teaching style case study

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• v.16(1); 2015 May

Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains †

Associated data.

• Appendix 1: Example assessment questions used to assess the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning
• Appendix 2: Student learning gains were assessed using a modified version of the SALG course evaluation tool

Following years of widespread use in business and medical education, the case study teaching method is becoming an increasingly common teaching strategy in science education. However, the current body of research provides limited evidence that the use of published case studies effectively promotes the fulfillment of specific learning objectives integral to many biology courses. This study tested the hypothesis that case studies are more effective than classroom discussions and textbook reading at promoting learning of key biological concepts, development of written and oral communication skills, and comprehension of the relevance of biological concepts to everyday life. This study also tested the hypothesis that case studies produced by the instructor of a course are more effective at promoting learning than those produced by unaffiliated instructors. Additionally, performance on quantitative learning assessments and student perceptions of learning gains were analyzed to determine whether reported perceptions of learning gains accurately reflect academic performance. The results reported here suggest that case studies, regardless of the source, are significantly more effective than other methods of content delivery at increasing performance on examination questions related to chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication. This finding was positively correlated to increased student perceptions of learning gains associated with oral and written communication skills and the ability to recognize connections between biological concepts and other aspects of life. Based on these findings, case studies should be considered as a preferred method for teaching about a variety of concepts in science courses.

INTRODUCTION

The case study teaching method is a highly adaptable style of teaching that involves problem-based learning and promotes the development of analytical skills ( 8 ). By presenting content in the format of a narrative accompanied by questions and activities that promote group discussion and solving of complex problems, case studies facilitate development of the higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive learning; moving beyond recall of knowledge to analysis, evaluation, and application ( 1 , 9 ). Similarly, case studies facilitate interdisciplinary learning and can be used to highlight connections between specific academic topics and real-world societal issues and applications ( 3 , 9 ). This has been reported to increase student motivation to participate in class activities, which promotes learning and increases performance on assessments ( 7 , 16 , 19 , 23 ). For these reasons, case-based teaching has been widely used in business and medical education for many years ( 4 , 11 , 12 , 14 ). Although case studies were considered a novel method of science education just 20 years ago, the case study teaching method has gained popularity in recent years among an array of scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, nursing, and psychology ( 5 – 7 , 9 , 11 , 13 , 15 – 17 , 21 , 22 , 24 ).

Although there is now a substantive and growing body of literature describing how to develop and use case studies in science teaching, current research on the effectiveness of case study teaching at meeting specific learning objectives is of limited scope and depth. Studies have shown that working in groups during completion of case studies significantly improves student perceptions of learning and may increase performance on assessment questions, and that the use of clickers can increase student engagement in case study activities, particularly among non-science majors, women, and freshmen ( 7 , 21 , 22 ). Case study teaching has been shown to improve exam performance in an anatomy and physiology course, increasing the mean score across all exams given in a two-semester sequence from 66% to 73% ( 5 ). Use of case studies was also shown to improve students’ ability to synthesize complex analytical questions about the real-world issues associated with a scientific topic ( 6 ). In a high school chemistry course, it was demonstrated that the case study teaching method produces significant increases in self-reported control of learning, task value, and self-efficacy for learning and performance ( 24 ). This effect on student motivation is important because enhanced motivation for learning activities has been shown to promote student engagement and academic performance ( 19 , 24 ). Additionally, faculty from a number of institutions have reported that using case studies promotes critical thinking, learning, and participation among students, especially in terms of the ability to view an issue from multiple perspectives and to grasp the practical application of core course concepts ( 23 ).

Despite what is known about the effectiveness of case studies in science education, questions remain about the functionality of the case study teaching method at promoting specific learning objectives that are important to many undergraduate biology courses. A recent survey of teachers who use case studies found that the topics most often covered in general biology courses included genetics and heredity, cell structure, cells and energy, chemistry of life, and cell cycle and cancer, suggesting that these topics should be of particular interest in studies that examine the effectiveness of the case study teaching method ( 8 ). However, the existing body of literature lacks direct evidence that the case study method is an effective tool for teaching about this collection of important topics in biology courses. Further, the extent to which case study teaching promotes development of science communication skills and the ability to understand the connections between biological concepts and everyday life has not been examined, yet these are core learning objectives shared by a variety of science courses. Although many instructors have produced case studies for use in their own classrooms, the production of novel case studies is time-consuming and requires skills that not all instructors have perfected. It is therefore important to determine whether case studies published by instructors who are unaffiliated with a particular course can be used effectively and obviate the need for each instructor to develop new case studies for their own courses. The results reported herein indicate that teaching with case studies results in significantly higher performance on examination questions about chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication than that achieved by class discussions and textbook reading for topics of similar complexity. Case studies also increased overall student perceptions of learning gains and perceptions of learning gains specifically related to written and oral communication skills and the ability to grasp connections between scientific topics and their real-world applications. The effectiveness of the case study teaching method at increasing academic performance was not correlated to whether the case study used was authored by the instructor of the course or by an unaffiliated instructor. These findings support increased use of published case studies in the teaching of a variety of biological concepts and learning objectives.

Student population

This study was conducted at Kingsborough Community College, which is part of the City University of New York system, located in Brooklyn, New York. Kingsborough Community College has a diverse population of approximately 19,000 undergraduate students. The student population included in this study was enrolled in the first semester of a two-semester sequence of general (introductory) biology for biology majors during the spring, winter, or summer semester of 2014. A total of 63 students completed the course during this time period; 56 students consented to the inclusion of their data in the study. Of the students included in the study, 23 (41%) were male and 33 (59%) were female; 40 (71%) were registered as college freshmen and 16 (29%) were registered as college sophomores. To normalize participant groups, the same student population pooled from three classes taught by the same instructor was used to assess both experimental and control teaching methods.

Course material

The four biological concepts assessed during this study (chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication) were selected as topics for studying the effectiveness of case study teaching because they were the key concepts addressed by this particular course that were most likely to be taught in a number of other courses, including biology courses for both majors and nonmajors at outside institutions. At the start of this study, relevant existing case studies were freely available from the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS) to address mitosis and meiosis and DNA structure and replication, but published case studies that appropriately addressed chemical bonds and osmosis and diffusion were not available. Therefore, original case studies that addressed the latter two topics were produced as part of this study, and case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors and published by the NCCSTS were used to address the former two topics. By the conclusion of this study, all four case studies had been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication by the NCCSTS ( http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/ ). Four of the remaining core topics covered in this course (macromolecules, photosynthesis, genetic inheritance, and translation) were selected as control lessons to provide control assessment data.

To minimize extraneous variation, control topics and assessments were carefully matched in complexity, format, and number with case studies, and an equal amount of class time was allocated for each case study and the corresponding control lesson. Instruction related to control lessons was delivered using minimal slide-based lectures, with emphasis on textbook reading assignments accompanied by worksheets completed by students in and out of the classroom, and small and large group discussion of key points. Completion of activities and discussion related to all case studies and control topics that were analyzed was conducted in the classroom, with the exception of the take-home portion of the osmosis and diffusion case study.

Data collection and analysis

This study was performed in accordance with a protocol approved by the Kingsborough Community College Human Research Protection Program and the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the City University of New York (CUNY IRB reference 539938-1; KCC IRB application #: KCC 13-12-126-0138). Assessment scores were collected from regularly scheduled course examinations. For each case study, control questions were included on the same examination that were similar in number, format, point value, and difficulty level, but related to a different topic covered in the course that was of similar complexity. Complexity and difficulty of both case study and control questions were evaluated using experiential data from previous iterations of the course; the Bloom’s taxonomy designation and amount of material covered by each question, as well as the average score on similar questions achieved by students in previous iterations of the course was considered in determining appropriate controls. All assessment questions were scored using a standardized, pre-determined rubric. Student perceptions of learning gains were assessed using a modified version of the Student Assessment of Learning Gains (SALG) course evaluation tool ( http://www.salgsite.org ), distributed in hardcopy and completed anonymously during the last week of the course. Students were presented with a consent form to opt-in to having their data included in the data analysis. After the course had concluded and final course grades had been posted, data from consenting students were pooled in a database and identifying information was removed prior to analysis. Statistical analysis of data was conducted using the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance and calculation of the R 2 coefficient of determination.

Teaching with case studies improves performance on learning assessments, independent of case study origin

To evaluate the effectiveness of the case study teaching method at promoting learning, student performance on examination questions related to material covered by case studies was compared with performance on questions that covered material addressed through classroom discussions and textbook reading. The latter questions served as control items; assessment items for each case study were compared with control items that were of similar format, difficulty, and point value ( Appendix 1 ). Each of the four case studies resulted in an increase in examination performance compared with control questions that was statistically significant, with an average difference of 18% ( Fig. 1 ). The mean score on case study-related questions was 73% for the chemical bonds case study, 79% for osmosis and diffusion, 76% for mitosis and meiosis, and 70% for DNA structure and replication ( Fig. 1 ). The mean score for non-case study-related control questions was 60%, 54%, 60%, and 52%, respectively ( Fig. 1 ). In terms of examination performance, no significant difference between case studies produced by the instructor of the course (chemical bonds and osmosis and diffusion) and those produced by unaffiliated instructors (mitosis and meiosis and DNA structure and replication) was indicated by the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance. However, the 25% difference between the mean score on questions related to the osmosis and diffusion case study and the mean score on the paired control questions was notably higher than the 13–18% differences observed for the other case studies ( Fig. 1 ).

Case study teaching method increases student performance on examination questions. Mean score on a set of examination questions related to lessons covered by case studies (black bars) and paired control questions of similar format and difficulty about an unrelated topic (white bars). Chemical bonds, n = 54; Osmosis and diffusion, n = 54; Mitosis and meiosis, n = 51; DNA structure and replication, n = 50. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean (SEM). Asterisk indicates p < 0.05.

Case study teaching increases student perception of learning gains related to core course objectives

Student learning gains were assessed using a modified version of the SALG course evaluation tool ( Appendix 2 ). To determine whether completing case studies was more effective at increasing student perceptions of learning gains than completing textbook readings or participating in class discussions, perceptions of student learning gains for each were compared. In response to the question “Overall, how much did each of the following aspects of the class help your learning?” 82% of students responded that case studies helped a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 70% for participating in class discussions and 58% for completing textbook reading; only 4% of students responded that case studies helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” compared with 2% for class discussions and 22% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2A ). The differences in reported learning gains derived from the use of case studies compared with class discussion and textbook readings were statistically significant, while the difference in learning gains associated with class discussion compared with textbook reading was not statistically significant by a narrow margin ( p = 0.051).

The case study teaching method increases student perceptions of learning gains. Student perceptions of learning gains are indicated by plotting responses to the question “How much did each of the following activities: (A) Help your learning overall? (B) Improve your ability to communicate your knowledge of scientific concepts in writing? (C) Improve your ability to communicate your knowledge of scientific concepts orally? (D) Help you understand the connections between scientific concepts and other aspects of your everyday life?” Reponses are represented as follows: Helped a great amount (black bars); Helped a good amount (dark gray bars); Helped a moderate amount (medium gray bars); Helped a small amount (light gray bars); Provided no help (white bars). Asterisk indicates p < 0.05.

To elucidate the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning gains related to specific course learning objectives compared with class discussions and textbook reading, students were asked how much each of these methods of content delivery specifically helped improve skills that were integral to fulfilling three main course objectives. When students were asked how much each of the methods helped “improve your ability to communicate knowledge of scientific concepts in writing,” 81% of students responded that case studies help a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 63% for class discussions and 59% for textbook reading; only 6% of students responded that case studies helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” compared with 8% for class discussions and 21% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2B ). When the same question was posed about the ability to communicate orally, 81% of students responded that case studies help a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 68% for class discussions and 50% for textbook reading, while the respective response rates for helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” were 4%, 6%, and 25% ( Fig. 2C ). The differences in learning gains associated with both written and oral communication were statistically significant when completion of case studies was compared with either participation in class discussion or completion of textbook readings. Compared with textbook reading, class discussions led to a statistically significant increase in oral but not written communication skills.

Students were then asked how much each of the methods helped them “understand the connections between scientific concepts and other aspects of your everyday life.” A total of 79% of respondents declared that case studies help a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 70% for class discussions and 57% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2D ). Only 4% stated that case studies and class discussions helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” compared with 21% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2D ). Similar to overall learning gains, the use of case studies significantly increased the ability to understand the relevance of science to everyday life compared with class discussion and textbook readings, while the difference in learning gains associated with participation in class discussion compared with textbook reading was not statistically significant ( p = 0.054).

Student perceptions of learning gains resulting from case study teaching are positively correlated to increased performance on examinations, but independent of case study author

To test the hypothesis that case studies produced specifically for this course by the instructor were more effective at promoting learning gains than topically relevant case studies published by authors not associated with this course, perceptions of learning gains were compared for each of the case studies. For both of the case studies produced by the instructor of the course, 87% of students indicated that the case study provided a “good” or “great” amount of help to their learning, and 2% indicated that the case studies provided “little” or “no” help ( Table 1 ). In comparison, an average of 85% of students indicated that the case studies produced by an unaffiliated instructor provided a “good” or “great” amount of help to their learning, and 4% indicated that the case studies provided “little” or “no” help ( Table 1 ). The instructor-produced case studies yielded both the highest and lowest percentage of students reporting the highest level of learning gains (a “great” amount), while case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors yielded intermediate values. Therefore, it can be concluded that the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning gains is not significantly affected by whether or not the course instructor authored the case study.

Case studies positively affect student perceptions of learning gains about various biological topics.

Finally, to determine whether performance on examination questions accurately predicts student perceptions of learning gains, mean scores on examination questions related to case studies were compared with reported perceptions of learning gains for those case studies ( Fig. 3 ). The coefficient of determination (R 2 value) was 0.81, indicating a strong, but not definitive, positive correlation between perceptions of learning gains and performance on examinations, suggesting that student perception of learning gains is a valid tool for assessing the effectiveness of case studies ( Fig. 3 ). This correlation was independent of case study author.

Perception of learning gains but not author of case study is positively correlated to score on related examination questions. Percentage of students reporting that each specific case study provided “a great amount of help” to their learning was plotted against the point difference between mean score on examination questions related to that case study and mean score on paired control questions. Positive point differences indicate how much higher the mean scores on case study-related questions were than the mean scores on paired control questions. Black squares represent case studies produced by the instructor of the course; white squares represent case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors. R 2 value indicates the coefficient of determination.

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that teaching with case studies produced by the instructor of a course is more effective at promoting learning gains than using case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors. This study also tested the hypothesis that the case study teaching method is more effective than class discussions and textbook reading at promoting learning gains associated with four of the most commonly taught topics in undergraduate general biology courses: chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication. In addition to assessing content-based learning gains, development of written and oral communication skills and the ability to connect scientific topics with real-world applications was also assessed, because these skills were overarching learning objectives of this course, and classroom activities related to both case studies and control lessons were designed to provide opportunities for students to develop these skills. Finally, data were analyzed to determine whether performance on examination questions is positively correlated to student perceptions of learning gains resulting from case study teaching.

Compared with equivalent control questions about topics of similar complexity taught using class discussions and textbook readings, all four case studies produced statistically significant increases in the mean score on examination questions ( Fig. 1 ). This indicates that case studies are more effective than more commonly used, traditional methods of content delivery at promoting learning of a variety of core concepts covered in general biology courses. The average increase in score on each test item was equivalent to nearly two letter grades, which is substantial enough to elevate the average student performance on test items from the unsatisfactory/failing range to the satisfactory/passing range. The finding that there was no statistical difference between case studies in terms of performance on examination questions suggests that case studies are equally effective at promoting learning of disparate topics in biology. The observations that students did not perform significantly less well on the first case study presented (chemical bonds) compared with the other case studies and that performance on examination questions did not progressively increase with each successive case study suggests that the effectiveness of case studies is not directly related to the amount of experience students have using case studies. Furthermore, anecdotal evidence from previous semesters of this course suggests that, of the four topics addressed by cases in this study, DNA structure and function and osmosis and diffusion are the first and second most difficult for students to grasp. The lack of a statistical difference between case studies therefore suggests that the effectiveness of a case study at promoting learning gains is not directly proportional to the difficulty of the concept covered. However, the finding that use of the osmosis and diffusion case study resulted in the greatest increase in examination performance compared with control questions and also produced the highest student perceptions of learning gains is noteworthy and could be attributed to the fact that it was the only case study evaluated that included a hands-on experiment. Because the inclusion of a hands-on kinetic activity may synergistically enhance student engagement and learning and result in an even greater increase in learning gains than case studies that lack this type of activity, it is recommended that case studies that incorporate this type of activity be preferentially utilized.

Student perceptions of learning gains are strongly motivating factors for engagement in the classroom and academic performance, so it is important to assess the effect of any teaching method in this context ( 19 , 24 ). A modified version of the SALG course evaluation tool was used to assess student perceptions of learning gains because it has been previously validated as an efficacious tool ( Appendix 2 ) ( 20 ). Using the SALG tool, case study teaching was demonstrated to significantly increase student perceptions of overall learning gains compared with class discussions and textbook reading ( Fig. 2A ). Case studies were shown to be particularly useful for promoting perceived development of written and oral communication skills and for demonstrating connections between scientific topics and real-world issues and applications ( Figs. 2B–2D ). Further, student perceptions of “great” learning gains positively correlated with increased performance on examination questions, indicating that assessment of learning gains using the SALG tool is both valid and useful in this course setting ( Fig. 3 ). These findings also suggest that case study teaching could be used to increase student motivation and engagement in classroom activities and thus promote learning and performance on assessments. The finding that textbook reading yielded the lowest student perceptions of learning gains was not unexpected, since reading facilitates passive learning while the class discussions and case studies were both designed to promote active learning.

Importantly, there was no statistical difference in student performance on examinations attributed to the two case studies produced by the instructor of the course compared with the two case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors. The average difference between the two instructor-produced case studies and the two case studies published by unaffiliated instructors was only 3% in terms of both the average score on examination questions (76% compared with 73%) and the average increase in score compared with paired control items (14% compared with 17%) ( Fig. 1 ). Even when considering the inherent qualitative differences of course grades, these differences are negligible. Similarly, the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning gains was not significantly affected by the origin of the case study, as evidenced by similar percentages of students reporting “good” and “great” learning gains regardless of whether the case study was produced by the course instructor or an unaffiliated instructor ( Table 1 ).

The observation that case studies published by unaffiliated instructors are just as effective as those produced by the instructor of a course suggests that instructors can reasonably rely on the use of pre-published case studies relevant to their class rather than investing the considerable time and effort required to produce a novel case study. Case studies covering a wide range of topics in the sciences are available from a number of sources, and many of them are free access. The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS) database ( http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/ ) contains over 500 case studies that are freely available to instructors, and are accompanied by teaching notes that provide logistical advice and additional resources for implementing the case study, as well as a set of assessment questions with a password-protected answer key. Case study repositories are also maintained by BioQUEST Curriculum Consortium ( http://www.bioquest.org/icbl/cases.php ) and the Science Case Network ( http://sciencecasenet.org ); both are available for use by instructors from outside institutions.

