interview in survey research

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Types of Interviews in Research and Methods

There are more types of interviews than most people think. An interview is generally a qualitative research technique that involves asking open-ended questions to converse with respondents and collect elicit data about a subject.

The interviewer, in most cases, is the subject matter expert who intends to understand respondent opinions in a well-planned and executed series of star questions and answers . 

Interviews are similar to focus groups and surveys for garnering information from the target market but are entirely different in their operation – focus groups are restricted to a small group of 6-10 individuals, whereas surveys are quantitative.

Interviews are conducted with a sample from a population, and the key characteristic they exhibit is their conversational tone.

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Content Index

What is An Interview?

Fundamental types of interviews in research, other types of interviews.

• Methods of Research Interviews

What to Avoid in Different Types of Interviews

• Interview-Related Questions

An interview is a way to get information from a person by asking questions and hearing their answers.

An interview is a question-and-answer session where one person asks questions, and the other person answers those questions. It can be a one-on-one, two-way conversation, or there can be more than one interviewer and more than one participant.

The interview is the most important part of the whole selection bias process. It is used to decide if a person should be interviewed further, hired, or taken out of consideration. It is the main way to learn more about applicants and the basis for judging their job-related knowledge, research skills , and abilities.

A researcher has to conduct interviews with a group of participants at a juncture in the research where information can only be obtained by meeting and personally connecting with a section of their target audience. Interviews offer the researchers a platform to prompt their participants and obtain inputs in the desired detail. There are three fundamental types of interviews in research:

1. Structured Interviews:

Structured interviews are defined as research tools that could be more flexible in their operations are allow more or no scope of prompting the participants to obtain and analyze results. It is thus also known as a standardized interview and is significantly quantitative in its approach. 

Questions in this interview are pre-decided according to the required detail of information. This can be used in a focus group interview and an in-person interview.

These interviews are excessively used in survey research with the intention of maintaining uniformity throughout all the interview sessions.

LEARN ABOUT: Research Process Steps

They can be closed-ended and open-ended – according to the type of target population. Closed-ended questions can be included to understand user preferences from a collection of answer options. In contrast, open-ended ones can be included to gain details about a particular section in the interview.

Example of a structured interview question:

Here’s an example of a structured question for a job interview for a customer service job:

• Can you talk about what it was like to work in customer service?
• How do you deal with an angry or upset customer?
• How do you ensure that the information you give customers is correct?
• Tell us about when you went out of your way to help a customer.
• How do you handle a lot of customers or tasks at once?
• Can you talk about how you’ve used software or tools for customer service?
• How do you set priorities and use your time well while giving good customer service?
• Can you tell us about when you had to get a customer to calm down?
• How do you deal with a customer who wants something that goes against your company’s rules?
• Tell me about a time when you had to deal with a hard customer or coworker.

Advantages of structured interviews:

• It focuses on the accuracy of different responses, due to which extremely organized data can be collected. Different respondents have different types of answers to the same structure of questions – answers obtained can be collectively analyzed.
• They can be used to get in touch with a large sample of the target population.
• The interview procedure is made easy due to the standardization offered by it.
• Replication across multiple samples becomes easy due to the same structure of the interview.
• As the scope of detail is already considered while designing the interview questions, better information can be obtained. The researcher can analyze the research problem comprehensively by asking accurate research questions .
• Since the structure of the interview is fixed, it often generates reliable results and is quick to execute.
• The relationship between the researcher and the respondent is not formal, due to which the researcher can clearly understand the margin of error in case the respondent either degree to be a part of the survey or is just not interested in providing the right information.

Disadvantages of structured interviews:

• The limited scope of assessment of obtained results.
• The accuracy of information overpowers the detail of information.
• Respondents are forced to select from the provided answer options.
• The researcher is expected to always adhere to the list of decided questions, irrespective of how interesting the conversation is turning out to be with the participants.
• A significant amount of time is required for a structured interview. 

Learn more: Market Research

2. Semi-Structured Types of Interviews:

Semi-structured interviews offer a considerable amount of leeway to the researcher to probe the respondents, along with maintaining a basic interview structure. Even if it is a guided conversation between researchers and interviewees – appreciable flexibility is offered to the researchers. A researcher can be assured that multiple interview rounds will not be required in the presence of structure in this type of research interview.

Keeping the structure in mind, the researcher can follow any idea or take creative advantage of the entire interview. Additional respondent probing is always necessary to garner information for a research study. The best application of semi-structured interviews is when the researcher doesn’t have time to conduct research and requires detailed information about the topic.

Example of a semi-structured interview question:

Here’s an example of a semi-structured marketing job interviews question:

• Can you tell us about the marketing work you’ve done?
• What do you think are the most important parts of a marketing campaign that works?
• Tell me about a campaign you worked on that you’re very proud of.
• How do you do research on the market and look at data to help you make marketing decisions?
• Can you tell us about a time when you had to change your marketing plan because of something that didn’t go as planned?
• How do you figure out if a marketing campaign worked?
• Can you talk about how you’ve used social media to market?
• How do you ensure your marketing message gets through to the people you want to hear it?
• Can you tell us about a time when you had to run a marketing campaign on a small budget?
• How do you keep up with changes and trends in marketing?

Advantages of semi-structured interviews:

• Questions from semi-structured interview questions are prepared before the scheduled interview, giving the researcher time to prepare and analyze the questions.
• It is flexible to an extent while maintaining the research guidelines.
• Unlike a structured interview, researchers can express the interview questions in the preferred format.
• Reliable qualitative data can be collected via these interviews.
• The flexible structure of the interview.

Learn more: Quantitative Data

Disadvantages of semi-structured interviews:

• Participants may question the reliability factor of these interviews due to the flexibility offered.
• Comparing two different answers becomes difficult as the guideline for conducting interviews is not entirely followed. No two questions will have the exact same structure, and the result will be an inability to compare are infer results.

3. Unstructured Interviews:

Also called in-depth interviews , unstructured interviews are usually described as conversations held with a purpose in mind – to gather data about the research study. These interviews have the least number of questions as they lean more towards a normal conversation but with an underlying subject.

The main objective of most researchers using unstructured interviews is to build a bond with the respondents, due to which there is a high chance that the respondents will be 100% truthful with their answers. There are no guidelines for the researchers to follow. So they can approach the participants ethically to gain as much information as possible about their research topic.

Since there are no guidelines for these interviews, a researcher is expected to keep their approach in check so that the respondents do not sway away from the main research motive. 

For a researcher to obtain the desired outcome, he/she must keep the following factors in mind:

• The intent of the interview.
• The interview should primarily take into consideration the participant’s interests and skills.
• All the conversations should be conducted within the permissible limits of research, and the researcher should try and stick by these limits.
• The researcher’s skills and knowledge should match the interview’s purpose.
• Researchers should understand the dos and don’ts of it.

Example of an unstructured interview question:

Here’s an example of a question asked in an unstructured interview:

• Can you tell me about when you had to deal with something hard and how you did it?
• What are some of the things you’re most proud of, and what did you learn from them?
• How do you deal with ambiguity or not knowing what to do at work?
• Can you describe how you lead and how you get your team going?
• Tell me about a time when you had to take a chance and how it turned out.
• What do you think are the most important qualities for success in this role?
• How do you deal with setbacks or failures, and what do you learn from them?
• Can you tell me about a time when you had to solve a problem by thinking outside the box?
• What do you think makes you different from the other people who want this job?
• Can you tell me about a time when you had to make a hard choice and how you made that choice?

Advantages of Unstructured Interviews:

• Due to this type of interview’s informal nature, it becomes extremely easy for researchers to try and develop a friendly rapport with the participants. This leads to gaining insights in extreme detail without much conscious effort.
• The participants can clarify all their doubts about the questions, and the researcher can take each opportunity to explain his/her intention for better answers.
• There are no questions that the researcher has to abide by, and this usually increases the flexibility of the entire research process.

Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews:

• Researchers take time to execute these interviews because there is no structure to the interview process.
• The absence of a standardized set of questions and guidelines indicates that its reliability of it is questionable.
• The ethics involved in these interviews are often considered borderline upsetting.

Learn more: Qualitative Market Research & Qualitative Data Collection

Besides the 3 basic interview types, we have already mentioned there are more. Here are some other interview types that are commonly used in a job interview:

Behavioral Interview

During this type of interview, candidates are asked to give specific examples of how they have acted in the past. The idea behind this kind of interview is that what someone did in the past can be a sign of how they will act in the future. And by this interview, the company can also understand the interviewee’s behavior through body language.

Panel Interview

During a panel interview, three or more interviewers usually ask questions and evaluate the candidate’s answers as a group. This is a good way to get a full picture of a candidate’s skills and suitability for the job.

Group Types of Interviews

Multiple people are interviewed at the same time in group interviews. This form of interview often focus groups that are utilized on entry-level positions or employment in customer service to examine how well candidates get along with others and function as a team.

Case Interview

During a case interview, candidates are given a business problem or scenario and asked to think about how to solve it. In the consulting and finance fields, this kind of interview is common.

Technical Interview

A candidate’s technical skills and knowledge are tested during a technical interview, usually in fields like engineering or software development. Most of the time, candidates are asked to solve problems or complete technical tasks.

Stress Interview

During a stress interview, candidates are put under pressure or asked difficult or confrontational questions on purpose to see how they react in stressful situations. This kind of interview is used to see how well a candidate can deal with stress and hard situations.

Methods of Research Interviews:

There are four methods to conduct research interviews, each of which is peculiar in its application and can be used according to the research study requirement.

Personal Interviews:

Personal interviews are one of the most used types of interviews, where the questions are asked personally directly to the respondent as a form of an individual interview. One of the many in-person interviews is a lunch interview, which is frequently better suited for casual inquiries and discussions.

For this, a researcher can have a guide to online surveys to take note of the answers. A researcher can design his/her survey in such a way that they take notes of the comments or points of view that stands out from the interviewee. It can be a one-on-one interview as well. 

• Higher response rate.
• When the interviewees and respondents are face-to-face, there is a way to adapt the questions if this is not understood.
• More complete answers can be obtained if there is doubt on both sides or a remarkable piece of information is detected.
• The researcher has an opportunity to detect and analyze the interviewee’s body language at the time of asking the questions and taking notes about it.

Disadvantages:

• They are time-consuming and extremely expensive.
• They can generate distrust on the part of the interviewee since they may be self-conscious and not answer truthfully.
• Contacting the interviewees can be a real headache, either scheduling an appointment in workplaces or going from house to house and not finding anyone.
• Therefore, many interviews are conducted in public places like shopping centers or parks. Even consumer studies take advantage of these sites to conduct interviews or surveys and give incentives, gifts, and coupons. In short, There are great opportunities for online research in shopping centers.
• Among the advantages of conducting such types of interviews is that the respondents will have more fresh information if the interview is conducted in the context and with the appropriate stimuli so that researchers can have data from their experience at the scene of the events immediately and first hand. The interviewer can use an online survey through a mobile device that will undoubtedly facilitate the entire process.

Telephonic Type of Interviews:

Phonic interviews are widely used and easily combined with online surveys to conduct research effectively.

Advantages:

• To find the interviewees, it is enough to have their phone numbers on hand.
• They are usually lower cost.
• The information is collected quickly.
• Having a personal contact can also clarify doubts or give more details of the questions.
• Many times researchers observe that people do not answer phone calls because it is an unknown number for the respondent or simply already changed their place of residence and they cannot locate it, which causes a bias in the interview.
• Researchers also face that they simply do not want to answer and resort to pretexts such as they are busy to answer, they are sick, they do not have the authority to answer the questions asked, they have no interest in answering, or they are afraid of putting their security at risk.
• One of the aspects that should be taken care of in these types of interviews is the kindness with which the interviewers address the respondents in order to get them to cooperate more easily with their answers. Good communication is vital for the generation of better answers.

Email or Web Page Types of Interviews:

Online research is growing more and more because consumers are migrating to a more virtual world, and it is best for each researcher to adapt to this change.

The increase in people with Internet access has made it popular that interviews via email or web page stand out among the types of interviews most used today. For this nothing better than an online survey.

More and more consumers are turning to online shopping, which is why they are a great niche to be able to carry out an interview that will generate information for the correct decision-making.

Advantages of email surveys:

• Speed in obtaining data
• The respondents respond according to their time, when they want, and where they decide.
• Online surveys can be mixed with other research methods or using some of the previous interview models. They are tools that can perfectly complement and pay for the project.
• A researcher can use a variety of questions and logic to create graphs and reports immediately.

Disadvantages of email survey:

• Low response rates
• Limited access to certain populations
• Potential for spam filters
• Lack of personal touch

Try not to do any of the following things when you’re in an interview:

• Don’t blame your previous managers, coworkers, or companies. This will make a bad impression on the interviewer and show that you are not accountable.
• Do not go to the interview without knowing anything about the company you are interviewing for. Interviewers will think you don’t care about learning about the company if you don’t know anything.
• Don’t fidget with things because that shows you lack self-confidence and focus.
• Stop checking the time because it shows that you have something more important to do and that you don’t give the interview much importance.

Related Questions of Interviews

After the interview is over, you might also get a chance to ask some questions. You should make the most of this chance to learn useful things from the interviewer. Based on what you’ve learned, you can then decide if the company and the job are a good fit for you. You can ask the interviewer questions about the company or about the job role.

Here are some common but important questions to ask in an interview:

• What do you anticipate from team members in this role?
• What does a typical day look like for an employee in this role?
• What qualities are essential for success in this position?
• How is success measured for this position?
• How does this job profile relate to the organization’s overarching objectives?
• What are your company’s guiding principles?
• Which departments will I work closely with throughout my time in this profile?

Learn more: Quantitative Research

To summarize the discussion, an effective interview will be one that provides researchers with the necessary data to know the object of study and that this information is applicable to the decisions researchers make.

Undoubtedly, the objective of the research will set the pattern of what types of interviews are best for data collection. Based on the research design , a researcher can plan and test the questions, for instance, if the questions are correct and if the survey flows in the best way.

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In addition, other types of research can be used under specific circumstances.

For example, there are no connections or adverse situations to carry out surveyors. In these types of occasions, it is necessary to conduct field research, which can not be considered an interview if not rather a completely different methodology.

QuestionPro is a flexible online survey platform that can help researchers do different kinds of interviews, like structured, semi-structured, unstructured, phone interview, group interview, etc. It gives researchers a flexible platform that can be changed to fit their needs and the needs of their research project.

QuestionPro can help researchers get detailed and useful information from participants using features like skip logic, piping, and live chat. Also, the platform is easy to use and get to, making it a useful tool for researchers to use in their work.

LEARN ABOUT: Candidate Experience Survey

Overall, QuestionPro can be helpful for researchers who want to do good interviews and collect good project data.

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The 3 main types of interviews are 1. Structured interviews 2. Semi-structured interviews 3. Unstructured interviews

There are different ways to conduct an interview, and each one can add depth and substance to the information the interviewer gathers by asking questions. We discuss four interview methods: situational, professional behavior profiling, stress, and behavioral.

Face-to-face means in-person interviews are the most common type of interview. It’s about getting a good sense of the candidate by focusing on them directly. But it also allows the person interviewed to talk freely and ask questions.

Personal interviews, phone interviews, email or web page interviews, and a combination of these methods are the four types of research interviews.

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How to carry out great interviews in qualitative research.

11 min read An interview is one of the most versatile methods used in qualitative research. Here’s what you need to know about conducting great qualitative interviews.

What is a qualitative research interview?

Qualitative research interviews are a mainstay among q ualitative research techniques, and have been in use for decades either as a primary data collection method or as an adjunct to a wider research process. A qualitative research interview is a one-to-one data collection session between a researcher and a participant. Interviews may be carried out face-to-face, over the phone or via video call using a service like Skype or Zoom.

There are three main types of qualitative research interview – structured, unstructured or semi-structured.

• Structured interviews Structured interviews are based around a schedule of predetermined questions and talking points that the researcher has developed. At their most rigid, structured interviews may have a precise wording and question order, meaning that they can be replicated across many different interviewers and participants with relatively consistent results.
• Unstructured interviews Unstructured interviews have no predetermined format, although that doesn’t mean they’re ad hoc or unplanned. An unstructured interview may outwardly resemble a normal conversation, but the interviewer will in fact be working carefully to make sure the right topics are addressed during the interaction while putting the participant at ease with a natural manner.
• Semi-structured interviews Semi-structured interviews are the most common type of qualitative research interview, combining the informality and rapport of an unstructured interview with the consistency and replicability of a structured interview. The researcher will come prepared with questions and topics, but will not need to stick to precise wording. This blended approach can work well for in-depth interviews.

Free eBook: The qualitative research design handbook

What are the pros and cons of interviews in qualitative research?

As a qualitative research method interviewing is hard to beat, with applications in social research, market research, and even basic and clinical pharmacy. But like any aspect of the research process, it’s not without its limitations. Before choosing qualitative interviewing as your research method, it’s worth weighing up the pros and cons.

Pros of qualitative interviews:

• provide in-depth information and context
• can be used effectively when their are low numbers of participants
• provide an opportunity to discuss and explain questions
• useful for complex topics
• rich in data – in the case of in-person or video interviews , the researcher can observe body language and facial expression as well as the answers to questions

Cons of qualitative interviews:

• can be time-consuming to carry out
• costly when compared to some other research methods
• because of time and cost constraints, they often limit you to a small number of participants
• difficult to standardize your data across different researchers and participants unless the interviews are very tightly structured
• As the Open University of Hong Kong notes, qualitative interviews may take an emotional toll on interviewers

Qualitative interview guides

Semi-structured interviews are based on a qualitative interview guide, which acts as a road map for the researcher. While conducting interviews, the researcher can use the interview guide to help them stay focused on their research questions and make sure they cover all the topics they intend to.

An interview guide may include a list of questions written out in full, or it may be a set of bullet points grouped around particular topics. It can prompt the interviewer to dig deeper and ask probing questions during the interview if appropriate.

Consider writing out the project’s research question at the top of your interview guide, ahead of the interview questions. This may help you steer the interview in the right direction if it threatens to head off on a tangent.

Avoid bias in qualitative research interviews

According to Duke University , bias can create significant problems in your qualitative interview.

• Acquiescence bias is common to many qualitative methods, including focus groups. It occurs when the participant feels obliged to say what they think the researcher wants to hear. This can be especially problematic when there is a perceived power imbalance between participant and interviewer. To counteract this, Duke University’s experts recommend emphasizing the participant’s expertise in the subject being discussed, and the value of their contributions.
• Interviewer bias is when the interviewer’s own feelings about the topic come to light through hand gestures, facial expressions or turns of phrase. Duke’s recommendation is to stick to scripted phrases where this is an issue, and to make sure researchers become very familiar with the interview guide or script before conducting interviews, so that they can hone their delivery.

What kinds of questions should you ask in a qualitative interview?

The interview questions you ask need to be carefully considered both before and during the data collection process. As well as considering the topics you’ll cover, you will need to think carefully about the way you ask questions.

Open-ended interview questions – which cannot be answered with a ‘yes’ ‘no’ or ‘maybe’ – are recommended by many researchers as a way to pursue in depth information.

An example of an open-ended question is “What made you want to move to the East Coast?” This will prompt the participant to consider different factors and select at least one. Having thought about it carefully, they may give you more detailed information about their reasoning.

A closed-ended question , such as “Would you recommend your neighborhood to a friend?” can be answered without too much deliberation, and without giving much information about personal thoughts, opinions and feelings.

Follow-up questions can be used to delve deeper into the research topic and to get more detail from open-ended questions. Examples of follow-up questions include:

• What makes you say that?
• What do you mean by that?
• Can you tell me more about X?
• What did/does that mean to you?

As well as avoiding closed-ended questions, be wary of leading questions. As with other qualitative research techniques such as surveys or focus groups, these can introduce bias in your data. Leading questions presume a certain point of view shared by the interviewer and participant, and may even suggest a foregone conclusion.

An example of a leading question might be: “You moved to New York in 1990, didn’t you?” In answering the question, the participant is much more likely to agree than disagree. This may be down to acquiescence bias or a belief that the interviewer has checked the information and already knows the correct answer.

Other leading questions involve adjectival phrases or other wording that introduces negative or positive connotations about a particular topic. An example of this kind of leading question is: “Many employees dislike wearing masks to work. How do you feel about this?” It presumes a positive opinion and the participant may be swayed by it, or not want to contradict the interviewer.

Harvard University’s guidelines for qualitative interview research add that you shouldn’t be afraid to ask embarrassing questions – “if you don’t ask, they won’t tell.” Bear in mind though that too much probing around sensitive topics may cause the interview participant to withdraw. The Harvard guidelines recommend leaving sensitive questions til the later stages of the interview when a rapport has been established.

More tips for conducting qualitative interviews

Observing a participant’s body language can give you important data about their thoughts and feelings. It can also help you decide when to broach a topic, and whether to use a follow-up question or return to the subject later in the interview.

Be conscious that the participant may regard you as the expert, not themselves. In order to make sure they express their opinions openly, use active listening skills like verbal encouragement and paraphrasing and clarifying their meaning to show how much you value what they are saying.

Remember that part of the goal is to leave the interview participant feeling good about volunteering their time and their thought process to your research. Aim to make them feel empowered , respected and heard.

Unstructured interviews can demand a lot of a researcher, both cognitively and emotionally. Be sure to leave time in between in-depth interviews when scheduling your data collection to make sure you maintain the quality of your data, as well as your own well-being .

Recording and transcribing interviews

Historically, recording qualitative research interviews and then transcribing the conversation manually would have represented a significant part of the cost and time involved in research projects that collect qualitative data.

Fortunately, researchers now have access to digital recording tools, and even speech-to-text technology that can automatically transcribe interview data using AI and machine learning. This type of tool can also be used to capture qualitative data from qualitative research (focus groups,ect.) making this kind of social research or market research much less time consuming.

Data analysis

Qualitative interview data is unstructured, rich in content and difficult to analyze without the appropriate tools. Fortunately, machine learning and AI can once again make things faster and easier when you use qualitative methods like the research interview.

Text analysis tools and natural language processing software can ‘read’ your transcripts and voice data and identify patterns and trends across large volumes of text or speech. They can also perform khttps://www.qualtrics.com/experience-management/research/sentiment-analysis/

which assesses overall trends in opinion and provides an unbiased overall summary of how participants are feeling.

Another feature of text analysis tools is their ability to categorize information by topic, sorting it into groupings that help you organize your data according to the topic discussed.

All in all, interviews are a valuable technique for qualitative research in business, yielding rich and detailed unstructured data. Historically, they have only been limited by the human capacity to interpret and communicate results and conclusions, which demands considerable time and skill.

