it can help to work with a speech therapist. They can help you to understand echolalia and support your child as they learn to communicate with you.

Echolalia is a feature of several conditions or disorders rather than being one in and of itself. Echolalia is actually a normal stage of language development in early childhood, but kids typically outgrow it around their third birthday.

In older children and adults, echolalia is a common trait of autism. However, it can also occur in people with aphasia, dementia, traumatic brain injury, and schizophrenia.

Echolalia does not necessarily need to be treated, but many children benefit from speech and play therapy. Talk to your child's provider about seeing a speech-language pathologist who treats echolalia.

There are three types of echolalia: immediate, delayed, and mitigated. Here are a few examples of each:

• Immediate: You ask your child if they want to go to the park. Instead of answering "yes" or "no," they just repeated "park" back to you.
• Delayed: Your child heard a TV character say, "that's super!" They repeat the phrase "that's super" frequently, sometimes in contexts that make sense (like when you tell them you are going to the park) but also at times that may seem random (like when they are in the car with you).
• Mitigated: When your child is a little older, you might ask them if they want to go to the park. Instead of repeating "park" or saying "that's super!" they might start putting these ideas together and respond by saying: "The park? Well, that's super!"
• Pruccoli J, Spadoni C, Orsenigo A, Parmeggiani A. Should echolalia be considered a phonic stereotypy? A narrative review .  Brain Sciences . 2021;11(7):862. doi: 10.3390/brainsci11070862

Gernsbacher MA, Morson EM, Grace EJ. Language and speech in autism . Annual review of linguistics . 2016;2:413-425. doi:10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124824

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Gladfelter A, VanZuiden C. The influence of language context on repetitive speech use in children with autism spectrum disorder .  Am J Speech Lang Pathol . 2020;29(1):327-334. doi: 10.1044/2019_AJSLP-19-00003

Hyman SL, Levy SE, Myers SM, COUNCIL ON CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES, SECTION ON DEVELOPMENTAL AND BEHAVIORAL PEDIATRICS. Identification, evaluation, and management of children with autism spectrum disorder .  Pediatrics . 2020;145(1):e20193447. doi: 10.1542/peds.2019-3447

Indiana Resource Center for Autism. Functional categories of immediate echolalia .

Fitzgerald CE. Feature-based classification of pronoun errors: implications for clinical practice .  Perspect ASHA SIGs . 2020;5(1):55-66. doi: 10.1044/2019_PERS-19-00067

Indiana University Bloomington. Functional categories of delayed echolalia .

Akbari C, Shollenbarger A. Acoustics of palilalia: A case study . Acoustical Society of America, Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics . 2016:060015. doi: 10.1121/2.0000605

Ganos C, Ogrzal T, Schnitzler A, Münchau A. The pathophysiology of echopraxia/echolalia: Relevance to Gilles De La Tourette syndrome .  Movement Disorders . 2012;27(10):1222-1229. doi:10.1002/mds.25103

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Part II: A Closer Look .

Gernsbacher MA, Morson EM, Grace EJ. Language and speech in autism . Annual Review of Linguistics . 2016;2:413-425. doi:10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124824

Arunachalam S, Luyster RJ. Lexical development in young children with autism spectrum disorder (Asd): how asd may affect intake from the input .  J Speech Lang Hear Res . 2018;61(11):2659-2672. doi: 10.1044/2018_JSLHR-L-RSAUT-18-0024

Clark C. Echolalia: When children repeat what you say . Speech And Language Kids.

Neely L, Gerow S, Rispoli M, Lang R, Pullen N. Treatment of echolalia in individuals with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders . 2015;3(1):82-91. doi:10.1007/s40489-015-0067-4

Bedford R, Gliga T, Frame K, et al. Failure to learn from feedback underlies word learning difficulties in toddlers at risk for autism. Journal of Child Language . 2012;40(1):29-46. doi:10.1017/s0305000912000086

Ishikawa N, Omori M, Yamamoto J-ichi. Modeling training of child’s echoic conversational response for students with autism spectrum disorder: To be a good listener . Behavior Analysis in Practice . 2018;12(1):1-11. doi:10.1007/s40617-018-0271-7

By Lisa Jo Rudy Rudy is a writer, consultant, author, and advocate who specializes in autism. Her work has appeared in The New York Times and Autism Parenting Magazine.

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Why Your Child Repeats Things: Echolalia

What is echolalia?

What does it mean when your child keeps repeating words, phrases or sounds? This is called echolalia. Children may do this when they do not know how to effectively communicate or lack communication skills. Many times, echolalia is used to practice or learn language. Repetitive speech is common for children in their early childhood and also common for children with autism or developmental delays to carry it further into their childhood. 

There are several different reasons why your child keeps repeating words, phrases or sounds. For example: 

• They may be using it as a sensory outlet or way to calm themselves when they get anxious or upset.
• It could be used as a form of communication when it is too difficult for them to form their own words or ideas.
• They may be trying to take their first steps of communication.
• They are exploring a form of ‘self-talk’ or talking to oneself when experiencing difficulty or frustration. 

Types of echolalia  

There are several different types of echolalia and each play a particular role in a child’s way of communicating or learning how to communicate.

Oftentimes, echolalia can be an immediate response. An example of this would be, “Lauren, do you want a snack?” and Lauren responds, “Want a snack.” In this case, Lauren is immediately echoing the language spoken to her to communicate that she wants a snack or is hungry.

Similarly, Lauren may repeat a phrase or song from a show earlier in the day, as a way to respond to a situation that reminds her of that show. This delayed response may seem as though it does not relate to the situation at hand, but in fact it is her way of making sense of the situation and using her own way of communicating.