It should be noted that all case studies used in this study were rigorously peer-reviewed and accepted for publication by the NCCSTS prior to the completion of this study ( 2 , 10 , 18 , 25 ); the conclusions of this study may not apply to case studies that were not developed in accordance with similar standards. Because case study teaching involves skills such as creative writing and management of dynamic group discussion in a way that is not commonly integrated into many other teaching methods, it is recommended that novice case study teachers seek training or guidance before writing their first case study or implementing the method. The lack of a difference observed in the use of case studies from different sources should be interpreted with some degree of caution since only two sources were represented in this study, and each by only two cases. Furthermore, in an educational setting, quantitative differences in test scores might produce meaningful qualitative differences in course grades even in the absence of a p value that is statistically significant. For example, there is a meaningful qualitative difference between test scores that result in an average grade of C− and test scores that result in an average grade of C+, even if there is no statistically significant difference between the two sets of scores.

In the future, it could be informative to confirm these findings using a larger cohort, by repeating the study at different institutions with different instructors, by evaluating different case studies, and by directly comparing the effectiveness of the case studying teaching method with additional forms of instruction, such as traditional chalkboard and slide-based lecturing, and laboratory-based activities. It may also be informative to examine whether demographic factors such as student age and gender modulate the effectiveness of the case study teaching method, and whether case studies work equally well for non-science majors taking a science course compared with those majoring in the subject. Since the topical material used in this study is often included in other classes in both high school and undergraduate education, such as cell biology, genetics, and chemistry, the conclusions of this study are directly applicable to a broad range of courses. Presently, it is recommended that the use of case studies in teaching undergraduate general biology and other science courses be expanded, especially for the teaching of capacious issues with real-world applications and in classes where development of written and oral communication skills are key objectives. The use of case studies that involve hands-on activities should be emphasized to maximize the benefit of this teaching method. Importantly, instructors can be confident in the use of pre-published case studies to promote learning, as there is no indication that the effectiveness of the case study teaching method is reliant on the production of novel, customized case studies for each course.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS

Acknowledgments.

This article benefitted from a President’s Faculty Innovation Grant, Kingsborough Community College. The author declares that there are no conflicts of interest.

† Supplemental materials available at http://jmbe.asm.org

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Teaching by the Case Method

• Preparing to Teach
• Leading in the Classroom
• Providing Assessment & Feedback
• Sample Class

Case Method in Practice

Chris Christensen described case method teaching as "the art of managing uncertainty"—a process in which the instructor serves as "planner, host, moderator, devil's advocate, fellow-student, and judge," all in search of solutions to real-world problems and challenges.

Unlike lectures, case method classes unfold without a detailed script. Successful instructors simultaneously manage content and process, and they must prepare rigorously for both. Case method teachers learn to balance planning and spontaneity. In practice, they pursue opportunities and "teachable moments" that emerge throughout the discussion, and deftly guide students toward discovery and learning on multiple levels. The principles and techniques are developed, Christensen says, "through collaboration and cooperation with friends and colleagues, and through self-observation and reflection."

This section of the Christensen Center website explores the Case Method in Practice along the following dimensions:

• Providing Assessment and Feedback

Each subsection provides perspectives and guidance through a written overview, supplemented by video commentary from experienced case method instructors. Where relevant, links are included to downloadable documents produced by the Christensen Center or Harvard Business School Publishing. References for further reading are provided as well.

An additional subsection, entitled Resources, appears at the end. It combines references from throughout the Case Method in Practice section with additional information on published materials and websites that may be of interest to prospective, new, and experienced case method instructors.

Note: We would like to thank Harvard Business School Publishing for permission to incorporate the video clips that appear in the Case Method in Practice section of our website. The clips are drawn from video excerpts included in Participant-Centered Learning and the Case Method: A DVD Case Teaching Tool (HBSP, 2003).

Christensen Center Tip Sheets

• Characteristics of Effective Case Method Teaching
• Elements of Effective Class Preparation
• Guidelines for Effective Observation of Case Instructors
• In-Class Assessment of Discussion-Based Teaching
• Questions for Class Discussions
• Teaching Quantitative Material
• Strategies and Tactics for Sensitive Topics

Curriculum Innovation

The case method has evolved so students may act as decision-makers in new engaging formats:

Game Simulations

Multimedia cases, ideo: human-centered service design.

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Case Method Teaching and Learning

What is the case method? How can the case method be used to engage learners? What are some strategies for getting started? This guide helps instructors answer these questions by providing an overview of the case method while highlighting learner-centered and digitally-enhanced approaches to teaching with the case method. The guide also offers tips to instructors as they get started with the case method and additional references and resources.

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What is case method teaching.

• Case Method at Columbia

Why use the Case Method?

Case method teaching approaches, how do i get started.

• Additional Resources

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For support with implementing a case method approach in your course, email [email protected] to schedule your 1-1 consultation .

Cite this resource: Columbia Center for Teaching and Learning (2019). Case Method Teaching and Learning. Columbia University. Retrieved from [today’s date] from https://ctl.columbia.edu/resources-and-technology/resources/case-method/  

Case method 1 teaching is an active form of instruction that focuses on a case and involves students learning by doing 2 3 . Cases are real or invented stories 4  that include “an educational message” or recount events, problems, dilemmas, theoretical or conceptual issue that requires analysis and/or decision-making.

Case-based teaching simulates real world situations and asks students to actively grapple with complex problems 5 6 This method of instruction is used across disciplines to promote learning, and is common in law, business, medicine, among other fields. See Table 1 below for a few types of cases and the learning they promote.

Table 1: Types of cases and the learning they promote.

For a more complete list, see Case Types & Teaching Methods: A Classification Scheme from the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science.

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Case Method Teaching and Learning at Columbia

The case method is actively used in classrooms across Columbia, at the Morningside campus in the School of International and Public Affairs (SIPA), the School of Business, Arts and Sciences, among others, and at Columbia University Irving Medical campus.

Faculty Spotlight:

Professor Mary Ann Price on Using Case Study Method to Place Pre-Med Students in Real-Life Scenarios

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Professor De Pinho on Using the Case Method in the Mailman Core

Case method teaching has been found to improve student learning, to increase students’ perception of learning gains, and to meet learning objectives 8 9 . Faculty have noted the instructional benefits of cases including greater student engagement in their learning 10 , deeper student understanding of concepts, stronger critical thinking skills, and an ability to make connections across content areas and view an issue from multiple perspectives 11 . 

Through case-based learning, students are the ones asking questions about the case, doing the problem-solving, interacting with and learning from their peers, “unpacking” the case, analyzing the case, and summarizing the case. They learn how to work with limited information and ambiguity, think in professional or disciplinary ways, and ask themselves “what would I do if I were in this specific situation?”

The case method bridges theory to practice, and promotes the development of skills including: communication, active listening, critical thinking, decision-making, and metacognitive skills 12 , as students apply course content knowledge, reflect on what they know and their approach to analyzing, and make sense of a case. 

Though the case method has historical roots as an instructor-centered approach that uses the Socratic dialogue and cold-calling, it is possible to take a more learner-centered approach in which students take on roles and tasks traditionally left to the instructor. 

Cases are often used as “vehicles for classroom discussion” 13 . Students should be encouraged to take ownership of their learning from a case. Discussion-based approaches engage students in thinking and communicating about a case. Instructors can set up a case activity in which students are the ones doing the work of “asking questions, summarizing content, generating hypotheses, proposing theories, or offering critical analyses” 14 . 

The role of the instructor is to share a case or ask students to share or create a case to use in class, set expectations, provide instructions, and assign students roles in the discussion. Student roles in a case discussion can include: 

• discussion “starters” get the conversation started with a question or posing the questions that their peers came up with; 
• facilitators listen actively, validate the contributions of peers, ask follow-up questions, draw connections, refocus the conversation as needed; 
• recorders take-notes of the main points of the discussion, record on the board, upload to CourseWorks, or type and project on the screen; and 
• discussion “wrappers” lead a summary of the main points of the discussion. 

Prior to the case discussion, instructors can model case analysis and the types of questions students should ask, co-create discussion guidelines with students, and ask for students to submit discussion questions. During the discussion, the instructor can keep time, intervene as necessary (however the students should be doing the talking), and pause the discussion for a debrief and to ask students to reflect on what and how they learned from the case activity. 

Note: case discussions can be enhanced using technology. Live discussions can occur via video-conferencing (e.g., using Zoom ) or asynchronous discussions can occur using the Discussions tool in CourseWorks (Canvas) .

Table 2 includes a few interactive case method approaches. Regardless of the approach selected, it is important to create a learning environment in which students feel comfortable participating in a case activity and learning from one another. See below for tips on supporting student in how to learn from a case in the “getting started” section and how to create a supportive learning environment in the Guide for Inclusive Teaching at Columbia . 

Table 2. Strategies for Engaging Students in Case-Based Learning

Approaches to case teaching should be informed by course learning objectives, and can be adapted for small, large, hybrid, and online classes. Instructional technology can be used in various ways to deliver, facilitate, and assess the case method. For instance, an online module can be created in CourseWorks (Canvas) to structure the delivery of the case, allow students to work at their own pace, engage all learners, even those reluctant to speak up in class, and assess understanding of a case and student learning. Modules can include text, embedded media (e.g., using Panopto or Mediathread ) curated by the instructor, online discussion, and assessments. Students can be asked to read a case and/or watch a short video, respond to quiz questions and receive immediate feedback, post questions to a discussion, and share resources. 

For more information about options for incorporating educational technology to your course, please contact your Learning Designer .

To ensure that students are learning from the case approach, ask them to pause and reflect on what and how they learned from the case. Time to reflect  builds your students’ metacognition, and when these reflections are collected they provides you with insights about the effectiveness of your approach in promoting student learning.

Well designed case-based learning experiences: 1) motivate student involvement, 2) have students doing the work, 3) help students develop knowledge and skills, and 4) have students learning from each other.  

Designing a case-based learning experience should center around the learning objectives for a course. The following points focus on intentional design. 

Identify learning objectives, determine scope, and anticipate challenges. 

• Why use the case method in your course? How will it promote student learning differently than other approaches? 
• What are the learning objectives that need to be met by the case method? What knowledge should students apply and skills should they practice? 
• What is the scope of the case? (a brief activity in a single class session to a semester-long case-based course; if new to case method, start small with a single case). 
• What challenges do you anticipate (e.g., student preparation and prior experiences with case learning, discomfort with discussion, peer-to-peer learning, managing discussion) and how will you plan for these in your design? 
• If you are asking students to use transferable skills for the case method (e.g., teamwork, digital literacy) make them explicit. 

Determine how you will know if the learning objectives were met and develop a plan for evaluating the effectiveness of the case method to inform future case teaching. 

• What assessments and criteria will you use to evaluate student work or participation in case discussion? 
• How will you evaluate the effectiveness of the case method? What feedback will you collect from students? 
• How might you leverage technology for assessment purposes? For example, could you quiz students about the case online before class, accept assignment submissions online, use audience response systems (e.g., PollEverywhere) for formative assessment during class? 

Select an existing case, create your own, or encourage students to bring course-relevant cases, and prepare for its delivery

• Where will the case method fit into the course learning sequence? 
• Is the case at the appropriate level of complexity? Is it inclusive, culturally relevant, and relatable to students? 
• What materials and preparation will be needed to present the case to students? (e.g., readings, audiovisual materials, set up a module in CourseWorks). 

Plan for the case discussion and an active role for students

• What will your role be in facilitating case-based learning? How will you model case analysis for your students? (e.g., present a short case and demo your approach and the process of case learning) (Davis, 2009). 
• What discussion guidelines will you use that include your students’ input? 
• How will you encourage students to ask and answer questions, summarize their work, take notes, and debrief the case? 
• If students will be working in groups, how will groups form? What size will the groups be? What instructions will they be given? How will you ensure that everyone participates? What will they need to submit? Can technology be leveraged for any of these areas? 
• Have you considered students of varied cognitive and physical abilities and how they might participate in the activities/discussions, including those that involve technology? 

Student preparation and expectations

• How will you communicate about the case method approach to your students? When will you articulate the purpose of case-based learning and expectations of student engagement? What information about case-based learning and expectations will be included in the syllabus?
• What preparation and/or assignment(s) will students complete in order to learn from the case? (e.g., read the case prior to class, watch a case video prior to class, post to a CourseWorks discussion, submit a brief memo, complete a short writing assignment to check students’ understanding of a case, take on a specific role, prepare to present a critique during in-class discussion).

Andersen, E. and Schiano, B. (2014). Teaching with Cases: A Practical Guide . Harvard Business Press. 

Bonney, K. M. (2015). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains†. Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education , 16 (1), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v16i1.846

Davis, B.G. (2009). Chapter 24: Case Studies. In Tools for Teaching. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. 

Garvin, D.A. (2003). Making the Case: Professional Education for the world of practice. Harvard Magazine. September-October 2003, Volume 106, Number 1, 56-107.

Golich, V.L. (2000). The ABCs of Case Teaching. International Studies Perspectives. 1, 11-29. 

Golich, V.L.; Boyer, M; Franko, P.; and Lamy, S. (2000). The ABCs of Case Teaching. Pew Case Studies in International Affairs. Institute for the Study of Diplomacy. 

Heath, J. (2015). Teaching & Writing Cases: A Practical Guide. The Case Center, UK. 

Herreid, C.F. (2011). Case Study Teaching. New Directions for Teaching and Learning. No. 128, Winder 2011, 31 – 40. 

Herreid, C.F. (2007). Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science . National Science Teachers Association. Available as an ebook through Columbia Libraries. 

Herreid, C.F. (2006). “Clicker” Cases: Introducing Case Study Teaching Into Large Classrooms. Journal of College Science Teaching. Oct 2006, 36(2). https://search.proquest.com/docview/200323718?pq-origsite=gscholar  

Krain, M. (2016). Putting the Learning in Case Learning? The Effects of Case-Based Approaches on Student Knowledge, Attitudes, and Engagement. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching. 27(2), 131-153. 

Lundberg, K.O. (Ed.). (2011). Our Digital Future: Boardrooms and Newsrooms. Knight Case Studies Initiative. 

Popil, I. (2011). Promotion of critical thinking by using case studies as teaching method. Nurse Education Today, 31(2), 204–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2010.06.002

Schiano, B. and Andersen, E. (2017). Teaching with Cases Online . Harvard Business Publishing. 

Thistlethwaite, JE; Davies, D.; Ekeocha, S.; Kidd, J.M.; MacDougall, C.; Matthews, P.; Purkis, J.; Clay D. (2012). The effectiveness of case-based learning in health professional education: A BEME systematic review . Medical Teacher. 2012; 34(6): e421-44. 

Yadav, A.; Lundeberg, M.; DeSchryver, M.; Dirkin, K.; Schiller, N.A.; Maier, K. and Herreid, C.F. (2007). Teaching Science with Case Studies: A National Survey of Faculty Perceptions of the Benefits and Challenges of Using Cases. Journal of College Science Teaching; Sept/Oct 2007; 37(1). 

Weimer, M. (2013). Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass.

Additional resources 

Teaching with Cases , Harvard Kennedy School of Government. 

Features “what is a teaching case?” video that defines a teaching case, and provides documents to help students prepare for case learning, Common case teaching challenges and solutions, tips for teaching with cases. 

Promoting excellence and innovation in case method teaching: Teaching by the Case Method , Christensen Center for Teaching & Learning. Harvard Business School. 

National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science . University of Buffalo. 

A collection of peer-reviewed STEM cases to teach scientific concepts and content, promote process skills and critical thinking. The Center welcomes case submissions. Case classification scheme of case types and teaching methods:

• Different types of cases: analysis case, dilemma/decision case, directed case, interrupted case, clicker case, a flipped case, a laboratory case. 
• Different types of teaching methods: problem-based learning, discussion, debate, intimate debate, public hearing, trial, jigsaw, role-play. 

Columbia Resources

Resources available to support your use of case method: The University hosts a number of case collections including: the Case Consortium (a collection of free cases in the fields of journalism, public policy, public health, and other disciplines that include teaching and learning resources; SIPA’s Picker Case Collection (audiovisual case studies on public sector innovation, filmed around the world and involving SIPA student teams in producing the cases); and Columbia Business School CaseWorks , which develops teaching cases and materials for use in Columbia Business School classrooms.

Center for Teaching and Learning

The Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL) offers a variety of programs and services for instructors at Columbia. The CTL can provide customized support as you plan to use the case method approach through implementation. Schedule a one-on-one consultation. 

Office of the Provost

The Hybrid Learning Course Redesign grant program from the Office of the Provost provides support for faculty who are developing innovative and technology-enhanced pedagogy and learning strategies in the classroom. In addition to funding, faculty awardees receive support from CTL staff as they redesign, deliver, and evaluate their hybrid courses.

The Start Small! Mini-Grant provides support to faculty who are interested in experimenting with one new pedagogical strategy or tool. Faculty awardees receive funds and CTL support for a one-semester period.

Explore our teaching resources.

• Blended Learning
• Contemplative Pedagogy
• Inclusive Teaching Guide
• FAQ for Teaching Assistants
• Metacognition

CTL resources and technology for you.

• Overview of all CTL Resources and Technology
• The origins of this method can be traced to Harvard University where in 1870 the Law School began using cases to teach students how to think like lawyers using real court decisions. This was followed by the Business School in 1920 (Garvin, 2003). These professional schools recognized that lecture mode of instruction was insufficient to teach critical professional skills, and that active learning would better prepare learners for their professional lives. ↩
• Golich, V.L. (2000). The ABCs of Case Teaching. International Studies Perspectives. 1, 11-29. ↩
• Herreid, C.F. (2007). Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science . National Science Teachers Association. Available as an ebook through Columbia Libraries. ↩
• Davis, B.G. (2009). Chapter 24: Case Studies. In Tools for Teaching. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. ↩
• Andersen, E. and Schiano, B. (2014). Teaching with Cases: A Practical Guide . Harvard Business Press. ↩
• Lundberg, K.O. (Ed.). (2011). Our Digital Future: Boardrooms and Newsrooms. Knight Case Studies Initiative. ↩
• Heath, J. (2015). Teaching & Writing Cases: A Practical Guide. The Case Center, UK. ↩
• Bonney, K. M. (2015). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains†. Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education , 16 (1), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v16i1.846 ↩
• Krain, M. (2016). Putting the Learning in Case Learning? The Effects of Case-Based Approaches on Student Knowledge, Attitudes, and Engagement. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching. 27(2), 131-153. ↩
• Thistlethwaite, JE; Davies, D.; Ekeocha, S.; Kidd, J.M.; MacDougall, C.; Matthews, P.; Purkis, J.; Clay D. (2012). The effectiveness of case-based learning in health professional education: A BEME systematic review . Medical Teacher. 2012; 34(6): e421-44. ↩
• Yadav, A.; Lundeberg, M.; DeSchryver, M.; Dirkin, K.; Schiller, N.A.; Maier, K. and Herreid, C.F. (2007). Teaching Science with Case Studies: A National Survey of Faculty Perceptions of the Benefits and Challenges of Using Cases. Journal of College Science Teaching; Sept/Oct 2007; 37(1). ↩
• Popil, I. (2011). Promotion of critical thinking by using case studies as teaching method. Nurse Education Today, 31(2), 204–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2010.06.002 ↩
• Weimer, M. (2013). Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. ↩
• Herreid, C.F. (2006). “Clicker” Cases: Introducing Case Study Teaching Into Large Classrooms. Journal of College Science Teaching. Oct 2006, 36(2). https://search.proquest.com/docview/200323718?pq-origsite=gscholar ↩

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Using Case Studies to Teach

Why Use Cases?