When you combine this data with AI tools that can interpret it quickly and automatically, it becomes easy to analyze and structure, dovetailing perfectly with your other business data. An additional benefit of natural language analysis tools is that they are free of subjective biases, and can replicate the same approach across as much data as you choose. By combining human research skills with machine analysis, qualitative research methods such as interviews are more valuable than ever to your business.

Related resources

Market intelligence 10 min read, marketing insights 11 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, qualitative vs quantitative research 13 min read, qualitative research questions 11 min read, qualitative research design 12 min read, primary vs secondary research 14 min read, request demo.

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Introduction to Research Methods

6 qualitative research and interviews.

So we’ve described doing a survey and collecting quantitative data. But not all questions can best be answered by a survey. A survey is great for understanding what people think (for example), but not why they think what they do. If your research is intending to understand the underlying motivations or reasons behind peoples actions, or to build a deeper understanding on the background of a subject, an interview may be the more appropriate data collection method.

Interviews are a method of data collection that consist of two or more people exchanging information through a structured process of questions and answers. Questions are designed by the researcher to thoughtfully collect in-depth information on a topic or set of topics as related to the central research question. Interviews typically occur in-person, although good interviews can also be conducted remotely via the phone or video conferencing. Unlike surveys, interviews give the opportunity to ask follow-up questions and thoughtfully engage with participants on the spot (rather than the anonymous and impartial format of survey research).

And surveys can be used in qualitative or quantitative research – though they’re more typically a qualitative technique. In-depth interviews , containing open-ended questions and structured by an interview guide . One can also do a standardized interview with closed-ended questions (i.e. answer options) that are structured by an interview schedule as part of quantitative research. While these are called interviews they’re far closer to surveys, so we wont cover them again in this chapter. The terms used for in-depth interviews we’ll cover in the next section.

6.1 Interviews

In-depth interviews allow participants to describe experiences in their own words (a primary strength of the interview format). Strong in-depth interviews will include many open-ended questions that allow participants to respond in their own words, share new ideas, and lead the conversation in different directions. The purpose of open-ended questions and in-depth interviews is to hear as much as possible in the person’s own voice, to collect new information and ideas, and to achieve a level of depth not possible in surveys or most other forms of data collection.

Typically, an interview guide is used to create a soft structure for the conversation and is an important preparation tool for the researcher. You can not go into an interview unprepared and just “wing it”; what the interview guide allows you to do is map out a framework, order of topics, and may include specific questions to use during the interview. Generally, the interview guide is thought of as just that — a guide to use in order to keep the interview focused. It is not set in stone and a skilled researcher can change the order of questions or topics in an interviews based on the organic conversation flow.

Depending on the experience and skill level of the researcher, an interview guide can be as simple as a list of topics to cover. However, for consistency and quality of research, the interviewer may want to take the time to at least practice writing out questions in advance to ensure that phrasing and word choices are as clear, objective, and focused as possible. It’s worth remembering that working out the wording of questions in advance allows researchers to ensure more consistency across interview. The interview guide below, taken from the wonderful and free textbook Principles of Sociological Inquiry , shows an interview guide that just has topics.

Alternatively, you can use a more detailed guide that lists out possible questions, as shown below. A more detailed guide is probably better for an interviewer that has less experience, or is just beginning to work on a given topic.

The purpose of an interview guide is to help ask effective questions and to support the process of acquiring the best possible data for your research. Topics and questions should be organized thematically, and in a natural progression that will allow the conversation to flow and deepen throughout the course of the interview. Often, researchers will attempt to memorize or partially memorize the interview guide, in order to be more fully present with the participant during the conversation.

6.2 Asking good Questions

Remember, the purposes of interviews is to go more in-depth with an individual than is possible with a generalized survey. For this reason, it is important to use the guide as a starting point but not to be overly tethered to it during the actual interview process. You may get stuck when respondents give you shorter answers than you expect, or don’t provide the type of depth that you need for your research. Often, you may want to probe for more specifics. Think about using follow up questions like “How does/did that affect you?” or “How does X make you feel?” and “Tell me about a time where X…”

For example, if I was researching the relationship between pets and mental health, some strong open-ended questions might be: * How does your pet typically make you feel when you wake up in the morning? * How does your pet generally affect your mood when you arrive home in the evening? * Tell me about a time when your pet had a significant impact on your emotional state.

Questions framed in this manner leave plenty of room for the respondent to answer in their own words, as opposed to leading and/or truncated questions, such as: * Does being with your pet make you happy? * After a bad day, how much does seeing your pet improve your mood? * Tell me about how important your pet is to your mental health.

These questions assume outcomes and will not result in high quality research. Researchers should always avoid asking leading questions that give away an expected answer or suggest particular responses. For instance, if I ask “we need to spend more on public schools, don’t you think?” the respondent is more likely to agree regardless of their own thoughts. Some wont, but humans generally have a strong natural desire to be agreeable. That’s why leaving your questions neutral and open so that respondents can speak to their experiences and views is critical.

6.3 Analyzing Interview Data

Writing good questions and interviewing respondents are just the first steps of the interview process. After these stages, the researcher still has a lot of work to do to collect usable data from the interview. The researcher must spend time coding and analyzing the interview to retrieve this data. Just doing an interview wont produce data. Think about how many conversations you have everyday, and none of those are leaving you swimming in data.

Hopefully you can record your interviews. Recording your interviews will allow you the opportunity to transcribe them word for word later. If you can’t record the interview you’ll need to take detailed notes so that you can reconstruct what you heard later. Do not trust yourself to “just remember” the conversation. You’re collecting data, precious data that you’re spending time and energy to collect. Treat it as important and valuable. Remember our description of the methodology section from Chapter 2, you need to maintain a chain of custody on your data. If you just remembered the interview, you could be accused of making up the results. Your interview notes and the recording become part of that chain of custody to prove to others that your interviews were real and that your results are accurate.

Assuming you recorded your interview, the first step in the analysis process is transcribing the interview. A transcription is a written record of every word in an interview. Transcriptions can either be completed by the researcher or by a hired worker, though it is good practice for the researcher to transcribe the interview him or herself. Researchers should keep the following points in mind regarding transcriptions: * The interview should take place in a quiet location with minimal background noise to produce a clear recording; * Transcribing interviews is a time-consuming process and may take two to three times longer than the actual interview; * Transcriptions provide a more precise record of the interview than hand written notes and allow the interviewer to focus during the interview.

After transcribing the interview, the next step is to analyze the responses. Coding is the main form of analysis used for interviews and involves studying a transcription to identify important themes. These themes are categorized into codes, which are words or phrases that denote an idea.

You’ll typically being with several codes in mind that are generated by key ideas you week seeking in the questions, but you can also being by using open coding to understand the results. An open coding process involves reading through the transcript multiple times and paying close attention to each line of the text to discover noteworthy concepts. During the open coding process, the researcher keeps an open mind to find any codes that may be relevant to the research topic.

After the open coding process is complete, focused coding can begin. Focused coding takes a closer look at the notes compiled during the open coding stage to merge common codes and define what the codes mean in the context of the research project.

Imagine a researcher is conducting interviews to learn about various people’s experiences of childhood in New Orleans. The following example shows several codes that this researcher extrapolated from an interview with one of their subjects.

6.4 Using interview data

The next chapter will address ways to identify people to interview, but most of the remainder of the book will address how to analyze quantitative data. That shouldn’t be taken as a sign that quantitative data is better, or that it’s easier to use interview data. Because in an interview the researcher must interpret the words of others it is often more challenging to identify your findings and clearly answer your research question. However, quantitative data is more common, and there are more different things you can do with it, so we spend a lot of the textbook focusing on it.

I’ll work through one more example of using interview data though. It takes a lot of practice to be a good and skilled interviewer. What I show below is a brief excerpt of an interview I did, and how that data was used in a resulting paper I wrote. These aren’t the only way you can use interview data, but it’s an example of what the intermediary and final product might look like.

The overall project these are drawn from was concerned with minor league baseball stadiums, but the specific part I’m pulling from here was studying the decline and rejuvenation of downtown around those stadiums in several cities. You’ll see that I’m using the words of the respondent fairly directly, because that’s my data. But I’m not just relying on one respondent and trusting them, I did a few dozen interviews in order to understand the commonalities in people’s perspectives to build a narrative around my research question.

Excerpt from Notes

Excerpt from Resulting Paper

How many interviews are necessary? It actually doesn’t take many. What you want to observe in your interviews is theoretical saturation , where the codes you use in the transcript begin to appear across conversations and groups. If different people disagree that’s fine, but what you want to understand is the commonalities across peoples perspectives. Most research on the subject says that with 8 interviews you’ll typically start to see a decline in new information gathered. That doesn’t mean you won’t get new words , but you’ll stop hearing completely unique perspectives or gain novel insights. At that point, where you’ve ‘heard it all before’ you can stop, because you’ve probably identified the answer to the questions you were trying to research.

6.5 Ensuring Anonymity

One significant ethical concern with interviews, that also applies to surveys, is making sure that respondents maintain anonymity. In either form of data collection you may be asking respondents deeply personal questions, that if exposed may cause legal, personal, or professional harm. Notice that in the excerpt of the paper above the respondents are only identified by an id I assigned (Louisville D) and their career, rather than their name. I can only include the excerpt of the interview notes above because there are no details that might lead to them being identified.

You may want to report details about a person to contextualize the data you gathered, but you should always ensure that no one can be identified from your research. For instance, if you were doing research on racism at large companies, you may want to preface people’s comments by their race, as there is a good chance that white and minority employees would feel differently about the issues. However, if you preface someones comments by saying they’re a minority manager, that may violate their anonymity. Even if you don’t state what company you did interviews with, that may be enough detail for their co-workers to identify them if there are few minority managers at the company. As such, always think long and hard about whether there is any way that the participation of respondents may be exposed.

6.6 Why not both?

We’ve discussed surveys and interviews as different methods the last two chapters, but they can also complement each other.

For instance, let’s say you’re curious to study people who change opinions on abortion, either going from support to opposition or vice versa. You could use a survey to understand the prevalence of changing opinions, i.e. what percentage of people in your city have changed their views. That would help to establish whether this is a prominent issue, or whether it’s a rare phenomenon. But it would be difficult to understand from the survey what makes people change their views. You could add an open ended question for anyone that said they changed their opinion, but many people won’t respond and few will provide the level of detail necessary to understand their motivations. Interviews with people that have changed their opinions would give you an opportunity to explore how their experiences and beliefs have changed in combination with their views towards abortion.

6.7 Summary

In the last two chapters we’ve discussed the two most prominent methods of data collection in the social sciences: surveys and interviews. What we haven’t discussed though is how to identify the people you’ll collect data from; that’s called a sampling strategy. In the next chapter

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Chapter 11: Quantitative Interview Techniques & Considerations

11.1 Conducting Quantitative Interviews

Much of what we learned in the previous chapter on survey research applies to quantitative interviews as well. In fact, quantitative interviews are sometimes referred to as survey interviews because they resemble survey-style question-and-answer formats. They might also be called standardized interviews . The difference between surveys and standardized interviews is that questions and answer options are read to respondents in a standardized interview, rather than having respondents complete a survey on their own. As with surveys, the questions posed in a standardized interview tend to be closed-ended. There are instances in which a quantitative interviewer might pose a few open-ended questions as well. In these cases, the coding process works somewhat differently than coding in-depth interview data. We will describe this process in the following section.

In quantitative interviews, an interview schedule is used to guide the researcher as he or she poses questions and answer options to respondents. An interview schedule is usually more rigid than an interview guide. It contains the list of questions and answer options that the researcher will read to respondents. Whereas qualitative researchers emphasize respondents’ roles in helping to determine how an interview progresses, in a quantitative interview, consistency in the way that questions and answer options are presented is very important. The aim is to pose every question-and-answer option in the very same way to every respondent. This is done to minimize interviewer effect, or possible changes in the way an interviewee responds based on how or when questions and answer options are presented by the interviewer.

Quantitative interviews may be recorded, but because questions tend to be closed-ended, taking notes during the interview is less disruptive than it can be during a qualitative interview. If a quantitative interview contains open-ended questions, recording the interview is advised. It may also be helpful to record quantitative interviews if a researcher wishes to assess possible interview effect. Noticeable differences in responses might be more attributable to interviewer effect than to any real respondent differences. Having a recording of the interview can help a researcher make such determinations.

Quantitative interviewers are usually more concerned with gathering data from a large, representative sample. Collecting data from many people via interviews can be quite laborious. In the past, telephone interviewing was quite common; however, growth in the use of mobile phones has raised concern regarding whether or not traditional landline telephone interviews and surveys are now representative of the general population (Busse & Fuchs, 2012). Indeed, there are other drawbacks to telephone interviews. Aside from the obvious problem that not everyone has a phone (mobile or landline), research shows that phone interview respondents were less cooperative, less engaged in the interview, and more likely to express dissatisfaction with the length of the interview than were face-to-face respondents (Holbrook, Green, & Krosnick, 2003, p. 79). Holbrook et al.’s research also demonstrated that telephone respondents were more suspicious of the interview process and more likely than face-to-face respondents to present themselves in a socially desirable manner.

Research Methods for the Social Sciences: An Introduction Copyright © 2020 by Valerie Sheppard is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Methodology

• Survey Research | Definition, Examples & Methods

Survey Research | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on August 20, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Survey research means collecting information about a group of people by asking them questions and analyzing the results. To conduct an effective survey, follow these six steps:

• Determine who will participate in the survey
• Decide the type of survey (mail, online, or in-person)
• Design the survey questions and layout
• Distribute the survey
• Analyze the responses
• Write up the results

Surveys are a flexible method of data collection that can be used in many different types of research .

Table of contents

What are surveys used for, step 1: define the population and sample, step 2: decide on the type of survey, step 3: design the survey questions, step 4: distribute the survey and collect responses, step 5: analyze the survey results, step 6: write up the survey results, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about surveys.

Surveys are used as a method of gathering data in many different fields. They are a good choice when you want to find out about the characteristics, preferences, opinions, or beliefs of a group of people.

Common uses of survey research include:

• Social research : investigating the experiences and characteristics of different social groups
• Market research : finding out what customers think about products, services, and companies
• Health research : collecting data from patients about symptoms and treatments
• Politics : measuring public opinion about parties and policies
• Psychology : researching personality traits, preferences and behaviours

Surveys can be used in both cross-sectional studies , where you collect data just once, and in longitudinal studies , where you survey the same sample several times over an extended period.

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Before you start conducting survey research, you should already have a clear research question that defines what you want to find out. Based on this question, you need to determine exactly who you will target to participate in the survey.

Populations

The target population is the specific group of people that you want to find out about. This group can be very broad or relatively narrow. For example:

• The population of Brazil
• US college students
• Second-generation immigrants in the Netherlands
• Customers of a specific company aged 18-24
• British transgender women over the age of 50

Your survey should aim to produce results that can be generalized to the whole population. That means you need to carefully define exactly who you want to draw conclusions about.

Several common research biases can arise if your survey is not generalizable, particularly sampling bias and selection bias . The presence of these biases have serious repercussions for the validity of your results.

It’s rarely possible to survey the entire population of your research – it would be very difficult to get a response from every person in Brazil or every college student in the US. Instead, you will usually survey a sample from the population.

The sample size depends on how big the population is. You can use an online sample calculator to work out how many responses you need.

There are many sampling methods that allow you to generalize to broad populations. In general, though, the sample should aim to be representative of the population as a whole. The larger and more representative your sample, the more valid your conclusions. Again, beware of various types of sampling bias as you design your sample, particularly self-selection bias , nonresponse bias , undercoverage bias , and survivorship bias .

There are two main types of survey:

• A questionnaire , where a list of questions is distributed by mail, online or in person, and respondents fill it out themselves.
• An interview , where the researcher asks a set of questions by phone or in person and records the responses.

Which type you choose depends on the sample size and location, as well as the focus of the research.

Questionnaires

Sending out a paper survey by mail is a common method of gathering demographic information (for example, in a government census of the population).

• You can easily access a large sample.
• You have some control over who is included in the sample (e.g. residents of a specific region).
• The response rate is often low, and at risk for biases like self-selection bias .

Online surveys are a popular choice for students doing dissertation research , due to the low cost and flexibility of this method. There are many online tools available for constructing surveys, such as SurveyMonkey and Google Forms .

• You can quickly access a large sample without constraints on time or location.
• The data is easy to process and analyze.
• The anonymity and accessibility of online surveys mean you have less control over who responds, which can lead to biases like self-selection bias .

If your research focuses on a specific location, you can distribute a written questionnaire to be completed by respondents on the spot. For example, you could approach the customers of a shopping mall or ask all students to complete a questionnaire at the end of a class.

• You can screen respondents to make sure only people in the target population are included in the sample.
• You can collect time- and location-specific data (e.g. the opinions of a store’s weekday customers).
• The sample size will be smaller, so this method is less suitable for collecting data on broad populations and is at risk for sampling bias .

Oral interviews are a useful method for smaller sample sizes. They allow you to gather more in-depth information on people’s opinions and preferences. You can conduct interviews by phone or in person.

• You have personal contact with respondents, so you know exactly who will be included in the sample in advance.
• You can clarify questions and ask for follow-up information when necessary.
• The lack of anonymity may cause respondents to answer less honestly, and there is more risk of researcher bias.

Like questionnaires, interviews can be used to collect quantitative data: the researcher records each response as a category or rating and statistically analyzes the results. But they are more commonly used to collect qualitative data : the interviewees’ full responses are transcribed and analyzed individually to gain a richer understanding of their opinions and feelings.

Next, you need to decide which questions you will ask and how you will ask them. It’s important to consider:

• The type of questions
• The content of the questions
• The phrasing of the questions
• The ordering and layout of the survey

Open-ended vs closed-ended questions

There are two main forms of survey questions: open-ended and closed-ended. Many surveys use a combination of both.

Closed-ended questions give the respondent a predetermined set of answers to choose from. A closed-ended question can include:

• A binary answer (e.g. yes/no or agree/disagree )
• A scale (e.g. a Likert scale with five points ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree )
• A list of options with a single answer possible (e.g. age categories)
• A list of options with multiple answers possible (e.g. leisure interests)

Closed-ended questions are best for quantitative research . They provide you with numerical data that can be statistically analyzed to find patterns, trends, and correlations .

Open-ended questions are best for qualitative research. This type of question has no predetermined answers to choose from. Instead, the respondent answers in their own words.

Open questions are most common in interviews, but you can also use them in questionnaires. They are often useful as follow-up questions to ask for more detailed explanations of responses to the closed questions.

The content of the survey questions

To ensure the validity and reliability of your results, you need to carefully consider each question in the survey. All questions should be narrowly focused with enough context for the respondent to answer accurately. Avoid questions that are not directly relevant to the survey’s purpose.

When constructing closed-ended questions, ensure that the options cover all possibilities. If you include a list of options that isn’t exhaustive, you can add an “other” field.

Phrasing the survey questions

In terms of language, the survey questions should be as clear and precise as possible. Tailor the questions to your target population, keeping in mind their level of knowledge of the topic. Avoid jargon or industry-specific terminology.

Survey questions are at risk for biases like social desirability bias , the Hawthorne effect , or demand characteristics . It’s critical to use language that respondents will easily understand, and avoid words with vague or ambiguous meanings. Make sure your questions are phrased neutrally, with no indication that you’d prefer a particular answer or emotion.

Ordering the survey questions

The questions should be arranged in a logical order. Start with easy, non-sensitive, closed-ended questions that will encourage the respondent to continue.

If the survey covers several different topics or themes, group together related questions. You can divide a questionnaire into sections to help respondents understand what is being asked in each part.

If a question refers back to or depends on the answer to a previous question, they should be placed directly next to one another.

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Before you start, create a clear plan for where, when, how, and with whom you will conduct the survey. Determine in advance how many responses you require and how you will gain access to the sample.

When you are satisfied that you have created a strong research design suitable for answering your research questions, you can conduct the survey through your method of choice – by mail, online, or in person.

There are many methods of analyzing the results of your survey. First you have to process the data, usually with the help of a computer program to sort all the responses. You should also clean the data by removing incomplete or incorrectly completed responses.

If you asked open-ended questions, you will have to code the responses by assigning labels to each response and organizing them into categories or themes. You can also use more qualitative methods, such as thematic analysis , which is especially suitable for analyzing interviews.

Statistical analysis is usually conducted using programs like SPSS or Stata. The same set of survey data can be subject to many analyses.

Finally, when you have collected and analyzed all the necessary data, you will write it up as part of your thesis, dissertation , or research paper .

In the methodology section, you describe exactly how you conducted the survey. You should explain the types of questions you used, the sampling method, when and where the survey took place, and the response rate. You can include the full questionnaire as an appendix and refer to it in the text if relevant.

Then introduce the analysis by describing how you prepared the data and the statistical methods you used to analyze it. In the results section, you summarize the key results from your analysis.

In the discussion and conclusion , you give your explanations and interpretations of these results, answer your research question, and reflect on the implications and limitations of the research.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Student’s  t -distribution
• Normal distribution
• Null and Alternative Hypotheses
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Data cleansing
• Reproducibility vs Replicability
• Peer review
• Prospective cohort study

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Placebo effect
• Hawthorne effect
• Hindsight bias
• Affect heuristic
• Social desirability bias

A questionnaire is a data collection tool or instrument, while a survey is an overarching research method that involves collecting and analyzing data from people using questionnaires.

A Likert scale is a rating scale that quantitatively assesses opinions, attitudes, or behaviors. It is made up of 4 or more questions that measure a single attitude or trait when response scores are combined.

To use a Likert scale in a survey , you present participants with Likert-type questions or statements, and a continuum of items, usually with 5 or 7 possible responses, to capture their degree of agreement.

Individual Likert-type questions are generally considered ordinal data , because the items have clear rank order, but don’t have an even distribution.

Overall Likert scale scores are sometimes treated as interval data. These scores are considered to have directionality and even spacing between them.

The type of data determines what statistical tests you should use to analyze your data.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

• Your research questions and/or hypotheses
• Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
• The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
• Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
• Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis )

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9.3: Interview Survey

• Last updated
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• Page ID 26261

• Anol Bhattacherjee
• University of South Florida via Global Text Project

Interviews are a more personalized form of data collection method than questionnaires, and are conducted by trained interviewers using the same research protocol as questionnaire surveys (i.e., a standardized set of questions). However, unlike a questionnaire, the interview script may contain special instructions for the interviewer that is not seen by respondents, and may include space for the interviewer to record personal observations and comments. In addition, unlike mail surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to clarify any issues raised by the respondent or ask probing or follow-up questions. However, interviews are timeconsuming and resource-intensive. Special interviewing skills are needed on part of the interviewer. The interviewer is also considered to be part of the measurement instrument, and must proactively strive not to artificially bias the observed responses.