Non-functional

For some kids, echolalia may be the repetition of meaningless sounds. This would be considered a form of non-functional echoing. A child may be able to reiterate words or phrases, but have no understanding of what they are saying. For example, a child may be able to reiterate an entire scene from their favorite show, but has no understanding of the characters or events happening. This can cause confusion and can also be misleading to parents as they think their child understands more than they do. 

When a child uses functional echolalia, however, they use memorized words or phrases in a purposeful way. For example, a child watches a commercial for cookies and later on when they get hungry, they repeat the word “cookies” in the same tone or accent, in order to communicate that they are hungry.

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Types of Speech Impediments

Sanjana is a health writer and editor. Her work spans various health-related topics, including mental health, fitness, nutrition, and wellness.

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

Phynart Studio / Getty Images

Articulation Errors

Ankyloglossia, treating speech disorders.

A speech impediment, also known as a speech disorder , is a condition that can affect a person’s ability to form sounds and words, making their speech difficult to understand.

Speech disorders generally become evident in early childhood, as children start speaking and learning language. While many children initially have trouble with certain sounds and words, most are able to speak easily by the time they are five years old. However, some speech disorders persist. Approximately 5% of children aged three to 17 in the United States experience speech disorders.

There are many different types of speech impediments, including:

• Articulation errors

This article explores the causes, symptoms, and treatment of the different types of speech disorders.

Speech impediments that break the flow of speech are known as disfluencies. Stuttering is the most common form of disfluency, however there are other types as well.

Symptoms and Characteristics of Disfluencies

These are some of the characteristics of disfluencies:

• Repeating certain phrases, words, or sounds after the age of 4 (For example: “O…orange,” “I like…like orange juice,” “I want…I want orange juice”)
• Adding in extra sounds or words into sentences (For example: “We…uh…went to buy…um…orange juice”)
• Elongating words (For example: Saying “orange joooose” instead of "orange juice")
• Replacing words (For example: “What…Where is the orange juice?”)
• Hesitating while speaking (For example: A long pause while thinking)
• Pausing mid-speech (For example: Stopping abruptly mid-speech, due to lack of airflow, causing no sounds to come out, leading to a tense pause)

In addition, someone with disfluencies may also experience the following symptoms while speaking:

• Vocal tension and strain
• Head jerking
• Eye blinking
• Lip trembling

Causes of Disfluencies

People with disfluencies tend to have neurological differences in areas of the brain that control language processing and coordinate speech, which may be caused by:

• Genetic factors
• Trauma or infection to the brain
• Environmental stressors that cause anxiety or emotional distress
• Neurodevelopmental conditions like attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Articulation disorders occur when a person has trouble placing their tongue in the correct position to form certain speech sounds. Lisping is the most common type of articulation disorder.

Symptoms and Characteristics of Articulation Errors

These are some of the characteristics of articulation disorders:

• Substituting one sound for another . People typically have trouble with ‘r’ and ‘l’ sounds. (For example: Being unable to say “rabbit” and saying “wabbit” instead)
• Lisping , which refers specifically to difficulty with ‘s’ and ‘z’ sounds. (For example: Saying “thugar” instead of “sugar” or producing a whistling sound while trying to pronounce these letters)
• Omitting sounds (For example: Saying “coo” instead of “school”)
• Adding sounds (For example: Saying “pinanio” instead of “piano”)
• Making other speech errors that can make it difficult to decipher what the person is saying. For instance, only family members may be able to understand what they’re trying to say.

Causes of Articulation Errors

Articulation errors may be caused by:

• Genetic factors, as it can run in families
• Hearing loss , as mishearing sounds can affect the person’s ability to reproduce the sound
• Changes in the bones or muscles that are needed for speech, including a cleft palate (a hole in the roof of the mouth) and tooth problems
• Damage to the nerves or parts of the brain that coordinate speech, caused by conditions such as cerebral palsy , for instance

Ankyloglossia, also known as tongue-tie, is a condition where the person’s tongue is attached to the bottom of their mouth. This can restrict the tongue’s movement and make it hard for the person to move their tongue.

Symptoms and Characteristics of Ankyloglossia

Ankyloglossia is characterized by difficulty pronouncing ‘d,’ ‘n,’ ‘s,’ ‘t,’ ‘th,’ and ‘z’ sounds that require the person’s tongue to touch the roof of their mouth or their upper teeth, as their tongue may not be able to reach there.

Apart from speech impediments, people with ankyloglossia may also experience other symptoms as a result of their tongue-tie. These symptoms include:

• Difficulty breastfeeding in newborns
• Trouble swallowing
• Limited ability to move the tongue from side to side or stick it out
• Difficulty with activities like playing wind instruments, licking ice cream, or kissing
• Mouth breathing

Causes of Ankyloglossia

Ankyloglossia is a congenital condition, which means it is present from birth. A tissue known as the lingual frenulum attaches the tongue to the base of the mouth. People with ankyloglossia have a shorter lingual frenulum, or it is attached further along their tongue than most people’s.

Dysarthria is a condition where people slur their words because they cannot control the muscles that are required for speech, due to brain, nerve, or organ damage.

Symptoms and Characteristics of Dysarthria

Dysarthria is characterized by:

• Slurred, choppy, or robotic speech
• Rapid, slow, or soft speech
• Breathy, hoarse, or nasal voice

Additionally, someone with dysarthria may also have other symptoms such as difficulty swallowing and inability to move their tongue, lips, or jaw easily.

Causes of Dysarthria

Dysarthria is caused by paralysis or weakness of the speech muscles. The causes of the weakness can vary depending on the type of dysarthria the person has:

• Central dysarthria is caused by brain damage. It may be the result of neuromuscular diseases, such as cerebral palsy, Huntington’s disease, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, or Lou Gehrig’s disease. Central dysarthria may also be caused by injuries or illnesses that damage the brain, such as dementia, stroke, brain tumor, or traumatic brain injury .
• Peripheral dysarthria is caused by damage to the organs involved in speech. It may be caused by congenital structural problems, trauma to the mouth or face, or surgery to the tongue, mouth, head, neck, or voice box.