Many students are more inductive than deductive reasoners, which means that they learn better from examples than from logical development starting with basic principles. The use of case studies can therefore be a very effective classroom technique.

Case studies are have long been used in business schools, law schools, medical schools and the social sciences, but they can be used in any discipline when instructors want students to explore how what they have learned applies to real world situations. Cases come in many formats, from a simple “What would you do in this situation?” question to a detailed description of a situation with accompanying data to analyze. Whether to use a simple scenario-type case or a complex detailed one depends on your course objectives.

Most case assignments require students to answer an open-ended question or develop a solution to an open-ended problem with multiple potential solutions. Requirements can range from a one-paragraph answer to a fully developed group action plan, proposal or decision.

Common Case Elements

Most “full-blown” cases have these common elements:

• A decision-maker who is grappling with some question or problem that needs to be solved.
• A description of the problem’s context (a law, an industry, a family).
• Supporting data, which can range from data tables to links to URLs, quoted statements or testimony, supporting documents, images, video, or audio.

Case assignments can be done individually or in teams so that the students can brainstorm solutions and share the work load.

The following discussion of this topic incorporates material presented by Robb Dixon of the School of Management and Rob Schadt of the School of Public Health at CEIT workshops. Professor Dixon also provided some written comments that the discussion incorporates.

Advantages to the use of case studies in class

A major advantage of teaching with case studies is that the students are actively engaged in figuring out the principles by abstracting from the examples. This develops their skills in:

• Problem solving
• Analytical tools, quantitative and/or qualitative, depending on the case
• Decision making in complex situations
• Coping with ambiguities

Guidelines for using case studies in class

In the most straightforward application, the presentation of the case study establishes a framework for analysis. It is helpful if the statement of the case provides enough information for the students to figure out solutions and then to identify how to apply those solutions in other similar situations. Instructors may choose to use several cases so that students can identify both the similarities and differences among the cases.

Depending on the course objectives, the instructor may encourage students to follow a systematic approach to their analysis.  For example:

• What is the issue?
• What is the goal of the analysis?
• What is the context of the problem?
• What key facts should be considered?
• What alternatives are available to the decision-maker?
• What would you recommend — and why?

An innovative approach to case analysis might be to have students  role-play the part of the people involved in the case. This not only actively engages students, but forces them to really understand the perspectives of the case characters. Videos or even field trips showing the venue in which the case is situated can help students to visualize the situation that they need to analyze.

Accompanying Readings

Case studies can be especially effective if they are paired with a reading assignment that introduces or explains a concept or analytical method that applies to the case. The amount of emphasis placed on the use of the reading during the case discussion depends on the complexity of the concept or method. If it is straightforward, the focus of the discussion can be placed on the use of the analytical results. If the method is more complex, the instructor may need to walk students through its application and the interpretation of the results.

Leading the Case Discussion and Evaluating Performance

Decision cases are more interesting than descriptive ones. In order to start the discussion in class, the instructor can start with an easy, noncontroversial question that all the students should be able to answer readily. However, some of the best case discussions start by forcing the students to take a stand. Some instructors will ask a student to do a formal “open” of the case, outlining his or her entire analysis.  Others may choose to guide discussion with questions that move students from problem identification to solutions.  A skilled instructor steers questions and discussion to keep the class on track and moving at a reasonable pace.

In order to motivate the students to complete the assignment before class as well as to stimulate attentiveness during the class, the instructor should grade the participation—quantity and especially quality—during the discussion of the case. This might be a simple check, check-plus, check-minus or zero. The instructor should involve as many students as possible. In order to engage all the students, the instructor can divide them into groups, give each group several minutes to discuss how to answer a question related to the case, and then ask a randomly selected person in each group to present the group’s answer and reasoning. Random selection can be accomplished through rolling of dice, shuffled index cards, each with one student’s name, a spinning wheel, etc.

Tips on the Penn State U. website: http://tlt.its.psu.edu/suggestions/cases/

If you are interested in using this technique in a science course, there is a good website on use of case studies in the sciences at the University of Buffalo.

Dunne, D. and Brooks, K. (2004) Teaching with Cases (Halifax, NS: Society for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education), ISBN 0-7703-8924-4 (Can be ordered at http://www.bookstore.uwo.ca/ at a cost of $15.00)

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Making Learning Relevant With Case Studies

The open-ended problems presented in case studies give students work that feels connected to their lives.

To prepare students for jobs that haven’t been created yet, we need to teach them how to be great problem solvers so that they’ll be ready for anything. One way to do this is by teaching content and skills using real-world case studies, a learning model that’s focused on reflection during the problem-solving process. It’s similar to project-based learning, but PBL is more focused on students creating a product.

Case studies have been used for years by businesses, law and medical schools, physicians on rounds, and artists critiquing work. Like other forms of problem-based learning, case studies can be accessible for every age group, both in one subject and in interdisciplinary work.

You can get started with case studies by tackling relatable questions like these with your students:

• How can we limit food waste in the cafeteria?
• How can we get our school to recycle and compost waste? (Or, if you want to be more complex, how can our school reduce its carbon footprint?)
• How can we improve school attendance?
• How can we reduce the number of people who get sick at school during cold and flu season?

Addressing questions like these leads students to identify topics they need to learn more about. In researching the first question, for example, students may see that they need to research food chains and nutrition. Students often ask, reasonably, why they need to learn something, or when they’ll use their knowledge in the future. Learning is most successful for students when the content and skills they’re studying are relevant, and case studies offer one way to create that sense of relevance.

Teaching With Case Studies

Ultimately, a case study is simply an interesting problem with many correct answers. What does case study work look like in classrooms? Teachers generally start by having students read the case or watch a video that summarizes the case. Students then work in small groups or individually to solve the case study. Teachers set milestones defining what students should accomplish to help them manage their time.

During the case study learning process, student assessment of learning should be focused on reflection. Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick’s Learning and Leading With Habits of Mind gives several examples of what this reflection can look like in a classroom: 

Journaling: At the end of each work period, have students write an entry summarizing what they worked on, what worked well, what didn’t, and why. Sentence starters and clear rubrics or guidelines will help students be successful. At the end of a case study project, as Costa and Kallick write, it’s helpful to have students “select significant learnings, envision how they could apply these learnings to future situations, and commit to an action plan to consciously modify their behaviors.”

Interviews: While working on a case study, students can interview each other about their progress and learning. Teachers can interview students individually or in small groups to assess their learning process and their progress.

Student discussion: Discussions can be unstructured—students can talk about what they worked on that day in a think-pair-share or as a full class—or structured, using Socratic seminars or fishbowl discussions. If your class is tackling a case study in small groups, create a second set of small groups with a representative from each of the case study groups so that the groups can share their learning.

4 Tips for Setting Up a Case Study

1. Identify a problem to investigate: This should be something accessible and relevant to students’ lives. The problem should also be challenging and complex enough to yield multiple solutions with many layers.

2. Give context: Think of this step as a movie preview or book summary. Hook the learners to help them understand just enough about the problem to want to learn more.

3. Have a clear rubric: Giving structure to your definition of quality group work and products will lead to stronger end products. You may be able to have your learners help build these definitions.

4. Provide structures for presenting solutions: The amount of scaffolding you build in depends on your students’ skill level and development. A case study product can be something like several pieces of evidence of students collaborating to solve the case study, and ultimately presenting their solution with a detailed slide deck or an essay—you can scaffold this by providing specified headings for the sections of the essay.

Problem-Based Teaching Resources

There are many high-quality, peer-reviewed resources that are open source and easily accessible online.

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science at the University at Buffalo built an online collection of more than 800 cases that cover topics ranging from biochemistry to economics. There are resources for middle and high school students.
• Models of Excellence , a project maintained by EL Education and the Harvard Graduate School of Education, has examples of great problem- and project-based tasks—and corresponding exemplary student work—for grades pre-K to 12.
• The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning at Purdue University is an open-source journal that publishes examples of problem-based learning in K–12 and post-secondary classrooms.
• The Tech Edvocate has a list of websites and tools related to problem-based learning.

In their book Problems as Possibilities , Linda Torp and Sara Sage write that at the elementary school level, students particularly appreciate how they feel that they are taken seriously when solving case studies. At the middle school level, “researchers stress the importance of relating middle school curriculum to issues of student concern and interest.” And high schoolers, they write, find the case study method “beneficial in preparing them for their future.”

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The Case Study Teaching Method

It is easy to get confused between the case study method and the case method , particularly as it applies to legal education. The case method in legal education was invented by Christopher Columbus Langdell, Dean of Harvard Law School from 1870 to 1895. Langdell conceived of a way to systematize and simplify legal education by focusing on previous case law that furthered principles or doctrines. To that end, Langdell wrote the first casebook, entitled A Selection of Cases on the Law of Contracts , a collection of settled cases that would illuminate the current state of contract law. Students read the cases and came prepared to analyze them during Socratic question-and-answer sessions in class.

The Harvard Business School case study approach grew out of the Langdellian method. But instead of using established case law, business professors chose real-life examples from the business world to highlight and analyze business principles. HBS-style case studies typically consist of a short narrative (less than 25 pages), told from the point of view of a manager or business leader embroiled in a dilemma. Case studies provide readers with an overview of the main issue; background on the institution, industry, and individuals involved; and the events that led to the problem or decision at hand. Cases are based on interviews or public sources; sometimes, case studies are disguised versions of actual events or composites based on the faculty authors’ experience and knowledge of the subject. Cases are used to illustrate a particular set of learning objectives; as in real life, rarely are there precise answers to the dilemma at hand.

Our suite of free materials offers a great introduction to the case study method. We also offer review copies of our products free of charge to educators and staff at degree-granting institutions.

For more information on the case study teaching method, see:

• Martha Minow and Todd Rakoff: A Case for Another Case Method
• HLS Case Studies Blog: Legal Education’s 9 Big Ideas
• Teaching Units: Problem Solving , Advanced Problem Solving , Skills , Decision Making and Leadership , Professional Development for Law Firms , Professional Development for In-House Counsel
• Educator Community: Tips for Teachers

Watch this informative video about the Problem-Solving Workshop:

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COMPATIBILITY OF TEACHING STYLES WITH LEARNING STYLES: A CASE STUDY

2014, European Journal of Educational Sciences

In order to enhance teaching quality and improve its effectiveness, attention must be paid to the compatibility of the instructors’ teaching styles versus the students’ learning styles, which play a vital role in how much knowledge the students can gain from the material presented in class. This paper presents the results of a study carried out on the mechanical engineering students and their instructors at the United Arab Emirates University. Results showed that the students learning styles are balanced: active-reflective, intuitive-sensor, visual-verbal and they prefer global over the sequential learning style. Moreover, the instructor’s teaching styles were a mix of expert, formal-authority, personal-model and delegator. This spectrum of teaching addresses most of the students learning methods, which reflects positively on the learning process. This paper provides recommendations that instructors can implement in order to furthermore enhance the teaching process.

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Nergiz Ercil Cagiltay

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Ali Raza Jamali

Every student learns with different learning preferences in a classroom. In order to know dominant learning preferences, learning styles play a significant role. Studying learning styles is important as contemporary studies have revealed that to increase the value of students’ learning process, there should be a match between students’ learning styles and teachers’ teaching style. Mismatches in teaching style and students’ preferred learning style often lead to poor academic performance among students. Therefore, the main purpose of this research was to explore learning styles of engineering students in the Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. Forty-six students from the Electrical, Civil and Mechanical Engineering disciplines participated in this study. The instrument used is the survey questionnaire based on the Index of Learning Styles (ILS) by Felder and Silverman that consists of 44 items. The ILS consists of four dimensions, each with two sub-scales: process (active-reflective), perceive (sensing-intuitive), input (visual-verbal) and understanding (sequential-global). Each main dimension has 11 items. Data were analysed using SPSS 20.0. The analysis showed that in the process dimension, 57.11% of the participants were active learners, while 42.86% were reflective learners; in the perceive dimension, 54.54% were sensing learners and 45.45%, reflective learners; in the input dimension, 76.87% were visual learners and 23.12%, verbal learners; and in the understanding dimension, 52.96% were sequential learners and 47.03%, global learners. This study highlights that knowing the preferred learning style of students will help teachers to create a classroom environment that suits students’ needs so that their academic achievement can be easily enhanced.

Abdullah Ibrahim

Engineering education

Oscar Fonseca

This descriptive study identified engineering students’ learning styles and the differences in the learning styles according to sex and department. To determine the differences in the leaming styles of engineering students, the Turkish version of the Index of Leaming Style (ILS) developed by Felder-Solomon for engineering students was used. The form was administered to 400 engineering students at METU. The differences in leaming style preferences according to sex and department factors were assessed via Chisquare tests. The results showed that engineering students are active, sensing, visual and global learners rather than reflective, intuitive, verbal and sequential. The Chi-square results did not indicate any signifıcant results in ali of the four leaming style dimensions in terms of sex and department.

Mohamed Alseddiqi

Journal of Social Sciences

İbrahim Yaşar Kazu

International Journal of Language and Linguistics

Hawkar Awla

Novalita Fransisca Tungka

A mismatch between students’ learning styles and teacher’s teaching styles can cause ineffective instructional activities to happen. To avoid that, a teacher must be informed about students’ behaviors in the classroom that shape one’s learning styles, and use such information to develop teaching styles that are compatible with students’ learning styles. This paper discusses about the spectrum of learning styles and its impact on teaching styles taken from the perspectives of Lawrence’s and Grasha’s explanations and theories on teaching styles and their implications to classroom instructions. Suggestions of instructions that match learning styles and teaching styles and to overcome teacher’s resistance to modify one’s teaching styles are presented. The discussions and suggestions made contribute to instructional theories. Keywords: learning styles, teaching styles, instruction

College of Business, JBLFMU-Molo Multidisciplinary Journal

Rex Flejoles , Mona Luisa C . de Guzman

Various perspectives on learning styles of students are available based on the results of different investigations. On one hand, the Barsch Learning Style Inventory (BLSI) that consists of 24 statements identifies three learning preferences, namely: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. On the other hand, the Grasha-Reichmann Student Learning Styles Scale (GRSLSS) that consists of 60 statements determines six learning dimensions, namely: competitive, collaborative, avoidant, participant, dependent, and independent. This study aimed to determine the differences and relationships in the learning styles of students using the BLSI and GRSLSS. Specifically, this study aimed to answer the following questions: 1) what is the reliability of the inventories as used in this study?, 2) is there a significant difference among the learning preferences of students based on the BLSI?, 3) is there a significant difference among the learning dimensions of students based on the GRSLSS?, and 4) are there significant relationships between one learning style to every other learning style described in the BLSI and GRSLSS? A sample of 192 students taken from the Bachelor of Science in Cruise Management at John B. Lacson Foundation Maritime University-Molo, Inc. enrolled during the first semester of academic year 2013-2014 was considered in this study. Non-proportionate stratified random sampling method, stratified according to year level, was employed in this investigation. A significant difference was found in the learning preferences of the students based on the BLSI. The differences were found between kinesthetic and visual, and between kinesthetic and auditory. Results revealed that the students are both visual and auditory learners. Based on the GRSLSS, significant difference was also found in the learning style dimensions of the students. The differences were found between avoidant and every other dimensions, and between competitive and every other dimensions. Results revealed that the students are more of independent, collaborative, dependent, and participant than avoidant and competitive. Direct relationships exist between one learning style to every other learning style described in the BLSI. Also, direct relationships exist between one learning style to every other learning style described in the GRSLSS. Furthermore, direct relationships exist between kinesthetic and collaborative, and between kinesthetic and participant. Results seemed to suggest that the level of one’s being kinesthetic may describe his or her level of being collaborative and participant.

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. Professor at Harvard Business School and the former dean of HBS.

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The 5 most effective teaching styles (pros & cons of each), share this article.

Even though every instructor is unique, the prevalent style of teaching has changed dramatically over the past 50 years, along with the new cultural norms and technological advancements.

Educational researchers today define at least five different teaching styles on a spectrum that moves from a teacher-centered approach to a student-centered one:

Other teaching methods outside of the core five exist as well. The Spectrum of Teaching Styles in Physical Education defines 11 distinct teaching styles that can be used to coach students in schools and universities.

While most instructors can be described by a single personal model of teaching, the best ones always adjust their teaching strategies to their students and the learning process at hand.

That’s why it’s important to know what the different teaching styles are and have a clear idea of how to use them when needed.

Skip ahead:

Demonstrator

Facilitator, is one style of teaching better than others , how to adapt teaching styles to different learning styles, does classroom diversity influence my style of teaching .

5 different teaching styles to use today

A lot of educators in traditional teaching environments with decades of experience are not aware of their primary teaching style, even though their approach to teaching has a direct effect on student participation and student engagement.

Let’s explore five teaching style examples to show how broad differentiated instruction in classroom settings can be.

The lecturer style (sometimes called the formal authority style) is familiar to anyone who’s sat through long unidirectional lectures in giant university auditoriums. In this teaching style, the teacher takes up a central role and delivers information to a large group of students in a structured and organized manner. The subject matter is usually singular and predetermined. 

Because the students are many, there’s not enough room or time for personalized interactions between the teacher and the students. However, students are encouraged to take notes and ask questions at the end of each lecture. There are usually no activities planned.

An example of the Lecturer teaching style in action is when a guest speaker is invited to a school or an office to give a presentation. After the guest speaker presents the topic for an hour, they encourage students to ask questions if there’s anything they don’t understand or would like to clarify. 

Pros of the Lecturer teaching style

• It’s p ossible to teach large groups of students at once
• It’s easy to prepare lecturers
• It provides a clear structure and organization to the content
• It can be time-effective in covering a broad range of material

Cons of the Lecturer teaching style

• There’s limited student engagement and interaction 
• Students won’t be able to retain information properly because they’re not actively engaging with the lecturer
• This teaching method does not cater to diverse learning styles

Under the demonstrator style, the teacher still retains a lot of authority but is more open to trying a student-centered approach to teaching. You can see the demonstrator encouraging students to come up with problem-solving strategies, ask questions and simulate what they’ve just learned.

The demonstrator often goes beyond lectures and demonstrates concepts or skills to the students using visual aids (presentations, images, and films), hands-on activities, and practical examples. As a result, this method is applicable to more learning styles.

An example of the Demonstrator teaching style in action is when a teacher conducts a science experiment or an art workshop in the classroom. The students huddle around the demonstrator to observe and participate in the experiment or workshop. When the teacher is done with the demonstration, they encourage the students to emulate the processes that they’ve observed to create the same (or similar results). 

As the students work, the teacher is there to provide them with visual aids and multimedia to enforce concepts and principles, and answer any questions they may have regarding the project. The teacher may also encourage peer sharing and feedback, which helps students to actively engage in the learning process.

Pros of the Demonstrator teaching style

• It incorporates a variety of teaching formats
• Hands-on learning can enhance students’ understanding of the subject matter
• Visual aids and demonstrations can make concepts more memorable 
• Students can ask for immediate clarification through examples and practical applications

Cons of the Demonstrator teaching style

•  It doesn’t accommodate the needs of all students
• This teaching style may not be suitable for all subjects or topics 
• This style requires adequate resources and preparation, which can be hard if the teacher is short on time or has a low budget
• During a demonstration, there’s often no time to cover a large amount of content

The hybrid (also known as blended) style strives to strike a balance between teacher- and student-centered approaches. It also tries to integrate both traditional and modern teaching methods, which makes it a great style for adapting to the needs of diverse learners.