The most typical form of interview is personal or face-to-face interview , where the interviewer works directly with the respondent to ask questions and record their responses. Personal interviews may be conducted at the respondent’s home or office location. This approach may even be favored by some respondents, while others may feel uncomfortable in allowing a stranger in their homes. However, skilled interviewers can persuade respondents to cooperate, dramatically improving response rates.

A variation of the personal interview is a group interview, also called focus group . In this technique, a small group of respondents (usually 6-10 respondents) are interviewed together in a common location. The interviewer is essentially a facilitator whose job is to lead the discussion, and ensure that every person has an opportunity to respond. Focus groups allow deeper examination of complex issues than other forms of survey research, because when people hear others talk, it often triggers responses or ideas that they did not think about before. However, focus group discussion may be dominated by a dominant personality, and some individuals may be reluctant to voice their opinions in front of their peers or superiors, especially while dealing with a sensitive issue such as employee underperformance or office politics. Because of their small sample size, focus groups are usually used for exploratory research rather than descriptive or explanatory research.

A third type of interview survey is telephone interviews . In this technique, interviewers contact potential respondents over the phone, typically based on a random selection of people from a telephone directory, to ask a standard set of survey questions. A more recent and technologically advanced approach is computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI), increasing being used by academic, government, and commercial survey researchers, where the interviewer is a telephone operator, who is guided through the interview process by a computer program displaying instructions and questions to be asked on a computer screen. The system also selects respondents randomly using a random digit dialing technique, and records responses using voice capture technology. Once respondents are on the phone, higher response rates can be obtained. This technique is not ideal for rural areas where telephone density is low, and also cannot be used for communicating non-audio information such as graphics or product demonstrations.

Role of interviewer

The interviewer has a complex and multi-faceted role in the interview process, which includes the following tasks:

• Prepare for the interview : Since the interviewer is in the forefront of the data collection effort, the quality of data collected depends heavily on how well the interviewer is trained to do the job. The interviewer must be trained in the interview process and the survey method, and also be familiar with the purpose of the study, how responses will be stored and used, and sources of interviewer bias. He/she should also rehearse and time the interview prior to the formal study.
• Locate and enlist the cooperation of respondents : Particularly in personal, in-home surveys, the interviewer must locate specific addresses, and work around respondents’ schedule sometimes at undesirable times such as during weekends. They should also be like a salesperson, selling the idea of participating in the study.
• Motivate respondents : Respondents often feed off the motivation of the interviewer. If the interviewer is disinterested or inattentive, respondents won’t be motivated to provide useful or informative responses either. The interviewer must demonstrate enthusiasm about the study, communicate the importance of the research to respondents, and be attentive to respondents’ needs throughout the interview.
• Clarify any confusion or concerns : Interviewers must be able to think on their feet and address unanticipated concerns or objections raised by respondents to the respondents’ satisfaction. Additionally, they should ask probing questions as necessary even if such questions are not in the script.
• Observe quality of response : The interviewer is in the best position to judge the quality of information collected, and may supplement responses obtained using personal observations of gestures or body language as appropriate.

Research Interviews: An effective and insightful way of data collection

Research interviews play a pivotal role in collecting data for various academic, scientific, and professional endeavors. They provide researchers with an opportunity to delve deep into the thoughts, experiences, and perspectives of an individual, thus enabling a comprehensive understanding of complex phenomena. It is important for researchers to design an effective and insightful method of data collection on a particular topic. A research interview is typically a two-person meeting conducted to collect information on a certain topic. It is a qualitative data collection method to gain primary information.

The three key features of a research interview are as follows:

Table of Contents

The Significance of Research Interviews in Gathering Primary Data

The role of research interviews in gathering first-hand information is invaluable. Additionally, they allow researchers to interact directly with participants, enabling them to collect unfiltered primary data.

1. Subjective Experience

Research interviews facilitate in-depth exploration of a research topic. Thus, by engaging in one-to-one conversation with participants, researchers can delve into the nuances and complexities of their experiences, perspectives, and opinions. This allows comprehensive understanding of the research subject that may not be possible through other methods. Also, research interviews offer the unique advantage of capturing subjective experiences through personal narratives. Moreover, participants can express their thoughts, feelings, and beliefs, which add depth to the findings.

2. Personal Insights

Research interviews offer an opportunity for participants to share their views and opinions on the objective they are being interviewed for. Furthermore, participants can express their thoughts and experiences, providing rich qualitative data . Consequently, these personal narratives add a human element to the research, thus enhancing the understanding of the topic from the participants’ perspectives. Research interviews offer the opportunity to uncover unanticipated insights or emerging themes. Additionally, open-ended questions and active listening can help the researchers to identify new perspectives, ideas, or patterns that may not have been initially considered. As a result, these factors can lead to new avenues for exploration.

3. Clarification and Validation

Researchers can clarify participants’ responses and validate their understanding during an interview. This ensures accurate data collection and interpretation. Additionally, researchers can probe deeper into participants’ statements and seek clarification on any ambiguity in the information.

4. Contextual Information

Research interviews allow researchers to gather contextual information that offers a comprehensive understanding of the research topic. Additionally, participants can provide insights into the social, cultural, or environmental factors that shape their experiences, behaviors, and beliefs. This contextual information helps researchers place the data in a broader context and facilitates a more nuanced analysis.

5. Non-verbal Cues

In addition to verbal responses, research interviews allow researchers to observe non-verbal cues such as body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice. Additionally, non-verbal cues can convey information, such as emotions, attitudes, or levels of comfort. Furthermore, integrating non-verbal cues with verbal responses provides a more holistic understanding of participants’ experiences and enriches the data collection process.

Research interviews offer several advantages, making them a reliable tool for collecting information. However, choosing the right type of research interview is essential for collecting useful data.

Types of Research Interviews

There are several types of research interviews that researchers can use based on their research goals , the nature of their study, and the data they aim to collect. Here are some common types of research interviews:

1. Structured Interviews

• Structured interviews are standardized and follow a fixed format.
• Therefore, these interviews have a pre-determined set of questions.
• All the participants are asked the same set of questions in the same order.
• Therefore, this type of interview facilitates standardization and allows easy comparison and quantitative analysis of responses.
• As a result, structured interviews are used in surveys or studies which aims for a high level of standardization and comparability.

2. Semi-structured Interviews

• Semi-structured interviews offer a flexible framework by combining pre-determined questions.
• So, this gives an opportunity for follow-up questions and open-ended discussions.
• Researchers have a list of core questions but can adapt the interview depending on the participant’s responses.
• Consequently, this allows for in-depth exploration while maintaining some level of consistency across interviews.
• As a result, semi-structured interviews are widely used in qualitative research, where content-rich data is desired.

3. Unstructured Interviews

• Unstructured interviews provide the greatest flexibility and freedom in the interview process.
• This type do not have a pre-determined set of questions.
• Thus, the conversation flows naturally based on the participant’s responses and the researcher’s interests.
• Moreover, this type of interview allows for open-ended exploration and encourages participants to share their experiences, thoughts, and perspectives freely.
• Unstructured interviews useful to explore new or complex research topics, with limited preconceived questions.

4. Group Interviews (Focus Groups)

• Group interviews involve multiple participants who engage in a facilitated discussion on a specific topic.
• This format allows the interaction and exchange of ideas among participants, generating a group dynamic.
• Therefore, group interviews are beneficial for capturing diverse perspectives, and generating collective insights.
• They are often used in market research, social sciences, or studies demanding shared experiences.

5. Narrative Interviews

• Narrative interviews focus on eliciting participants’ personal stories, views, experiences, and narratives. Researchers aim to look into the individual’s life journey.
• As a result, this type of interview allows participants to construct and share their own narratives, providing rich qualitative data.
• Qualitative research, oral history, or studies focusing on individual experiences and identities uses narrative interviews.

6. Ethnographic Interviews

• Ethnographic interviews are conducted within the context of ethnographic research, where researchers immerse themselves in a specific social or cultural setting.
• These interviews aim to understand participants’ experiences, beliefs, and practices within their cultural context, thereby understanding diversity in different ethnic groups.
• Furthermore, ethnographic interviews involve building rapport, observing the participants’ daily lives, and engaging in conversations that capture the nuances of the culture under study.

It must be noted that these interview types are not mutually exclusive. Therefore, researchers often employ a combination of approaches to gather the most comprehensive data for their research. The choice of interview type depends on the research objectives and the nature of the research topic.

Steps of Conducting a Research Interview

Research interviews offer several benefits, and thus careful planning and execution of the entire process are important to gather in-depth information from the participants. While conducting an interview, it is essential to know the necessary steps to follow for ensuring success. The steps to conduct a research interview are as follows:

• Identify the objectives and understand the goals
• Select an appropriate interview format
• Organize the necessary materials for the interview
• Understand the questions to be addressed
• Analyze the demographics of interviewees
• Select the interviewees
• Design the interview questions to gather sufficient information
• Schedule the interview
• Explain the purpose of the interview
• Analyze the interviewee based on his/her responses

Considerations for Research Interviews

Since the flexible nature of research interviews makes them an invaluable tool for data collection, researchers must consider certain factors to make the process effective. They should avoid bias and preconceived notion against the participants. Furthermore, researchers must comply with ethical considerations and respect the cultural differences between them and the participants. Also, they should ensure careful tailoring of the questions to avoid making them offensive or derogatory. The interviewers must respect the privacy of the participants and ensure the confidentiality of their details.

By ensuring due diligence of these considerations associated with research interviews, researchers can maximize the validity and reliability of the collected data, leading to robust and meaningful research outcomes.

Have you ever conducted a research interview? What was your experience? What factors did you consider when conducting a research interview? Share it with researchers worldwide by submitting your thought piece on Enago Academy’s Open Blogging Platform .

Frequently Asked Questions

• Identify the objectives of the interview • State and explain the purpose of the interview • Select an appropriate interview format • Organize the necessary materials for the Interview • Check the demographics of the participants • Select the Interviewees or the participants • Prepare the list of questions to gather maximum useful data from the participants • Schedule the Interview • Analyze the participant based on his/ her Responses

Interviews are important in research as it helps to gather elaborative first-hand information. It helps to draw conclusions from the non-verbal views and personal experiences. It reduces the ambiguity of data through detailed discussions.

The advantages of research interviews are: • It offers first-hand information • Offers detailed assessment which can result in elaborate conclusions • It is easy to conduct • Provides non-verbal cues The disadvantages of research interviews are: • There is a risk of personal bias • It can be time consuming • The outcomes might be unpredictable

The difference between structured and unstructured interview are: • Structured interviews have well-structured questions in a pre-determined order; while unstructured interviews are flexible and do not have a pre-planned set of questions. • Structured interview is more detailed; while unstructured interviews are exploratory in nature. • Structured interview is easier to replicate as compared to unstructured interview.

Focus groups is a group of multiple participants engaging in a facilitated discussion on a specific topic. This format allows for interaction and exchange of ideas among participants.

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30 Survey Researcher Interview Questions and Answers

Common Survey Researcher interview questions, how to answer them, and example answers from a certified career coach.

In the world of market research, survey researchers play a pivotal role in gathering critical data that can guide business strategies and decisions. As you prepare to interview for such a position, it’s important to not only demonstrate your experience in data collection and analysis, but also show how your insights can drive successful outcomes.

To help ensure you feel prepared and confident stepping into your interview, we’ve compiled a list of common questions that survey researcher candidates may face. Along with these questions, we’ll provide helpful tips and sample answers to give you a leg up on this competitive field.

1. Can you describe a complex survey project you have managed from start to finish?

Completing a survey project from start to finish requires a variety of skills including project management, data collection, analysis, and presentation. Employers would like to know about your experience in handling such tasks, and how well you understand the entire process. Your ability to manage complex tasks and complete them successfully is a key aspect of the job, hence the question.

Example: “I managed a large-scale survey project for a healthcare client aiming to understand patient satisfaction levels. The project involved designing the questionnaire, ensuring its validity and reliability, and determining the sample size and selection process.

The next step was data collection which was done both online and through phone interviews. I led a team of interviewers and closely monitored the quality of data collected.

Once we had gathered sufficient responses, the data analysis phase began. Using statistical software, we analyzed the data, interpreted results, and identified key trends and patterns.

Finally, I presented our findings to the client in an easily understandable format, highlighting actionable insights. This comprehensive project not only improved my project management skills but also deepened my understanding of customer behavior in the healthcare sector.”

2. How have you ensured the validity and reliability of data in your previous roles?

The key to a survey researcher’s role is the accuracy of the data collected. Inaccurate or unreliable data can lead to misguided conclusions and render the entire research project useless. Therefore, employers want to know that you have a clear understanding of how to ensure data validity and reliability. They are interested in your methods of data collection, cleaning, and interpretation, as well as your attention to detail.

Example: “In my experience, ensuring data validity and reliability starts with the design of the survey. I always make sure questions are clear, unbiased, and relevant to avoid any misunderstanding or misinterpretation.

For data collection, I use reliable sources and double-check for errors during entry. In case of surveys, I ensure a representative sample size to increase reliability.

Post-collection, I conduct rigorous data cleaning processes to identify outliers or inconsistencies. Regular audits also help in maintaining accuracy over time.

Lastly, using statistical tools, I validate the data by cross-verifying it with other similar studies or datasets. This multi-pronged approach has helped me maintain high standards of data validity and reliability.”

3. What are the key factors you consider when designing a survey?

Research design is a fundamental aspect of a survey researcher’s job. The quality of the research output often depends on how well the survey is designed. By asking this question, interviewers want to assess your understanding of the key considerations in survey design, such as the purpose of the survey, the target population, the choice of questions, the response scale, and the survey delivery method. They are keen to know if you can design surveys that are effective in collecting reliable and valid data.

Example: “When designing a survey, I consider the following key factors:

1. Purpose: Understanding the objective of the survey is crucial to guide its design and ensure it gathers relevant data.

2. Target Audience: The demographics and psychographics of the intended respondents influence question phrasing and survey length.

3. Question Design: Questions should be clear, unbiased, and easy to understand. Open-ended questions can provide qualitative insights while closed-ended ones yield quantitative data.

4. Response Scale: Whether it’s a Likert scale or binary options depends on the type of feedback required.

5. Survey Length: It must be short enough to maintain respondent engagement but long enough to gather necessary information.

6. Data Analysis: Consideration is given to how responses will be analyzed to ensure that the collected data meets the research objectives.

7. Pilot Testing: This helps identify potential issues before full deployment.”

4. Can you discuss any innovative survey methods you have used to increase response rates?

Employers are keen to know if you can devise effective strategies to increase survey participation. This is because the more data collected, the more accurate the research findings will be. Your innovative methods could involve new technological tools, unique engagement techniques, or motivating incentives; all of which are indicative of your creativity and problem-solving skills in the field of survey research.

Example: “In the past, I’ve leveraged technology to increase survey response rates. One method was using mobile-optimized surveys. Since most people use smartphones daily, it made sense to make our surveys easily accessible on these devices.

Another strategy was incorporating gamification elements into surveys. This not only engaged respondents but also encouraged completion of the survey.

Lastly, personalization played a crucial role. By tailoring questions based on respondent’s previous answers, we were able to maintain their interest and reduce drop-out rates.”

5. How would you handle a situation where a client disagrees with your survey design or methodology?

As a survey researcher, one of your most important tasks is to design and implement methodologies that ensure accurate, unbiased results. However, your clients may not always agree with your approach. This question is designed to gauge your ability to handle such disagreements, including your capacity to explain your methods effectively, negotiate changes when appropriate, and maintain positive relationships with clients even when there are differences of opinion.

Example: “In such a scenario, I would first seek to understand the client’s concerns by asking specific questions. It is crucial to ensure that their objections are not due to misunderstanding or lack of information.

Once I have a clear understanding, I would explain my rationale behind the survey design or methodology, providing evidence-based reasoning where possible.

If they still disagree, I’d be open to revisiting my approach and making necessary adjustments. The key is maintaining a collaborative relationship with the client while ensuring scientific integrity of the research process.”

6. How do you stay updated on the latest trends and advancements in survey research?

Survey research is far from a static field. New methodologies, technologies, and approaches are constantly emerging, and as a professional in the field, it’s important to stay on top of these developments. This question helps interviewers gauge your commitment to continuous learning and your ability to adapt to changes in the field, both of which are key to performing well in a role as a survey researcher.

Example: “I regularly read industry-specific publications and academic journals such as the Journal of Survey Statistics and Methodology. I also attend webinars, conferences, and workshops to learn about new methodologies and technologies in survey research. Participating in online forums and professional networks is another way I stay updated on current trends. Additionally, I have set up Google Alerts for specific keywords related to survey research which helps me get real-time updates. These strategies ensure I am always informed about advancements in my field.”

7. Describe a time when you had to adapt your research approach due to unforeseen circumstances.

This question is aimed at gauging your problem-solving skills and adaptability. In the field of survey research, things may not always go as planned. For example, you may encounter unresponsive participants, data inconsistencies, or issues with research tools. It’s important for you to demonstrate that you can think on your feet and adjust your strategy to overcome such challenges and still deliver reliable results.

Example: “During a project on consumer behavior, we initially planned to conduct face-to-face surveys. However, due to an unexpected rise in COVID-19 cases, this approach was no longer feasible.

We quickly pivoted to online surveys and phone interviews. We adapted our survey design for these formats while ensuring the integrity of our data collection process.

This experience taught me the importance of flexibility in research and the need to be prepared with alternative methods. Despite the challenges, we were able to successfully complete the project and provide valuable insights to our client.”

8. Can you discuss your experience with both qualitative and quantitative research methods?

Casting a keen eye over the landscape of survey research, it’s clear that both qualitative and quantitative research methods play a pivotal role. As a survey researcher, you’re expected to have a strong grasp of both. By asking this question, the interviewer wants to gauge your proficiency in these contrasting yet complementary research methodologies. They want to see if you can balance the statistical rigour of quantitative analysis with the in-depth, human insights gleaned from qualitative research.

Example: “In my experience, both qualitative and quantitative research methods are essential for comprehensive data analysis. I’ve used quantitative methods to gather numerical data through surveys, providing a broad overview of opinions or trends. This hard data is crucial for evidence-based decision making.

On the other hand, I’ve employed qualitative methods such as interviews and focus groups to gain in-depth understanding of behaviors, motivations, and patterns. It allows exploration of nuances that might be overlooked by purely numerical data.

Balancing these approaches has enabled me to provide well-rounded insights in my research projects.”

9. What statistical software are you proficient in, and how have you utilized them in your research?

Statistical software skills are a critical part of a Survey Researcher’s toolkit. These programs are used to analyze and interpret the data collected in surveys, which is then used to make informed decisions and recommendations. By asking this question, the interviewer is trying to gauge your technical skills, your ability to use these tools effectively in your work, and how you apply your findings to the real world.

Example: “I’m proficient in R, SPSS, and SAS. In my research, I’ve used R for data manipulation, visualization, and statistical modeling due to its flexibility and extensive package ecosystem. For instance, I employed the ‘ggplot2’ package for creating complex visualizations.

SPSS was particularly useful for handling large datasets and conducting descriptive statistics. Its user-friendly interface made it easy to perform basic analyses quickly.

SAS was instrumental when dealing with advanced analytics. I utilized its predictive modeling capabilities during a project where we needed to forecast future trends based on historical data.”

10. How do you ensure that your questionnaires are unbiased and inclusive?

The heart of survey research lies in the creation of unbiased, inclusive questionnaires that yield accurate and meaningful data. To that end, it’s vital for researchers to demonstrate their understanding of questionnaire design principles, including the avoidance of leading or loaded questions, the importance of demographic inclusivity, and the techniques for ensuring respondent understanding. A well-designed questionnaire should be a robust tool for gathering data from a diverse range of respondents, and this question is aimed at assessing your ability to design such a tool.

Example: “To ensure that questionnaires are unbiased and inclusive, I focus on clear, neutral language. This means avoiding leading questions or those with implied assumptions. I also consider diversity in terms of demographics, culture, and experiences when designing the questionnaire to make sure it’s applicable to all respondents.

Inclusivity is achieved by providing options that cover a wide range of responses and including an ‘other’ category where appropriate. It’s also crucial to pilot test the survey with a diverse group before full deployment to identify potential biases or misunderstandings.

Lastly, I keep myself updated with best practices through continuous learning and staying informed about advancements in research methodology.”

11. How would you handle a situation where you discover a significant error in your data after reporting the findings?

Honesty and integrity are key traits for a survey researcher. A primary role of a survey researcher is to ensure the accuracy and validity of data collected. If an error is made, it’s important to address and correct it promptly, even if it means admitting a mistake. This question aims to assess your problem-solving skills, your commitment to quality, and your professional integrity.

Example: “In such a situation, I would immediately inform my manager about the error. Transparency is crucial in maintaining trust within a team and it’s important to own up to mistakes.

Next, I’d conduct a thorough investigation to understand the root cause of the error. This could involve revisiting data collection methods or analysis techniques used.

Once understood, I’d correct the error and reanalyze the data. Then, I’d update the report with the revised findings, highlighting the changes made due to the error.

Lastly, I’d implement measures to prevent similar errors in future projects. This could include improving quality checks during data collection or enhancing analytical procedures.”

12. What strategies do you use to ensure high response rates in telephone or online surveys?

As a survey researcher, one of your primary tasks is to gather accurate and relevant data. However, in order to do this, you need participants who are willing to respond to your surveys. A low response rate can skew the findings and make the research less valuable. Therefore, interviewers want to understand your strategies to engage respondents and make them feel comfortable enough to provide honest answers.

Example: “To ensure high response rates in surveys, I focus on three main strategies.

One is to make the survey as concise and relevant as possible. Respondents are more likely to complete a survey if it’s short and directly related to their interests.

Secondly, timing plays a crucial role. Sending out surveys at a time when respondents are most likely to be free increases the chances of getting responses.

Lastly, offering incentives can also boost response rates. These could range from discounts, gift cards to exclusive content. However, it’s important to balance this with ensuring that responses remain unbiased.”

13. How do you handle the ethical considerations in survey research?

Ethics are paramount when it comes to conducting surveys. Whether it’s ensuring confidentiality, obtaining informed consent, or avoiding biased questions, there are numerous ethical considerations to keep in mind. Therefore, potential employers want to see that you’re well-versed in these matters and committed to upholding the highest ethical standards in your research.

Example: “In handling ethical considerations in survey research, I prioritize informed consent and confidentiality. Participants should understand the purpose of the study, its benefits, risks, and their right to withdraw at any time without penalty.

I also ensure that questions are not intrusive or offensive, respecting participants’ privacy and cultural sensitivities.

Lastly, data must be stored securely to prevent unauthorized access, and results reported honestly, acknowledging limitations and avoiding overgeneralization. This approach ensures respect for participants while maintaining the integrity of the research.”