Apraxia, also known as dyspraxia, verbal apraxia, or apraxia of speech, is a neurological condition that can cause a person to have trouble moving the muscles they need to create sounds or words. The person’s brain knows what they want to say, but is unable to plan and sequence the words accordingly.

Symptoms and Characteristics of Apraxia

These are some of the characteristics of apraxia:

• Distorting sounds: The person may have trouble pronouncing certain sounds, particularly vowels, because they may be unable to move their tongue or jaw in the manner required to produce the right sound. Longer or more complex words may be especially harder to manage.
• Being inconsistent in their speech: For instance, the person may be able to pronounce a word correctly once, but may not be able to repeat it. Or, they may pronounce it correctly today and differently on another day.
• Grasping for words: The person may appear to be searching for the right word or sound, or attempt the pronunciation several times before getting it right.
• Making errors with the rhythm or tone of speech: The person may struggle with using tone and inflection to communicate meaning. For instance, they may not stress any of the words in a sentence, have trouble going from one syllable in a word to another, or pause at an inappropriate part of a sentence.

Causes of Apraxia

Apraxia occurs when nerve pathways in the brain are interrupted, which can make it difficult for the brain to send messages to the organs involved in speaking. The causes of these neurological disturbances can vary depending on the type of apraxia the person has:

• Childhood apraxia of speech (CAS): This condition is present from birth and is often hereditary. A person may be more likely to have it if a biological relative has a learning disability or communication disorder.
• Acquired apraxia of speech (AOS): This condition can occur in adults, due to brain damage as a result of a tumor, head injury , stroke, or other illness that affects the parts of the brain involved in speech.

If you have a speech impediment, or suspect your child might have one, it can be helpful to visit your healthcare provider. Your primary care physician can refer you to a speech-language pathologist, who can evaluate speech, diagnose speech disorders, and recommend treatment options.

The diagnostic process may involve a physical examination as well as psychological, neurological, or hearing tests, in order to confirm the diagnosis and rule out other causes.

Treatment for speech disorders often involves speech therapy, which can help you learn how to move your muscles and position your tongue correctly in order to create specific sounds. It can be quite effective in improving your speech.

Children often grow out of milder speech disorders; however, special education and speech therapy can help with more serious ones.

For ankyloglossia, or tongue-tie, a minor surgery known as a frenectomy can help detach the tongue from the bottom of the mouth.

A Word From Verywell

A speech impediment can make it difficult to pronounce certain sounds, speak clearly, or communicate fluently. 

Living with a speech disorder can be frustrating because people may cut you off while you’re speaking, try to finish your sentences, or treat you differently. It can be helpful to talk to your healthcare providers about how to cope with these situations.

You may also benefit from joining a support group, where you can connect with others living with speech disorders.

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Penn Medicine. Speech and language disorders .

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Cleveland Clinic. Dysarthria .

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Stanford Children’s Hospital. Speech sound disorders in children .

Abbastabar H, Alizadeh A, Darparesh M, Mohseni S, Roozbeh N. Spatial distribution and the prevalence of speech disorders in the provinces of Iran . J Med Life . 2015;8(Spec Iss 2):99-104.

By Sanjana Gupta Sanjana is a health writer and editor. Her work spans various health-related topics, including mental health, fitness, nutrition, and wellness.

The Complete Guide to Use Repetition in Speeches

Hrideep barot.

• Public Speaking , Speech Writing

All of us are very well acquainted with the speech “I Have a Dream” by Martin Luther King Jr. In the speech he used the phrase “I have a dream” 8 times. He does that to emphasize the importance of integrated and united America to the audience.

What if this repetition had not been there in this speech? Do you think that this speech would have been so famous? Speeches with repetition create an enormous impact on the audience.

Repetition is a literary device that very often is used in speeches or any piece of writing. It has a profound impact on the readers or audiences. It means to repeat words, phrases, or sounds to call attention to what is being repeated.

Here’s the game plan for this article.

Why are Speeches with Repetition so Impactful?

1. frequency, 2. nature of speech , 3. familiarity, 4. rule of 3.

• 1. Don't Cram Up
• 2. Don't Use Words Lazily
• 3. Don't Use Repetition More than 5-6 Times

1. It Persuades the Audience to Give the Theme Importance

Research paper by Lynn Hasher, David Goldstein, and Thomas Toppino has shown when a sentence or phrase is repeated over and over again it is considered to be the truth by the audience. This is called the illusory truth effect. This effect allows the audience to be on the same page with the speaker.

2. When we repeat words or phrases with the theme involved in them we strengthen the theme

An example could be a poem by Robert Frost, “Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening”. The poem “and miles to go before I sleep” is repeated twice at the end. The poet wants to grab attention to death, but before death, he has responsibilities to fulfill. 

Please note: repetition along with the style of speaking and body language plays an integral role.

You can check out our articles on body language and learn about appropriate body language while delivering a speech, the link also takes you to articles that provide additional and intriguing information about body language. This information is often neglected but turns out to be crucial.  

3. It Gives Rhythm to the Speech 

Repetition is an integral part of poetry. Repetition gives rhythm or a pattern to poetry. That means with repetition in a poem or speech, the audience tries to anticipate the next words or phrases. 

The audience does that because they have seen the pattern in the poem or speech and therefore they automatically try to guess the next words. Hence making your speech interactive and interesting.    

Check out the victory speech given by Barack Obama, “ yes we can ”. 