Most of the time, the teachers who follow the hybrid style bring their own knowledge and expertise into the class. They still have a structure for every lecture but are able to adjust their flow and come up with the right activities to keep the students engaged. A hybrid teaching style integrates lectures, demonstrations, group activities, and even technology into one learning session. 

For example, a hybrid teacher may assign online readings or videos for students to review before class.  There can also be an online discussion forum where students share insights and questions. In class, the students can build upon the online discussion with hands-on activities, group discussions, or problem-solving tasks related to the material they reviewed. 

While the hybrid approach tends to be quite effective in a variety of settings, it can make covering information-heavy courses difficult due to its slower pace.

Pros of the Hybrid teaching style

• This teaching style uses a variety of methods that cater to diverse student needs 
• It integrates traditional and modern approaches for a balanced learning experience 
• It gives teachers the flexibility to adapt to different learning preferences 
• Students remain active and engaged for longer

Cons of the Hybrid teaching style

• This teaching style requires careful planning and the coordination of different teaching elements 
• Finding the right balance between traditional and modern teaching methods may be challenging
• It’s dependent on the available resources and technology  
• It can be less focused and slow
• It requires a lot of energy from the teacher

Shifting to an even more student-centered approach, there’s the facilitator style of teaching.

Instead of giving one-directional lectures, a facilitator encourages inquiry-based learning. Students learn by thinking critically, asking questions, and discussing real-world case studies. Some other activities might be designed to improve problem-solving skills and help understand the subject matter better through practical challenges.

A great example of the Facilitator teaching style in action is a Socratic seminar, which promotes Socrates’ belief that asking questions, inquiring about things, and engaging in constructive debates are the best ways to learn. 

In a Socratic seminar, students seek a deeper understanding of complex or vague ideas through thoughtful dialogue and divergent thinking. The facilitator provides a specific topic or text for students to read through and ponder upon. Then, the facilitator poses open-ended questions to stimulate critical thinking. The students answer these questions, argue civilly for or against a motion, share ideas, and build on each other’s responses to get an all-around understanding of the topic/text.

Another example is a case study analysis, where the facilitator presents a real-life case study related to the subject matter. Then, the facilitator prompts a class discussion where students analyze the case, identify key issues, and proffer solutions. The teacher guides the discussion, encouraging critical thinking and collaboration among students. 

Pros of the Facilitator teaching style

• This teaching style helps students develop self-sufficiency, as the teacher provides guidance and support rather than direct instruction
• It fosters critical thinking, collaboration, and communication skills
• It supports student-centered learning and autonomy

Cons of the Facilitator teaching style

• This style doesn’t work well for theory-heavy classes
• It requires a skilled facilitator to guide discussions effectively 
• It may take more time to cover content compared to traditional methods 
• Students may need additional support if they’re not accustomed to this teaching method

The most student-centric teaching style of all is called the delegator style (also known as the group style). Here, the teacher is merely present as an observer, and it’s the group of students who are doing all the work.

Most of the learning in the delegator style happens peer-to-peer, through frequent collaborations and discussions. The instructor is practically removed from the position of authority and only facilitates the discussions instead.

The delegator style works best for lab-based experiments, group tutoring classes, creative writing, debates, and other peer-to-peer activities. In these activities, the teacher divides the class into small groups and assigns each group a project related to the course content. The students are responsible for planning, executing, and presenting their findings, while the teacher acts as a mentor, providing guidance and support throughout the project.

This approach encourages students to take ownership of their education and become self-directed learners.

Pros of the Delegator teaching style

• This teaching style encourages learning and collaboration among students
• It allows for individualized learning experiences
• It promotes the development of problem-solving and decision-making skills

Cons of the Delegator teaching style

• This teaching style can be inefficient since students have to find the right answers for themselves
• It may not be suitable for all subjects or students

These are just five of the most popular teaching styles that instructors can choose from when creating their courses. Depending on the system you look at, there might be even more, as described in a paper titled Teaching Styles and Language Performance by Edgar R. Eslit and Mercedita B. Tongson.

As you can see from the list above, each style of teaching has its pros and cons. So there’s no definitive winner here — rather, you should learn to mix and match based on a situation.

When preparing your course content, you can imagine which teaching style would help your students learn the material best. If you’re not sure, try experimenting with a few different styles for the first few student cohorts to find out.

We’ve written about the seven main types of learning styles before, which are essential for every instructor to understand.

There’s no doubt that different students shine under different teaching approaches.

There’s a famous “empty vessel” theory, for example, which asserts that students’ minds are essentially empty until teachers pour their knowledge into them, lecture-style.

But cooperative learning which requires more group work and would pair well with the facilitator or delegator style of teaching. Check out Cohort-Based Learning for a deeper dive into this kind of teaching style.

Interactive learning can be a great fit for the demonstrator or facilitator style, and so on.

Another reason to have different teaching styles in your arsenal is the diversity of students you might see in your class. As students learn better by different approaches and at a different speed, you should be able to adjust your teaching style on the fly to maximize the learning opportunity for all.

It’s likely that your primary teaching style won’t be purely of the big five discussed above, but rather an ever-changing mix that would be unique to you and the students you teach.

In addition, as teachers lead students and help students become future leaders, you should be aware of the kind of leadership that you want to facilitate through your teaching.

How to create a perfect course online

Do you want to put your teaching style to practice? There’s no better way to do that than creating a brand new online course. The only thing you need is a course-creation platform to do that.

Thinkific is an intuitive and easy-to-use platform for all teachers to create beautiful online courses in no time. The platform adjusts easily to various teaching styles through the use of multimedia materials, from presentations to videos to quizzes to member communities.

Best of all, no coding skills are required. Just pick a gorgeous template and quickly customize it to your need with a drag-and-drop editor.

Get started today for free and see how easy creating an effective course can be.

This was originally published in June 2022, it has since been updated in February 2024 to include new info.

Colin is a Content Marketer at Thinkific, writing about everything from online entrepreneurship & course creation to digital marketing strategy.

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A Case Study of the Teaching Experiences of African American Faculty at Two Predominantly White Research Universities

• Christine A. Stanley Texas A&M University Author
• M. Erin Porter University of Texas, Austin Author
• Nancy J. Simpson Texas A&M University Author
• Mathew L. Ouellett University of Massachusetts, Amherst Author

This study explored the teaching experiences of African American faculty at two predominantly White research universities in the southern U.S. The authors interviewed 15 African American faculty at the rank of assistant, associate, and full professor whose length of employment with the university ranged from 2-30 years. They explored issues related to teaching styles and development, perceptions of being viewed as minority faculty, and institutional practices that impacted their teaching experiences. The authors present the results of this study, offer implications for faculty, instructional, and organizational development, and suggest areas for further research.

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Many of our cases are available for sale through Harvard Business Publishing in the  Harvard T.H. Chan case collection . Others are free to download through this website .

Cases in this collection may be used free of charge by Harvard Chan course instructors in their teaching. Contact  Allison Bodznick , Harvard Chan Case Library administrator, for access.

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Teaching notes are available as supporting material to many of the cases in the Harvard Chan Case Library. Teaching notes provide an overview of the case and suggested discussion questions, as well as a roadmap for using the case in the classroom.

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• Teaching notes for cases available through  Harvard Business Publishing may be downloaded after registering for an Educator account .
• To request teaching notes for cases that are available for free through this website, look for the "Teaching note  available for faculty/instructors " link accompanying the abstract for the case you are interested in; you'll be asked to complete a brief survey verifying your affiliation as an instructor.

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Home » Tips for Teachers » 15 Teaching Styles: The Complete Guide for Effective Teaching

15 Teaching Styles: The Complete Guide for Effective Teaching

Teaching styles are instrumental in helping students reach their educational goals. With a breadth of teaching strategies available, it can be difficult to determine which approach is best-suited for different age groups, curricular objectives and lesson plans.

Teachers can foster a more engaging classroom by tapping into the power of multiple teaching styles. Incorporating alternative approaches to instruction helps capture student interest and provides additional reinforcement that facilitates long-term knowledge retention – creating an unbeatable learning atmosphere!

Education is the cornerstone of progress, and teachers are a driving force behind its success. By understanding different teaching styles they can employ in their classrooms, educators gain an invaluable tool to shape future generations – equipping them with knowledge that will be passed down for years to come. It’s essential for instructors everywhere to understand the advantages and disadvantages of various instructional techniques so they may select the best approach possible when guiding students towards enlightenment

To provide clarity on the matter, this article presents an overview of 15 top teaching styles complete with recommended ages for each style’s implementation as well as benefits and drawbacks associated with its use. Additionally included are teaching styles examples illustrating how these types of teaching styles may look within the classroom setting along with guidance on incorporating multiple approaches into one session or determining what works most effectively for today’s learners overall:

What are we waiting for? Let’s begin!

1. Lecture-based teaching style

Lecture-style teaching is one of the oldest types of teaching styles in existence. It enables teachers to share their knowledge and wisdom with students; while giving learners an opportunity to take notes, absorb information, then apply it through exercises or tests.

Distinctive features:

• Emphasis on teacher-centered learning;
• Focus on delivering information through lectures;
• Limited interaction between students and teachers.
• Efficient way to deliver large amounts of information;
• Suitable for large groups of students;
• Can be used to introduce complex or abstract concepts.
• May lead to passive learning and lack of engagement;
• Limited interaction and feedback from students;
• Can be monotonous and may not cater to different learning styles.

Student ages it works best for:

Lecture-based teaching style is a versatile learning tool, helping students of any age gain knowledge and understanding. From elementary school to college and beyond, this style of instruction encourages critical thinking by engaging learners in an immersive educational experience.

Usage examples:

• A college professor delivering a lecture on the history of philosophy;
• A high school teacher providing a lecture on the principles of chemistry.

Check out how a professor from the Kansas State University developed and introduced Lecture-based styles of teaching for his students.

2. Inquiry-based teaching style

Inquiry-based teaching is a student-focused method that encourages active learning and creative thought. With this style, students explore the world around them by questioning, analyzing challenges, and developing their own understanding of topics.

• Emphasis on student-centered learning;
• Focus on inquiry and investigation;
• Encourages critical thinking and problem-solving.
• Promotes active learning and engagement;
• Encourages students to think independently and critically;
• Provides opportunities for collaboration and peer learning.
• May require more planning and preparation from teachers;
• Can be challenging to assess student learning and progress;
• May be less suitable for students who prefer more structure and guidance.

Inquiry-based teaching can be an effective strategy for engaging students of all ages, but may require a tailored approach when it comes to younger learners.

• A middle school teacher designing a lesson where students investigate the impact of pollution on local waterways;
• A high school science teacher leading a class on the scientific method, where students design and conduct their own experiments.

See how the 4th grade teacher from Wildwood IB World Magnet School uses the inquiry-based model to put students in charge of their learning, with lessons that stem from student questions and harness the power of curiosity.

3. Collaborative teaching style

By utilizing collaborative teaching, students reap the benefits of cooperation and team-work – working together to pool ideas and resources with their peers in order to solve problems, complete projects or reach shared goals.

• Focus on collaboration and teamwork;
• Encourages communication and social skills.
• Promotes teamwork and communication skills;
• Provides opportunities for peer learning and support;
• Encourages creativity and innovation.
• May require more planning and coordination among teachers;
• Can be challenging to assess individual student learning and contribution;
• May be less suitable for students who prefer to work independently.

Collaborative style of teaching brings amazing results for student learning at all ages, and with some patience and tweaking, can be a powerful tool when educating younger students.

• A high school English teacher organizing a group project where students create a podcast series on a literary theme;
• A middle school math teacher designing a lesson where students work in pairs to solve complex problems.

Learn how the students at The College Preparatory School are making collaboration the driving force in their learning.

4. Flipped classroom teaching style

The flipped classroom is a revolutionary pedagogical approach that shakes up traditional learning models. Students can access lecture materials online, allowing them to tailor their study habits outside of the classroom setting. While in-class activities focus on active engagement such as discussions and group work for deeper understanding of content material.

• Lecture materials are delivered outside the classroom, allowing for more active learning inside the classroom;
• Emphasizes the role of the teacher as a facilitator and guide rather than a lecturer;
• Encourages collaborative learning and peer-to-peer teaching.
• Provides more opportunities for active learning and student engagement;
• Allows students to learn at their own pace and review lecture materials as needed;
• Facilitates deeper learning and understanding through collaborative and peer-to-peer teaching.
• Requires students to have access to technology outside the classroom;
• May be challenging for students who prefer a more structured and teacher-led learning environment;
• Can be time-consuming for teachers to create and manage the online lecture materials.

By utilizing the flipped classroom style of teaching, educators have an effective way to reach students from middle school up through college. This approach enables teachers to increase engagement and maximize learning potential no matter their age group.

• High school math students are given the unique opportunity to explore their understanding of algebraic equations by viewing engaging lectures and collaboratively problem-solving with classmates. This stimulates a deeper appreciation for mathematics that extends beyond lecture hall walls;
• College history students come to class eager and prepared, having read primary source documents and watched videos on a particular time period. In this environment of inquisitive minds, they discuss the historical events in order to gain deeper understanding of our past.

Watch how Jon Bergmann, founder of of FlippedClass.com, explains what a flipped classroom is and how to get started.

5. Problem-based teaching style

Problem-based teaching invites students to take the helm in their learning journey, utilizing real-world problems as a motivation for critical thinking and problem solving. Working collaboratively with peers, they can foster creative solutions while developing invaluable skills that are transferable across multiple contexts.

• Emphasizes the use of real-world problems as a means of learning;
• Encourages student collaboration and peer-to-peer teaching;
• Emphasizes the role of the teacher as a facilitator and guide rather than a lecturer.
• Provides opportunities for deeper learning and understanding through problem-solving and critical thinking;
• Encourages collaboration and peer-to-peer teaching, promoting social and emotional learning;
• Prepares students for real-world problem-solving and decision-making in their future careers.
• Requires teachers to have a deep understanding of the subject matter and the ability to facilitate student learning effectively;
• Can be time-consuming to design and implement effective problem-based learning activities.

Problem-based teaching is an incredibly effective way of engaging students, especially in middle school, high school and college.

• In a middle school science class, students work together to design and build a device that can purify contaminated water;
• In a college business class, students are given a real-world case study of a company facing financial challenges and must work together to develop a business plan to help the company succeed.

See how teachers and students from four South Australian primary schools stepped right out of their comfort zones, to participate in this semester-long problem-based learning program.

6. Demonstration teaching style

Demonstration teaching is a powerful method for bringing concepts to life in the classroom. By showing students how problems can be solved and tasks completed, rather than simply explaining it to them, teachers create an engaging learning experience that allows their pupils to more easily retain complex ideas from Science or Maths classes.

• The teacher demonstrates the task or problem-solving process;
• Students observe and take notes;
• Students are then asked to perform the task on their own.
• Provides clear examples and explanations of complex concepts;
• Encourages active listening and note-taking skills;
• Allows students to see how concepts are applied in real-world situations.
• May not be suitable for all learning styles;
• Can be time-consuming, especially if there are many students in the classroom;
• Does not provide individualized attention to each student.

With its effectiveness proven across different educational settings, demonstration teaching is an invaluable resource for boosting student success at all levels. From elementary students to college undergraduates, this engaging style of instruction offers a unique opportunity for learners to absorb practical knowledge and gain important skills.

• A science teacher demonstrating the process of photosynthesis to their students;
• A mathematics teacher demonstrating how to solve a complex equation to their class.

Learn more about the demonstration teaching style from Dr. Peter Kibet Koech from Machakos University

7. Hands-on teaching style

This strategy ensures that each student is placed in the most beneficial learning environment, with groups continually adjusting to reflect their evolving needs and interests.

• Students actively participate in the learning process;
• The teacher provides materials and instructions for a task;
• Students learn by trial and error.
• Encourages active participation and engagement in the learning process;
• Provides opportunities for hands-on experimentation and exploration;
• Helps students develop problem-solving and critical thinking skills.
• Requires significant preparation and planning on the part of the teacher;
• May require additional resources or materials.

Instructing through hands-on activities proves to be effective across all educational levels, from elementary schoolers mastering the basics of arithmetic to university students developing critical thinking skills.

• A science teacher providing materials for students to conduct an experiment and observe the results;
• An art teacher providing materials for students to create a sculpture or painting.

Here is an example of how you can yse flexible groupping in your classroom.

8. Visual teaching style

Visual teaching techniques have become a popular approach to education, utilizing visual aids such as videos, images, charts and more. This helps students further engage in the educational process by enabling them to learn concepts quickly through visuals that are easier for their minds to digest than pure texts alone.

• Uses visual aids to enhance learning;
• Emphasizes the importance of images, diagrams, and other visual materials;
• Encourages students to create their own visual aids to reinforce learning.
• Enhances learning by making information more engaging and easier to remember;
• Helps students who are visual learners understand concepts more easily;
• Can be especially helpful for teaching complex or abstract concepts.
• May not be as effective for students who learn best through other modalities, such as auditory or kinesthetic learning;
• Can be time-consuming to create high-quality visual aids;
• Some students may find the use of visual aids distracting or overwhelming.

Visual teaching can be an invaluable tool when it comes to helping young minds grow – aiding students in their educational journey by providing them with a memorable and engaging way of learning.

• Using diagrams and flowcharts to explain scientific processes in a biology class;
• Creating visual timelines to help students understand historical events in a social studies class.

Learn more about the visual teaching style from Matthew Peterson’s TEDxOrangeCoast speech.

9. Kinesthetic teaching style

Experiential learning through kinesthetic teaching style is a great way to help students retain information. Through physical activities like games, simulations and role-playing, teachers have the potential to open up exciting new possibilities for their students’ educational journey.

• Emphasizes hands-on, experiential learning;
• Encourages students to actively engage with the material;
• Uses physical activities and games to reinforce learning.
• Helps students learn by engaging multiple senses and making learning more memorable;
• Encourages active participation and engagement with the material;
• Can be especially effective for teaching subjects that involve physical processes, such as science and math.
• May be challenging to implement in large classes or with limited resources;
• Can be time-consuming to plan and execute hands-on activities;
• May not be as effective for students who learn best through other modalities, such as visual or auditory learning.

Kinesthetic teaching is a powerful tool for young minds – allowing students to channel their boundless energy in ways which facilitate learning and engagement. Such an approach enables the utilization of all senses, providing educational experiences that can satisfy even the most dynamic learners.

• Conducting science experiments to teach about chemical reactions in a chemistry class;
• Using role-playing activities to teach about historical events or social issues in a social studies class.

In this video Janice from Sharp Cookie shares her top 8 study tips to people with kinesthetic intelligence learn more effectively.

10. Game-based teaching style

Game-based teaching is a powerful tool for engaging and motivating learners of all ages. This teaching approach uses game mechanics such as rewards, points, and leaderboards to make learning fun while helping students stay focused on the subject matter.

From math to language arts, social studies or science (and many more!), games can be used effectively to stimulate comprehension in any classroom setting. For instance, in a platform like Smartick, game-based learning is exceptionally well-executed to teach complex math concepts. They provide seamless guidance for finding the least common multiple , turning it into a challenging yet enjoyable task for students.