14. What methods would you use to analyze open-ended survey responses?

The crux of this question lies in your analytical skills and familiarity with qualitative data analysis techniques. As a survey researcher, you’ll often deal with open-ended responses that don’t fit neatly into quantitative metrics, so your ability to extract meaningful insights from such data is invaluable. You’ll need to demonstrate your knowledge of various coding techniques, thematic analysis, and the use of software to manage and analyze qualitative data.

Example: “Analyzing open-ended survey responses involves qualitative data analysis methods. Thematic analysis is a common approach where responses are coded and categorized based on recurring themes. This helps in identifying patterns and trends in the data.

Another method is content analysis, which quantifies qualitative data by counting the frequency of words or phrases. It provides an objective evaluation of the responses.

Sentiment analysis can also be used to understand the underlying emotions or attitudes in the responses. It’s particularly useful when dealing with large volumes of data.

It’s crucial to combine these methods with contextual understanding for accurate interpretation of results.”

15. Can you explain a time when you had to present complex survey results to a non-technical audience?

Conveying complex data in a way that’s accessible to all is a key aspect of a survey researcher’s role. Whether it’s presenting to a client, a team of non-technical colleagues, or even to the public, the ability to translate complex data into meaningful, understandable insights is critical. This question is designed to assess your ability to bridge the gap between the technical and non-technical, demonstrating your communication skills, your understanding of your audience, and your ability to tailor your delivery to suit their needs.

Example: “In one of my previous projects, I had to present the findings of a customer satisfaction survey to our marketing team. The data was quite complex with multiple variables and correlations.

To simplify it, I focused on key insights that were relevant to their work such as overall satisfaction rate, areas of improvement, and standout positive feedback. I used simple language and visual aids like graphs and charts to illustrate these points.

For more complex statistics, I provided real-world examples or analogies to help them understand. For instance, instead of discussing correlation coefficients, I explained how two factors, like product quality and customer loyalty, move together.

This approach helped in making the information accessible and actionable for the non-technical audience.”

16. How do you handle data privacy and confidentiality in your research?

Data privacy and confidentiality are central to the role of a survey researcher. You’re dealing with sensitive information that, if mishandled, could have serious ethical and legal consequences. Therefore, employers need to know that you have a strong understanding of data protection principles and that you’re able to apply them in your work to ensure the privacy and confidentiality of research participants.

Example: “In handling data privacy and confidentiality in research, I adhere to strict ethical guidelines. This includes obtaining informed consent from participants, ensuring they understand how their information will be used.

I anonymize personal identifiers during data collection and analysis to protect identities. Data is stored securely using encryption techniques and access is strictly limited to those directly involved in the project.

Regular audits are conducted to ensure compliance with privacy laws and regulations. In case of any breaches, prompt action is taken to rectify and prevent future occurrences.

Transparency is also crucial. Participants should know who has access to their data and for what purpose it’s being used. By maintaining these practices, we can uphold the highest standards of data privacy and confidentiality.”

17. What is your approach to developing a sampling strategy?

Sampling strategy is the heart of any research project. It affects the quality of data collected and the confidence with which conclusions can be drawn. Thus, hiring managers want to know if you have a sound understanding of various sampling techniques and can apply them judiciously to ensure that the data collected is representative of the population under study. It also demonstrates your ability to think critically and strategically, which are essential skills in survey research.

Example: “Developing a sampling strategy requires understanding the research objectives, identifying the target population, and considering budget and time constraints. I would start by defining the population: who are we studying? Then, I’d determine the sample size needed to achieve reliable results, taking into account factors like margin of error and confidence level.

The next step is choosing a sampling technique. Probability sampling ensures every member has an equal chance of selection, while non-probability sampling can be useful when specific subgroups need to be studied.

Lastly, it’s crucial to consider potential biases that could skew results and plan ways to mitigate them. This might involve stratifying the sample or oversampling underrepresented groups.”

18. How do you ensure the quality of data collected in your surveys?

The integrity and reliability of your research findings hinge on the quality of the data you collect. Employers want to know that you understand how to design and administer surveys that will minimize bias, ensure a representative sample, and yield meaningful results. They’re also interested in your methods for checking and cleaning data, as well as your ability to identify and rectify any issues that might compromise data quality.

Example: “Ensuring quality data collection in surveys involves several steps. I start by clearly defining the objectives of the survey to ensure we ask the right questions. Then, I focus on creating a well-structured questionnaire with unbiased and unambiguous questions.

Sampling is also crucial; selecting a representative sample reduces bias. After collecting responses, I conduct thorough data cleaning to identify and handle outliers or missing values.

Finally, I use statistical methods for analysis to validate the results. Regular audits and consistency checks further enhance data integrity. By adhering to these practices, I can confidently vouch for the quality of my survey data.”

19. Can you discuss a time when you used survey research to influence strategic decisions?

This question is pivotal because it directly addresses whether you can leverage your survey research skills to drive business strategy. It’s not enough to just collect data; employers want to know if you can interpret it, draw meaningful insights, and propose actionable strategies that will benefit the organization. Your ability to do so demonstrates a high level of critical thinking and understanding of the business landscape, which are highly valued skills in this role.

Example: “In my experience, survey research has been instrumental in strategic decision-making. For instance, while working on a product expansion project, we were unsure about the potential market reception.

I spearheaded a comprehensive survey targeting our existing customers and potential ones. The objective was to gauge their interest in the new features we intended to introduce and understand what additional elements they would value.

The insights gathered significantly influenced our strategy. We discovered that certain proposed features weren’t as appealing as others, which helped us prioritize development efforts. This not only saved resources but also ensured that the final product was closely aligned with customer needs.”

20. How do you handle criticism or skepticism towards your research findings?

As a survey researcher, your work is subject to scrutiny and skepticism due to its inherent subjectivity. It’s important to show that you can handle criticism professionally and constructively. Employers want to see that you can defend your findings and methodology effectively, while also being open to feedback and alternative perspectives. It’s all about demonstrating resilience and a commitment to scientific integrity in the face of challenge.

Example: “Criticism and skepticism are inherent parts of any research process. I view them as opportunities for improvement rather than obstacles. When faced with such situations, I first ensure that my findings are based on solid data and sound methodology.

If criticism arises, I engage in a dialogue to understand the concerns raised. This helps me address any potential gaps or misunderstandings. If skepticism comes from a lack of understanding, I strive to explain my methods and results more clearly.

Maintaining an open mind is crucial. Sometimes, constructive criticism can lead to new insights or even changes in direction that ultimately strengthen the research. It’s all about maintaining scientific integrity while striving for continuous improvement.”

21. Can you describe your experience with longitudinal studies?

The essence of a survey researcher’s role is to gather, analyze, and interpret data over time. Longitudinal studies, which track the same data points or individuals over extended periods, are a key tool in this process. Therefore, interviewers want to know if you have experience in designing, conducting, and analyzing such studies. This will demonstrate your ability to handle complex research tasks and contribute to the organization’s understanding of long-term trends or effects.

Example: “I have extensive experience in conducting and analyzing longitudinal studies. These types of studies are crucial for understanding changes over time, especially in social science research.

In my work, I’ve designed several such studies, focusing on diverse topics from educational attainment to health behaviors. For instance, one study involved tracking the same individuals over a 10-year period to assess lifestyle impacts on chronic disease development.

Data management is critical in these studies. Therefore, I developed robust systems for data collection, entry, and cleaning to ensure accuracy.

Moreover, I’m proficient in statistical software like SPSS and R, which are vital for handling complex longitudinal data analysis. This includes using advanced techniques like growth curve modeling and multi-level modeling.

Overall, my experience with longitudinal studies has equipped me with valuable skills in designing, implementing, and interpreting this type of research.”

22. How would you approach a multi-country survey research project with cultural differences?

The essence of survey research is to gather reliable and unbiased data. Cultural differences, if not properly managed, can introduce bias and skew results. Therefore, interviewers want to understand your sensitivity to cultural differences and your ability to design and implement research strategies that take these into account. This not only tests your research skills but also your ability to work in a diverse and global context.

Example: “Understanding cultural differences is crucial in a multi-country survey research project. I would approach this by conducting an extensive literature review and consulting with local experts to understand the context of each country.

To ensure validity, I’d design culturally sensitive questions that avoid bias or misinterpretation. The use of back-translation can be beneficial for maintaining question integrity across languages.

I would also consider different data collection methods suitable for each location, taking into account factors like literacy rates and technology access.

Finally, analyzing the data, I would take care not to make direct comparisons without considering the cultural contexts. This way, we can derive meaningful insights while respecting cultural nuances.”

23. What is your experience in training and managing a team of interviewers?

The success of a survey research project largely depends on the quality of the data collected, and that’s where interviewers play a critical role. They are the ones who interact directly with the respondents, and they need to be skilled in asking questions in an unbiased way, dealing with various types of respondents, and accurately recording the answers. Hence, your ability to train and manage a team of interviewers can significantly impact the quality of the survey data and the success of the research project.

Example: “I have led a team of interviewers for several large-scale projects. My role involved training them on effective interviewing techniques and ensuring they adhered to ethical guidelines. I also managed their schedules, resolved any issues that arose, and monitored performance for quality assurance. This experience has honed my leadership skills, particularly in communication and problem-solving. It’s crucial to ensure the team is well-prepared and motivated to collect accurate data.”

24. How do you manage and prioritize multiple survey projects simultaneously?

This question is used to gauge your ability to juggle multiple tasks and responsibilities in a role that often involves managing different projects at the same time. Your response will provide insight into your organizational skills, your ability to work effectively under pressure, and your capacity to meet deadlines – all of which are key characteristics for a successful survey researcher.

Example: “Managing and prioritizing multiple survey projects requires a strategic approach. I utilize project management tools to keep track of deadlines, tasks, and progress. This allows me to visualize the workload and make necessary adjustments.

Prioritization is based on several factors such as urgency, complexity, and stakeholder requirements. Urgent and high-impact projects take precedence.

For complex surveys, I break them down into manageable parts and allocate resources accordingly. Regular communication with stakeholders ensures alignment with their expectations and prompt resolution of any issues that may arise.

By maintaining flexibility in my schedule, I can accommodate unexpected changes or challenges without compromising the quality of the work.”

25. Can you give an example of a time when you used advanced statistical techniques to analyze survey data?

In the realm of survey research, being adept at using advanced statistical techniques is a must. This question is asked to gauge your technical acumen and your ability to translate raw data into meaningful insights. It also helps the interviewer understand how you apply statistical techniques to real-world problems and whether you can interpret the results in a way that can be understood by non-statisticians.

Example: “In a recent project, I used multivariate regression analysis to understand the relationship between customer satisfaction and various service attributes. The survey had both categorical and continuous variables, so dummy coding was required for accurate interpretation.

After cleaning and preparing the data, I ran the regression model which revealed some interesting insights. For instance, promptness of service had a stronger impact on overall satisfaction than other factors like price or product variety.

This advanced statistical technique allowed us to prioritize improvements in service delivery, leading to an increase in customer satisfaction scores in subsequent surveys.”

26. How do you plan and manage the budget for a large-scale survey project?

Budgeting is a critical aspect of survey research. It’s not just about designing the survey and collecting data, but also knowing how to strategically allocate resources to ensure the project’s success. Interviewers want to gauge your understanding of the financial obligations tied to a project and your ability to manage them effectively. This includes predicting and controlling costs, as well as finding ways to maximize the efficiency of the budget throughout the project lifecycle.

Example: “Planning and managing a budget for a large-scale survey project involves several steps.

The initial step is to define the scope of the project, including its objectives, target audience, and expected outcomes. This helps in estimating the overall cost.

Next, I break down the project into smaller tasks or phases, each with their own budget allocation. These could include design, data collection, analysis, and reporting.

I also account for unforeseen expenses by setting aside a contingency fund.

Throughout the project, I closely monitor expenditures against the allocated budget. If any deviations occur, I adjust accordingly to ensure we stay within budget.

Finally, using software tools can aid in tracking costs and maintaining transparency with stakeholders about the financial status of the project.”

27. How have you used survey research to identify trends or patterns in data?

This question probes at your analytical skills and your ability to turn raw data into actionable insights. Survey researchers are not just expected to collect data, they are also expected to interpret it. Understanding trends and patterns is key to drawing accurate conclusions and making informed recommendations. Your ability to do this effectively can significantly impact the company’s strategic decisions and overall success.

Example: “In one project, I utilized survey research to identify customer satisfaction trends for a retail company. After designing and distributing the survey, I collected responses from over 1000 customers.

Using statistical software, I analyzed the data and found that overall satisfaction was high but there were recurring complaints about long checkout lines. This pattern suggested an area of improvement for the company.

I reported these findings to stakeholders who then implemented strategies to reduce wait times. Subsequent surveys showed improved customer satisfaction scores in this area. Thus, my use of survey research directly led to actionable insights and positive changes.”

28. What is your approach to reporting and presenting survey findings to stakeholders?

The essence of your job as a survey researcher is not just about gathering data, but also interpreting it and presenting it in a way that’s easy for stakeholders to understand and act upon. Therefore, your potential employer wants to hear how you would take complex data and turn it into a compelling narrative that can guide decision-making. Your approach to reporting and presenting findings is a critical part of your role and one that can significantly impact an organization’s strategy.

Example: “My approach to reporting and presenting survey findings is threefold.

I start by ensuring data accuracy, as it forms the foundation of any report. I cross-check all results for consistency and validity.

Next, I focus on creating a clear narrative around the data. This involves highlighting key insights, trends, or patterns that are relevant to stakeholders’ interests or objectives.

Lastly, I present the information in a visually appealing manner using charts, graphs, or infographics. This not only makes the data easier to digest but also helps in engaging the audience effectively. Throughout this process, I maintain open communication with stakeholders to ensure their needs are met.”

29. Can you discuss a time when you had to revise a survey based on pilot study feedback?

A survey researcher’s job is all about gathering and interpreting data accurately. Pilot studies are a vital part of the process, helping to highlight any potential issues with the survey before it’s rolled out on a larger scale. Interviewers want to know that you can take constructive feedback from these pilot studies and implement necessary changes to ensure the efficacy and accuracy of your survey. This showcases your adaptability, problem-solving skills, and commitment to quality.

Example: “In a project on customer satisfaction, we conducted a pilot study using an online survey. The feedback indicated that some questions were ambiguous and the length was too long.

We revised the survey by simplifying complex language and removing redundant or less relevant questions. We also added examples to certain questions for clarity. This made our final survey more effective and user-friendly, leading to higher response rates and more accurate data collection.”

30. How do you handle situations where the survey results do not align with the client’s expectations or assumptions?

It’s essential for survey researchers to be able to communicate effectively and handle delicate situations, especially when the data collected contradicts a client’s initial hypotheses or expectations. The interviewer wants to see how you navigate these tricky conversations, maintaining professionalism and objectivity while delivering potentially unwelcome news. They’re also interested in how you use your skills to help the client understand and potentially utilize the unexpected data.

Example: “When survey results don’t align with a client’s expectations, it’s crucial to communicate these findings honestly and professionally. I would present the data clearly, explaining the methodology used and why the results might differ from their assumptions.

Understanding the reasons behind these discrepancies is key. It could be due to sampling errors, biased questions or misinterpretation of responses.

I’d suggest further research if necessary, to validate or challenge the initial findings. The goal should always be to provide accurate, actionable insights that can guide strategic decisions, even if they’re unexpected.”

30 CRM Consultant Interview Questions and Answers

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Research Methods Guide: Interview Research

• Introduction
• Research Design & Method
• Survey Research
• Data Analysis
• Resources & Consultation

Tutorial Videos: Interview Method

Interview as a Method for Qualitative Research

Goals of Interview Research

• Preferences
• They help you explain, better understand, and explore research subjects' opinions, behavior, experiences, phenomenon, etc.
• Interview questions are usually open-ended questions so that in-depth information will be collected.

Mode of Data Collection

There are several types of interviews, including:

• Face-to-Face
• Online (e.g. Skype, Googlehangout, etc)

FAQ: Conducting Interview Research

What are the important steps involved in interviews?

• Think about who you will interview
• Think about what kind of information you want to obtain from interviews
• Think about why you want to pursue in-depth information around your research topic
• Introduce yourself and explain the aim of the interview
• Devise your questions so interviewees can help answer your research question
• Have a sequence to your questions / topics by grouping them in themes
• Make sure you can easily move back and forth between questions / topics
• Make sure your questions are clear and easy to understand
• Do not ask leading questions
• Do you want to bring a second interviewer with you?
• Do you want to bring a notetaker?
• Do you want to record interviews? If so, do you have time to transcribe interview recordings?
• Where will you interview people? Where is the setting with the least distraction?
• How long will each interview take?
• Do you need to address terms of confidentiality?

Do I have to choose either a survey or interviewing method?

No.  In fact, many researchers use a mixed method - interviews can be useful as follow-up to certain respondents to surveys, e.g., to further investigate their responses.

Is training an interviewer important?

Yes, since the interviewer can control the quality of the result, training the interviewer becomes crucial.  If more than one interviewers are involved in your study, it is important to have every interviewer understand the interviewing procedure and rehearse the interviewing process before beginning the formal study.

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Chapter 11. Interviewing

Introduction.

Interviewing people is at the heart of qualitative research. It is not merely a way to collect data but an intrinsically rewarding activity—an interaction between two people that holds the potential for greater understanding and interpersonal development. Unlike many of our daily interactions with others that are fairly shallow and mundane, sitting down with a person for an hour or two and really listening to what they have to say is a profound and deep enterprise, one that can provide not only “data” for you, the interviewer, but also self-understanding and a feeling of being heard for the interviewee. I always approach interviewing with a deep appreciation for the opportunity it gives me to understand how other people experience the world. That said, there is not one kind of interview but many, and some of these are shallower than others. This chapter will provide you with an overview of interview techniques but with a special focus on the in-depth semistructured interview guide approach, which is the approach most widely used in social science research.

An interview can be variously defined as “a conversation with a purpose” ( Lune and Berg 2018 ) and an attempt to understand the world from the point of view of the person being interviewed: “to unfold the meaning of peoples’ experiences, to uncover their lived world prior to scientific explanations” ( Kvale 2007 ). It is a form of active listening in which the interviewer steers the conversation to subjects and topics of interest to their research but also manages to leave enough space for those interviewed to say surprising things. Achieving that balance is a tricky thing, which is why most practitioners believe interviewing is both an art and a science. In my experience as a teacher, there are some students who are “natural” interviewers (often they are introverts), but anyone can learn to conduct interviews, and everyone, even those of us who have been doing this for years, can improve their interviewing skills. This might be a good time to highlight the fact that the interview is a product between interviewer and interviewee and that this product is only as good as the rapport established between the two participants. Active listening is the key to establishing this necessary rapport.

Patton ( 2002 ) makes the argument that we use interviews because there are certain things that are not observable. In particular, “we cannot observe feelings, thoughts, and intentions. We cannot observe behaviors that took place at some previous point in time. We cannot observe situations that preclude the presence of an observer. We cannot observe how people have organized the world and the meanings they attach to what goes on in the world. We have to ask people questions about those things” ( 341 ).

Types of Interviews

There are several distinct types of interviews. Imagine a continuum (figure 11.1). On one side are unstructured conversations—the kind you have with your friends. No one is in control of those conversations, and what you talk about is often random—whatever pops into your head. There is no secret, underlying purpose to your talking—if anything, the purpose is to talk to and engage with each other, and the words you use and the things you talk about are a little beside the point. An unstructured interview is a little like this informal conversation, except that one of the parties to the conversation (you, the researcher) does have an underlying purpose, and that is to understand the other person. You are not friends speaking for no purpose, but it might feel just as unstructured to the “interviewee” in this scenario. That is one side of the continuum. On the other side are fully structured and standardized survey-type questions asked face-to-face. Here it is very clear who is asking the questions and who is answering them. This doesn’t feel like a conversation at all! A lot of people new to interviewing have this ( erroneously !) in mind when they think about interviews as data collection. Somewhere in the middle of these two extreme cases is the “ semistructured” interview , in which the researcher uses an “interview guide” to gently move the conversation to certain topics and issues. This is the primary form of interviewing for qualitative social scientists and will be what I refer to as interviewing for the rest of this chapter, unless otherwise specified.

Informal (unstructured conversations). This is the most “open-ended” approach to interviewing. It is particularly useful in conjunction with observational methods (see chapters 13 and 14). There are no predetermined questions. Each interview will be different. Imagine you are researching the Oregon Country Fair, an annual event in Veneta, Oregon, that includes live music, artisan craft booths, face painting, and a lot of people walking through forest paths. It’s unlikely that you will be able to get a person to sit down with you and talk intensely about a set of questions for an hour and a half. But you might be able to sidle up to several people and engage with them about their experiences at the fair. You might have a general interest in what attracts people to these events, so you could start a conversation by asking strangers why they are here or why they come back every year. That’s it. Then you have a conversation that may lead you anywhere. Maybe one person tells a long story about how their parents brought them here when they were a kid. A second person talks about how this is better than Burning Man. A third person shares their favorite traveling band. And yet another enthuses about the public library in the woods. During your conversations, you also talk about a lot of other things—the weather, the utilikilts for sale, the fact that a favorite food booth has disappeared. It’s all good. You may not be able to record these conversations. Instead, you might jot down notes on the spot and then, when you have the time, write down as much as you can remember about the conversations in long fieldnotes. Later, you will have to sit down with these fieldnotes and try to make sense of all the information (see chapters 18 and 19).

Interview guide ( semistructured interview ). This is the primary type employed by social science qualitative researchers. The researcher creates an “interview guide” in advance, which she uses in every interview. In theory, every person interviewed is asked the same questions. In practice, every person interviewed is asked mostly the same topics but not always the same questions, as the whole point of a “guide” is that it guides the direction of the conversation but does not command it. The guide is typically between five and ten questions or question areas, sometimes with suggested follow-ups or prompts . For example, one question might be “What was it like growing up in Eastern Oregon?” with prompts such as “Did you live in a rural area? What kind of high school did you attend?” to help the conversation develop. These interviews generally take place in a quiet place (not a busy walkway during a festival) and are recorded. The recordings are transcribed, and those transcriptions then become the “data” that is analyzed (see chapters 18 and 19). The conventional length of one of these types of interviews is between one hour and two hours, optimally ninety minutes. Less than one hour doesn’t allow for much development of questions and thoughts, and two hours (or more) is a lot of time to ask someone to sit still and answer questions. If you have a lot of ground to cover, and the person is willing, I highly recommend two separate interview sessions, with the second session being slightly shorter than the first (e.g., ninety minutes the first day, sixty minutes the second). There are lots of good reasons for this, but the most compelling one is that this allows you to listen to the first day’s recording and catch anything interesting you might have missed in the moment and so develop follow-up questions that can probe further. This also allows the person being interviewed to have some time to think about the issues raised in the interview and go a little deeper with their answers.