4. Repetition helps in Learning and Recall

Research published by Frontier in Human Neuroscience has shown repetition helps in learning and increases memory performance for detailed and associative information. Repetition also helps in the recall of the information that is put in memory by association. 

New research by Carnegie Mellon University psychologists shows when you associate new information with previously known information chances of remembering the information increase. 

The human brain is designed in a way that information gets inside the memory when repeated. That’s also true for forming habits. A habit is formed when an activity is repeated over and over again for days.  

With repetition, you will be able to get your phrases or words inside the memory of the audience, and hence that will make people remember you and your speech. 

How can you Create Speeches with Repetition?

Choose the appropriate word, phrase, or sound according to your speech: 

The sound, word, or phrase for the speech which you want to repeat should be chosen such that it becomes easy for the brain to process it. 

Use smaller and simpler words and sentences to be accessible for the audience.

Let’s look at an example:

“I felt happy because I saw that the others were happy and because I knew I should feel happy, but I wasn’t really happy.” Roberto Bolano

The word “happy” is repeated here. Happy is the fundamental word we use to connect positive feelings with.  

The speech should be constructed in such a way that the repetition is spread out evenly throughout the speech. This allows the brain to process information. The clogged-up information overwhelms and confuses the audience.  

The Gettysburg address by former US president Abraham Lincoln is a good example of this.

If the topic you choose to speak about is highly emotional, then the repetition can be highly frequent. It gives a dramatic effect to the speech. But if the topic is informational then the repetition if used frequently can create awkwardness.

For highly informative speeches you can use phrases or words which convey the same meaning.  The audience is likely to respond optimistically with such an approach. In such a way the audience has an impression that you have thoroughly researched and studied the topic. 

Use repetition with objects with which the audience is familiar. Studies, as mentioned above, show when you associate new information with already known information the chances of remembering it increases. 

That is how the audience will remember your speech or the information you shared even when the speech is over. 

An example could be: 

“Almost nothing was more annoying than having our wasted time wasted on something not worth wasting” Joshua Ferris (Then We Came to the End)

This seems to be the story of every frustrated employee.  

History says when anything is presented in a group of three it looks or sounds or is sensed complete. Did you notice what I did there?

Let’s look at some examples: 

The three wise monkeys: “see no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil”

Fire safety slogan: stop, drop and roll 

Rights in US declaration of independence: Life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness.

Figures of speech that use repetition: 

Numerous figures of speech use repetition according to sound, words, phrases, etc. You can understand each of them with examples and that will give you an understanding about using them in a grammatically correct way. 

Things to Keep in Mind While you are Using Repetition

1. don’t cram up.

When you use repetition without proper intervals or jam up information, it gets difficult for the audience to process that information. The human brain is designed to take simple information at frequent intervals.

2. Don’t Use Words Lazily

When you repeat words and phrases over and over again without any purpose or definite meaning attached to them, the audience becomes disinterested. That happens because they think you do not have a better choice of words.

For example: 

I went to the garden, she was still there in the garden, and I came back home from the garden. 

3. Don’t Use Repetition More than 5-6 Times

Studies have shown moderate to low levels of repetition can serve as a great persuasive tactic. But when it is used more than that it serves the opposite purpose. Studies say the audience seems to disagree with arguments when repetition is used excessively.  

Nobody is born with the skills of King Martin Luther or Barack Obama. They practiced for hours to improve their oratory skills. So don’t be afraid of failures or mistakes, execute and make use of every opportunity you have. Learning from your failures will make you a good orator. 

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Repetition Definition

What is repetition? Here’s a quick and simple definition:

Repetition is a literary device in which a word or phrase is repeated two or more times. Repetition occurs in so many different forms that it is usually not thought of as a single figure of speech . Instead, it's more useful to think of repetition as being a category that covers a number of more specific figures of speech, all of which use repetition in different ways.

Some additional key details about repetition:

• Figures of speech that employ repetition usually repeat single words or short phrases, but some can involve the repetition of sounds while others might involve the repetition of entire sentences.
• Repeating information has been scientifically shown to increase the likelihood of changing people's minds. The persuasive power of repetition is one of the reasons it is so common.

Repetition Pronunciation

Here's how to pronounce repetition: rep-ih- tish -un

Figures of Speech that Use Repetition

There are many different figures of speech that use repetition, all in different ways. These figures of speech can vary in the things they repeat (sounds, words, phrases, etc.) as well as in the specific order in which the repeated words appear in clauses or sentences. The most common repetition figures of speech are:

• Alliteration : The repetition of the same sound in a group of words, such as the “b” sound in: “Bob brought the box of bricks to the basement.” The repeating sound must occur either in the first letter of each word, or in the stressed syllables of those words.
• Anadiplosis : Occurs when a word or group of words located at the end of one clause or sentence is repeated at or near the beginning of the following clause or sentence. This line from the novelist Henry James is an example of anadiplosis: "Our doubt is our passion, and our passion is our task."
• Anaphora : The repetition of words at the beginning of successive clauses, phrases, or sentences. For example, Martin Luther King's famous "I Have a Dream" speech contains anaphora: "So let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania..."
• Antanaclasis : A repetition of a word or phrase in which the that word or phrase means something different each time it appears. A famous example of antanaclasis is Benjamin Franklin's statement that: "We must all hang together, or assuredly we shall all hang separately."
• Antimetabole : The repetition of a phrase, but with the order of words reversed. John F. Kennedy's words, "Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country," is a famous example of antimetabole.
• Assonance : The repetition of the same vowel sound within a group of words. An example of assonance is the repetition of the "oo" sound in: "Who gave Newt and Scooter the blue tuna? It was too soon!"
• Consonance : The repetition of the same consonant sound within a group of words. An example of consonance is the repetition of the "f" sound in: "Traffic figures to be tough on July Fourth."
• Diacope : The repetition of a word or phrase with a small number of intervening words. The repetition of "unhappy" in the first line of Anna Karenina is an example of diacope, "Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way," is an example of diacope.
• Epanalepsis : Occurs when the beginning of a clause or sentence is repeated at the end of that same clause or sentence, with words intervening. The sentence "The king is dead, long live the king!" is an example of epanalepsis.
• Epistrophe : In epistrophe, one or more words repeat at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences. In his Gettysburg Address, Abraham Lincoln urged the American people to ensure that, "government of the people, by the people, for the people,shall not perish from the earth." His repetition of "the people" at the end of each clause is an example of epistrophe.
• Epizeuxis : The repetition of a word or phrase in immediate succession, with no words in between. When the character Kurtz in Heart of Darkness says, "The horror, the horror," that's an example of epizeuxis.
• Polysyndeton : Occurs when coordinating conjunctions—words such as "and," "or," and "but" that join other words or clauses in a sentence into relationships of equal importance—are used several times in close succession, particularly where conjunctions would normally not be present at all. For instance, the following sentence contains polysyndeton: "We ate roast beef and squash and biscuits and potatoes and corn and cheese and cherry pie."
• Polyptoton : Occurs when words that share the same root, but are not identical, are repeated. The question, "Who shall watch the watchmen?" is an example of polyptoton.
• Refrain : In a poem or song, a refrain is a line or group of lines that regularly repeat, usually at the end of a stanza in a poem or at the end of a verse in a song. In a speech or other prose writing, a refrain can refer to any phrase that repeats a number of times within the text.

Repetition Examples

Here are additional examples from literature for each of the most common figures of speech that use repetition.

Repetition Example from Literature: Alliteration

This example from lines 5-6 of the Prologue of Romeo and Juliet has two sets of alliteration, one with “f” sounds and one with “l” sounds.

F rom f orth the f atal l oins of these two f oes A pair of star-cross'd l overs take their l ife;

Repetition Example from Literature: Anadiplosis

In Lolita , the morally bankrupt Humbert Humbert defends his relationship to the young Lolita to an imagined jury. Here, he reveals that what he presented as another person's letter was actually written by him, ostensibly from memory.

What I present here is what I remember of the letter , and what I remember of the letter I remember verbatim (including that awful French.)

A tactic of his deceit involves convincing the jury of the improbable—that is, that he remembers a letter verbatim—and his use of anadiplosis as a persuasion tool reflects both his charming and incredibly slimy personality.

Repetition Example from Literature: Anaphora

In this short excerpt from The Great Gatsby , F. Scott Fitzgerald uses anaphora in a description of the apartment that Tom Buchanan keeps as a secret location for his extramarital affair. The anaphora emphasizes the smallness of this gaudy apartment, which also reflects the pettiness of the affair.

The apartment was on the top floor— a small living-room, a small dining-room, a small bedroom, and a bath.

Repetition Example from Literature: Antanaclasis

Shakespeare often used antanaclasis in his plays. For instance, in Act V of Henry V a character named Pistol promises to sneak off to England and there engage in crime:

To England will I steal, and there I'll steal.

Repetition Example from Literature: Antimetabole

The dashing trio's rallying cry in The Three Musketeers is a famous example of antimetabole. The saying has remained in circulation until today—in part because antimetabole makes it so memorable.

All for one and one for all !

Repetition Example from Literature: Assonance

In these lines from Book XII of Lattimore's translation of Homer's Iliad the assonance helps reinforce the lulling effect of the winds' sleep:

"When Zeus ... st i lls the w i nds asleep i n the sol i d dr i ft ..."

Repetition Example from Literature: Consonance

In this line from chapter 9 of Moby-Dick , the " s " and " h " sounds mirror the activity of the scene—singing—by making the prose musical.

Nearly all joined in s inging thi s h ymn, which s welled h igh about the h owling of the s torm ...

Repetition Example from Literature: Diacope

In Othello , just before he kills Desdemona in Act V, Othello utters this line that contains the repetition of diacope:

Put out the light , and then put out the light .

It's worth noting that Othello's line here is also an example of antanaclasis, as he is using "put out the light" to mean two different things.

Repetition Example from Literature: Epanalepsis

In this excerpt from a speech by Ralph Nader, the repetition of "minimum wage" underscores its role as a major concern in both his speech and his political priorities.

A minimum wage that is not a livable wage can never be a minimum wage .

Repetition Example from Literature: Epistrophe

In this example from Chapter 28 of the The Grapes of Wrath , Steinbeck's use of epistrophe in Tom Joad's farewell dialog with his mother emphasizes Joad's desire both to provide her with some reassurance and continue to be there for her:

Wherever they's a fight so hungry people can eat, I'll be there . Wherever they's a cop beaten' up a guy, I'll be there ...I'll be in the way guys yell when they're mad an'—I'll be in the way kids laugh when they're hungry and they know supper's ready. An' when our folk eat the stuff they raise n'live in the houses they build—why, I'll be there .

Joad's repetition of his presence wherever poor people need help also emphasizes his dedication to the cause he believes in, and turns him into an almost mythological or godly presence who is always there to protect and support the downtrodden.

Repetition Example from Literature: Epizeuxis

One of the most famous examples of epizeuxis occurs in Hamlet , as Hamlet is speaking to (and mocking) Polonious in Act 2. When Polonius asks Hamlet what he's reading, Hamlet responds:

Words, words, words.

Here Hamlet both mocks what he sees as the stupidity of Polonious's question, but at the same time the repetition communicates a kind of awful weariness, in which Hamlet can't bring himself to care about the meaning of the words.