• Game-based teaching is characterized by its focus on engagement and interactivity;
• Games can be used to provide immediate feedback, challenge students at their individual skill levels, and promote a sense of healthy competition among students.
• Game-based teaching can be highly motivating for students and can help to build problem-solving and critical thinking skills;
• It can also be an effective way to provide immediate feedback and to personalize learning for individual students.
• Some educators may struggle to find appropriate games that align with their curriculum, or may find that certain games are too distracting or difficult for some students;
• Additionally, game-based teaching may not be suitable for all subject areas or learning objectives.

Game-based learning can provide an exciting, engaging way for students to gain knowledge. From kindergarteners to high schoolers, every age group benefits from tailored games that use fun challenges as a source of education and growth.

• A teacher might use a game-based approach to teach math concepts by having students play a digital game that requires them to solve math problems in order to progress to the next level;
• A language arts teacher might use a board game to reinforce vocabulary and reading comprehension skills.

In this video, teacher diaries channel shares their top 10 favorite game-based learning apps.

11. Project-based teaching style

Project-based teaching is an effective way to engage students in relevant, meaningful learning experiences. It encourages collaboration among peers and allows learners to explore a topic more deeply while applying their knowledge and skills towards addressing real world challenges – a valuable exercise that develops critical thinking skills!

• Project-based teaching is characterized by its emphasis on student-centered, collaborative learning;
• Students typically work in groups to plan and execute projects, which can involve research, problem-solving, and creative thinking.
• Project-based teaching can be highly engaging for students, allowing them to explore their interests and develop important skills like communication, teamwork, and problem-solving;
• It can also help to promote deeper learning and understanding of subject matter.
• Project-based teaching can be time-consuming and may require a significant investment of resources and planning;
• It can also be challenging for educators to manage and assess student work in a way that is equitable and meaningful.

Project-based instruction offers an exciting learning opportunity for students of all ages; however, it may be better suited to those with more advanced capabilities in research and teamwork.

• A science teacher might use a project-based approach to have students investigate a local environmental issue, researching and proposing solutions to address the problem.
• A history teacher might have students work together to create a museum exhibit that explores a particular period or event in history.

Watch Suzie Boss, Education Writer and Project-Based Learning Consultant, introduce what project-based approach and how to get started with it.

12. Direct instruction teaching style

By utilizing a direct instruction teaching style, teachers provide students with an organized and structured environment from which to acquire the foundational knowledge they need for more advanced topics. This teacher-centered approach allows all learners to benefit from clear explanations as well as engaging activities that help reinforce concepts taught during class.

• The teacher plays a central role in the learning process;
• The focus is on delivering information through lectures, demonstrations, and explanations;
• Students are expected to listen, take notes, and complete assignments based on the information presented.
• Provides clear and structured instruction that can be effective for teaching foundational knowledge and skills;
• Can be helpful for students who prefer a more structured learning environment.
• May not be as effective for promoting critical thinking or problem-solving skills;
• Can be less engaging for students who prefer a more interactive or hands-on learning approach.

Direct instruction is a teaching style well-suited for all ages, but it can be particularly beneficial in early academic settings such as elementary and middle school classrooms.

• A teacher using direct instruction teaching style to teach math facts, such as addition and subtraction, to a group of second-grade students;
• A teacher using direct instruction teaching style to introduce new vocabulary words to a high school English class.

Learn more on how to motivate the students, activate background knowledge, and explain the new skill through Direct instruction style with TeachLikeThis channel.

13. Socratic teaching style

With the Socratic teaching style, teachers provide an engaging student-centered learning environment where ideas and critical thinking skills can flourish. It emphasizes collaboration among peers to help students come up with their own answers through discussion—an invaluable educational tool for today’s learners!

• The teacher encourages discussion and questioning among students;
• The focus is on students arriving at their own conclusions through critical thinking and analysis;
• The teacher acts as a facilitator rather than a lecturer.
• Encourages critical thinking and promotes student engagement;
• Can help students develop strong problem-solving and analytical skills.
• Can be less structured than other teaching styles, which may make it less effective for teaching foundational knowledge and skills;
• Can be challenging for students who are less comfortable with public speaking or expressing their ideas in a group setting.

Socratic teaching is a versatile and effective method for educating students of all ages, but shines particularly in higher level academic settings.

• A teacher using Socratic teaching style to lead a discussion about a current event in a high school social studies class.
• A teacher encourages critical thinking and analysis of a literary text in a college English class.

Here’s some more information on the Socratic Method.

14. Experimental teaching style

Experimental teaching provides students an engaging and meaningful learning experience with a hands-on approach. Through experiential exploration, this style of education promotes interaction between the material and student in subjects varying from mathematics to literature.

• This teaching style is characterized by its focus on hands-on learning and experimentation;
• Students are encouraged to explore and investigate the subject matter through experiments and other activities, rather than simply memorizing information;
• This approach emphasizes critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity.
• Encourages active engagement with the material;
• Develops critical thinking and problem-solving skills;
• Fosters creativity and innovation.
• Can be time-consuming and require additional resources;
• May not be suitable for all subjects or learning objectives;
• Requires careful planning and preparation to ensure experiments are safe and effective.

All students can benefit from experimental teaching, but the style is especially impactful among older learners who have a greater appreciation for science and are ready to tackle more sophisticated experiments.

• In a biology class, students might design and conduct their own experiments to investigate the effects of different variables on plant growth;
• In a physics class, students might use simulations and hands-on experiments to explore the principles of motion and energy.

In the video below you’ll learn what an Open Ended Question is how you can help children think through problems on their own.

15. Self-directed learning teaching style

Self-directed learning is a powerful approach that equips students with the autonomy to drive their own progress. Through this style of teaching, learners are encouraged to cultivate self-motivation and critical thinking while developing independence.

• Students take responsibility for their own learning, set their own goals and pace of learning;
• Students choose their own learning materials;
• Students manage their own progress.
• Encourages self-motivation and independence;
• Allows students to pursue their own interests and passions;
• Can be more efficient and personalized than traditional teaching methods.
• Requires a high level of discipline and time-management skills;
• May not be suitable for all students, particularly those who require more structure and guidance;
• Can be challenging for teachers to implement and assess.

Self-directed learning offers a unique opportunity for learners of all ages to take their education into their own hands. For those driven by motivation and passionate about knowledge acquisition, it can be an especially powerful tool!

• A high school student who sets their own goals for an independent research project;
• A college student who creates their own study plan for an online course they are taking.

In this video, teachers at Summit Public Schools explain the role of the teacher in self-directed learning.

What Teaching Style is Best for Today’s Students?

Today’s students have a wide range of needs and educators are responding by exploring new, creative teaching methods. We’ve already dove into 15 proven teaching styles, but which one is most beneficial for today’s learners? By examining current research in education, we will discover which style empowers our future generations to succeed!

Overview of current research and trends in education, and how they relate to teaching styles

Educational researchers are revolutionizing the classroom experience. The latest trends focus on personalization, student-centered interactions and making use of cutting edge technology to create a more interactive learning environment than traditional lecture teaching styles can offer.

Rather than an academic setting dependent on monotonous lectures and memorization of material, the flipped classroom offers a more interactive experience. Here students benefit from pre-recorded materials that prepare them for class discussion where they can collaborate with peers. Project-based learning allows learners to tap into their own creativity by tackling longterm projects covering multiple topics while being given freedom in its execution

Technology has revolutionized the modern classroom, empowering teachers to leverage innovative educational approaches such as game-based learning and advanced online resources. This trend is transforming instruction into an engaging experience that encourages students to acquire knowledge through interactive activities.

Overall major pros and cons of switching different teaching styles

Empowering students and using technology as part of the classroom experience can offer many learning benefits, but teachers must factor in extra preparation time to ensure success. Thoughtful structuring of activities is key for engaging students and creating an effective learning environment.

Technology-based teaching styles and the consequent need for specialized resources can be a costly hurdle. Additionally, student-centered learning requires proper assessment methods with an emphasis on providing formative feedback throughout the course of instruction.

By implementing these teaching styles, teachers can not only ignite student motivation and engagement but also enhance learning outcomes for an all-around enjoyable educational experience.

How to choose the most effective teaching style

Educators seeking the most optimal instruction for a lesson or unit should take into consideration multiple aspects, such as content and aims of learning. Furthermore, it is crucial to factor in students’ specific preferences and capabilities by providing distinct activities that accommodate their individual styles. Making these considerations can help ensure an engaging class environment where all learners feel supported!

Teachers must be resourceful and creative when it comes to instruction, leveraging what is available to them and tailoring their teaching styles accordingly. Adopting an adaptive approach enables educators to assess the effectiveness of strategies in real-time from feedback gathered directly from learners.

In the ever-evolving education system, teachers must factor in many variables when deciding how to teach. According to research findings, student-centric learning involving technology appears as a beneficial and engaging way for students of all abilities to learn successfully – though one should be mindful of any potential drawbacks that may arise from these approaches.

Keep Learning

Teachers looking to elevate their pedagogical acumen can explore a world of teaching styles and techniques by taking advantage of various platforms. With numerous resources available, educators can discover useful advice on best practices that will bring any classroom alive! Some highly recommended options include:

• Edutopia  offers an invaluable resource for teachers, providing a wide array of articles and tools to help educators further their students’ knowledge. Its vast library of topics covers everything from instructional techniques and style preferences, to the latest in educational trends – helping ensure that both experienced instructors as well as novices can stay up-to-date on essential teaching strategies.
• TeachThought is the ultimate professional development destination for educators, offering a diverse selection of courses and resources to help teachers upgrade their skills and stay current with best practices. With inspiring articles and podcasts on teaching approaches from industry experts, they’re an invaluable resource in today’s classroom.
• ASCD provides teachers with premier professional development opportunities, such as webinars and conferences tailored to help them enhance their teaching practices. With personalized resources at the forefront of our mission, we hope all educators can unlock the potential within themselves and their students.

With a variety of accessible resources, teachers are empowered to further refine their approach to teaching and create positive learning experiences for students. By capitalizing on the knowledge provided by these cutting-edge strategies, educators can continue developing best practices that lead directly to greater student success.

Educators who recognize the value of flexible lecture styles, and are willing to experiment with various approaches tailored to their students’ unique needs can unlock learning potential in powerful ways. By creating an interactive environment that fosters growth, teachers set up meaningful pathways for academic success – giving each student room to explore what works best when mastering course material!

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Business school teaching case study: can green hydrogen’s potential be realised?

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Jennifer Howard-Grenville and Ujjwal Pandey

Roula Khalaf, Editor of the FT, selects her favourite stories in this weekly newsletter.

Hydrogen is often hyped as the “Swiss army knife” of the energy transition because of its potential versatility in decarbonising fossil fuel-intensive energy production and industries. Making use of that versatility, however, will require hydrogen producers and distributors to cut costs, manage technology risks, and obtain support from policymakers.

To cut carbon dioxide emissions, hydrogen production must shift from its current reliance on fossil fuels. The most common method yields “grey hydrogen”, made from natural gas but without emissions capture. “Blue hydrogen,” which is also made from natural gas but with the associated carbon emissions captured and stored, is favourable.

But “green hydrogen” uses renewable energy sources, including wind and solar, to split water into hydrogen and oxygen via electrolysis. And, because there are no carbon emissions during production or combustion, green hydrogen can help to decarbonise energy generation as well as industry sectors — such as steel, chemicals and transport — that rely heavily on fossil fuels.

Ultimately, though, the promise of green hydrogen will hinge on how businesses and policymakers weigh several questions, trade-offs, and potential long-term consequences. We know from previous innovations that progress can be far from straightforward.

Wind power, for example, is a mature renewable energy technology and a key enabler in green hydrogen production, but it suffers vulnerabilities on several fronts. Even Denmark’s Ørsted — the world’s largest developer of offshore wind power and a beacon for renewable energy — recently said it was struggling to deliver new offshore wind projects profitably in the UK.

Generally, the challenge arises from interdependencies between macroeconomic conditions — such as energy costs and interest rates — and business decision-making around investments. In the case of Ørsted, it said the escalating costs of turbines, labour, and financing have exceeded the inflation-linked fixed price for electricity set by regulators.

Business leaders will also need to steer through uncertainties — such as market demand, technological risks, regulatory ambiguity, and investment risks — as they seek to incorporate green hydrogen.

Test yourself

This is the third in a series of monthly business school-style teaching case studies devoted to responsible-business dilemmas faced by organisations. Read the piece and FT articles suggested at the end before considering the questions raised.

About the authors: Jennifer Howard-Grenville is Diageo professor of organisation studies at Cambridge Judge Business School; Ujjwal Pandey is an MBA candidate at Cambridge Judge and a former consultant at McKinsey.

The series forms part of a wide-ranging collection of FT ‘instant teaching case studies ’ that explore business challenges.

Two factors could help business leaders gain more clarity.

The first factor will be where, and how quickly, costs fall and enable the necessary increase to large-scale production. For instance, the cost of the electrolysers needed to split water into hydrogen and oxygen remains high because levels of production are too low. These costs and slow progress in expanding the availability and affordability of renewable energy sources have made green hydrogen much more expensive than grey hydrogen, so far — currently, two to three times the cost.

The FT’s Lex column calculated last year that a net zero energy system would create global demand for hydrogen of 500mn tonnes, annually, by 2050 — which would require an investment of $20tn. However, only $29bn had been committed by potential investors, Lex noted, despite some 1,000 new projects being announced globally and estimated to require total investment of $320bn.

Solar power faced similar challenges a decade ago. Thanks to low-cost manufacturing in China and supportive government policies, the sector has grown and is, within a very few years , expected to surpass gas-fired power plant installed capacity, globally. Green hydrogen requires a similar concerted effort. With the right policies and technological improvements, the cost of green hydrogen could fall below the cost of grey hydrogen in the next decade, enabling widespread adoption of the former.

Countries around the world are introducing new and varied incentives to address this gap between the expected demand and supply of green hydrogen. In Canada, for instance, Belgium’s Tree Energy Solutions plans to build a $4bn plant in Quebec, to produce synthetic natural gas from green hydrogen and captured carbon, attracted partly by a C$17.7bn ($12.8bn) tax credit and the availability of hydropower.

Such moves sound like good news for champions of green hydrogen, but companies still need to manage the short-term risks from potential policy and energy price swings. The US Inflation Reduction Act, which offers tax credits of up to $3 per kilogramme for producing low-carbon hydrogen, has already brought in limits , and may not survive a change of government.

Against such a backdrop, how should companies such as Hystar — a Norwegian maker of electrolysers already looking to expand capacity from 50 megawatts to 4 gigawatts a year in Europe — decide where and when to open a North American production facility?

The second factor that will shape hydrogen’s future is how and where it is adopted across different industries. Will it be central to the energy sector, where it can be used to produce synthetic fuels, or to help store the energy generated by intermittent renewables, such as wind and solar? Or will it find its best use in hard-to-abate sectors — so-called because cutting their fossil fuel use, and their CO₂ emissions, is difficult — such as aviation and steelmaking?

Steel producers are already seeking to pivot to hydrogen, both as an energy source and to replace the use of coal in reducing iron ore. In a bold development in Sweden, H2 Green Steel says it plans to decarbonise by incorporating hydrogen in both these ways, targeting 2.5mn tonnes of green steel production annually .

Meanwhile, the global aviation industry is exploring the use of hydrogen to replace petroleum-based aviation fuels and in fuel cell technologies that transform hydrogen into electricity. In January 2023, for instance, Anglo-US start-up ZeroAvia conducted a successful test flight of a hydrogen fuel cell-powered aircraft.

The path to widespread adoption, and the transformation required for hydrogen’s range of potential applications, will rely heavily on who invests, where and how. Backers have to be willing to pay a higher initial price to secure and build a green hydrogen supply in the early phases of their investment.

It will also depend on how other technologies evolve. No industry is looking only to green hydrogen to achieve their decarbonisation aims. Other, more mature technologies — such as battery storage for renewable energy — may instead dominate, leaving green hydrogen to fulfil niche applications that can bear high costs.

As with any transition, there will be unintended consequences. Natural resources (sun, wind, hydropower) and other assets (storage, distribution, shipping) that support the green hydrogen economy are unevenly distributed around the globe. There will be new exporters — countries with abundant renewables in the form of sun, wind or hydropower, such as Australia or some African countries — and new importers, such as Germany, with existing industry that relies on hydrogen but has relatively low levels of renewable energy sourced domestically.

How will the associated social and environmental costs be borne, and how will the economic and development benefits be shared? Tackling climate change through decarbonisation is urgent and essential, but there are also trade-offs and long-term consequences to the choices made today.

Questions for discussion

Lex in depth: the staggering cost of a green hydrogen economy

How Germany’s steelmakers plan to go green

Hydrogen-electric aircraft start-up secures UK Infrastructure Bank backing

Aviation start-ups test potential of green hydrogen

Consider these questions:

Are the trajectories for cost/scale-up of other renewable energy technologies (eg solar, wind) applicable to green hydrogen? Are there features of the current economic, policy, and business landscape that point to certain directions for green hydrogen’s development and application?

Take the perspective of someone from a key industry that is part of, or will be affected by, the development of green hydrogen. How should you think about the technology and business opportunities and risks in the near term, and longer term? How might you retain flexibility while still participating in these key shifts?

Solving one problem often creates or obscures new ones. For example, many technologies that decarbonise (such as electric vehicles) have other impacts (such as heavy reliance on certain minerals and materials). How should those participating in the emerging green hydrogen economy anticipate, and address, potential environmental and social impacts? Can we learn from energy transitions of the past?

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Reap the Benefits of Case Teaching—Without All the Prep

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A s a long-time adjunct with a full-time job outside academia, I’m always looking for “impact efficiencies,” ways to shift my performance that both save me time and allow me to deliver better results. For that reason, I’ve been cautious about assigning traditional cases in my graduate-level marketing courses. The more deliberate nature of case discussions doesn’t often align with my nimble, fast-paced teaching style.

Recently, however, I was pleased to find Quick Cases, which enable my students (and me) to enjoy much of what traditional case discussions offer—without as much effort.

If you haven’t yet used one, Quick Cases are what the name suggests: quick, relevant business studies that require no student prep before class and minimal prep for the educator. They allow students to think through a scenario, make analytical and creative decisions, and then justify those decisions. They can be used throughout the term and offer students an array of real-world scenarios that complement theories, frameworks, and discussions.

My students come from many countries and work in nearly every sector, so my approach has always been to expose them to smaller scenarios that will help them think through a range of practical marketing strategies and perspectives. I have typically relied on my own experience to accomplish this, often by creating short exercises and mini cases based on what happened to me at my marketing job that day or week.

“Quick Cases are what the name suggests: quick, relevant business studies that require no student prep before class and minimal prep for the educator.”

My students have valued this approach, but the range of business dilemmas I could provide was limited, especially because my students will likely work across several industries (beyond the ones I know well). Quick Cases solved this limitation for me. I can now blend the more task-oriented immediacy of “Here’s what I worked on this week” and the more strategic relevance of “Let’s discuss a Quick Case on this topic.”

Here, I’ll share how and why I selected the most recent Quick Case I taught, Shaping Brand Identity at Miyavi Matcha Bowls , and suggest four ways to optimize the experience in your own classroom.

1. Select a Quick Case that makes sense for your class

Look at your syllabus and try to identify spots where you can experiment or where you’d like to spend a bit more time on a concept. Perhaps there was a class session earlier in the term or last term that didn’t go the way you had hoped, and you want to find a better way to help students apply frameworks. Or maybe there’s a set of upcoming classes that are particularly dense and you want to break them up with a fun activity. These moments are ideal times to introduce a Quick Case that aligns with your class’s needs.