Standardized questionnaire with open responses ( structured interview ). This is the type of interview a lot of people have in mind when they hear “interview”: a researcher comes to your door with a clipboard and proceeds to ask you a series of questions. These questions are all the same whoever answers the door; they are “standardized.” Both the wording and the exact order are important, as people’s responses may vary depending on how and when a question is asked. These are qualitative only in that the questions allow for “open-ended responses”: people can say whatever they want rather than select from a predetermined menu of responses. For example, a survey I collaborated on included this open-ended response question: “How does class affect one’s career success in sociology?” Some of the answers were simply one word long (e.g., “debt”), and others were long statements with stories and personal anecdotes. It is possible to be surprised by the responses. Although it’s a stretch to call this kind of questioning a conversation, it does allow the person answering the question some degree of freedom in how they answer.

Survey questionnaire with closed responses (not an interview!). Standardized survey questions with specific answer options (e.g., closed responses) are not really interviews at all, and they do not generate qualitative data. For example, if we included five options for the question “How does class affect one’s career success in sociology?”—(1) debt, (2) social networks, (3) alienation, (4) family doesn’t understand, (5) type of grad program—we leave no room for surprises at all. Instead, we would most likely look at patterns around these responses, thinking quantitatively rather than qualitatively (e.g., using regression analysis techniques, we might find that working-class sociologists were twice as likely to bring up alienation). It can sometimes be confusing for new students because the very same survey can include both closed-ended and open-ended questions. The key is to think about how these will be analyzed and to what level surprises are possible. If your plan is to turn all responses into a number and make predictions about correlations and relationships, you are no longer conducting qualitative research. This is true even if you are conducting this survey face-to-face with a real live human. Closed-response questions are not conversations of any kind, purposeful or not.

In summary, the semistructured interview guide approach is the predominant form of interviewing for social science qualitative researchers because it allows a high degree of freedom of responses from those interviewed (thus allowing for novel discoveries) while still maintaining some connection to a research question area or topic of interest. The rest of the chapter assumes the employment of this form.

Creating an Interview Guide

Your interview guide is the instrument used to bridge your research question(s) and what the people you are interviewing want to tell you. Unlike a standardized questionnaire, the questions actually asked do not need to be exactly what you have written down in your guide. The guide is meant to create space for those you are interviewing to talk about the phenomenon of interest, but sometimes you are not even sure what that phenomenon is until you start asking questions. A priority in creating an interview guide is to ensure it offers space. One of the worst mistakes is to create questions that are so specific that the person answering them will not stray. Relatedly, questions that sound “academic” will shut down a lot of respondents. A good interview guide invites respondents to talk about what is important to them, not feel like they are performing or being evaluated by you.

Good interview questions should not sound like your “research question” at all. For example, let’s say your research question is “How do patriarchal assumptions influence men’s understanding of climate change and responses to climate change?” It would be worse than unhelpful to ask a respondent, “How do your assumptions about the role of men affect your understanding of climate change?” You need to unpack this into manageable nuggets that pull your respondent into the area of interest without leading him anywhere. You could start by asking him what he thinks about climate change in general. Or, even better, whether he has any concerns about heatwaves or increased tornadoes or polar icecaps melting. Once he starts talking about that, you can ask follow-up questions that bring in issues around gendered roles, perhaps asking if he is married (to a woman) and whether his wife shares his thoughts and, if not, how they negotiate that difference. The fact is, you won’t really know the right questions to ask until he starts talking.

There are several distinct types of questions that can be used in your interview guide, either as main questions or as follow-up probes. If you remember that the point is to leave space for the respondent, you will craft a much more effective interview guide! You will also want to think about the place of time in both the questions themselves (past, present, future orientations) and the sequencing of the questions.

Researcher Note

Suggestion : As you read the next three sections (types of questions, temporality, question sequence), have in mind a particular research question, and try to draft questions and sequence them in a way that opens space for a discussion that helps you answer your research question.

Type of Questions

Experience and behavior questions ask about what a respondent does regularly (their behavior) or has done (their experience). These are relatively easy questions for people to answer because they appear more “factual” and less subjective. This makes them good opening questions. For the study on climate change above, you might ask, “Have you ever experienced an unusual weather event? What happened?” Or “You said you work outside? What is a typical summer workday like for you? How do you protect yourself from the heat?”

Opinion and values questions , in contrast, ask questions that get inside the minds of those you are interviewing. “Do you think climate change is real? Who or what is responsible for it?” are two such questions. Note that you don’t have to literally ask, “What is your opinion of X?” but you can find a way to ask the specific question relevant to the conversation you are having. These questions are a bit trickier to ask because the answers you get may depend in part on how your respondent perceives you and whether they want to please you or not. We’ve talked a fair amount about being reflective. Here is another place where this comes into play. You need to be aware of the effect your presence might have on the answers you are receiving and adjust accordingly. If you are a woman who is perceived as liberal asking a man who identifies as conservative about climate change, there is a lot of subtext that can be going on in the interview. There is no one right way to resolve this, but you must at least be aware of it.

Feeling questions are questions that ask respondents to draw on their emotional responses. It’s pretty common for academic researchers to forget that we have bodies and emotions, but people’s understandings of the world often operate at this affective level, sometimes unconsciously or barely consciously. It is a good idea to include questions that leave space for respondents to remember, imagine, or relive emotional responses to particular phenomena. “What was it like when you heard your cousin’s house burned down in that wildfire?” doesn’t explicitly use any emotion words, but it allows your respondent to remember what was probably a pretty emotional day. And if they respond emotionally neutral, that is pretty interesting data too. Note that asking someone “How do you feel about X” is not always going to evoke an emotional response, as they might simply turn around and respond with “I think that…” It is better to craft a question that actually pushes the respondent into the affective category. This might be a specific follow-up to an experience and behavior question —for example, “You just told me about your daily routine during the summer heat. Do you worry it is going to get worse?” or “Have you ever been afraid it will be too hot to get your work accomplished?”

Knowledge questions ask respondents what they actually know about something factual. We have to be careful when we ask these types of questions so that respondents do not feel like we are evaluating them (which would shut them down), but, for example, it is helpful to know when you are having a conversation about climate change that your respondent does in fact know that unusual weather events have increased and that these have been attributed to climate change! Asking these questions can set the stage for deeper questions and can ensure that the conversation makes the same kind of sense to both participants. For example, a conversation about political polarization can be put back on track once you realize that the respondent doesn’t really have a clear understanding that there are two parties in the US. Instead of asking a series of questions about Republicans and Democrats, you might shift your questions to talk more generally about political disagreements (e.g., “people against abortion”). And sometimes what you do want to know is the level of knowledge about a particular program or event (e.g., “Are you aware you can discharge your student loans through the Public Service Loan Forgiveness program?”).

Sensory questions call on all senses of the respondent to capture deeper responses. These are particularly helpful in sparking memory. “Think back to your childhood in Eastern Oregon. Describe the smells, the sounds…” Or you could use these questions to help a person access the full experience of a setting they customarily inhabit: “When you walk through the doors to your office building, what do you see? Hear? Smell?” As with feeling questions , these questions often supplement experience and behavior questions . They are another way of allowing your respondent to report fully and deeply rather than remain on the surface.

Creative questions employ illustrative examples, suggested scenarios, or simulations to get respondents to think more deeply about an issue, topic, or experience. There are many options here. In The Trouble with Passion , Erin Cech ( 2021 ) provides a scenario in which “Joe” is trying to decide whether to stay at his decent but boring computer job or follow his passion by opening a restaurant. She asks respondents, “What should Joe do?” Their answers illuminate the attraction of “passion” in job selection. In my own work, I have used a news story about an upwardly mobile young man who no longer has time to see his mother and sisters to probe respondents’ feelings about the costs of social mobility. Jessi Streib and Betsy Leondar-Wright have used single-page cartoon “scenes” to elicit evaluations of potential racial discrimination, sexual harassment, and classism. Barbara Sutton ( 2010 ) has employed lists of words (“strong,” “mother,” “victim”) on notecards she fans out and asks her female respondents to select and discuss.

Background/Demographic Questions

You most definitely will want to know more about the person you are interviewing in terms of conventional demographic information, such as age, race, gender identity, occupation, and educational attainment. These are not questions that normally open up inquiry. [1] For this reason, my practice has been to include a separate “demographic questionnaire” sheet that I ask each respondent to fill out at the conclusion of the interview. Only include those aspects that are relevant to your study. For example, if you are not exploring religion or religious affiliation, do not include questions about a person’s religion on the demographic sheet. See the example provided at the end of this chapter.

Temporality

Any type of question can have a past, present, or future orientation. For example, if you are asking a behavior question about workplace routine, you might ask the respondent to talk about past work, present work, and ideal (future) work. Similarly, if you want to understand how people cope with natural disasters, you might ask your respondent how they felt then during the wildfire and now in retrospect and whether and to what extent they have concerns for future wildfire disasters. It’s a relatively simple suggestion—don’t forget to ask about past, present, and future—but it can have a big impact on the quality of the responses you receive.

Question Sequence

Having a list of good questions or good question areas is not enough to make a good interview guide. You will want to pay attention to the order in which you ask your questions. Even though any one respondent can derail this order (perhaps by jumping to answer a question you haven’t yet asked), a good advance plan is always helpful. When thinking about sequence, remember that your goal is to get your respondent to open up to you and to say things that might surprise you. To establish rapport, it is best to start with nonthreatening questions. Asking about the present is often the safest place to begin, followed by the past (they have to know you a little bit to get there), and lastly, the future (talking about hopes and fears requires the most rapport). To allow for surprises, it is best to move from very general questions to more particular questions only later in the interview. This ensures that respondents have the freedom to bring up the topics that are relevant to them rather than feel like they are constrained to answer you narrowly. For example, refrain from asking about particular emotions until these have come up previously—don’t lead with them. Often, your more particular questions will emerge only during the course of the interview, tailored to what is emerging in conversation.

Once you have a set of questions, read through them aloud and imagine you are being asked the same questions. Does the set of questions have a natural flow? Would you be willing to answer the very first question to a total stranger? Does your sequence establish facts and experiences before moving on to opinions and values? Did you include prefatory statements, where necessary; transitions; and other announcements? These can be as simple as “Hey, we talked a lot about your experiences as a barista while in college.… Now I am turning to something completely different: how you managed friendships in college.” That is an abrupt transition, but it has been softened by your acknowledgment of that.

Probes and Flexibility

Once you have the interview guide, you will also want to leave room for probes and follow-up questions. As in the sample probe included here, you can write out the obvious probes and follow-up questions in advance. You might not need them, as your respondent might anticipate them and include full responses to the original question. Or you might need to tailor them to how your respondent answered the question. Some common probes and follow-up questions include asking for more details (When did that happen? Who else was there?), asking for elaboration (Could you say more about that?), asking for clarification (Does that mean what I think it means or something else? I understand what you mean, but someone else reading the transcript might not), and asking for contrast or comparison (How did this experience compare with last year’s event?). “Probing is a skill that comes from knowing what to look for in the interview, listening carefully to what is being said and what is not said, and being sensitive to the feedback needs of the person being interviewed” ( Patton 2002:374 ). It takes work! And energy. I and many other interviewers I know report feeling emotionally and even physically drained after conducting an interview. You are tasked with active listening and rearranging your interview guide as needed on the fly. If you only ask the questions written down in your interview guide with no deviations, you are doing it wrong. [2]

The Final Question

Every interview guide should include a very open-ended final question that allows for the respondent to say whatever it is they have been dying to tell you but you’ve forgotten to ask. About half the time they are tired too and will tell you they have nothing else to say. But incredibly, some of the most honest and complete responses take place here, at the end of a long interview. You have to realize that the person being interviewed is often discovering things about themselves as they talk to you and that this process of discovery can lead to new insights for them. Making space at the end is therefore crucial. Be sure you convey that you actually do want them to tell you more, that the offer of “anything else?” is not read as an empty convention where the polite response is no. Here is where you can pull from that active listening and tailor the final question to the particular person. For example, “I’ve asked you a lot of questions about what it was like to live through that wildfire. I’m wondering if there is anything I’ve forgotten to ask, especially because I haven’t had that experience myself” is a much more inviting final question than “Great. Anything you want to add?” It’s also helpful to convey to the person that you have the time to listen to their full answer, even if the allotted time is at the end. After all, there are no more questions to ask, so the respondent knows exactly how much time is left. Do them the courtesy of listening to them!

Conducting the Interview

Once you have your interview guide, you are on your way to conducting your first interview. I always practice my interview guide with a friend or family member. I do this even when the questions don’t make perfect sense for them, as it still helps me realize which questions make no sense, are poorly worded (too academic), or don’t follow sequentially. I also practice the routine I will use for interviewing, which goes something like this:

• Introduce myself and reintroduce the study
• Provide consent form and ask them to sign and retain/return copy
• Ask if they have any questions about the study before we begin
• Ask if I can begin recording
• Ask questions (from interview guide)
• Turn off the recording device
• Ask if they are willing to fill out my demographic questionnaire
• Collect questionnaire and, without looking at the answers, place in same folder as signed consent form
• Thank them and depart

A note on remote interviewing: Interviews have traditionally been conducted face-to-face in a private or quiet public setting. You don’t want a lot of background noise, as this will make transcriptions difficult. During the recent global pandemic, many interviewers, myself included, learned the benefits of interviewing remotely. Although face-to-face is still preferable for many reasons, Zoom interviewing is not a bad alternative, and it does allow more interviews across great distances. Zoom also includes automatic transcription, which significantly cuts down on the time it normally takes to convert our conversations into “data” to be analyzed. These automatic transcriptions are not perfect, however, and you will still need to listen to the recording and clarify and clean up the transcription. Nor do automatic transcriptions include notations of body language or change of tone, which you may want to include. When interviewing remotely, you will want to collect the consent form before you meet: ask them to read, sign, and return it as an email attachment. I think it is better to ask for the demographic questionnaire after the interview, but because some respondents may never return it then, it is probably best to ask for this at the same time as the consent form, in advance of the interview.

What should you bring to the interview? I would recommend bringing two copies of the consent form (one for you and one for the respondent), a demographic questionnaire, a manila folder in which to place the signed consent form and filled-out demographic questionnaire, a printed copy of your interview guide (I print with three-inch right margins so I can jot down notes on the page next to relevant questions), a pen, a recording device, and water.

After the interview, you will want to secure the signed consent form in a locked filing cabinet (if in print) or a password-protected folder on your computer. Using Excel or a similar program that allows tables/spreadsheets, create an identifying number for your interview that links to the consent form without using the name of your respondent. For example, let’s say that I conduct interviews with US politicians, and the first person I meet with is George W. Bush. I will assign the transcription the number “INT#001” and add it to the signed consent form. [3] The signed consent form goes into a locked filing cabinet, and I never use the name “George W. Bush” again. I take the information from the demographic sheet, open my Excel spreadsheet, and add the relevant information in separate columns for the row INT#001: White, male, Republican. When I interview Bill Clinton as my second interview, I include a second row: INT#002: White, male, Democrat. And so on. The only link to the actual name of the respondent and this information is the fact that the consent form (unavailable to anyone but me) has stamped on it the interview number.

Many students get very nervous before their first interview. Actually, many of us are always nervous before the interview! But do not worry—this is normal, and it does pass. Chances are, you will be pleasantly surprised at how comfortable it begins to feel. These “purposeful conversations” are often a delight for both participants. This is not to say that sometimes things go wrong. I often have my students practice several “bad scenarios” (e.g., a respondent that you cannot get to open up; a respondent who is too talkative and dominates the conversation, steering it away from the topics you are interested in; emotions that completely take over; or shocking disclosures you are ill-prepared to handle), but most of the time, things go quite well. Be prepared for the unexpected, but know that the reason interviews are so popular as a technique of data collection is that they are usually richly rewarding for both participants.

One thing that I stress to my methods students and remind myself about is that interviews are still conversations between people. If there’s something you might feel uncomfortable asking someone about in a “normal” conversation, you will likely also feel a bit of discomfort asking it in an interview. Maybe more importantly, your respondent may feel uncomfortable. Social research—especially about inequality—can be uncomfortable. And it’s easy to slip into an abstract, intellectualized, or removed perspective as an interviewer. This is one reason trying out interview questions is important. Another is that sometimes the question sounds good in your head but doesn’t work as well out loud in practice. I learned this the hard way when a respondent asked me how I would answer the question I had just posed, and I realized that not only did I not really know how I would answer it, but I also wasn’t quite as sure I knew what I was asking as I had thought.

—Elizabeth M. Lee, Associate Professor of Sociology at Saint Joseph’s University, author of Class and Campus Life , and co-author of Geographies of Campus Inequality

How Many Interviews?

Your research design has included a targeted number of interviews and a recruitment plan (see chapter 5). Follow your plan, but remember that “ saturation ” is your goal. You interview as many people as you can until you reach a point at which you are no longer surprised by what they tell you. This means not that no one after your first twenty interviews will have surprising, interesting stories to tell you but rather that the picture you are forming about the phenomenon of interest to you from a research perspective has come into focus, and none of the interviews are substantially refocusing that picture. That is when you should stop collecting interviews. Note that to know when you have reached this, you will need to read your transcripts as you go. More about this in chapters 18 and 19.

Your Final Product: The Ideal Interview Transcript

A good interview transcript will demonstrate a subtly controlled conversation by the skillful interviewer. In general, you want to see replies that are about one paragraph long, not short sentences and not running on for several pages. Although it is sometimes necessary to follow respondents down tangents, it is also often necessary to pull them back to the questions that form the basis of your research study. This is not really a free conversation, although it may feel like that to the person you are interviewing.

Final Tips from an Interview Master

Annette Lareau is arguably one of the masters of the trade. In Listening to People , she provides several guidelines for good interviews and then offers a detailed example of an interview gone wrong and how it could be addressed (please see the “Further Readings” at the end of this chapter). Here is an abbreviated version of her set of guidelines: (1) interview respondents who are experts on the subjects of most interest to you (as a corollary, don’t ask people about things they don’t know); (2) listen carefully and talk as little as possible; (3) keep in mind what you want to know and why you want to know it; (4) be a proactive interviewer (subtly guide the conversation); (5) assure respondents that there aren’t any right or wrong answers; (6) use the respondent’s own words to probe further (this both allows you to accurately identify what you heard and pushes the respondent to explain further); (7) reuse effective probes (don’t reinvent the wheel as you go—if repeating the words back works, do it again and again); (8) focus on learning the subjective meanings that events or experiences have for a respondent; (9) don’t be afraid to ask a question that draws on your own knowledge (unlike trial lawyers who are trained never to ask a question for which they don’t already know the answer, sometimes it’s worth it to ask risky questions based on your hypotheses or just plain hunches); (10) keep thinking while you are listening (so difficult…and important); (11) return to a theme raised by a respondent if you want further information; (12) be mindful of power inequalities (and never ever coerce a respondent to continue the interview if they want out); (13) take control with overly talkative respondents; (14) expect overly succinct responses, and develop strategies for probing further; (15) balance digging deep and moving on; (16) develop a plan to deflect questions (e.g., let them know you are happy to answer any questions at the end of the interview, but you don’t want to take time away from them now); and at the end, (17) check to see whether you have asked all your questions. You don’t always have to ask everyone the same set of questions, but if there is a big area you have forgotten to cover, now is the time to recover ( Lareau 2021:93–103 ).

Sample: Demographic Questionnaire

ASA Taskforce on First-Generation and Working-Class Persons in Sociology – Class Effects on Career Success

Supplementary Demographic Questionnaire

Thank you for your participation in this interview project. We would like to collect a few pieces of key demographic information from you to supplement our analyses. Your answers to these questions will be kept confidential and stored by ID number. All of your responses here are entirely voluntary!

What best captures your race/ethnicity? (please check any/all that apply)

• White (Non Hispanic/Latina/o/x)
• Black or African American
• Hispanic, Latino/a/x of Spanish
• Asian or Asian American
• American Indian or Alaska Native
• Middle Eastern or North African
• Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander
• Other : (Please write in: ________________)

What is your current position?

• Grad Student
• Full Professor

Please check any and all of the following that apply to you:

• I identify as a working-class academic
• I was the first in my family to graduate from college
• I grew up poor

What best reflects your gender?

• Transgender female/Transgender woman
• Transgender male/Transgender man
• Gender queer/ Gender nonconforming

Anything else you would like us to know about you?

Example: Interview Guide

In this example, follow-up prompts are italicized.  Note the sequence of questions.  That second question often elicits an entire life history , answering several later questions in advance.

Introduction Script/Question

Thank you for participating in our survey of ASA members who identify as first-generation or working-class.  As you may have heard, ASA has sponsored a taskforce on first-generation and working-class persons in sociology and we are interested in hearing from those who so identify.  Your participation in this interview will help advance our knowledge in this area.

• The first thing we would like to as you is why you have volunteered to be part of this study? What does it mean to you be first-gen or working class?  Why were you willing to be interviewed?
• How did you decide to become a sociologist?
• Can you tell me a little bit about where you grew up? ( prompts: what did your parent(s) do for a living?  What kind of high school did you attend?)
• Has this identity been salient to your experience? (how? How much?)
• How welcoming was your grad program? Your first academic employer?
• Why did you decide to pursue sociology at the graduate level?
• Did you experience culture shock in college? In graduate school?
• Has your FGWC status shaped how you’ve thought about where you went to school? debt? etc?
• Were you mentored? How did this work (not work)?  How might it?
• What did you consider when deciding where to go to grad school? Where to apply for your first position?
• What, to you, is a mark of career success? Have you achieved that success?  What has helped or hindered your pursuit of success?
• Do you think sociology, as a field, cares about prestige?
• Let’s talk a little bit about intersectionality. How does being first-gen/working class work alongside other identities that are important to you?
• What do your friends and family think about your career? Have you had any difficulty relating to family members or past friends since becoming highly educated?
• Do you have any debt from college/grad school? Are you concerned about this?  Could you explain more about how you paid for college/grad school?  (here, include assistance from family, fellowships, scholarships, etc.)
• (You’ve mentioned issues or obstacles you had because of your background.) What could have helped?  Or, who or what did? Can you think of fortuitous moments in your career?
• Do you have any regrets about the path you took?
• Is there anything else you would like to add? Anything that the Taskforce should take note of, that we did not ask you about here?

Further Readings

Britten, Nicky. 1995. “Qualitative Interviews in Medical Research.” BMJ: British Medical Journal 31(6999):251–253. A good basic overview of interviewing particularly useful for students of public health and medical research generally.