Repetition Example from Literature: Polysyndeton

Bob Dylan won the nobel prize for literature for the genius of his lyrics. His song "Masters of War" shows how polysyndeton can be used to build a specific emotion:

" And I hope that you die And your death'll come soon I will follow your casket In the pale afternoon And I'll watch while you're lowered Down to your deathbed And I'll stand over your grave 'Til I'm sure that you're dead"

Anger and disgust are palpable in the final lines of this song of protest against the politicians behind the Vietnam War. By using polysyndeton, Dylan continues to add phrase after phrase, far beyond where listeners might expect him to stop, to fully communicate the depth of his fury and his hatred for the politicians he calls the "masters of war."

Repetition Example from Literature: Polyptoton

In Shakespeare's play Troilus and Cressida , the character Troilus uses polyptoton three times in two lines. In all three cases, the repetition emphasizes the might of the Greeks:

The Greeks are strong and skillful to their strength , Fierce to their skill and to their fierceness valiant;

Repetition Example from Literature: Refrain

These are the first two stanzas of a song from Shakespeare's play, Twelfth Night . This poem actually contains a "double refrain," because it has two lines that repeat as refrains in each stanza.

When that I was and a little tiny boy, With hey, ho, the wind and the rain, A foolish thing was but a toy, For the rain it raineth every day. But when I came to man’s estate, With hey, ho, the wind and the rain, ’Gainst knaves and thieves men shut their gate, For the rain it raineth every day.

Why Do Writers Use Repetition?

Given the large number of figures of speech that use repetition, it stands to reason that writers use repetition for all sorts of different reasons. That said, it's possible to describe some general reasons that writers might choose to use repetition:

• Emphasis: The repetition of a word or phrase naturally serves to highlight it's importance within a text and as a thing or idea.
• Persuasion: Scientific studies have shown that simply repeating something is one of the most effective ways to convince people of its truth. Figures of speech that use repetition are common in speeches for just this reason.
• Contrast: Sometimes by repeating the same thing in slightly different contexts it is possible to illuminate contrasts. For instance, in the sentence, "What you own ends up owning you," the repetition of "own" highlights the contrast or twist in the sentence, which argues that the things you buy to improve your life can end up limiting and influencing your life choices.
• Rhythm: Repetition creates a natural rhythm, like beats of a drum, within a sentence. Repetition, then, is not just valuable for how it can allow a writer to control the meaning of sentences. It also can help a writer to affect the feel of those sentences.

Other Helpful Repetition Resources

• Wikipedia entry on repetition : A pretty basic discussion of repetition as a device.
• Youtube video on repetition : This video covers the basics of repetition.

• PDFs for all 136 Lit Terms we cover
• Downloads of 1908 LitCharts Lit Guides
• Teacher Editions for every Lit Guide
• Explanations and citation info for 40,181 quotes across 1908 books
• Downloadable (PDF) line-by-line translations of every Shakespeare play
• Alliteration
• Anadiplosis
• Antanaclasis
• Antimetabole
• Epanalepsis
• Figure of Speech
• Polysyndeton
• Protagonist
• Rising Action
• Rhetorical Question
• Static Character
• Point of View
• Climax (Plot)
• Rhyme Scheme
• Internal Rhyme
• Personification
• Parallelism
• Extended Metaphor

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My Child Is Repeating Words While Speaking

Home » Parent Press » Parenting Hacks » Speech & Language » My Child Is Repeating Words While Speaking

Have you ever noticed your child repeating words when speaking and wondered, is this norma l? You’re not alone! In fact, many parents have the same question. This article will help you understand why your child might be engaging in this behavior and how it’s connected to their development. So let’s dive in together!

Table of Contents

Repeating Words When Speaking: Echolalia

Echolalia is a term used to describe the act of repeating words or phrases spoken by others – kind of like a verbal “echo.” It’s important to know that echolalia can be a natural part of language development for some children. While for others, it may indicate an underlying issue.

When we think about a child repeating words when speaking, it might be tempting to assume they do not really understand what they’re saying. But that isn’t always true! Here are two common misconceptions about echolalia:

Misconception 1: Echolalia Means My Child Doesn’t Understand Language

While it’s true that some kids with echolalia may struggle with comprehension, many actually do understand what they’re echoing! They might just need extra time or help to organize their thoughts before responding.

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Misconception 2: Only Children With Autism Engage in Echolalia

Although echolalia can be more prevalent in children on the autism spectrum, other neurodiverse and neurotypical kids may also experience this phenomenon as part of their language development journey.

In upcoming sections, we’ll explore reasons behind why children repeat words when speaking and offer tips on how parents can support them through this process.

Reasons for Repeating Words While Speaking in Autism

When it comes to children with autism, language development may not follow the traditional milestones we expect. For some autistic kids, echolalia serves as a stepping stone to build their communication skills – so when your child is repeating words when speaking, they might be practicing new sounds or phrases!

Children on the autism spectrum often face unique social communication challenges that can make connecting with others difficult. Echolalia could be their way of attempting to join a conversation or imitate social interactions they’ve observed – even if it doesn’t always come across as expected.

Autistic children may also experience sensory processing differences that lead them to seek comfort through repetitive behaviors like echolalia. When your child repeats words when speaking, it could be a coping skill that helps them feel more in control of their environment and regulate overwhelming emotions.

Types of Echolalia

Immediate echolalia.

Immediate echolalia occurs when a child repeats words or phrases right after hearing them – think of it as an instant echo! For example, you might ask your child, “Do you want juice?” only for them to respond with “Want juice,” rather than answering “yes” or “no.”

There are both benefits and challenges associated with immediate echolalia. On the one hand, this type of repetition can help kids practice language skills and eventually learn how to use these phrases independently. However, immediate echolalia may also create misunderstandings if others assume the child isn’t grasping the meaning behind what they’re echoing.