Then, familiarize yourself with the Quick Cases catalog , keeping in mind those spots you identified earlier. Even if you don’t find one that works right now, getting to know the catalog will allow you to pivot more quickly next time. This was the case for me recently when my students were assigned a reading on the 4Ps of marketing: product, price, place, and promotion. About 90 minutes before class began, I realized that although I had a few industry examples to share, students could solidify certain aspects of last week’s lesson on branding if they wrestled more with the myriad intersections between pricing and brand. I decided to revisit Quick Cases to see if I could use one for this purpose.

“Look at your syllabus and try to identify spots where you can experiment or where you’d like to spend a bit more time on a concept.”

I was immediately drawn to the Miyavi Matcha Bowls story, not least because I have whisked up a bowl of green matcha daily for many years. But I found it compelling for other reasons:

While the Quick Case asks students to think through different brand dimensions for two companies that produce matcha bowls, it also presents an interesting pricing story. One company produces artisan-style matcha bowls more authentically in Japan, whereas the other produces them at scale in other countries. Yet the companies offer similar pricing for their bowls.

We got to discuss not only brand and pricing, but also digital marketing, as the Quick Case asks students to think through how they will position the brand for an exciting last-minute opportunity that just came from the advertising team at Twitch.

The story was a perfect fit, and it was easy for me to pivot last minute to include it in my class.

The Miyavi Matcha Bowls Quick Case worked well for me, but several others caught my attention.

Vyba: Is the Price Right? explores a classic pricing debate. Should the cofounders of a probiotic beverage company charge a higher price to signal a premium product and maximize profits? Or would a lower price be better, making the product more affordable and in line with the belief that the company should balance mission and margins?

Onboarded and Included asks students to assume the role of a hybrid team leader tasked with onboarding a new team member. The team member doesn’t seem engaged with the rest of the team, so what could the leader do to help them feel more included?

Taylor Swift: A Mastermind of Influence instantly appeals because it’s fun and relatable. But I also appreciate the depth at which it helps students understand why power matters and how to build it.

New Quick Cases are being added to the catalog regularly, so I’m making it a habit to check back frequently to see what additional learning objectives are covered.

When you put students on the spot and ask them to apply a concept to a specific example, recommend a course of action, and justify it to their peers, they may get anxious and clam up. I’ve found Quick Cases are a low-stakes way to engage in these essential skill-building exercises. And, if properly aligned with your course’s learning objectives, they won’t feel like busywork for students.

In my class on the 4Ps, I facilitated a discussion in which students brought examples from various brands, including their experience with each of the 4Ps. Because we would be using the Miyavi Quick Case, I saved pricing for last. As the discussion progressed, I asked, “Based on your experience and our readings, how might you describe the link between pricing and brand?”

They offered wonderful insights; one student discussed working for a brand that dramatically lowered its prices for a Black Friday sale, only to find out months later that it had diluted the brand’s value as a result.

After that discussion, I let the students know we would be transitioning into a short in-class exercise to help solidify our learnings. With that, I held up my matcha bowl, asked if they knew what it was, introduced the Quick Case, and emailed them the information they needed to download it.

3. Explain the exercise and set students up for success

Once students have the Quick Case in front of them, briefly explain the exercise—how long the students will have to review the text and how you’d like them to respond to the questions provided in the Quick Case.

For the matcha bowl conversation, I put my students in pairs. (For context, this semester I have 14 students for a three-hour, fully remote class.) I did this because our final project will be a team presentation, so I wanted students to have a chance to practice working and presenting together. The activity can also be done individually or even asynchronously, depending on your class model. If you have a larger class, students can be placed in small groups.

Before sending my paired-off students into breakout rooms, I let them know the following:

They will have 40 minutes to review the Quick Case and prepare their responses.

They should first read it individually to develop their own understanding before discussing it together. (In my experience, providing time to process the Quick Case individually creates richer and more nuanced team discussions.)

I will be floating around to listen to their discussion and answer questions.

After I end the breakout groups, they will share their answers to “The Ask,” the questions at the end of every Quick Case, with the larger group. (For this Quick Case, “The Ask” provided a great mix of positioning analysis and creativity: 1. “Which positioning option should you choose? Why?” and 2. “Create a slogan for the option you choose.”)

“When I made my way from breakout room to breakout room, I noticed students smiling; they were thinking about how a brand positions itself while also having a good time exploring creative advertising ideas in a low-stakes environment.”

When we came back together as a group and discussed the Quick Case, students pulled in branding insights from the previous week, which was exactly what I hoped they would do. In this sense, the Quick Case gave them a chance to apply theory to a real situation they may experience in their careers.

Plus, they had fun. When I made my way from breakout room to breakout room, I noticed students smiling; they were thinking about how a brand positions itself while also having a good time exploring creative advertising ideas in a low-stakes environment.

4. Extend the learning with supplementary activities

The business dilemmas presented in Quick Cases are challenging for students to dissect, but simple to comprehend. This means there’s little “wind up”; no class time is needed to ensure students understand the scenario. In my experience, this efficiency affords me time and space to explore other related activities to extend my students’ learning.

For the Miyavi Quick Case, I added on a related exercise to give students an opportunity to practice giving each other feedback—a capacity I’ve seen folks at all levels struggle with throughout my career. I shared how I believe building feedback skills can dramatically improve how they are perceived by their colleagues, how they develop on the job, their team’s culture, and even that team’s resulting performance.

With that, I walked the students through my definition of feedback and shared that, after each team presented their answers to “The Ask” questions, I would like the very first comment from a peer to be specific and positive feedback. I asked them to consider, “Did the team’s Quick Case response illuminate a new perspective for you? Was their presentation convincing? Did you appreciate the creativity behind their slogan? Go beyond vague statements like ‘great job’ and let them know, specifically, what you think they did well.”

“Now, without prompting, many of my students are freely and more comfortably stepping into feedback conversations that help us foster richer class discussions.”

Students leaned into this opportunity, offering positive feedback that helped others see their strengths in a new way. One student even called out the poetic nature of another team’s slogan, then read it out loud, which helped that team understand the slogan’s power in a new way.

This feedback activity is one of many you can attach to Quick Cases. For the Miyavi Quick Case, other activities could include the following:

Design the advertisement. After students develop the slogan for Twitch, they can use a tool like Canva to mock up what the ad may look like on the Twitch website.

Discuss through differences. After students decide on their positioning angle, they could converse with a group that chose a different angle. The goal is not to “win” but to practice fielding other perspectives.

Present with slides. In many business environments, ideas must be presented in slides to be taken seriously. In this activity, students can practice creating slides and then sharing those ideas in class like they would in a real work setting.

Quick Cases provide impactful results—in little time

At the beginning of each class, I ask students to reflect on what they learned the previous week. What stuck with them? With Quick Cases, I find that not only do they remember what they learned from the exercise, but they also seem to have a better understanding of the related course material (textbook readings, etc.). The Quick Cases give them a chance to tie the material to something real, something they have to collaborate on and work through.

Similarly, I’m finding that my Quick Case add-ons are building new skills into new habits. Now, without prompting, many of my students are freely and more comfortably stepping into feedback conversations that help us foster richer class discussions.

Lastly, I have found that Quick Cases give me at least four times what I put into prepping them. Only 30 minutes of prep time can lead to a memorable two-hour classroom experience.

Cameron Conaway is an adjunct professor in the Professional Communication master’s program at the University of San Francisco and a team leader in the People, Policy & Purpose organization at Cisco. Conaway holds an Executive MBA from the University of San Francisco and an MFA in Creative Writing from the University of Arizona. A former journalist, he is a recipient of The Daniel Pearl Investigative Journalism Initiative Fellowship and a grantee of the Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. See Conaway’s latest article at HBR.org , “ The Right Way to Process Feedback. ”

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Teaching difficult and sensitive topics in higher education: some starting points

Helen Knowler, Associate Professor (Teaching), the Eugenics Legacy Education Project, offers thoughtful advice on how to help your students constructively tackle difficult or sensitive topics.

12 April 2024

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Watch the video on MediaCentral .  Download the transcript [docx] .

What are difficult and/or sensitive topics? 

Defining and agreeing what constitutes a difficult and/or sensitive topic can be hard to agree on because what is ‘difficult’ for some, is not for others. A key aspect for success in the classroom is dependent on some careful thinking and planning as well as challenging some ‘taken for granted’ aspects of our practices. Generally, difficult topics are characterised by engagement with curriculum content that can make learners feel discomfort, where disagreement becomes a feature of the classroom space, perhaps in ways it was not in previous modules or sessions. So, talking to colleagues about the ways you define and understand ‘difficulty’ can be a really valuable first step in understanding how best to teach these areas. 

Why do we need to think about this? 

Higher education classrooms are diverse and dynamic and, while this can bring many benefits for learners, it can pose tensions and dilemmas for educators introducing difficult topics within a short space of time (such as one module session). We cannot always do justice to the complexity of the topic. Conversely, working with colleagues to introduce or revise teaching to incorporate direct engagement with difficult topics can be creative and drive innovation – because we need to think about issues such as inclusive learning, culturally relevant teaching, authentic assessment and preparing students to work in institutions where difficult topics and conversations may be the norm. Teaching difficult topics offers enormous potential to teach critical thinking skills, using evidence and reasoning to agree on productive solutions and to think about wider concepts around social justice and equity. 

What can we do? 

There are three key strategies important when thinking about and planning for teaching topics that could be described as difficult or sensitive. 

Prepare your students

Firstly, it is helpful to think about the ways that students encounter potentially difficult or sensitive topics across a module or a programme. It is useful to think about the timing of the introduction of difficult content from the perspective of students. The research shows that introducing content too early or too late restricts opportunities to prepare students to learn about difficult content and for us to ensure we have laid the groundwork in terms of skills and understanding.

For example, we might want to teach students to understand the legacy of eugenics at UCL and ask them to present their research on the topic. If this topic is introduced in a way that leaves students unprepared to do the task, to understand the rationale behind including this work, and not understanding why this is relevant to learning outcomes, we are more likely to encounter a lack of engagement or strong emotions related to wanting to question the inclusion of such content. 

Explain your approach 

Linked to mapping, offering and explicit educational rationale and justification is critical. In my experience, when colleagues offer a short overview of their teaching approach, explain the inclusion of content and their choices for learning strategies, students understand the decision-making around the inclusion of difficult content, and can see the connections between teaching philosophies and practical approaches.

This doesn’t have to be a huge piece of work – I have seen examples of this done well as part of module introductions on Moodle or as part of introductory sessions with students where tutors have explored, with students, the use of approaches and their intended aims. This is important if we want our sessions to be productive and engaging for students and it also enables us to work with students before difficult topics appear. 

Alignment pedagogies 

The final tool that I see used by educators relates to alignment. Reflecting on times when I have seen things ‘go wrong’ in teaching session, I have worked with colleagues to explore and identify places in their work where there is a small misalignment in their teaching. This is usually almost imperceptible, but its impact can be significant for students.

For example, we might be wanting to teach an area that is sensitive, and our goal is to support students to understand many perspectives and to think about empathy, and develop their critical thinking skills. So, these are lofty aims for one session and when we add a pedagogic approach that is not quite aligned, we might find that students do not engage. So here, we’d want to think about reducing the content and aims of the session, and choosing a pedagogic approach that offers students time and space to think about the complexity. We would want the students to understand and experience that the goal is NOT to decide for or against, or offer simplistic solutions to complex issues. 

Find out more

Access a range of resources relating to the Eugenics Legacy Education project , including recordings of many of our sessions. 

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• Published: 16 April 2024

Designing a framework for entrepreneurship education in Chinese higher education: a theoretical exploration and empirical case study

• Luning Shao 1 ,
• Yuxin Miao 2 ,
• Shengce Ren 3 ,
• Sanfa Cai 4 &
• Fei Fan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8756-5140 5 , 6  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  519 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Entrepreneurship education (EE) has rapidly evolved within higher education and has emerged as a pivotal mechanism for cultivating innovative and entrepreneurial talent. In China, while EE has made positive strides, it still faces a series of practical challenges. These issues cannot be effectively addressed solely through the efforts of universities. Based on the triple helix (TH) theory, this study delves into the unified objectives and practical content of EE in Chinese higher education. Through a comprehensive literature review on EE, coupled with educational objectives, planned behavior, and entrepreneurship process theories, this study introduces the 4H objective model of EE. 4H stands for Head (mindset), Hand (skill), Heart (attitude), and Help (support). Additionally, the research extends to a corresponding content model that encompasses entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup services, and the entrepreneurial climate as tools for achieving the objectives. Based on a single-case approach, this study empirically explores the application of the content model at T-University. Furthermore, this paper elucidates how the university plays a role through the comprehensive development of entrepreneurial learning, practices, services, and climate in nurturing numerous entrepreneurs and facilitating the flourishing of the regional entrepreneurial ecosystem. This paper provides important contributions in its application of TH theory to develop EE within the Chinese context, and it provides clear guidance by elucidating the core objectives and practical content of EE. The proposed conceptual framework serves not only as a guiding tool but also as a crucial conduit for fostering the collaborative development of the EE ecosystem. To enhance the robustness of the framework, this study advocates strengthening empirical research on TH theory through multiple and comparative case studies.

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Introduction

In the era of the knowledge economy, entrepreneurship has emerged as a fundamental driver of social and economic development. As early as 1911, Schumpeter proposed the well-known theory of economic development, wherein he first introduced the concepts of entrepreneurship and creative destruction as driving forces behind socioeconomic development. Numerous endogenous growth theories, such as the entrepreneurial ecosystem mechanism of Acs et al. ( 2018 ), which also underscores the pivotal role of entrepreneurship in economic development, are rooted in Schumpeter’s model. Recognized as a key means of cultivating entrepreneurs and enhancing their capabilities (Jin et al., 2023 ), entrepreneurship education (EE) has received widespread attention over the past few decades, especially in the context of higher education (Wong & Chan, 2022 ).

Driven by international trends and economic demands, China places significant emphasis on nurturing innovative talent and incorporating EE into the essential components of its national education system. The State Council’s “Implementation Opinions on Deepening the Reform of Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Higher Education” (hereafter referred to as the report) underscores the urgent necessity for advancing reforms in innovation and EE in higher education institutions. This initiative aligns with the national strategy of promoting innovation-driven development and enhancing economic quality and efficiency. Furthermore, institutions at various levels are actively and eagerly engaging in EE.

Despite the positive strides made in EE in China, its development still faces a series of formidable practical challenges. As elucidated in the report, higher education institutions face challenges such as a delay in the conceptualization of EE, inadequate integration with specialized education, and a disconnect from practical applications. Furthermore, educators exhibit a deficiency in awareness and capabilities, which manifests in a singular and less effective teaching methodology. The shortage of practical platforms, guidance, and support emphasizes the pressing need for comprehensive innovation and EE systems. These issues necessitate collaborative efforts from universities, industry, and policymakers.

Internationally established solutions for the current challenges have substantially matured, providing invaluable insights and guidance for the development of EE in the Chinese context. In the late 20th century, the concept of the entrepreneurial university gained prominence (Etzkowitz et al., 2000 ). Then, entrepreneurial universities expanded their role from traditional research and teaching to embrace a “third mission” centered on economic development. This transformation entailed fostering student engagement in entrepreneurial initiatives by offering resources and guidance to facilitate the transition of ideas into viable entrepreneurial ventures. Additionally, these entrepreneurial universities played a pivotal role in advancing the triple helix (TH) model (Henry, 2009 ). The TH model establishes innovation systems that facilitate knowledge conversion into economic endeavors by coordinating the functions of universities, government entities, and industry. The robustness of this perspective has been substantiated through comprehensive theoretical and empirical investigations (Mandrup & Jensen, 2017 ).

Therefore, this study aims to explore how EE in Chinese universities can adapt to new societal trends and demands through the guidance of TH theory. This research involves two major themes: educational objectives and content. Educational objectives play a pivotal role in regulating the entire process of educational activities, ensuring alignment with the principles and norms of education (Whitehead, 1967 ), while content provides a practical pathway to achieving these objectives. Specifically, the study has three pivotal research questions:

RQ1: What is the present landscape of EE research?

RQ2: What unified macroscopic goals should be formulated to guide EE in Chinese higher education?

RQ3: What specific EE system should be implemented to realize the identified goals in Chinese higher education?

The structure of this paper is as follows: First, we conduct a comprehensive literature review on EE to answer RQ1 , thereby establishing a robust theoretical foundation. Second, we outline our research methodology, encompassing both framework construction and case studies and providing a clear and explicit approach to our research process. Third, we derive the objectives and content model of EE guided by educational objectives, entrepreneurial motivations, and entrepreneurial process theories. Fourth, focusing on a typical university in China as our research subject, we conduct a case study to demonstrate the practical application of our research framework. Finally, we end the paper with the findings for RQ2 and RQ3 , discussions on the framework, and conclusions.

Literature review

The notion of TH first appeared in the early 1980s, coinciding with the global transition from an industrial to a knowledge-based economy (Cai & Etzkowitz, 2020 ). At that time, the dramatic increase in productivity led to overproduction, and knowledge became a valuable mechanism for driving innovation and economic growth (Mandrup & Jensen, 2017 ). Recognizing the potential of incorporating cutting-edge university technologies into industry and facilitating technology transfer and innovation, the US government took proactive steps to enhance the international competitiveness of American industries. This initiative culminated in the enactment of relevant legislation in 1980, which triggered a surge in technology transfer, patent licensing, and the establishment of new enterprises within the United States. Subsequently, European and Asian nations adopted similar measures, promoting the transformation of universities’ identity (Grimaldi et al., 2011 ). Universities assumed a central role in technology transfer, the formation of businesses, and regional revitalization within the knowledge society rather than occupying a secondary position within the industrial community. The conventional one-to-one relationships between universities, companies, and the government evolved into a dynamic TH model (Cai & Etzkowitz, 2020 ). Beyond their traditional roles in knowledge creation, wealth production, and policy coordination, these sectors began to engage in multifaceted interactions, effectively “playing the role of others” (Ranga & Etzkowitz, 2013 ).

The TH model encompasses three fundamental elements: 1) In a knowledge-based society, universities assume a more prominent role in innovation than in industry; 2) The three entities engage in collaborative relationships, with innovation policies emerging as a result of their mutual interactions rather than being solely dictated by the government; and 3) Each entity, while fulfilling its traditional functions, also takes on the roles of the other two parties (Henry, 2009 ). This model is closely aligned with EE.

On the one hand, EE can enhance the effectiveness of TH theory by strengthening the links between universities, industry, and government. The TH concept was developed based on entrepreneurial universities. The emerging entrepreneurial university model integrates economic development as an additional function. Etzkowitz’s research on the entrepreneurial university identified a TH model of academia-industry-government relations implemented by universities in an increasingly knowledge-based society (Galvao et al., 2019 ). Alexander and Evgeniy ( 2012 ) articulated that entrepreneurial universities are crucial to the implementation of triple-helix arrangements and that by integrating EE into their curricula, universities have the potential to strengthen triple-helix partnerships and boost the effectiveness of the triple-helix model.