Corbin, Juliet, and Janice M. Morse. 2003. “The Unstructured Interactive Interview: Issues of Reciprocity and Risks When Dealing with Sensitive Topics.” Qualitative Inquiry 9(3):335–354. Weighs the potential benefits and harms of conducting interviews on topics that may cause emotional distress. Argues that the researcher’s skills and code of ethics should ensure that the interviewing process provides more of a benefit to both participant and researcher than a harm to the former.

Gerson, Kathleen, and Sarah Damaske. 2020. The Science and Art of Interviewing . New York: Oxford University Press. A useful guidebook/textbook for both undergraduates and graduate students, written by sociologists.

Kvale, Steiner. 2007. Doing Interviews . London: SAGE. An easy-to-follow guide to conducting and analyzing interviews by psychologists.

Lamont, Michèle, and Ann Swidler. 2014. “Methodological Pluralism and the Possibilities and Limits of Interviewing.” Qualitative Sociology 37(2):153–171. Written as a response to various debates surrounding the relative value of interview-based studies and ethnographic studies defending the particular strengths of interviewing. This is a must-read article for anyone seriously engaging in qualitative research!

Pugh, Allison J. 2013. “What Good Are Interviews for Thinking about Culture? Demystifying Interpretive Analysis.” American Journal of Cultural Sociology 1(1):42–68. Another defense of interviewing written against those who champion ethnographic methods as superior, particularly in the area of studying culture. A classic.

Rapley, Timothy John. 2001. “The ‘Artfulness’ of Open-Ended Interviewing: Some considerations in analyzing interviews.” Qualitative Research 1(3):303–323. Argues for the importance of “local context” of data production (the relationship built between interviewer and interviewee, for example) in properly analyzing interview data.

Weiss, Robert S. 1995. Learning from Strangers: The Art and Method of Qualitative Interview Studies . New York: Simon and Schuster. A classic and well-regarded textbook on interviewing. Because Weiss has extensive experience conducting surveys, he contrasts the qualitative interview with the survey questionnaire well; particularly useful for those trained in the latter.

• I say “normally” because how people understand their various identities can itself be an expansive topic of inquiry. Here, I am merely talking about collecting otherwise unexamined demographic data, similar to how we ask people to check boxes on surveys. ↵
• Again, this applies to “semistructured in-depth interviewing.” When conducting standardized questionnaires, you will want to ask each question exactly as written, without deviations! ↵
• I always include “INT” in the number because I sometimes have other kinds of data with their own numbering: FG#001 would mean the first focus group, for example. I also always include three-digit spaces, as this allows for up to 999 interviews (or, more realistically, allows for me to interview up to one hundred persons without having to reset my numbering system). ↵

A method of data collection in which the researcher asks the participant questions; the answers to these questions are often recorded and transcribed verbatim. There are many different kinds of interviews - see also semistructured interview , structured interview , and unstructured interview .

A document listing key questions and question areas for use during an interview.  It is used most often for semi-structured interviews.  A good interview guide may have no more than ten primary questions for two hours of interviewing, but these ten questions will be supplemented by probes and relevant follow-ups throughout the interview.  Most IRBs require the inclusion of the interview guide in applications for review.  See also interview and  semi-structured interview .

A data-collection method that relies on casual, conversational, and informal interviewing.  Despite its apparent conversational nature, the researcher usually has a set of particular questions or question areas in mind but allows the interview to unfold spontaneously.  This is a common data-collection technique among ethnographers.  Compare to the semi-structured or in-depth interview .

A form of interview that follows a standard guide of questions asked, although the order of the questions may change to match the particular needs of each individual interview subject, and probing “follow-up” questions are often added during the course of the interview.  The semi-structured interview is the primary form of interviewing used by qualitative researchers in the social sciences.  It is sometimes referred to as an “in-depth” interview.  See also interview and  interview guide .

The cluster of data-collection tools and techniques that involve observing interactions between people, the behaviors, and practices of individuals (sometimes in contrast to what they say about how they act and behave), and cultures in context.  Observational methods are the key tools employed by ethnographers and Grounded Theory .

Follow-up questions used in a semi-structured interview  to elicit further elaboration.  Suggested prompts can be included in the interview guide  to be used/deployed depending on how the initial question was answered or if the topic of the prompt does not emerge spontaneously.

A form of interview that follows a strict set of questions, asked in a particular order, for all interview subjects.  The questions are also the kind that elicits short answers, and the data is more “informative” than probing.  This is often used in mixed-methods studies, accompanying a survey instrument.  Because there is no room for nuance or the exploration of meaning in structured interviews, qualitative researchers tend to employ semi-structured interviews instead.  See also interview.

The point at which you can conclude data collection because every person you are interviewing, the interaction you are observing, or content you are analyzing merely confirms what you have already noted.  Achieving saturation is often used as the justification for the final sample size.

An interview variant in which a person’s life story is elicited in a narrative form.  Turning points and key themes are established by the researcher and used as data points for further analysis.

Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods Copyright © 2023 by Allison Hurst is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Published: 05 October 2018

Interviews and focus groups in qualitative research: an update for the digital age

• P. Gill 1 &
• J. Baillie 2  

British Dental Journal volume  225 ,  pages 668–672 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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Highlights that qualitative research is used increasingly in dentistry. Interviews and focus groups remain the most common qualitative methods of data collection.

Suggests the advent of digital technologies has transformed how qualitative research can now be undertaken.

Suggests interviews and focus groups can offer significant, meaningful insight into participants' experiences, beliefs and perspectives, which can help to inform developments in dental practice.

Qualitative research is used increasingly in dentistry, due to its potential to provide meaningful, in-depth insights into participants' experiences, perspectives, beliefs and behaviours. These insights can subsequently help to inform developments in dental practice and further related research. The most common methods of data collection used in qualitative research are interviews and focus groups. While these are primarily conducted face-to-face, the ongoing evolution of digital technologies, such as video chat and online forums, has further transformed these methods of data collection. This paper therefore discusses interviews and focus groups in detail, outlines how they can be used in practice, how digital technologies can further inform the data collection process, and what these methods can offer dentistry.

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Introduction

Traditionally, research in dentistry has primarily been quantitative in nature. 1 However, in recent years, there has been a growing interest in qualitative research within the profession, due to its potential to further inform developments in practice, policy, education and training. Consequently, in 2008, the British Dental Journal (BDJ) published a four paper qualitative research series, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 to help increase awareness and understanding of this particular methodological approach.

Since the papers were originally published, two scoping reviews have demonstrated the ongoing proliferation in the use of qualitative research within the field of oral healthcare. 1 , 6 To date, the original four paper series continue to be well cited and two of the main papers remain widely accessed among the BDJ readership. 2 , 3 The potential value of well-conducted qualitative research to evidence-based practice is now also widely recognised by service providers, policy makers, funding bodies and those who commission, support and use healthcare research.

Besides increasing standalone use, qualitative methods are now also routinely incorporated into larger mixed method study designs, such as clinical trials, as they can offer additional, meaningful insights into complex problems that simply could not be provided by quantitative methods alone. Qualitative methods can also be used to further facilitate in-depth understanding of important aspects of clinical trial processes, such as recruitment. For example, Ellis et al . investigated why edentulous older patients, dissatisfied with conventional dentures, decline implant treatment, despite its established efficacy, and frequently refuse to participate in related randomised clinical trials, even when financial constraints are removed. 7 Through the use of focus groups in Canada and the UK, the authors found that fears of pain and potential complications, along with perceived embarrassment, exacerbated by age, are common reasons why older patients typically refuse dental implants. 7

The last decade has also seen further developments in qualitative research, due to the ongoing evolution of digital technologies. These developments have transformed how researchers can access and share information, communicate and collaborate, recruit and engage participants, collect and analyse data and disseminate and translate research findings. 8 Where appropriate, such technologies are therefore capable of extending and enhancing how qualitative research is undertaken. 9 For example, it is now possible to collect qualitative data via instant messaging, email or online/video chat, using appropriate online platforms.

These innovative approaches to research are therefore cost-effective, convenient, reduce geographical constraints and are often useful for accessing 'hard to reach' participants (for example, those who are immobile or socially isolated). 8 , 9 However, digital technologies are still relatively new and constantly evolving and therefore present a variety of pragmatic and methodological challenges. Furthermore, given their very nature, their use in many qualitative studies and/or with certain participant groups may be inappropriate and should therefore always be carefully considered. While it is beyond the scope of this paper to provide a detailed explication regarding the use of digital technologies in qualitative research, insight is provided into how such technologies can be used to facilitate the data collection process in interviews and focus groups.

In light of such developments, it is perhaps therefore timely to update the main paper 3 of the original BDJ series. As with the previous publications, this paper has been purposely written in an accessible style, to enhance readability, particularly for those who are new to qualitative research. While the focus remains on the most common qualitative methods of data collection – interviews and focus groups – appropriate revisions have been made to provide a novel perspective, and should therefore be helpful to those who would like to know more about qualitative research. This paper specifically focuses on undertaking qualitative research with adult participants only.

Overview of qualitative research

Qualitative research is an approach that focuses on people and their experiences, behaviours and opinions. 10 , 11 The qualitative researcher seeks to answer questions of 'how' and 'why', providing detailed insight and understanding, 11 which quantitative methods cannot reach. 12 Within qualitative research, there are distinct methodologies influencing how the researcher approaches the research question, data collection and data analysis. 13 For example, phenomenological studies focus on the lived experience of individuals, explored through their description of the phenomenon. Ethnographic studies explore the culture of a group and typically involve the use of multiple methods to uncover the issues. 14

While methodology is the 'thinking tool', the methods are the 'doing tools'; 13 the ways in which data are collected and analysed. There are multiple qualitative data collection methods, including interviews, focus groups, observations, documentary analysis, participant diaries, photography and videography. Two of the most commonly used qualitative methods are interviews and focus groups, which are explored in this article. The data generated through these methods can be analysed in one of many ways, according to the methodological approach chosen. A common approach is thematic data analysis, involving the identification of themes and subthemes across the data set. Further information on approaches to qualitative data analysis has been discussed elsewhere. 1

Qualitative research is an evolving and adaptable approach, used by different disciplines for different purposes. Traditionally, qualitative data, specifically interviews, focus groups and observations, have been collected face-to-face with participants. In more recent years, digital technologies have contributed to the ongoing evolution of qualitative research. Digital technologies offer researchers different ways of recruiting participants and collecting data, and offer participants opportunities to be involved in research that is not necessarily face-to-face.

Research interviews are a fundamental qualitative research method 15 and are utilised across methodological approaches. Interviews enable the researcher to learn in depth about the perspectives, experiences, beliefs and motivations of the participant. 3 , 16 Examples include, exploring patients' perspectives of fear/anxiety triggers in dental treatment, 17 patients' experiences of oral health and diabetes, 18 and dental students' motivations for their choice of career. 19

Interviews may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured, 3 according to the purpose of the study, with less structured interviews facilitating a more in depth and flexible interviewing approach. 20 Structured interviews are similar to verbal questionnaires and are used if the researcher requires clarification on a topic; however they produce less in-depth data about a participant's experience. 3 Unstructured interviews may be used when little is known about a topic and involves the researcher asking an opening question; 3 the participant then leads the discussion. 20 Semi-structured interviews are commonly used in healthcare research, enabling the researcher to ask predetermined questions, 20 while ensuring the participant discusses issues they feel are important.

Interviews can be undertaken face-to-face or using digital methods when the researcher and participant are in different locations. Audio-recording the interview, with the consent of the participant, is essential for all interviews regardless of the medium as it enables accurate transcription; the process of turning the audio file into a word-for-word transcript. This transcript is the data, which the researcher then analyses according to the chosen approach.

Types of interview

Qualitative studies often utilise one-to-one, face-to-face interviews with research participants. This involves arranging a mutually convenient time and place to meet the participant, signing a consent form and audio-recording the interview. However, digital technologies have expanded the potential for interviews in research, enabling individuals to participate in qualitative research regardless of location.

Telephone interviews can be a useful alternative to face-to-face interviews and are commonly used in qualitative research. They enable participants from different geographical areas to participate and may be less onerous for participants than meeting a researcher in person. 15 A qualitative study explored patients' perspectives of dental implants and utilised telephone interviews due to the quality of the data that could be yielded. 21 The researcher needs to consider how they will audio record the interview, which can be facilitated by purchasing a recorder that connects directly to the telephone. One potential disadvantage of telephone interviews is the inability of the interviewer and researcher to see each other. This is resolved using software for audio and video calls online – such as Skype – to conduct interviews with participants in qualitative studies. Advantages of this approach include being able to see the participant if video calls are used, enabling observation of non-verbal communication, and the software can be free to use. However, participants are required to have a device and internet connection, as well as being computer literate, potentially limiting who can participate in the study. One qualitative study explored the role of dental hygienists in reducing oral health disparities in Canada. 22 The researcher conducted interviews using Skype, which enabled dental hygienists from across Canada to be interviewed within the research budget, accommodating the participants' schedules. 22

A less commonly used approach to qualitative interviews is the use of social virtual worlds. A qualitative study accessed a social virtual world – Second Life – to explore the health literacy skills of individuals who use social virtual worlds to access health information. 23 The researcher created an avatar and interview room, and undertook interviews with participants using voice and text methods. 23 This approach to recruitment and data collection enables individuals from diverse geographical locations to participate, while remaining anonymous if they wish. Furthermore, for interviews conducted using text methods, transcription of the interview is not required as the researcher can save the written conversation with the participant, with the participant's consent. However, the researcher and participant need to be familiar with how the social virtual world works to engage in an interview this way.

Conducting an interview

Ensuring informed consent before any interview is a fundamental aspect of the research process. Participants in research must be afforded autonomy and respect; consent should be informed and voluntary. 24 Individuals should have the opportunity to read an information sheet about the study, ask questions, understand how their data will be stored and used, and know that they are free to withdraw at any point without reprisal. The qualitative researcher should take written consent before undertaking the interview. In a face-to-face interview, this is straightforward: the researcher and participant both sign copies of the consent form, keeping one each. However, this approach is less straightforward when the researcher and participant do not meet in person. A recent protocol paper outlined an approach for taking consent for telephone interviews, which involved: audio recording the participant agreeing to each point on the consent form; the researcher signing the consent form and keeping a copy; and posting a copy to the participant. 25 This process could be replicated in other interview studies using digital methods.

There are advantages and disadvantages of using face-to-face and digital methods for research interviews. Ultimately, for both approaches, the quality of the interview is determined by the researcher. 16 Appropriate training and preparation are thus required. Healthcare professionals can use their interpersonal communication skills when undertaking a research interview, particularly questioning, listening and conversing. 3 However, the purpose of an interview is to gain information about the study topic, 26 rather than offering help and advice. 3 The researcher therefore needs to listen attentively to participants, enabling them to describe their experience without interruption. 3 The use of active listening skills also help to facilitate the interview. 14 Spradley outlined elements and strategies for research interviews, 27 which are a useful guide for qualitative researchers:

Greeting and explaining the project/interview

Asking descriptive (broad), structural (explore response to descriptive) and contrast (difference between) questions

Asymmetry between the researcher and participant talking

Expressing interest and cultural ignorance

Repeating, restating and incorporating the participant's words when asking questions

Creating hypothetical situations

Asking friendly questions

Knowing when to leave.

For semi-structured interviews, a topic guide (also called an interview schedule) is used to guide the content of the interview – an example of a topic guide is outlined in Box 1 . The topic guide, usually based on the research questions, existing literature and, for healthcare professionals, their clinical experience, is developed by the research team. The topic guide should include open ended questions that elicit in-depth information, and offer participants the opportunity to talk about issues important to them. This is vital in qualitative research where the researcher is interested in exploring the experiences and perspectives of participants. It can be useful for qualitative researchers to pilot the topic guide with the first participants, 10 to ensure the questions are relevant and understandable, and amending the questions if required.

Regardless of the medium of interview, the researcher must consider the setting of the interview. For face-to-face interviews, this could be in the participant's home, in an office or another mutually convenient location. A quiet location is preferable to promote confidentiality, enable the researcher and participant to concentrate on the conversation, and to facilitate accurate audio-recording of the interview. For interviews using digital methods the same principles apply: a quiet, private space where the researcher and participant feel comfortable and confident to participate in an interview.

Box 1: Example of a topic guide

Study focus: Parents' experiences of brushing their child's (aged 0–5) teeth

1. Can you tell me about your experience of cleaning your child's teeth?

How old was your child when you started cleaning their teeth?

Why did you start cleaning their teeth at that point?

How often do you brush their teeth?

What do you use to brush their teeth and why?

2. Could you explain how you find cleaning your child's teeth?

Do you find anything difficult?

What makes cleaning their teeth easier for you?

3. How has your experience of cleaning your child's teeth changed over time?

Has it become easier or harder?

Have you changed how often and how you clean their teeth? If so, why?

4. Could you describe how your child finds having their teeth cleaned?

What do they enjoy about having their teeth cleaned?

Is there anything they find upsetting about having their teeth cleaned?

5. Where do you look for information/advice about cleaning your child's teeth?

What did your health visitor tell you about cleaning your child's teeth? (If anything)

What has the dentist told you about caring for your child's teeth? (If visited)

Have any family members given you advice about how to clean your child's teeth? If so, what did they tell you? Did you follow their advice?

6. Is there anything else you would like to discuss about this?

Focus groups

A focus group is a moderated group discussion on a pre-defined topic, for research purposes. 28 , 29 While not aligned to a particular qualitative methodology (for example, grounded theory or phenomenology) as such, focus groups are used increasingly in healthcare research, as they are useful for exploring collective perspectives, attitudes, behaviours and experiences. Consequently, they can yield rich, in-depth data and illuminate agreement and inconsistencies 28 within and, where appropriate, between groups. Examples include public perceptions of dental implants and subsequent impact on help-seeking and decision making, 30 and general dental practitioners' views on patient safety in dentistry. 31

Focus groups can be used alone or in conjunction with other methods, such as interviews or observations, and can therefore help to confirm, extend or enrich understanding and provide alternative insights. 28 The social interaction between participants often results in lively discussion and can therefore facilitate the collection of rich, meaningful data. However, they are complex to organise and manage, due to the number of participants, and may also be inappropriate for exploring particularly sensitive issues that many participants may feel uncomfortable about discussing in a group environment.

Focus groups are primarily undertaken face-to-face but can now also be undertaken online, using appropriate technologies such as email, bulletin boards, online research communities, chat rooms, discussion forums, social media and video conferencing. 32 Using such technologies, data collection can also be synchronous (for example, online discussions in 'real time') or, unlike traditional face-to-face focus groups, asynchronous (for example, online/email discussions in 'non-real time'). While many of the fundamental principles of focus group research are the same, regardless of how they are conducted, a number of subtle nuances are associated with the online medium. 32 Some of which are discussed further in the following sections.

Focus group considerations

Some key considerations associated with face-to-face focus groups are: how many participants are required; should participants within each group know each other (or not) and how many focus groups are needed within a single study? These issues are much debated and there is no definitive answer. However, the number of focus groups required will largely depend on the topic area, the depth and breadth of data needed, the desired level of participation required 29 and the necessity (or not) for data saturation.

The optimum group size is around six to eight participants (excluding researchers) but can work effectively with between three and 14 participants. 3 If the group is too small, it may limit discussion, but if it is too large, it may become disorganised and difficult to manage. It is, however, prudent to over-recruit for a focus group by approximately two to three participants, to allow for potential non-attenders. For many researchers, particularly novice researchers, group size may also be informed by pragmatic considerations, such as the type of study, resources available and moderator experience. 28 Similar size and mix considerations exist for online focus groups. Typically, synchronous online focus groups will have around three to eight participants but, as the discussion does not happen simultaneously, asynchronous groups may have as many as 10–30 participants. 33

The topic area and potential group interaction should guide group composition considerations. Pre-existing groups, where participants know each other (for example, work colleagues) may be easier to recruit, have shared experiences and may enjoy a familiarity, which facilitates discussion and/or the ability to challenge each other courteously. 3 However, if there is a potential power imbalance within the group or if existing group norms and hierarchies may adversely affect the ability of participants to speak freely, then 'stranger groups' (that is, where participants do not already know each other) may be more appropriate. 34 , 35

Focus group management

Face-to-face focus groups should normally be conducted by two researchers; a moderator and an observer. 28 The moderator facilitates group discussion, while the observer typically monitors group dynamics, behaviours, non-verbal cues, seating arrangements and speaking order, which is essential for transcription and analysis. The same principles of informed consent, as discussed in the interview section, also apply to focus groups, regardless of medium. However, the consent process for online discussions will probably be managed somewhat differently. For example, while an appropriate participant information leaflet (and consent form) would still be required, the process is likely to be managed electronically (for example, via email) and would need to specifically address issues relating to technology (for example, anonymity and use, storage and access to online data). 32

The venue in which a face to face focus group is conducted should be of a suitable size, private, quiet, free from distractions and in a collectively convenient location. It should also be conducted at a time appropriate for participants, 28 as this is likely to promote attendance. As with interviews, the same ethical considerations apply (as discussed earlier). However, online focus groups may present additional ethical challenges associated with issues such as informed consent, appropriate access and secure data storage. Further guidance can be found elsewhere. 8 , 32

Before the focus group commences, the researchers should establish rapport with participants, as this will help to put them at ease and result in a more meaningful discussion. Consequently, researchers should introduce themselves, provide further clarity about the study and how the process will work in practice and outline the 'ground rules'. Ground rules are designed to assist, not hinder, group discussion and typically include: 3 , 28 , 29

Discussions within the group are confidential to the group

Only one person can speak at a time

All participants should have sufficient opportunity to contribute

There should be no unnecessary interruptions while someone is speaking

Everyone can be expected to be listened to and their views respected

Challenging contrary opinions is appropriate, but ridiculing is not.

Moderating a focus group requires considered management and good interpersonal skills to help guide the discussion and, where appropriate, keep it sufficiently focused. Avoid, therefore, participating, leading, expressing personal opinions or correcting participants' knowledge 3 , 28 as this may bias the process. A relaxed, interested demeanour will also help participants to feel comfortable and promote candid discourse. Moderators should also prevent the discussion being dominated by any one person, ensure differences of opinions are discussed fairly and, if required, encourage reticent participants to contribute. 3 Asking open questions, reflecting on significant issues, inviting further debate, probing responses accordingly, and seeking further clarification, as and where appropriate, will help to obtain sufficient depth and insight into the topic area.