Delayed Echolalia

Delayed echolalia involves repeating words or phrases heard in the past, sometimes hours or even days after they were first spoken. For instance, your child might suddenly recite lines from their favorite TV show while playing outside.

Delayed echolalia can offer some benefits, like aiding memory recall and providing a sense of familiarity for children in new situations. However, it can also be challenging when the echoed phrases don’t fit the current context or conversation – making it harder for others to understand what the child is trying to communicate.

Treating Echolalia

If your child’s echolalia is affecting their ability to communicate effectively, a speech therapist can be an invaluable resource. These professionals specialize in language development and can work with your child to improve their communication skills while addressing any underlying challenges. There are several evidence-based approaches that speech therapists might use to support children who engage in echolalia, including:

• Functional Communication Training (FCT) – In FCT, the focus is on teaching kids to use more purposeful and meaningful ways of communicating instead of simply echoing words or phrases.
• Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) – This visual approach uses pictures to help children express themselves more effectively when they struggle with verbal communication.
• Social Stories – Developed specifically for individuals on the autism spectrum, social stories provide clear guidance on expected behaviors and social norms through simple narratives and visuals.

Tips for Parents if Their Child is Repeating Words When Speaking

Encourage meaningful communication with your child.

• Prompt them to answer questions or participate in conversations.
• Provide wait time to allow them to process language.
• Model appropriate language usage.

Truly, as a parent, you play an important role in fostering meaningful communication! Ask open-ended questions that encourage conversation, and give your child ample time before expecting a response—patience goes a long way!

Create a Supportive Environment

• Offer visual cues , such as picture schedules or social stories, as needed.
• Ensure your home is sensory-friendly.

Visual supports can make understanding expectations much easier for kids who struggle with verbal instructions alone – plus, they’re great tools for promoting independence! Aim also for creating calm spaces where sensory distractions are minimized so that focusing on communication becomes easier.

Work Closely With Professionals

• Collaborate on goals related to language development.
• Attend sessions with your child’s speech therapist, if possible.

Teaming up with professionals can make a world of difference in your child’s progress. Don’t hesitate to ask questions and share your insights – you know your child best!

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The Word Lab and AAC Talker apps provide a simple, engaging platform for your child to learn core words and become a functional communicator right from the start. Customize the experience with a voice that suits them, and watch as their confidence grows in expressing their thoughts and needs!

But we don’t stop there. Our Balloon App helps build the skills needed to use AAC by engaging your child with fun, interactive “pop the balloons” exercises. It’s a game-changer for kids who need that extra boost in communication.

To sum up a child repeating words when speaking can be a natural part of language development. Or it can be an indicator of underlying challenges, especially for children with autism. It’s important to recognize the reasons behind this behavior and explore different types of echolalia to better understand your child’s needs. Seeking professional support from speech therapists and utilizing evidence-based therapy approaches can make a legitimate difference in your child’s communication journey. And finally, don’t forget about Goally’s digital tools ! These resources are specifically designed to foster independence, routines, and life skills for children with ADHD and Autism—empowering them as they navigate through the fascinating world of language and communication.

This post was originally published on 03/29/2023. It was updated on 11/22/2023.

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The Method Behind Trump’s Mistruths

A close examination of every public word from the former president during a crucial week of his campaign.

By Angelo Fichera

Since the beginning of his political career, Donald J. Trump has misled, mischaracterized, dissembled, exaggerated and, at times, flatly lied. His flawed statements about the border, the economy, the coronavirus pandemic and the 2020 election have formed the bedrock of his 2024 campaign.

Though his penchant for bending the truth, sometimes to the breaking point, has been well documented , a close study of how he does so reveals a kind of technique to his dishonesty: a set of recurring rhetorical moves with which Mr. Trump fuels his popularity among his supporters.

In the week starting with Mr. Trump’s victory speech in Iowa through his win in the New Hampshire primary — the contests that put him on the path to becoming his party’s nominee for the third consecutive time — The New York Times analyzed all of his public statements, including speeches, interviews and social media posts.

His words focused heavily on attacking his political rivals, self-aggrandizing and stoking fear to make his case for 2024. In doing so, Mr. Trump often relied on repeated falsehoods and half-truths. He has yet to deviate from this approach in the general election.

Here’s a look at how he does it.

He grossly distorts his opponents’ records and proposals to make them sound unreasonable.

Trump Presidential Campaign via C-span

Atkinson, N.H., rally, Jan. 16, 2024

While Joe Biden is pushing the largest tax hike in American history – you know, he wants to quadruple your taxes .

President Biden has not proposed quadrupling taxes. In fact, he has consistently vowed not to raise taxes on anyone earning less than $400,000.

Sean Hannity interview, Jan. 22, 2024

I mean, what he’s doing with energy with an all-electric mandate, where you won’t be able to buy any other form of car in a very short period of time .

Mr. Biden has not implemented an electric car mandate. The administration has announced rules that would limit tailpipe emissions from cars and light trucks, effectively requiring automakers to sell more electric vehicles and hybrids. It doesn’t ban gas cars.

Truth Social, Jan. 16, 2024

Nikki Haley, who hung in against Mr. Trump until Super Tuesday, did not raise the issue of the gas tax in South Carolina and rebuffed calls to do so as a stand-alone measure. She said in 2015 that she would support raising the gas tax — by 10 cents, over three years — only if lawmakers agreed to reduce the income tax rate to 5 percent, from 7 percent, and made changes to the state’s Department of Transportation.

He exaggerates and twists the facts to make his record sound better than it is.

Newsmax via Youtube

Newsmax interview, Jan. 21, 2024

And think of it, for four years we had no terror problem .