On the other hand, TH theory also drives EE to achieve high-quality development. Previously, universities were primarily seen as sources of knowledge and human resources. However, they are now also regarded as reservoirs of technology. Within EE and incubation programs, universities are expanding their educational capabilities beyond individual education to shaping organizations (Henry, 2009 ). Surpassing their role as sources of new ideas for existing companies, universities blend their research and teaching processes in a novel way, emerging as pivotal sources for the formation of new companies, particularly in high-tech domains. Furthermore, innovation within one field of the TH influences others (Piqué et al., 2020 ). An empirical study by Alexander and Evgeniy ( 2012 ) outlined how the government introduced a series of initiatives to develop entrepreneurial universities, construct innovation infrastructure, and foster EE growth.

Overview of EE

EE occupies a crucial position in driving economic advancement, and this domain has been the focal point of extensive research. Fellnhofer ( 2019 ) examined 1773 publications from 1975 to 2014, introducing a more closely aligned taxonomy of EE research. This taxonomy encompasses eight major clusters: social and policy-driven EE, human capital studies related to self-employment, organizational EE and TH, (Re)design and evaluation of EE initiatives, entrepreneurial learning, EE impact studies, and the EE opportunity-related environment at the organizational level. Furthermore, Mohamed and Sheikh Ali ( 2021 ) conducted a systematic literature review of 90 EE articles published from 2009 to 2019. The majority of these studies focused on the development of EE (32%), followed by its benefits (18%) and contributions (12%). The selected research also addressed themes such as the relationship between EE and entrepreneurial intent, the effectiveness of EE, and its assessment (each comprising 9% of the sample).

Spanning from 1975 to 2019, these two reviews offer a comprehensive landscape of EE research. The perspective on EE has evolved, extending into multiple dimensions (Zaring et al., 2021 ). However, EE does not always achieve the expected outcomes, as challenges such as limited student interest and engagement as well as persistent negative attitudes are often faced (Mohamed & Sheikh Ali, 2021 ). In fact, the challenges faced by EE in most countries may be similar. However, the solutions may vary due to contextual differences (Fred Awaah et al., 2023 ). Furthermore, due to this evolution, there is a need for a more comprehensive grasp of pedagogical concepts and the foundational elements of modern EE (Hägg & Gabrielsson, 2020 ). Based on the objectives of this study, four specific themes were chosen for an in-depth literature review: the objectives, contents and methods, outcomes, and experiences of EE.

Objectives of EE

The objectives of EE may provide significant guidance for its implementation and the assessment of its effectiveness, and EE has evolved to form a diversified spectrum. Mwasalwiba ( 2010 ) presented a multifaceted phenomenon in which EE objectives are closely linked to entrepreneurial outcomes. These goals encompass nurturing entrepreneurial attitudes (34%), promoting new ventures (27%), contributing to local community development (24%), and imparting entrepreneurial skills (15%). Some current studies still emphasize particular dimensions of these goals, such as fostering new ventures or value creation (Jones et al., 2018 ; Ratten & Usmanij, 2021 ). These authors further stress the significance of incorporating practical considerations related to the business environment, which prompts learners to contemplate issues such as funding and resource procurement. This goal inherently underscores the importance of entrepreneurial thinking and encourages learners to transition from merely being students to developing entrepreneurial mindsets.

Additionally, Kuratko and Morris ( 2018 ) posit that the goal of EE should not be to produce entrepreneurs but to cultivate entrepreneurial mindsets in students, equipping them with methods for thinking and acting entrepreneurially and enabling them to perceive opportunities rapidly in uncertain conditions and harness resources as entrepreneurs would. While the objectives of EE may vary based on the context of the teaching institution, the fundamental goal is increasingly focused on conveying and nurturing an entrepreneurial mindset among diverse stakeholders. Hao’s ( 2017 ) research contends that EE forms a comprehensive system in which multidimensional educational objectives are established. These objectives primarily encompass cultivating students’ foundational qualities and innovative entrepreneurial personalities, equipping them with essential awareness of entrepreneurship, psychological qualities conducive to entrepreneurship, and a knowledge structure for entrepreneurship. Such a framework guides students towards independent entrepreneurship based on real entrepreneurial scenarios.

Various studies and practices also contain many statements about entrepreneurial goals. The Entrepreneurship Competence Framework, which was issued by the EU in 2016, delineates three competency domains: ideas and opportunities, resources and action. Additionally, the framework outlines 15 specific entrepreneurship competencies (Jun, 2017 ). Similarly, the National Content Standards for EE published by the US Consortium encompass three overarching strategies for articulating desired competencies for aspiring entrepreneurs: entrepreneurial skills, ready skills, and business functions (Canziani & Welsh, 2021 ). First, entrepreneurial skills are unique characteristics, behaviors, and experiences that distinguish entrepreneurs from ordinary employees or managers. Second, ready skills, which include business and entrepreneurial knowledge and skills, are prerequisites and auxiliary conditions for EE. Third, business functions help entrepreneurs create and operate business processes in business activities. These standards explain in the broadest terms what students need to be self-employed or to develop and grow a new venture. Although entrepreneurial skills may be addressed in particular courses offered by entrepreneurship faculties, it is evident that business readiness and functional skills significantly contribute to entrepreneurial success (Canziani & Welsh, 2021 ).

Contents and methods of EE

The content and methods employed in EE are pivotal factors for ensuring the delivery of high-quality entrepreneurial instruction, and they have significant practical implications for achieving educational objectives. The conventional model of EE, which is rooted in the classroom setting, typically features an instructor at the front of the room delivering concepts and theories through lectures and readings (Mwasalwiba, 2010 ). However, due to limited opportunities for student engagement in the learning process, lecture-based teaching methods prove less effective at capturing students’ attention and conveying new concepts (Rahman, 2020 ). In response, Okebukola ( 2020 ) introduced the Culturo-Techno-Contextual Approach (CTCA), which offers a hybrid teaching and learning method that integrates cultural, technological, and geographical contexts. Through a controlled experiment involving 400 entrepreneurship development students from Ghana, CTCA has been demonstrated to be a model for enhancing students’ comprehension of complex concepts (Awaah, 2023 ). Furthermore, learners heavily draw upon their cultural influences to shape their understanding of EE, emphasizing the need for educators to approach the curriculum from a cultural perspective to guide students in comprehending entrepreneurship effectively.

In addition to traditional classroom approaches, research has highlighted innovative methods for instilling entrepreneurial spirit among students. For instance, students may learn from specific university experiences or even engage in creating and running a company (Kolb & Kolb, 2011 ). Some scholars have developed an educational portfolio that encompasses various activities, such as simulations, games, and real company creation, to foster reflective practice (Neck & Greene, 2011 ). However, some studies have indicated that EE, when excessively focused on applied and practical content, yields less favorable outcomes for students aspiring to engage in successful entrepreneurship (Martin et al., 2013 ). In contrast, students involved in more academically oriented courses tend to demonstrate improved intellectual skills and often achieve greater success as entrepreneurs (Zaring et al., 2021 ). As previously discussed, due to the lack of a coherent theoretical framework in EE, there is a lack of uniformity and consistency in course content and methods (Ribeiro et al., 2018 ).

Outcomes of EE

Research on the outcomes of EE is a broad and continually evolving field, with most related research focusing on immediate or short-term impact factors. For example, Anosike ( 2019 ) demonstrated the positive effect of EE on human capital, and Chen et al. ( 2022 ) proposed that EE significantly moderates the impact of self-efficacy on entrepreneurial competencies in higher education students through an innovative learning environment. In particular, in the comprehensive review by Kim et al. ( 2020 ), six key EE outcomes were identified: entrepreneurial creation, entrepreneurial intent, opportunity recognition, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and orientation, need for achievement and locus of control, and other entrepreneurial knowledge. One of the more popular directions is the examination of the impact of EE on entrepreneurial intentions. Bae et al. ( 2014 ) conducted a meta-analysis of 73 studies to examine the relationship between EE and entrepreneurial intention and revealed little correlation. However, a meta-analysis of 389 studies from 2010 to 2020 by Zhang et al. ( 2022 ) revealed a positive association between the two variables.

Nabi et al. ( 2017 ) conducted a systematic review to determine the impact of EE in higher education. Their findings highlight that studies exploring the outcomes of EE have primarily concentrated on short-term and subjective assessments, with insufficient consideration of longer-term effects spanning five or even ten years. These longer-term impacts encompass factors such as the nature and quantity of startups, startup survival rates, and contributions to society and the economy. As noted in the Eurydice report, a significant impediment to advancing EE is the lack of comprehensive delineation concerning education outcomes (Bourgeois et al., 2016 ).

Experiences in the EE system

With the deepening exploration of EE, researchers have turned to studying university-centered entrepreneurship ecosystems (Allahar and Sookram, 2019 ). Such ecosystems are adopted to fill gaps in “educational and economic development resources”, such as entrepreneurship curricula. A growing number of universities have evolved an increasingly complex innovation system that extends from technology transfer offices, incubators, and technology parks to translational research and the promotion of EE across campuses (Cai & Etzkowitz, 2020 ). In the university context, the entrepreneurial ecosystem aligns with TH theory, in which academia, government, and industry create a trilateral network and hybrid organization (Ranga & Etzkowitz, 2013 ).

The EE system is also a popular topic in China. Several researchers have summarized the Chinese experience in EE, including case studies and overall experience, such as the summary of the progress and system development of EE in Chinese universities over the last decade by Weiming et al. ( 2013 ) and the summary of the Chinese experience in innovation and EE by Maoxin ( 2017 ). Other researchers take an in-depth look at the international knowledge of EE, such as discussions on the EE system of Denmark by Yuanyuan ( 2015 ), analyzes of the ecological system of EE at the Technical University of Munich by Yubing and Ziyan ( 2015 ), and comparisons of international innovation and EE by Ke ( 2017 ).

In general, although there has been considerable discussion on EE, the existing body of work has not properly addressed the practical challenges faced by EE in China. On the one hand, the literature is fragmented and has not yet formed a unified and mature theoretical framework. Regarding what should be taught and how it can be taught and assessed, the answers in related research are ambiguous (Hoppe, 2016 ; Wong & Chan, 2022 ). On the other hand, current research lacks empirical evidence in the context of China, and guidance on how to put the concept of EE into practice is relatively limited. These dual deficiencies impede the effective and in-depth development of EE in China. Consequently, it is imperative to comprehensively redefine the objectives and contents of EE to provide clear developmental guidance for Chinese higher education institutions.

Research methodology

To answer the research questions, this study employed a comprehensive approach by integrating both literature-based and empirical research methods. The initial phase focused on systematically reviewing the literature related to entrepreneurial education, aiming to construct a clear set of frameworks for the objectives and content of EE in higher education institutions. The second phase involved conducting a case study at T-University, in which the theoretical frameworks were applied to a real-world context. This case not only contributed to validating the theoretical constructs established through the literature review but also provided valuable insights into the practical operational dynamics of entrepreneurial education within the specific university setting.

Conceptual framework stage

This paper aims to conceptualize the objective and content frameworks for EE. The methodology sequence is as follows: First, we examine the relevant EE literature to gain insights into existing research themes. Subsequently, we identify specific research articles based on these themes, such as “entrepreneurial intention”, “entrepreneurial self-efficacy”, and “entrepreneurial approach”, among others. Third, we synthesize the shared objectives of EE across diverse research perspectives through an analysis of the selected literature. Fourth, we construct an objective model for EE within higher education by integrating Bloom’s educational objectives ( 1956 ) and Gagne’s five learning outcomes ( 1984 ), complemented by entrepreneurship motivation and process considerations. Finally, we discuss the corresponding content framework.

Case study stage

To further elucidate the conceptual framework, this paper delves into the methods for the optimization of EE in China through a case analysis. Specifically, this paper employs a single-case approach. While a single case study may have limited external validity (Onjewu et al., 2021 ), if a case study informs current theory and conceptualizes the explored issues, it can still provide valuable insights from its internal findings (Buchanan, 1999 ).

T-University, which is a comprehensive university in China, is chosen as the subject of the case study for the following reasons. First, T-University is located in Shanghai, which is a Chinese international technological innovation center approved by the State Council. Shanghai’s “14th Five-Year Plan” proposes the establishment of a multichannel international innovation collaboration platform and a global innovation cooperation network. Second, T-University has initiated curriculum reforms and established a regional knowledge economy ecosystem by utilizing EE as a guiding principle, which aligns with the characteristics of its geographical location, history, culture, and disciplinary settings. This case study will showcase T-University’s experiences in entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup services, and the entrepreneurial climate, elucidating the positive outcomes of this triangular interaction and offering practical insights for EE in other contexts.

The data collection process of this study was divided into two main stages: field research and archival research. The obtained data included interview transcripts, field notes, photos, internal documents, websites, reports, promotional materials, and published articles. In the initial stage, we conducted a 7-day field trip, including visits to the Innovation and Entrepreneurship Institute, the Career Development Centre, the Academic Affairs Office, and the Graduate School. Moreover, we conducted semistructured interviews with several faculty members and students involved in entrepreneurship education at the university to understand the overall state of implementation of entrepreneurship education at the university. In the second stage, we contacted the Academic Affairs Office and the Student Affairs Office at the university and obtained internal materials related to entrepreneurship education. Additionally, we conducted a comprehensive collection and created a summary of publicly available documents, official school websites, public accounts, and other electronic files. To verify the validity of the multisource data, we conducted triangulation and ultimately used consistent information as the basis for the data analysis.

For the purpose of our study, thematic analysis was employed to delve deeply into the TH factors, the objective and content frameworks, and their interrelationships. Thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns within data. This approach emphasizes a comprehensive interpretation of the data, as it extracts information from multiple perspectives and derives valuable conclusions through summary and induction (Onjewu et al., 2021 ). Therefore, thematic analysis likely serves as the foundation for most other qualitative data analysis methods (Willig, 2013 ). In this study, three researchers individually conducted rigorous analyses and comprehensive reviews to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the data. Subsequently, they engaged in collaborative discussions to explore their differences and ultimately reach a consensus.

Framework construction

Theoretical basis of ee in universities.

The study is grounded in the theories of educational objectives, planned behavior, and the entrepreneurial process. Planned behavior theory can serve to elucidate the emergence of entrepreneurial activity, while entrepreneurial process theory can be used to delineate the essential elements of successful entrepreneurship.

Theory of educational objectives. The primary goal of education is to assist students in shaping their future. Furthermore, education should directly influence students and facilitate their future development. Education can significantly enhance students’ prospects by imparting specific skills and fundamental principles and cultivating the correct attitudes and mindsets (Bruner, 2009 ). According to “The Aims of Education” by Whitehead, the objective of education is to stimulate creativity and vitality. Gagne identifies five learning outcomes that enable teachers to design optimal learning conditions based on the presentation of these outcomes, encompassing “attitude,” “motor skills,” “verbal information,” “intellectual skills,” and “cognitive strategies”. Bloom et al. ( 1956 ) argue that education has three aims, which concern the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. Gedeon ( 2017 ) posits that EE involves critical input and output elements. The key objectives encompass mindset (Head), skill (hand), attitude (heart), and support (help). The input objectives include EE teachers, resources, facilities, courses, and teaching methods. The output objectives encompass the impacts of the input factors, such as the number of students, the number of awards, and the establishment of new companies. The primary aims of Gedeon ( 2017 ) correspond to those of Bloom et al. ( 1956 ).

Theory of planned behavior. The theory of planned behavior argues that human behavior is the outcome of well-thought-out planning (Ajzen, 1991 ). Human behavior depends on behavioral intentions, which are affected by three main factors. The first is derived from the individual’s “attitude” towards taking a particular action; the second is derived from the influence of “subjective norms” from society; and the third is derived from “perceived behavioral control” (Ajzen, 1991 ). Researchers have adopted this theory to study entrepreneurial behavior and EE.

Theory of the entrepreneurship process. Researchers have proposed several entrepreneurial models, most of which are processes (Baoshan & Baobao, 2008 ). The theory of the entrepreneurship process focuses on the critical determinants of entrepreneurial success. The essential variables of the entrepreneurial process model significantly impact entrepreneurial performance. Timmons et al. ( 2004 ) argue that successful entrepreneurial activities require an appropriate match among opportunities, entrepreneurial teams, resources, and a dynamic balance as the business develops. Their model emphasizes flexibility and equilibrium, and it is believed that entrepreneurial activities change with time and space. As a result, opportunities, teams, and resources will be unbalanced and need timely adjustment.

4H objective model of EE

Guided by TH theory, the objectives of EE should consider universities’ transformational identity in the knowledge era and promote collaboration among students, faculty, researchers, and external players (Mandrup & Jensen, 2017 ). Furthermore, through a comprehensive analysis of the literature and pertinent theoretical underpinnings, the article introduces the 4H model for the EE objectives, as depicted in Fig. 1 .

The 4H objective model of entrepreneurship education.

The model comprises two levels. The first level pertains to outcomes at the entrepreneurial behavior level, encompassing entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial performance. These two factors support universities’ endeavors to nurture individuals with an entrepreneurial mindset and potential and contribute to the region’s growth of innovation and entrepreneurship. The second level pertains to fundamentals, which form the foundation of the first level. The article defines these as the 4H model, representing mindset (Head), skill (Hand), attitude (Heart), and support (Help). This model integrates key theories, including educational objectives, the entrepreneurship process, and planned behavior.

First, according to the theory of educational objectives, the cognitive, emotional, and skill objectives proposed by Bloom et al. ( 1956 ) correspond to the key goals of education offered by Gedeon ( 2017 ), namely, Head, Hand, and Heart; thus, going forward, in this study, these three objectives are adopted. Second, according to the theory of planned behavior, for the promotion of entrepreneurial intention, reflection on the control of beliefs, social norms, and perceptual behaviors must be included. EE’s impact on the Head, Hand, and Heart will promote the power of entrepreneurs’ thoughts and perceptual actions. Therefore, this approach is beneficial for enhancing entrepreneurial intentions. Third, according to entrepreneurship process theory, entrepreneurial performance is affected by various factors, including entrepreneurial opportunities, teams, and resources. Consideration of the concepts of Head, Hand, and Heart can enhance entrepreneurial opportunity recognition and entrepreneurial team capabilities. However, as the primary means of obtaining external resources, social networks play an essential role in improving the performance of innovation and entrepreneurship companies (Gao et al., 2023 ). Therefore, an effective EE program should tell students how to take action, connect them with those who can help them succeed (Ronstadt, 1985 ), and help them access the necessary resources. If EE institutions can provide relevant help, they will consolidate entrepreneurial intentions and improve entrepreneurial performance, enabling the EE’s objective to better support the Head, Hand, and Heart.

Content model of EE

EE necessitates establishing a systematic implementation framework to achieve the 4H objectives. Current research on EE predominantly focuses on two facets: one focuses on EE methods to improve students’ skills, and the other focuses on EE outcome measurements, which consider the impact of EE on different stakeholders. Based on this, to foster innovation in EE approaches and enable long-term sustainable EE outcomes, the 4H Model of EE objectives mandates that pertinent institutions provide entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup services, and a suitable entrepreneurial climate. These components constitute the four integral facets of the content model for EE, as depicted in Fig. 2 .

The content model of entrepreneurship education.

Entrepreneurial learning

Entrepreneurial learning mainly refers to the learning of innovative entrepreneurial knowledge and theory. This factor represents the core of EE and can contribute significantly to the Head component. It can also improve the entrepreneurial thinking ability of academic subjects through classroom teaching, lectures, information reading and analysis, discussion, debates, etc. Additionally, it can positively affect the Hand and Heart elements of EE.