Moderating online focus groups requires comparable skills, particularly if the discussion is synchronous, as the discussion may be dominated by those who can type proficiently. 36 It is therefore important that sufficient time and respect is accorded to those who may not be able to type as quickly. Asynchronous discussions are usually less problematic in this respect, as interactions are less instant. However, moderating an asynchronous discussion presents additional challenges, particularly if participants are geographically dispersed, as they may be online at different times. Consequently, the moderator will not always be present and the discussion may therefore need to occur over several days, which can be difficult to manage and facilitate and invariably requires considerable flexibility. 32 It is also worth recognising that establishing rapport with participants via online medium is often more challenging than via face-to-face and may therefore require additional time, skills, effort and consideration.

As with research interviews, focus groups should be guided by an appropriate interview schedule, as discussed earlier in the paper. For example, the schedule will usually be informed by the review of the literature and study aims, and will merely provide a topic guide to help inform subsequent discussions. To provide a verbatim account of the discussion, focus groups must be recorded, using an audio-recorder with a good quality multi-directional microphone. While videotaping is possible, some participants may find it obtrusive, 3 which may adversely affect group dynamics. The use (or not) of a video recorder, should therefore be carefully considered.

At the end of the focus group, a few minutes should be spent rounding up and reflecting on the discussion. 28 Depending on the topic area, it is possible that some participants may have revealed deeply personal issues and may therefore require further help and support, such as a constructive debrief or possibly even referral on to a relevant third party. It is also possible that some participants may feel that the discussion did not adequately reflect their views and, consequently, may no longer wish to be associated with the study. 28 Such occurrences are likely to be uncommon, but should they arise, it is important to further discuss any concerns and, if appropriate, offer them the opportunity to withdraw (including any data relating to them) from the study. Immediately after the discussion, researchers should compile notes regarding thoughts and ideas about the focus group, which can assist with data analysis and, if appropriate, any further data collection.

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Gill, P., Baillie, J. Interviews and focus groups in qualitative research: an update for the digital age. Br Dent J 225 , 668–672 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2018.815

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Issue Date : 12 October 2018

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Textbooks, Guidebooks, and Handbooks  

• The Ethnographic Interview by James P. Spradley  “Spradley wrote this book for the professional and student who have never done ethnographic fieldwork (p. 231) and for the professional ethnographer who is interested in adapting the author’s procedures (p. iv). Part 1 outlines in 3 chapters Spradley’s version of ethnographic research, and it provides the background for Part 2 which consists of 12 guided steps (chapters) ranging from locating and interviewing an informant to writing an ethnography. Most of the examples come from the author’s own fieldwork among U.S. subcultures . . . Steps 6 and 8 explain lucidly how to construct a domain and a taxonomic analysis” (excerpted from book review by James D. Sexton, 1980).  
• Fundamentals of Qualitative Research by Johnny Saldana (Series edited by Patricia Leavy)  Provides a soup-to-nuts overview of the qualitative data collection process, including interviewing, participant observation, and other methods.  
• InterViews by Steinar Kvale  Interviewing is an essential tool in qualitative research and this introduction to interviewing outlines both the theoretical underpinnings and the practical aspects of the process. After examining the role of the interview in the research process, Steinar Kvale considers some of the key philosophical issues relating to interviewing: the interview as conversation, hermeneutics, phenomenology, concerns about ethics as well as validity, and postmodernism. Having established this framework, the author then analyzes the seven stages of the interview process - from designing a study to writing it up.  
• Practical Evaluation by Michael Quinn Patton  Surveys different interviewing strategies, from, a) informal/conversational, to b) interview guide approach, to c) standardized and open-ended, to d) closed/quantitative. Also discusses strategies for wording questions that are open-ended, clear, sensitive, and neutral, while supporting the speaker. Provides suggestions for probing and maintaining control of the interview process, as well as suggestions for recording and transcription.  
• The SAGE Handbook of Interview Research by Amir B. Marvasti (Editor); James A. Holstein (Editor); Jaber F. Gubrium (Editor); Karyn D. McKinney (Editor)  The new edition of this landmark volume emphasizes the dynamic, interactional, and reflexive dimensions of the research interview. Contributors highlight the myriad dimensions of complexity that are emerging as researchers increasingly frame the interview as a communicative opportunity as much as a data-gathering format. The book begins with the history and conceptual transformations of the interview, which is followed by chapters that discuss the main components of interview practice. Taken together, the contributions to The SAGE Handbook of Interview Research: The Complexity of the Craft encourage readers simultaneously to learn the frameworks and technologies of interviewing and to reflect on the epistemological foundations of the interview craft.  
• The SAGE Handbook of Online Research Methods by Nigel G. Fielding, Raymond M. Lee and Grant Blank (Editors) Bringing together the leading names in both qualitative and quantitative online research, this new edition is organised into nine sections: 1. Online Research Methods 2. Designing Online Research 3. Online Data Capture and Data Collection 4. The Online Survey 5. Digital Quantitative Analysis 6. Digital Text Analysis 7. Virtual Ethnography 8. Online Secondary Analysis: Resources and Methods 9. The Future of Online Social Research

ONLINE RESOURCES, COMMUNITIES, AND DATABASES  

• Interviews as a Method for Qualitative Research (video) This short video summarizes why interviews can serve as useful data in qualitative research.  
• Companion website to Bloomberg and Volpe's  Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation: A Road Map from Beginning to End,  4th ed Provides helpful templates and appendices featured in the book, as well as links to other useful dissertation resources.
• International Congress of Qualitative Inquiry Annual conference hosted by the International Center for Qualitative Inquiry at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, which aims to facilitate the development of qualitative research methods across a wide variety of academic disciplines, among other initiatives.  
• METHODSPACE ​​​​​​​​An online home of the research methods community, where practicing researchers share how to make research easier.  
• SAGE researchmethods ​​​​​​​Researchers can explore methods concepts to help them design research projects, understand particular methods or identify a new method, conduct their research, and write up their findings. A "methods map" facilitates finding content on methods.

The decision to conduct interviews, and the type of interviewing to use, should flow from, or align with, the methodological paradigm chosen for your study, whether that paradigm is interpretivist, critical, positivist, or participative in nature (or a combination of these).

Structured:

• Structured Interview. Entry in The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methodsby Floyd J. Fowler Jr., Editors: Michael S. Lewis-Beck; Alan E. Bryman; Tim Futing Liao (Editor)  A concise article noting standards, procedures, and recommendations for developing and testing structured interviews. For an example of structured interview questions, you may view the Current Population Survey, May 2008: Public Participation in the Arts Supplement (ICPSR 29641), Apr 15, 2011 at https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR29641.v1 (To see the survey questions, preview the user guide, which can be found under the "Data and Documentation" tab. Then, look for page 177 (attachment 8).

Semi-Structured:

• Semi-Structured Interview. Entry in The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methodsby Lioness Ayres; Editor: Lisa M. Given  The semi-structured interview is a qualitative data collection strategy in which the researcher asks informants a series of predetermined but open-ended questions. The researcher has more control over the topics of the interview than in unstructured interviews, but in contrast to structured interviews or questionnaires that use closed questions, there is no fixed range of responses to each question.

Unstructured:

• Unstructured Interview. Entry in The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methodsby Michael W. Firmin; Editor: Lisa M. Given  Unstructured interviews in qualitative research involve asking relatively open-ended questions of research participants in order to discover their percepts on the topic of interest. Interviews, in general, are a foundational means of collecting data when using qualitative research methods. They are designed to draw from the interviewee constructs embedded in his or her thinking and rationale for decision making. The researcher uses an inductive method in data gathering, regardless of whether the interview method is open, structured, or semi-structured. That is, the researcher does not wish to superimpose his or her own viewpoints onto the person being interviewed. Rather, inductively, the researcher wishes to understand the participant's perceptions, helping him or her to articulate percepts such that they will be understood clearly by the journal reader.

Genres and Uses

Focus groups:.

• "Focus Groups." Annual Review of Sociology 22 (1996): 129-1524.by David L. Morgan  Discusses the use of focus groups and group interviews as methods for gathering qualitative data used by sociologists and other academic and applied researchers. Focus groups are recommended for giving voice to marginalized groups and revealing the group effect on opinion formation.  
• Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collector's Field Guide (See Module 4: "Focus Groups")by Mack, N., et al.  This field guide is based on an approach to doing team-based, collaborative qualitative research that has repeatedly proven successful in research projects sponsored by Family Health International (FHI) throughout the developing world. With its straightforward delivery of information on the main qualitative methods being used in public health research today, the guide speaks to the need for simple yet effective instruction on how to do systematic and ethically sound qualitative research. The aim of the guide is thus practical. In bypassing extensive discussion on the theoretical underpinnings of qualitative research, it distinguishes itself as a how-to guide to be used in the field.

In-Depth (typically One-on-One):

• A Practical Introduction to in-Depth Interviewingby Alan Morris  Are you new to qualitative research or a bit rusty and in need of some inspiration? Are you doing a research project involving in-depth interviews? Are you nervous about carrying out your interviews? This book will help you complete your qualitative research project by providing a nuts and bolts introduction to interviewing. With coverage of ethics, preparation strategies and advice for handling the unexpected in the field, this handy guide will help you get to grips with the basics of interviewing before embarking on your research. While recognising that your research question and the context of your research will drive your approach to interviewing, this book provides practical advice often skipped in traditional methods textbooks.  
• Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collector's Field Guide (See Module 3: "In-Depth Interviews")by Mack, N., et al.  This field guide is based on an approach to doing team-based, collaborative qualitative research that has repeatedly proven successful in research projects sponsored by Family Health International (FHI) throughout the developing world. With its straightforward delivery of information on the main qualitative methods being used in public health research today, the guide speaks to the need for simple yet effective instruction on how to do systematic and ethically sound qualitative research. The aim of the guide is thus practical. In bypassing extensive discussion on the theoretical underpinnings of qualitative research, it distinguishes itself as a how-to guide to be used in the field.

Folklore Research and Oral Histories:

In addition to the following resource, see the  Oral History   page of this guide for helpful resources on Oral History interviewing.

American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress. Folklife and Fieldwork: A Layman’s Introduction to Field Techniques Interviews gathered for purposes of folklore research are similar to standard social science interviews in some ways, but also have a good deal in common with oral history approaches to interviewing. The focus in a folklore research interview is on documenting and trying to understand the interviewee's way of life relative to a culture or subculture you are studying. This guide includes helpful advice and tips for conducting fieldwork in folklore, such as tips for planning, conducting, recording, and archiving interviews.

An interdisciplinary scientific program within the Institute for Quantitative Social Science which encourages and facilitates research and instruction in the theory and practice of survey research. The primary mission of PSR is to provide survey research resources to enhance the quality of teaching and research at Harvard.

• Internet, Phone, Mail, and Mixed-Mode Surveysby Don A. Dillman; Jolene D. Smyth; Leah Melani Christian  The classic survey design reference, updated for the digital age. The new edition is thoroughly updated and revised, and covers all aspects of survey research. It features expanded coverage of mobile phones, tablets, and the use of do-it-yourself surveys, and Dillman's unique Tailored Design Method is also thoroughly explained. This new edition is complemented by copious examples within the text and accompanying website. It includes: Strategies and tactics for determining the needs of a given survey, how to design it, and how to effectively administer it. How and when to use mail, telephone, and Internet surveys to maximum advantage. Proven techniques to increase response rates. Guidance on how to obtain high-quality feedback from mail, electronic, and other self-administered surveys. Direction on how to construct effective questionnaires, including considerations of layout. The effects of sponsorship on the response rates of surveys. Use of capabilities provided by newly mass-used media: interactivity, presentation of aural and visual stimuli. The Fourth Edition reintroduces the telephone--including coordinating land and mobile.

User Experience (UX) and Marketing:

• See the  "UX & Market Research Interviews"  tab on this guide, above. May include  Focus Groups,  above.

Screening for Research Site Selection:

• Research interviews are used not only to furnish research data for theoretical analysis in the social sciences, but also to plan other kinds of studies. For example, interviews may allow researchers to screen appropriate research sites to conduct empirical studies (such as randomized controlled trials) in a variety of fields, from medicine to law. In contrast to interviews conducted in the course of social research, such interviews do not typically serve as the data for final analysis and publication.

ENGAGING PARTICIPANTS

Research ethics  .

• Human Subjects (IRB) The Committee on the Use of Human Subjects (CUHS) serves as the Institutional Review Board for the University area which includes the Cambridge and Allston campuses at Harvard. Find your IRB  contact person , or learn about  required ethics training.  You may also find the  IRB Lifecycle Guide  helpful. This is the preferred IRB portal for Harvard graduate students and other researchers. IRB forms can be downloaded via the  ESTR Library  (click on the "Templates and Forms" tab, then navigate to pages 2 and 3 to find the documents labelled with “HUA” for the Harvard University Area IRB. Nota bene: You may use these forms only if you submit your study to the Harvard University IRB). The IRB office can be reached through email at [email protected] or by telephone at (617) 496-2847.  
• Undergraduate Research Training Program (URTP) Portal The URTP at Harvard University is a comprehensive platform to create better prepared undergraduate researchers. The URTP is comprised of research ethics training sessions, a student-focused curriculum, and an online decision form that will assist students in determining whether their project requires IRB review. Students should examine the  URTP's guide for student researchers: Introduction to Human Subjects Research Protection.  
• Ethics reports From the Association of Internet Researchers (AoIR)  
• Respect, Beneficence, and Justice: QDR General Guidance for Human Participants If you are hoping to share your qualitative interview data in a repository after it has been collected, you will need to plan accordingly via informed consent, careful de-identification procedures, and data access controls. Consider  consulting with the Qualitative Research Support Group at Harvard Library  and consulting with  Harvard's Dataverse contacts  to help you think through all of the contingencies and processes.  
• "Conducting a Qualitative Child Interview: Methodological Considerations." Journal of Advanced Nursing 42/5 (2003): 434-441 by Kortesluoma, R., et al.  The purpose of this article is to illustrate the theoretical premises of child interviewing, as well as to describe some practical methodological solutions used during interviews. Factors that influence data gathered from children and strategies for taking these factors into consideration during the interview are also described.  
• "Crossing Cultural Barriers in Research Interviewing." Qualitative Social Work 63/3 (2007): 353-372 by Sands, R., et al.  This article critically examines a qualitative research interview in which cultural barriers between a white non-Muslim female interviewer and an African American Muslim interviewee, both from the USA, became evident and were overcome within the same interview.  
• Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples by Linda Tuhiwai Smith  This essential volume explores intersections of imperialism and research - specifically, the ways in which imperialism is embedded in disciplines of knowledge and tradition as 'regimes of truth.' Concepts such as 'discovery' and 'claiming' are discussed and an argument presented that the decolonization of research methods will help to reclaim control over indigenous ways of knowing and being. The text includes case-studies and examples, and sections on new indigenous literature and the role of research in indigenous struggles for social justice.  

This resource, sponsored by University of Oregon Libraries, exemplifies the use of interviewing methodologies in research that foregrounds traditional knowledge. The methodology page summarizes the approach.

• Ethics: The Need to Tread Carefully. Chapter in A Practical Introduction to in-Depth Interviewing by Alan Morris  Pay special attention to the sections in chapter 2 on "How to prevent and respond to ethical issues arising in the course of the interview," "Ethics in the writing up of your interviews," and "The Ethics of Care."  
• Handbook on Ethical Issues in Anthropology by Joan Cassell (Editor); Sue-Ellen Jacobs (Editor)  This publication of the American Anthropological Association presents and discusses issues and sources on ethics in anthropology, as well as realistic case studies of ethical dilemmas. It is meant to help social science faculty introduce discussions of ethics in their courses. Some of the topics are relevant to interviews, or at least to studies of which interviews are a part. See chapters 3 and 4 for cases, with solutions and commentary, respectively.  
• Research Ethics from the Chanie Wenjack School for Indigenous Studies, Trent University  (Open Access) An overview of Indigenous research ethics and protocols from the across the globe.  
• Resources for Equity in Research Consult these resources for guidance on creating and incorporating equitable materials into public health research studies that entail community engagement.

The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research Ethics by Ron Iphofen (Editor); Martin Tolich (Editor)  This handbook is a much-needed and in-depth review of the distinctive set of ethical considerations which accompanies qualitative research. This is particularly crucial given the emergent, dynamic and interactional nature of most qualitative research, which too often allows little time for reflection on the important ethical responsibilities and obligations. Contributions from leading international researchers have been carefully organized into six key thematic sections: Part One: Thick Descriptions Of Qualitative Research Ethics; Part Two: Qualitative Research Ethics By Technique; Part Three: Ethics As Politics; Part Four: Qualitative Research Ethics With Vulnerable Groups; Part Five: Relational Research Ethics; Part Six: Researching Digitally. This Handbook is a one-stop resource on qualitative research ethics across the social sciences that draws on the lessons learned and the successful methods for surmounting problems - the tried and true, and the new.

RESEARCH COMPLIANCE AND PRIVACY LAWS

Research Compliance Program for FAS/SEAS at Harvard : The Faculty of Arts and Sciences (FAS), including the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS), and the Office of the Vice Provost for Research (OVPR) have established a shared Research Compliance Program (RCP). An area of common concern for interview studies is international projects and collaboration . RCP is a resource to provide guidance on which international activities may be impacted by US sanctions on countries, individuals, or entities and whether licenses or other disclosure are required to ship or otherwise share items, technology, or data with foreign collaborators.

• Harvard Global Support Services (GSS) is for students, faculty, staff, and researchers who are studying, researching, or working abroad. Their services span safety and security, health, culture, outbound immigration, employment, financial and legal matters, and research center operations. These include travel briefings and registration, emergency response, guidance on international projects, and managing in-country operations.

Generative AI: Harvard-affiliated researchers should not enter data classified as confidential ( Level 2 and above ), including non-public research data, into publicly-available generative AI tools, in accordance with the University’s Information Security Policy. Information shared with generative AI tools using default settings is not private and could expose proprietary or sensitive information to unauthorized parties.

Privacy Laws: Be mindful of any potential privacy laws that may apply wherever you conduct your interviews. The General Data Protection Regulation is a high-profile example (see below):

• General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) This Regulation lays down rules relating to the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and rules relating to the free movement of personal data. It protects fundamental rights and freedoms of natural persons and in particular their right to the protection of personal data. The free movement of personal data within the Union shall be neither restricted nor prohibited for reasons connected with the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data. For a nice summary of what the GDPR requires, check out the GDPR "crash course" here .

SEEKING CONSENT  

If you would like to see examples of consent forms, ask your local IRB, or take a look at these resources:

• Model consent forms for oral history, suggested by the Centre for Oral History and Digital Storytelling at Concordia University  
• For NIH-funded research, see this  resource for developing informed consent language in research studies where data and/or biospecimens will be stored and shared for future use.

POPULATION SAMPLING

If you wish to assemble resources to aid in sampling, such as the USPS Delivery Sequence File, telephone books, or directories of organizations and listservs, please contact our  data librarian  or write to  [email protected] .

• Research Randomizer   A free web-based service that permits instant random sampling and random assignment. It also contains an interactive tutorial perfect for students taking courses in research methods.  
• Practical Tools for Designing and Weighting Survey Samples by Richard Valliant; Jill A. Dever; Frauke Kreuter  Survey sampling is fundamentally an applied field. The goal in this book is to put an array of tools at the fingertips of practitioners by explaining approaches long used by survey statisticians, illustrating how existing software can be used to solve survey problems, and developing some specialized software where needed. This book serves at least three audiences: (1) Students seeking a more in-depth understanding of applied sampling either through a second semester-long course or by way of a supplementary reference; (2) Survey statisticians searching for practical guidance on how to apply concepts learned in theoretical or applied sampling courses; and (3) Social scientists and other survey practitioners who desire insight into the statistical thinking and steps taken to design, select, and weight random survey samples. Several survey data sets are used to illustrate how to design samples, to make estimates from complex surveys for use in optimizing the sample allocation, and to calculate weights. Realistic survey projects are used to demonstrate the challenges and provide a context for the solutions. The book covers several topics that either are not included or are dealt with in a limited way in other texts. These areas include: sample size computations for multistage designs; power calculations related to surveys; mathematical programming for sample allocation in a multi-criteria optimization setting; nuts and bolts of area probability sampling; multiphase designs; quality control of survey operations; and statistical software for survey sampling and estimation. An associated R package, PracTools, contains a number of specialized functions for sample size and other calculations. The data sets used in the book are also available in PracTools, so that the reader may replicate the examples or perform further analyses.  
• Sampling: Design and Analysis by Sharon L. Lohr  Provides a modern introduction to the field of sampling. With a multitude of applications from a variety of disciplines, the book concentrates on the statistical aspects of taking and analyzing a sample. Overall, the book gives guidance on how to tell when a sample is valid or not, and how to design and analyze many different forms of sample surveys.  
• Sampling Techniques by William G. Cochran  Clearly demonstrates a wide range of sampling methods now in use by governments, in business, market and operations research, social science, medicine, public health, agriculture, and accounting. Gives proofs of all the theoretical results used in modern sampling practice. New topics in this edition include the approximate methods developed for the problem of attaching standard errors or confidence limits to nonlinear estimates made from the results of surveys with complex plans.  
• "Understanding the Process of Qualitative Data Collection" in Chapter 13 (pp. 103–1162) of 30 Essential Skills for the Qualitative Researcher by John W. Creswell  Provides practical "how-to" information for beginning researchers in the social, behavioral, and health sciences with many applied examples from research design, qualitative inquiry, and mixed methods.The skills presented in this book are crucial for a new qualitative researcher starting a qualitative project.  
• Survey Methodology by Robert M. Groves; Floyd J. Fowler; Mick P. Couper; James M. Lepkowski; Eleanor Singer; Roger Tourangeau; Floyd J. Fowler  coverage includes sampling frame evaluation, sample design, development of questionnaires, evaluation of questions, alternative modes of data collection, interviewing, nonresponse, post-collection processing of survey data, and practices for maintaining scientific integrity.

The way a qualitative researcher constructs and approaches interview questions should flow from, or align with, the methodological paradigm chosen for the study, whether that paradigm is interpretivist, critical, positivist, or participative in nature (or a combination of these).

Constructing Your Questions

Helpful texts:.