There were in fact terrorist attacks in the United States during the Trump administration. In 2017, to name one, a native of Uzbekistan plowed a pickup truck down a bike path in Manhattan, killing eight people. The Justice Department said the driver, Sayfullo Saipov, carried out the terrorist attack in the name of ISIS.

We had the best economy. We had no inflation .

The economy wasn’t the “best” under Mr. Trump. Even setting aside Covid, the average growth rate was lower under Mr. Trump than under former Presidents Bill Clinton and Ronald Reagan. And inflation was low , but it wasn’t nonexistent.

Hannity interview, Jan. 18, 2024

We had gasoline at $1. 87 .

The national average price of a gallon of gasoline dropped to that price during one week amid the Covid lockdown in 2020, when demand was extraordinarily low. But when Mr. Trump left office in January 2021, the national average was $2.42.

He relies on both well-worn and fresh claims of election rigging to suggest he can lose only if his opponents cheat.

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Portsmouth, N.H., rally, Jan. 17, 2024

The radical-left Democrats rigged the presidential election of 2020, and we’re not going to allow them to rig the presidential election of 2024 .

The 2020 election was not rigged. Mr. Trump has uttered hundreds of inaccurate claims to support the false claim that it was — mischaracterizing voting processes, citing baseless cases of supposed fraud and sharing conspiracy theories about voting machines.

As you know, Nikki Haley in particular is counting on the Democrats and liberals to infiltrate your Republican primary .

Registered Democrats were not able to vote in the New Hampshire Republican primary. The contest was open to registered Republicans and independents. Any Democrats who switched parties or re-registered as independents to vote in the Republican primary — and some did — had to do so before an October 2023 deadline, months before the contest.

Laconia, N.H., rally, Jan. 22, 2024

The Republicans went up to vote and none of the machines were working. This was not good. But of course, they said, Well, this was just the way it goes. You know, thousands of people were not allowed to vote. But she, uh, she’s a great person, and she’s going to be a U.S. senator very soon. Kari Lake .

The claim that “thousands” of voters were blocked from casting their ballots in Arizona’s 2022 gubernatorial election — at the expense of Mr. Trump’s preferred candidate, Ms. Lake — is false. There were some glitches in Maricopa County , but voters were largely able to cast their votes.

He has turned his criminal cases into a rallying cry, baselessly asserting that he is being persecuted by his successor.

Fox interview with Bret Baier, Jan. 20, 2024

These are all Biden indictments .

Mr. Trump has not offered any evidence for his contention that Mr. Biden has orchestrated the criminal charges against him. Two of his four cases were brought at the state level. At the federal level, Mr. Trump’s criminal charges — in relation to his effort to remain in power after losing the 2020 election and, separately, over his retention of classified documents after leaving office — are handled by a special counsel and were put before grand juries.

I’ve been indicted more than Alphonse Capone .

Mr. Trump has been indicted four times. Mr. Capone was indicted at least six times, according to A. Brad Schwartz, a historian and biographer of the infamous gangster.

He makes unverifiable claims about what the world would have been like had he secured a second term.

Concord, N.H., rally, Jan. 19, 2024

We wouldn’t have Russia attacking Ukraine. We wouldn’t have inflation. We wouldn’t have the attack on Israel .

There is no evidence that these events wouldn’t or couldn’t have occurred had the 2020 election outcome been different — and it’s impossible to prove. But experts say the context surrounding those events render his claims highly questionable .

China had a crash yesterday in their stock market. You know why? Because I won Iowa .

There is no proof that China’s stock market woes were related to Mr. Trump’s victory in the Iowa caucuses.

He describes the United States as a nation in ruins.

We are a nation that screens its citizens viciously at all ports. But if you are an illegal alien, you’re allowed to flow through our country with no check whatsoever .

Undocumented immigrants caught crossing the border are processed, whether they are returned to other countries or later released into the country awaiting future proceedings.

Manchester, N.H., rally, Jan. 20, 2024

And now we are a nation that wants to make our revered and very powerful Army tanks – the best anywhere in the world – all electric .

There are no plans to make Army tanks all electric.

We are a third-world nation .

This is, of course, false.

We are no longer energy independent or energy dominant as we were just a few short years ago .

Energy production — including oil and gas — has boomed under President Biden. Under both administrations, the United States has been a net exporter of petroleum and natural gas, but it still relies on imports.

I don’t know what it is with Catholics, but the F.B.I. is going after Catholics .

Mr. Trump’s claim is most likely based on an F.B.I. field office memo that warned of the potential for extremism among adherents of a “radical-traditionalist Catholic” ideology. But the memo was withdrawn and repeatedly condemned by the nation’s top law enforcement officials.

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Our Coverage of the 2024 Election

Presidential Race

The start of Donald Trump’s criminal trial in Manhattan  thrusts the presidential race into uncharted territory and Trump back into the public spotlight in ways he hasn’t been since he left the White House.

An average of recent surveys, including a new poll  by The New York Times and Siena College, shows that President Biden is inching closer to Trump, Nate Cohn writes .

A group of major news organizations issued an unusual joint statement urging Biden and Trump to commit to participating in televised debates  before Election Day.

Vice-Presidential Calculations: As Trump sifts through potential running mates, he has peppered some advisers and associates with a direct question: Which Republican could best help him raise money ?

Embracing the Jan. 6 Rioters:  Trump initially disavowed the attack on the Capitol, but he is now making it a centerpiece of his campaign .

Mobilizing the Left: Amid the war in Gaza, the pro-Palestinian movement has grown into a powerful, if disjointed, political force in the United States. Democrats are feeling the pressure .

On a Collision Course:  As president, Trump never trusted the intelligence community. His antipathy has only grown since he left office, with potentially serious implications should he return to power .

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