Entrepreneurial practice

Entrepreneurial practice mainly refers to academic subjects comprehensively enhancing their cognition and ability by participating in entrepreneurial activities. This element is also a key component of EE and plays a significant role in the cultivation of the Hand element. Entrepreneurial practice is characterized by participation in planning and implementing entrepreneurial programs, competitions, and simulation activities. Furthermore, it positively impacts EE’s Head, Heart, and Help factors.

Startup services

Startup services mainly refer to entrepreneurial-related support services provided by EE institutions, which include investment and financing, project declaration, financial and legal support, human resources, marketing, and intermediary services. These services can improve the success of entrepreneurship projects. Therefore, they can reinforce the expectations of entrepreneurs’ success and positively impact the Heart, Hand, and Head objectives of EE.

Entrepreneurial climate

The entrepreneurial climate refers to the entrepreneurial environment created by EE institutions and their community and is embodied mainly in the educational institutions’ external and internal entrepreneurial culture and ecology. The environment can impact the entrepreneurial attitude of educated individuals and the Heart objective of EE. Additionally, it is beneficial for realizing EE’s Head, Hand, and Help goals.

Case study: EE practice of T-University

Overview of ee at t-university.

T-University is one of the first in China to promote innovation and EE. Since the 1990s, a series of policies have been introduced, and different platforms have been set up. After more than 20 years of teaching, research, and practice, an innovation and entrepreneurship education system with unique characteristics has gradually evolved. The overall goal of this system is to ensure that 100% of students receive such education, with 10% of students completing the program and 1% achieving entrepreneurship with a high-quality standard. The overall employment rate of 2020 graduates reached 97.49%. In recent years, the proportion of those pursuing entrepreneurship has been more than 1% almost every year. The T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle, an industrial cluster formed around knowledge spillover from T-University’s dominant disciplines, employs more than 400 T-University graduates annually.

In 2016, T-University established the School of Innovation & Entrepreneurship, with the president serving as its dean. This school focuses on talent development and is pivotal in advancing innovation-driven development strategies. It coordinates efforts across various departments and colleges to ensure comprehensive coverage of innovation and EE, the integration of diverse academic disciplines, and the transformation of interdisciplinary scientific and technological advancements (see Fig. 3 ).

T-University innovation and entrepreneurship education map.

T-University is dedicated to integrating innovation and EE into every stage of talent development. As the guiding framework for EE, the university has established the Innovation and EE sequence featuring “three-dimensional, linked, and cross-university cooperation” with seven educational elements. These elements include the core curriculum system of innovation and entrepreneurship, the “one top-notch and three excellences” and experimental zones of innovation and entrepreneurship talent cultivation model, the four-level “China-Shanghai-University-School” training programs for innovation and entrepreneurship, four-level “International-National-Municipal-University” science and technology competitions, four-level “National-Municipal-University-School” innovation and entrepreneurship practice bases, three-level “Venture Valley-Entrepreneurship Fund-Industry Incubation” startup services and a high-level teaching team with both full-time and part-time personnel.

T-University has implemented several initiatives. First, the university has implemented 100% student innovation and EE through reforming the credit setting and curriculum system. Through the Venture Valley class, mobile class, and “joint summer school”, more than 10% of the students completed the Innovation and EE program. Moreover, through the professional reform pilot and eight professional incubation platforms in the National Science and Technology Park of T-University and other measures, 1% of the students established high-quality entrepreneurial enterprises. Second, the university is committed to promoting the integration of innovation and entrepreneurship and training programs, exploring and practising a variety of innovative talent cultivation models, and adding undergraduate innovation ability development as a mandatory component of the training program. In addition, pilot reforms have been conducted in engineering, medicine, and law majors, focusing on integrating research and education.

T-University has constructed a high-level integrated innovation and entrepreneurship practice platform by combining internal and external resources. This platform serves as the central component in Fig. 3 , forming a sequence of innovation and entrepreneurship practice opportunities, including 1) the On-and-off Campus Basic Practice Platform, 2) the Entrepreneurship Practice Platform with the Integration of Production, Learning, and Research, 3) the Transformation Platform of Major Scientific Research Facilities and Achievements, and 4) the Strategic Platform of the T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle. All these platforms are accessible to students based on their specific tasks and objectives.

Moreover, the university has reinforced its support for entrepreneurship and collaborated with local governments in Sichuan, Dalian, and Shenzhen to establish off-campus bases jointly. In 2016, in partnership with other top universities in China, the university launched the Innovation and Entrepreneurship Alliance of Universities in the Yangtze River Delta. This alliance effectively brings together government bodies, businesses, social communities, universities, and funding resources in the Yangtze River Delta, harnessing the synergistic advantages of these institutions. In 2018, the university assumed the director role for the Ministry of Education’s Steering Committee for Innovation and Entrepreneurship. Through collaborations with relevant government agencies and enterprises, T-University has continued its efforts to reform and advance innovation and EE, establishing multiple joint laboratories to put theory into practice.

Startup service

In terms of entrepreneurial services, T-University has focused on the employment guidance center and the science and technology Park, working closely with the local industrial and commercial bureaus in the campus area to provide centralized entrepreneurial services. Through entities such as the Shanghai Municipal College Entrepreneurship Guidance Station, entrepreneurship seedling gardens, the science and technology park, and off-campus bases such as the entrepreneurship valley, the university has established a full-cycle service system that is tailored to students’ innovative and entrepreneurial activities, providing continuous professional guidance and support from the early startup stage to maturity.

Notably, the T-University Science and Technology Park has set up nine professional incubation service platforms that cover investment and financing, human resources, entrepreneurship training, project declaration, financial services, professional intermediaries, market promotion, advanced assessment, and the labor union. Moreover, the Technology Park has established a corporate service mechanism for liaison officers, counselors, and entrepreneurship mentors to ensure that enterprises receive comprehensive support and guidance. Through these services, T-University has successfully cultivated numerous high-tech backbone enterprises, such as New Vision Healthcare, Zhong Hui Ecology, Tongjie Technology, Tonglei Civil Engineering, and Tongchen Environmental Protection, which indicates the positive effect of these entrepreneurial services.

T-University places significant emphasis on fostering the entrepreneurial climate, which is effectively nurtured through the T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle and on-campus entrepreneurship activities. Moreover, T-University is dedicated to establishing and cultivating a dynamic T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle in strategic alignment with the district government and key agencies. This innovative ecosystem strategically centers around three prominent industrial clusters: the creative and design industry, the international engineering consulting services industry, and the new energy/materials and environmental technology industry. These industrial clusters provide fertile ground for graduates’ employment and entrepreneurial pursuits and have yielded remarkable economic outputs. In 2020, the combined value of these clusters surged to a staggering RMB 50 billion, with 80% of entrepreneurs being teachers, students, or alumni from T-University.

This commitment has led to the establishment of an intricate design industry chain featuring architectural design and urban planning design; it also supports services in automobile design, landscape design, software design, environmental engineering design, art media design, and associated services such as graphic production, architectural modeling, and engineering consulting.

The EE system at T-University

T-University has undertaken a comprehensive series of initiatives to promote EE, focusing on four key aspects: entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup service, and the entrepreneurial climate. As of the end of 2021, the National Technology Park at T-University has cumulatively supported more than 3000 enterprises. Notably, the park has played a pivotal role in assisting more than 300 enterprises established by college students.

In its commitment to EE, the university maintains an open approach to engaging with society. Simultaneously, it integrates innovative elements such as technology, information, and talent to facilitate students’ entrepreneurial endeavors. Through the synergy between the university, government entities, and the market, EE cultivates a cadre of entrepreneurial talent. The convergence of these talents culminates in the formation of an innovative and creative industry cluster within the region, representing the tangible outcome of the university’s “disciplinary chain—technology chain—industry chain” approach to EE. This approach has gradually evolved into the innovative ecosystem of the T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle.

Findings and discussion

Unified macroscopic objectives of ee.

To date, a widespread consensus on defining EE in practical terms has yet to be achieved (Mwasalwiba, 2010 ; Nabi et al., 2017 ). Entrepreneurial education should strive towards a common direction, which is reflected in the agreement on educational objectives and recommended teaching methods(Aparicio et al., 2019 ). Mason and Arshed ( 2013 ) criticized that entrepreneurial education should teach about entrepreneurship rather than for entrepreneurship. Therefore, EE should not only focus on singular outcome-oriented aspects but also emphasize the cultivation of fundamental aspects such as cognition, abilities, attitudes, and skills.

This study embarks on a synthesis of the EE-related literature, integrating educational objective theory, planned behavior theory, and entrepreneurial process theory. The 4H model of EE objectives, which consists of basic and outcome levels, is proposed. This model aims to comprehensively capture the core elements of EE, addressing both students’ performance in entrepreneurial outcomes and their development of various aspects of foundational cognitive attributes and skills.

The basic level of the EE objective model includes the 4Hs, namely Head (mindset), Hand (skill), Heart (attitude), and Help (support). First, Head has stood out as a prominent learning outcome within EE over the past decade (Fretschner & Lampe, 2019 ). Attention given to the “Head” aspect not only highlights the development of individuals recognized as “entrepreneurs” (Mitra, 2017 ) but also underscores its role in complementing the acquisition of skills and practical knowledge necessary for initiating new ventures and leading more productive lives (Neck & Corbett, 2018 ).

Second, the Hand aspect also constitutes a significant developmental goal and learning outcome of EE. The trajectory of EE is evolving towards a focus on entrepreneurial aspects, and the learning outcomes equip students with skills relevant to entrepreneurship (Wong & Chan, 2022 ). Higher education institutions should go beyond fundamental principles associated with knowledge and actively cultivate students’ entrepreneurial skills and spirit.

Third, Heart represents EE objectives that are related to students’ psychological aspects, as students’ emotions, attitudes, and other affective factors impact their perception of entrepreneurship (Cao, 2021 ). Moreover, the ultimate goal of EE is to instill an entrepreneurial attitude and pave the way for future success as entrepreneurs in establishing new businesses and fostering job creation (Kusumojanto et al., 2021 ). Thus, the cultivation of this mindset is not only linked to the understanding of entrepreneurship but also intricately tied to the aspiration for personal fulfillment (Yang, 2013 ).

Fourth, entrepreneurship support (Help) embodies the goal of providing essential resource support to students to establish a robust foundation for their entrepreneurial endeavors. The establishment of a comprehensive support system is paramount for EE in universities. This establishment encompasses the meticulous design of the curriculum, the development of training bases, and the cultivation of teacher resources (Xu, 2017 ). A well-structured support system is crucial for equipping students with the necessary knowledge and skills to successfully navigate the complexities of entrepreneurship (Greene & Saridakis, 2008 ).

The outcome level of the EE objective model encompasses entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial performance, topics that have been extensively discussed in the previous literature. Entrepreneurial intention refers to individuals’ subjective willingness and plans for entrepreneurial behavior (Wong & Chan, 2022 ) and represents the starting point of the entrepreneurial process. Entrepreneurial performance refers to individuals’ actual behaviors and achievements in entrepreneurial activities (Wang et al., 2021 ) and represents the ultimate manifestation of entrepreneurial goals. In summary, the proposed 4H model of the EE objectives covers fundamental attitudes, cognition, skills, support, and ultimate outcomes, thus answering the question of what EE should teach.

Specific implementable system of EE

To facilitate the realization of EE goals, this study developed a corresponding content model as an implementable system and conducted empirical research through a case university. Guided by the 4H objectives, the content model also encompasses four dimensions: entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup service, and entrepreneurial climate. Through a detailed exposition of the practical methods at T-university, this study provides support for addressing the question of how to teach EE.

In the traditional EE paradigm, there is often an overreliance on the transmission of theoretical knowledge, which leads to a deficiency in students’ practical experience and capabilities (Kremel and Wetter-Edman, 2019 ). Moreover, due to the rapidly changing and dynamic nature of the environment, traditional educational methods frequently become disconnected from real-world demands. In response to these issues, the approach of “learning by doing” has emerged as a complementary and improved alternative to traditional methods (Colombelli et al., 2022 ).

The proposed content model applies the “learning by doing” approach to the construction of the EE system. For entrepreneurial learning, the university has constructed a comprehensive innovation and EE chain that encompasses courses, experimental areas, projects, competitions, practice bases, and teaching teams. For entrepreneurial practice, the university has built a high-level, integrated innovation and entrepreneurship practice platform that provides students with the opportunity to turn their ideas into actual projects. For startup services, the university has established close collaborative relationships with local governments and enterprises and has set up nine professional incubation service platforms. For the entrepreneurial climate, the university cultivated a symbiotic innovation and EE ecosystem by promoting the construction of the T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle. Through the joint efforts of multiple parties, the entrepreneurial activities of teachers, students, and alumni have become vibrant and have formed a complete design industry chain and an enterprise ecosystem that coexists with numerous SMEs.

Development of a framework based on the TH theory

Through the exploration of the interactive relationships among universities, governments, and industries, TH theory points out a development direction for solving the dilemma of EE. Through the lens of TH theory, this study developed a comprehensive framework delineating the macroscopic objectives and practical methods of EE, as depicted in Fig. 4 . In this context, EE has become a common undertaking for multiple participants. Therefore, universities can effectively leverage the featured external and internal resources, facilitating the organic integration of entrepreneurial learning, practice, services, and climate. This, in turn, will lead to better achievement of the unified goals of EE.

Practical contents and objectives based on the triple helix theory.

Numerous scholars have explored the correlation between EE and the TH theory. Zhou and Peng ( 2008 ) articulated the concept of an entrepreneurial university as “the university that strongly influences the regional development of industries as well as economic growth through high-tech entrepreneurship based on strong research, technology transfer, and entrepreneurship capability.” Moreover, Tianhao et al. ( 2020 ) emphasized the significance of fostering collaboration among industry, academia, and research as the optimal approach to enhancing the efficacy of EE. Additionally, Ribeiro et al. ( 2018 ) underscored the pivotal role of MIT’s entrepreneurial ecosystem in facilitating startup launches. They called upon educators, university administrators, and policymakers to allocate increased attention to how university ecosystems can cultivate students’ knowledge, skills, and entrepreneurial mindsets. Rather than viewing EE within the confines of universities in isolation, we advocate for establishing an integrated system that encompasses universities, government bodies, and businesses. Such a system would streamline their respective roles and ultimately bolster regional innovation and entrepreneurship efforts.

Jones et al. ( 2021 ) reported that with the widespread embrace of EE by numerous countries, the boundaries between universities and external ecosystems are becoming increasingly blurred. This convergence not only fosters a stronger entrepreneurial culture within universities but also encourages students to actively establish startups. However, these startups often face challenges related to limited value and long-term sustainability. From the perspective of TH theory, each university can cultivate an ecosystem conducive to specialized entrepreneurial activities based on its unique resources and advantages. To do so, universities should actively collaborate with local governments and industries, leveraging shared resources and support to create a more open, inclusive, and innovation-supporting ecosystem that promotes lasting reform and sustainability.

There are two main ways in which this paper contributes to the literature. First, this study applies TH theory to both theoretical and empirical research on EE in China, presenting a novel framework for the operation of EE. Previous research has applied TH theory in contexts such as India, Finland, and Russia, showcasing the unique contributions of TH in driving social innovation. This paper introduces the TH model to the Chinese context, illustrating collaborative efforts and support for EE from universities, industries, and governments through the construction of EE objectives and content models. Therefore, this paper not only extends the applicability of the TH theory globally but also provides valuable insights for EE in the Chinese context.

Second, the proposed conceptual framework clarifies the core goals and practical content of EE. By emphasizing the comprehensive cultivation of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and resources, this framework provides a concrete reference for designing EE courses, activities, and support services. Moreover, the framework underscores the importance of collaborative efforts among stakeholders, facilitating resource integration to enhance the quality and impact of EE. Overall, the conceptual framework presented in this paper serves not only as a guiding tool but also as a crucial bridge for fostering the collaborative development of the EE ecosystem.

While EE has widespread global recognition, many regions still face similar developmental challenges, such as a lack of organized objectives and content delivery methods. This article, grounded in the context of EE in Chinese higher education institutions, seeks to address the current challenges guided by TH theory. By aligning EE with socioeconomic demands and leveraging TH theory, this study offers insights into the overall goals and practical content of EE.

This study presents a 4H objective model of EE comprising two levels. The first level focuses on outcomes related to entrepreneurial behavior, including entrepreneurial intentions and performance, which highlight the practical effects of EE. The second level is built as the foundation of the outcomes and encompasses the four elements of mindset, skill, attitude, and support. This multilayered structure provides a more systematic and multidimensional consideration for the cultivation of entrepreneurial talent. The framework offers robust support for practical instructional design and goal setting. Additionally, the research extends to the corresponding content model, incorporating four elements: entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup services, and the entrepreneurial climate. This content model serves as a practical instructional means to achieve EE goals, enhancing the feasibility of implementing these objectives in practice.

Moreover, this study focused on a representative Chinese university, T-University, to showcase the successful implementation of the 4H and content models. Through this case, we may observe how the university, through comprehensive development in entrepreneurial learning, practice, services, and climate, nurtured many entrepreneurs and facilitated the formation of the innovation and entrepreneurship industry cluster. This approach not only contributes to the university’s reputation and regional economic growth but also offers valuable insights for other regions seeking to advance EE.

This study has several limitations that need to be acknowledged. First, the framework proposed is still preliminary. While its application has been validated through a case study, further exploration is required to determine the detailed classification and elaboration of its constituent elements to deepen the understanding of the EE system. Second, the context of this study is specific to China, and the findings may not be directly generalizable to other regions. Future research should investigate the adaptability of the framework in various cultural and educational contexts from a broader international perspective. Finally, the use of a single-case approach limits the generalizability of the research conclusions. Subsequent studies can enhance comprehensiveness by employing a comparative or multiple-case approach to assess the framework’s reliability and robustness.

In conclusion, this study emphasizes the need to strengthen the application of TH theory in EE and advocates for the enhancement of framework robustness through multiple and comparative case studies. An increase in the quantity of evidence will not only generate greater public interest but also deepen the dynamic interactions among universities, industries, and the nation. This, in turn, may expedite the development of EE in China and foster the optimization of the national economy and the overall employment environment.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available. Making the full data set publicly available could potentially breach the privacy that was promised to participants when they agreed to take part, in particular for the individual informants who come from a small, specific population, and may breach the ethics approval for the study. The data are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We express our sincere gratitude to all individuals who contributed to the data collection process. Furthermore, we extend our appreciation to Linlin Yang and Jinxiao Chen from Tongji University for their invaluable suggestions on the initial draft. Special thanks are also due to Prof. Yuzhuo Cai from Tampere University for his insightful contributions to this paper. Funding for this study was provided by the Chinese National Social Science Funds [BIA190205] and the Shanghai Educational Science Research General Project [C2023033].

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All the authors contributed to the study’s conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Luning Shao, Yuxin Miao, Sanfa Cai and Fei Fan. The first Chinese outline and draft were written by Luning Shao, Yuxin Miao, and Shengce Ren. The English draft of the manuscript was prepared by Fei Fan. All the authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Shao, L., Miao, Y., Ren, S. et al. Designing a framework for entrepreneurship education in Chinese higher education: a theoretical exploration and empirical case study. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 519 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03024-2

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03024-2

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