• "Developing Questions" in Chapter 4 (pp. 98–108) of Becoming Qualitative Researchers by Corrine Glesne  Ideal for introducing the novice researcher to the theory and practice of qualitative research, this text opens students to the diverse possibilities within this inquiry approach, while helping them understand how to design and implement specific research methods.  
• "Learning to Interview in the Social Sciences" Qualitative Inquiry, 9(4) 2003, 643–668 by Roulston, K., deMarrais, K., & Lewis, J. B. See especially the section on "Phrasing and Negotiating Questions" on pages 653-655 and common problems with framing questions noted on pages 659 - 660.  
• Qualitative Research Interviewing: Biographic Narrative and Semi-Structured Methods (See sections on “Lightly and Heavily Structured Depth Interviewing: Theory-Questions and Interviewer-Questions” and “Preparing for any Interviewing Sequence") by Tom Wengraf  Unique in its conceptual coherence and the level of practical detail, this book provides a comprehensive resource for those concerned with the practice of semi-structured interviewing, the most commonly used interview approach in social research, and in particular for in-depth, biographic narrative interviewing. It covers the full range of practices from the identification of topics through to strategies for writing up research findings in diverse ways.  
• "Scripting a Qualitative Purpose Statement and Research Questions" in Chapter 12 (pp. 93–102) of 30 Essential Skills for the Qualitative Researcher by John W. Creswell  Provides practical "how-to" information for beginning researchers in the social, behavioral, and health sciences with many applied examples from research design, qualitative inquiry, and mixed methods.The skills presented in this book are crucial for a new qualitative researcher starting a qualitative project.  
• Some Strategies for Developing Interview Guides for Qualitative Interviews by Sociology Department, Harvard University Includes general advice for conducting qualitative interviews, pros and cons of recording and transcription, guidelines for success, and tips for developing and phrasing effective interview questions.  
• Tip Sheet on Question Wording by Harvard University Program on Survey Research

Let Theory Guide You:

The quality of your questions depends on how you situate them within a wider body of knowledge. Consider the following advice:

A good literature review has many obvious virtues. It enables the investigator to define problems and assess data. It provides the concepts on which percepts depend. But the literature review has a special importance for the qualitative researcher. This consists of its ability to sharpen his or her capacity for surprise (Lazarsfeld, 1972b). The investigator who is well versed in the literature now has a set of expectations the data can defy. Counterexpectational data are conspicuous, readable, and highly provocative data. They signal the existence of unfulfilled theoretical assumptions, and these are, as Kuhn (1962) has noted, the very origins of intellectual innovation. A thorough review of the literature is, to this extent, a way to manufacture distance. It is a way to let the data of one's research project take issue with the theory of one's field.

McCracken, G. (1988), The Long Interview, Sage: Newbury Park, CA, p. 31

When drafting your interview questions, remember that everything follows from your central research question. Also, on the way to writing your "operationalized" interview questions, it's  helpful to draft broader, intermediate questions, couched in theory. Nota bene:  While it is important to know the literature well before conducting your interview(s), be careful not to present yourself to your research participant(s) as "the expert," which would be presumptuous and could be intimidating. Rather, the purpose of your knowledge is to make you a better, keener listener.

If you'd like to supplement what you learned about relevant theories through your coursework and literature review, try these sources:

• Annual Reviews   Review articles sum up the latest research in many fields, including social sciences, biomedicine, life sciences, and physical sciences. These are timely collections of critical reviews written by leading scientists.  
• HOLLIS - search for resources on theories in your field   Modify this example search by entering the name of your field in place of "your discipline," then hit search.  
• Oxford Bibliographies   Written and reviewed by academic experts, every article in this database is an authoritative guide to the current scholarship in a variety of fields, containing original commentary and annotations.  
• ProQuest Dissertations & Theses (PQDT)   Indexes dissertations and masters' theses from most North American graduate schools as well as some European universities. Provides full text for most indexed dissertations from 1990-present.  
• Very Short Introductions   Launched by Oxford University Press in 1995, Very Short Introductions offer concise introductions to a diverse range of subjects from Climate to Consciousness, Game Theory to Ancient Warfare, Privacy to Islamic History, Economics to Literary Theory.

CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS

Equipment and software:  .

• Lamont Library  loans microphones and podcast starter kits, which will allow you to capture audio (and you may record with software, such as Garage Band). 
• Cabot Library  loans digital recording devices, as well as USB microphones.

If you prefer to use your own device, you may purchase a small handheld audio recorder, or use your cell phone.

• Audio Capture Basics (PDF)  - Helpful instructions, courtesy of the Lamont Library Multimedia Lab.
• Getting Started with Podcasting/Audio:  Guidelines from Harvard Library's Virtual Media Lab for preparing your interviewee for a web-based recording (e.g., podcast, interview)
• ​ Camtasia Screen Recorder and Video Editor
• Zoom: Video Conferencing, Web Conferencing
• Visit the Multimedia Production Resources guide! Consult it to find and learn how to use audiovisual production tools, including: cameras, microphones, studio spaces, and other equipment at Cabot Science Library and Lamont Library.
• Try the virtual office hours offered by the Lamont Multimedia Lab!

TIPS FOR CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS

Quick handout:  .

• Research Interviewing Tips (Courtesy of Dr. Suzanne Spreadbury)

Remote Interviews:  

• For Online or Distant Interviews, See "Remote Research & Virtual Fieldwork" on this guide .  
• Deborah Lupton's Bibliography: Doing Fieldwork in a Pandemic

Seeking Consent:

Books and articles:  .

• "App-Based Textual Interviews: Interacting With Younger Generations in a Digitalized Social Reallity."International Journal of Social Research Methodology (12 June 2022). Discusses the use of texting platforms as a means to reach young people. Recommends useful question formulations for this medium.  
• "Learning to Interview in the Social Sciences." Qualitative Inquiry, 9(4) 2003, 643–668 by Roulston, K., deMarrais, K., & Lewis, J. B. See especially the section on "Phrasing and Negotiating Questions" on pages 653-655 and common problems with framing questions noted on pages 659-660.  
• "Slowing Down and Digging Deep: Teaching Students to Examine Interview Interaction in Depth." LEARNing Landscapes, Spring 2021 14(1) 153-169 by Herron, Brigette A. and Kathryn Roulston. Suggests analysis of videorecorded interviews as a precursor to formulating one's own questions. Includes helpful types of probes.  
• Using Interviews in a Research Project by Nigel Joseph Mathers; Nicholas J Fox; Amanda Hunn; Trent Focus Group.  A work pack to guide researchers in developing interviews in the healthcare field. Describes interview structures, compares face-to-face and telephone interviews. Outlines the ways in which different types of interview data can be analysed.  
• “Working through Challenges in Doing Interview Research.” International Journal of Qualitative Methods, (December 2011), 348–66 by Roulston, Kathryn.  The article explores (1) how problematic interactions identified in the analysis of focus group data can lead to modifications in research design, (2) an approach to dealing with reported data in representations of findings, and (3) how data analysis can inform question formulation in successive rounds of data generation. Findings from these types of examinations of interview data generation and analysis are valuable for informing both interview practice as well as research design.

Videos:  

The way a qualitative researcher transcribes interviews should flow from, or align with, the methodological paradigm chosen for the study, whether that paradigm is interpretivist, critical, positivist, or participative in nature (or a combination of these).

TRANSCRIPTION

Before embarking on a transcription project, it's worthwhile to invest in the time and effort necessary to capture good audio, which will make the transcription process much easier. If you haven't already done so, check out the  audio capture guidelines from Harvard Library's Virtual Media Lab , or  contact a media staff member  for customized recommendations. First and foremost, be mindful of common pitfalls by watching this short video that identifies  the most common errors to avoid!

SOFTWARE:  

• Adobe Premiere Pro Speech-To-Text  automatically generates transcripts and adds captions to your videos. Harvard affiliates can download Adobe Premiere in the Creative Cloud Suite.  
• GoTranscript  provides cost-effective human-generated transcriptions.  
• pyTranscriber  is an app for generating automatic transcription and/or subtitles for audio and video files. It uses the Google Cloud Speech-to-Text service, has a friendly graphical user interface, and is purported to work nicely with Chinese.   
• Otter  provides a new way to capture, store, search and share voice conversations, lectures, presentations, meetings, and interviews. The startup is based in Silicon Valley with a team of experienced Ph.Ds and engineers from Google, Facebook, Yahoo and Nuance (à la Dragon). Free accounts available. This is the software that  Zoom  uses to generate automated transcripts, so if you have access to a Zoom subscription, you have access to Otter transcriptions with it (applicable in several  languages ). As with any automated approach, be prepared to correct any errors after the fact, by hand.  
• Panopto  is available to Harvard affiliates and generates  ASR (automated speech recognition) captions . You may upload compatible audio files into it. As with any automatically generated transcription, you will need to make manual revisions. ASR captioning is available in several  languages . Panopto maintains robust security practices, including strong authentication measures and end-to-end encryption, ensuring your content remains private and protected.  
• REV.Com  allows you to record and transcribe any calls on the iPhone, both outgoing and incoming. It may be useful for recording phone interviews. Rev lets you choose whether you want an AI- or human-generated transcription, with a fast turnaround. Rev has Service Organization Controls Type II (SOC2) certification (a SOC2 cert looks at and verifies an organization’s processing integrity, privacy practices, and security safeguards).   
• Scribie Audio/Video Transcription  provides automated or manual transcriptions for a small fee. As with any transcription service, some revisions will be necessary after the fact, particularly for its automated transcripts.  
• Sonix  automatically transcribes, translates, and helps to organize audio and video files in over 40 languages. It's fast and affordable, with good accuracy. The free trial includes 30 minutes of free transcription.  
• TranscriptionWing  uses a human touch process to clean up machine-generated transcripts so that the content will far more accurately reflect your audio recording.   
• Whisper is a tool from OpenAI that facilitates transcription of sensitive audiovisual recordings (e.g., of research interviews) on your own device. Installation and use depends on your operating system and which version you install. Important Note: The Whisper API, where audio is sent to OpenAI to be processed by them and then sent back (usually through a programming language like Python) is NOT appropriate for sensitive data. The model should be downloaded with tools such as those described in this FAQ , so that audio is kept to your local machine. For assistance, contact James Capobianco .

EQUIPMENT:  

• Transcription pedals  are in circulation and available to borrow from the Circulation desk at Lamont, or use at Lamont Library's Media Lab on level B. For hand-transcribing your interviews, they work in conjunction with software such as  Express Scribe , which is loaded on Media Lab computers, or you may download for free on your own machine (Mac or PC versions; scroll down the downloads page for the latter). The pedals are plug-and-play USB, allow a wide range of playback speeds, and have 3 programmable buttons, which are typically set to rewind/play/fast-forward. Instructions are included in the bag that covers installation and set-up of the software, and basic use of the pedals.

NEED HELP?  

• Try the virtual office hours offered by the Lamont Multimedia Lab!    
• If you're creating podcasts, login to  Canvas  and check out the  Podcasting/Audio guide . 

Helpful Texts:  

• "Transcription as a Crucial Step of Data Analysis" in Chapter 5 of The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Data Analysisby Uwe Flick (Editor)  Covers basic terminology for transcription, shares caveats for transcribers, and identifies components of vocal behavior. Provides notation systems for transcription, suggestions for transcribing turn-taking, and discusses new technologies and perspectives. Includes a bibliography for further reading.  
• "Transcribing the Oral Interview: Part Art, Part Science " on p. 10 of the Centre for Community Knowledge (CCK) newsletter: TIMESTAMPby Mishika Chauhan and Saransh Srivastav

QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Software  .

• Free download available for Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences (FAS) affiliates
• Desktop access at Lamont Library Media Lab, 3rd floor
• Desktop access at Harvard Kennedy School Library (with HKS ID)
• Remote desktop access for Harvard affiliates from  IQSS Computer Labs . Email them at  [email protected] and ask for a new lab account and remote desktop access to NVivo.
• Virtual Desktop Infrastructure (VDI) access available to Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health affiliates

CODING AND THEMEING YOUR DATA

Data analysis methods should flow from, or align with, the methodological paradigm chosen for your study, whether that paradigm is interpretivist, critical, positivist, or participative in nature (or a combination of these). Some established methods include Content Analysis, Critical Analysis, Discourse Analysis, Gestalt Analysis, Grounded Theory Analysis, Interpretive Analysis, Narrative Analysis, Normative Analysis, Phenomenological Analysis, Rhetorical Analysis, and Semiotic Analysis, among others. The following resources should help you navigate your methodological options and put into practice methods for coding, themeing, interpreting, and presenting your data.

• Users can browse content by topic, discipline, or format type (reference works, book chapters, definitions, etc.). SRM offers several research tools as well: a methods map, user-created reading lists, a project planner, and advice on choosing statistical tests.  
• Abductive Coding: Theory Building and Qualitative (Re)Analysis by Vila-Henninger, et al.  The authors recommend an abductive approach to guide qualitative researchers who are oriented towards theory-building. They outline a set of tactics for abductive analysis, including the generation of an abductive codebook, abductive data reduction through code equations, and in-depth abductive qualitative analysis.  
• Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Research: After the Interview by Charles F. Vanover, Paul A. Mihas, and Johnny Saldana (Editors)   Providing insight into the wide range of approaches available to the qualitative researcher and covering all steps in the research process, the authors utilize a consistent chapter structure that provides novice and seasoned researchers with pragmatic, "how-to" strategies. Each chapter author introduces the method, uses one of their own research projects as a case study of the method described, shows how the specific analytic method can be used in other types of studies, and concludes with three questions/activities to prompt class discussion or personal study.   
• "Analyzing Qualitative Data." Theory Into Practice 39, no. 3 (2000): 146-54 by Margaret D. LeCompte   This article walks readers though rules for unbiased data analysis and provides guidance for getting organized, finding items, creating stable sets of items, creating patterns, assembling structures, and conducting data validity checks.  
• "Coding is Not a Dirty Word" in Chapter 1 (pp. 1–30) of Enhancing Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research with Technology by Shalin Hai-Jew (Editor)   Current discourses in qualitative research, especially those situated in postmodernism, represent coding and the technology that assists with coding as reductive, lacking complexity, and detached from theory. In this chapter, the author presents a counter-narrative to this dominant discourse in qualitative research. The author argues that coding is not necessarily devoid of theory, nor does the use of software for data management and analysis automatically render scholarship theoretically lightweight or barren. A lack of deep analytical insight is a consequence not of software but of epistemology. Using examples informed by interpretive and critical approaches, the author demonstrates how NVivo can provide an effective tool for data management and analysis. The author also highlights ideas for critical and deconstructive approaches in qualitative inquiry while using NVivo. By troubling the positivist discourse of coding, the author seeks to create dialogic spaces that integrate theory with technology-driven data management and analysis, while maintaining the depth and rigor of qualitative research.   
• The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers by Johnny Saldana   An in-depth guide to the multiple approaches available for coding qualitative data. Clear, practical and authoritative, the book profiles 32 coding methods that can be applied to a range of research genres from grounded theory to phenomenology to narrative inquiry. For each approach, Saldaña discusses the methods, origins, a description of the method, practical applications, and a clearly illustrated example with analytic follow-up. Essential reading across the social sciences.  
• Flexible Coding of In-depth Interviews: A Twenty-first-century Approach by Nicole M. Deterding and Mary C. Waters The authors suggest steps in data organization and analysis to better utilize qualitative data analysis technologies and support rigorous, transparent, and flexible analysis of in-depth interview data.  
• From the Editors: What Grounded Theory is Not by Roy Suddaby Walks readers through common misconceptions that hinder grounded theory studies, reinforcing the two key concepts of the grounded theory approach: (1) constant comparison of data gathered throughout the data collection process and (2) the determination of which kinds of data to sample in succession based on emergent themes (i.e., "theoretical sampling").  
• “Good enough” methods for life-story analysis, by Wendy Luttrell. In Quinn N. (Ed.), Finding culture in talk (pp. 243–268). Demonstrates for researchers of culture and consciousness who use narrative how to concretely document reflexive processes in terms of where, how and why particular decisions are made at particular stages of the research process.   
• Presentation slides on coding and themeing your data, derived from Saldana, Spradley, and LeCompte Click to request access.  
• Qualitative Data Analysis by Matthew B. Miles; A. Michael Huberman   A practical sourcebook for researchers who make use of qualitative data, presenting the current state of the craft in the design, testing, and use of qualitative analysis methods. Strong emphasis is placed on data displays matrices and networks that go beyond ordinary narrative text. Each method of data display and analysis is described and illustrated.  
• "A Survey of Qualitative Data Analytic Methods" in Chapter 4 (pp. 89–138) of Fundamentals of Qualitative Research by Johnny Saldana   Provides an in-depth introduction to coding as a heuristic, particularly focusing on process coding, in vivo coding, descriptive coding, values coding, dramaturgical coding, and versus coding. Includes advice on writing analytic memos, developing categories, and themeing data.   
• "Thematic Networks: An Analytic Tool for Qualitative Research." Qualitative Research : QR, 1(3), 385–405 by Jennifer Attride-Stirling Details a technique for conducting thematic analysis of qualitative material, presenting a step-by-step guide of the analytic process, with the aid of an empirical example. The analytic method presented employs established, well-known techniques; the article proposes that thematic analyses can be usefully aided by and presented as thematic networks.  
• Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology by Virginia Braun and Victoria Clark Walks readers through the process of reflexive thematic analysis, step by step. The method may be adapted in fields outside of psychology as relevant. Pair this with One Size Fits All? What Counts as Quality Practice in Reflexive Thematic Analysis? by Virginia Braun and Victoria Clark

TESTING OR GENERATING THEORIES

The quality of your data analysis depends on how you situate what you learn within a wider body of knowledge. Consider the following advice:

Once you have coalesced around a theory, realize that a theory should  reveal  rather than  color  your discoveries. Allow your data to guide you to what's most suitable. Grounded theory  researchers may develop their own theory where current theories fail to provide insight.  This guide on Theoretical Models  from Alfaisal University Library provides a helpful overview on using theory.

MANAGING & FINDING INTERVIEW DATA

Managing your elicited interview data, general guidance:  .

• Research Data Management @ Harvard A reference guide with information and resources to help you manage your research data. See also: Harvard Research Data Security Policy , on the Harvard University Research Data Management website.  
• Data Management For Researchers: Organize, Maintain and Share Your Data for Research Success by Kristin Briney. A comprehensive guide for scientific researchers providing everything they need to know about data management and how to organize, document, use and reuse their data.  
• Open Science Framework (OSF) An open-source project management tool that makes it easy to collaborate within and beyond Harvard throughout a project's lifecycle. With OSF you can manage, store, and share documents, datasets, and other information with your research team. You can also publish your work to share it with a wider audience. Although data can be stored privately, because this platform is hosted on the Internet and designed with open access in mind, it is not a good choice for highly sensitive data.  
• Free cloud storage solutions for Harvard affiliates to consider include:  Google Drive ,  DropBox , or  OneDrive ( up to DSL3 )  

Data Confidentiality and Secure Handling:  

• Data Security Levels at Harvard - Research Data Examples This resource provided by Harvard Data Security helps you determine what level of access is appropriate for your data. Determine whether it should be made available for public use, limited to the Harvard community, or be protected as either "confidential and sensitive," "high risk," or "extremely sensitive." See also:  Harvard Data Classification Table  
• Harvard's Best Practices for Protecting Privacy and  Harvard Information Security Collaboration Tools Matrix Follow the nuts-and-bolts advice for privacy best practices at Harvard. The latter resource reveals the level of security that can be relied upon for a large number of technological tools and platforms used at Harvard to conduct business, such as email, Slack, Accellion Kiteworks, OneDrive/SharePoint, etc.  
• “Protecting Participant Privacy While Maintaining Content and Context: Challenges in Qualitative Data De‐identification and Sharing.” Proceedings of the ASIST Annual Meeting 57 (1) (2020): e415-420 by Myers, Long, and Polasek Presents an informed and tested protocol, based on the De-Identification guidelines published by the Qualitative Data Repository (QDR) at Syracuse University. Qualitative researchers may consult it to guide their data de-identification efforts.  
• QDS Qualitative Data Sharing Toolkit The Qualitative Data Sharing (QDS) project and its toolkit was funded by the NIH National Human Genome Research Institute (R01HG009351). It provides tools and resources to help researchers, especially those in the health sciences, share qualitative research data while protecting privacy and confidentiality. It offers guidance on preparing data for sharing through de-identification and access control. These health sciences research datasets in ICPSR's Qualitative Data Sharing (QDS) Project Series were de-identified using the QuaDS Software and the project’s QDS guidelines.  
• Table of De-Identification Techniques  
• Generative AI Harvard-affiliated researchers should not enter data classified as confidential ( Level 2 and above ), including non-public research data, into publicly-available generative AI tools, in accordance with the University’s Information Security Policy. Information shared with generative AI tools using default settings is not private and could expose proprietary or sensitive information to unauthorized parties.  
• Harvard Information Security Quick Reference Guide Storage guidelines, based on the data's security classification level (according to its IRB classification) is displayed on page 2, under "handling."  
• Email Encryption Harvard Microsoft 365 users can now send encrypted messages and files directly from the Outlook web or desktop apps. Encrypting an email adds an extra layer of security to the message and its attachments (up to 150MB), and means only the intended recipient (and their inbox delegates with full access) can view it. Message encryption in Outlook is approved for sending high risk ( level 4 ) data and below.  

Sharing Qualitative Data:  

• Repositories for Qualitative Data If you have cleared this intention with your IRB, secured consent from participants, and properly de-identified your data, consider sharing your interviews in one of the data repositories included in the link above. Depending on the nature of your research and the level of risk it may present to participants, sharing your interview data may not be appropriate. If there is any chance that sharing such data will be desirable, you will be much better off if you build this expectation into your plans from the beginning.  
• Guide for Sharing Qualitative Data at ICPSR The Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR) has created this resource for investigators planning to share qualitative data at ICPSR. This guide provides an overview of elements and considerations for archiving qualitative data, identifies steps for investigators to follow during the research life cycle to ensure that others can share and reuse qualitative data, and provides information about exemplars of qualitative data  

International Projects:

• Research Compliance Program for FAS/SEAS at Harvard The Faculty of Arts and Sciences (FAS), including the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS), and the Office of the Vice Provost for Research (OVPR) have established a shared Research Compliance Program (RCP). An area of common concern for interview studies is international projects and collaboration . RCP is a resource to provide guidance on which international activities may be impacted by US sanctions on countries, individuals, or entities and whether licenses or other disclosure are required to ship or otherwise share items, technology, or data with foreign collaborators.

Finding Extant Interview Data

Finding journalistic interviews:  .

• Academic Search Premier This all-purpose database is great for finding articles from magazines and newspapers. In the Advanced Search, it allows you to specify "Document Type":  Interview.  
• Guide to Newspapers and Newspaper Indexes Use this guide created to Harvard Librarians to identify newspapers collections you'd like to search. To locate interviews, try adding the term  "interview"  to your search, or explore a database's search interface for options to  limit your search to interviews.  Nexis Uni  and  Factiva  are the two main databases for current news.   
• Listen Notes Search for podcast episodes at this podcast aggregator, and look for podcasts that include interviews. Make sure to vet the podcaster for accuracy and quality! (Listen Notes does not do much vetting.)  
• NPR  and  ProPublica  are two sites that offer high-quality long-form reporting, including journalistic interviews, for free.

Finding Oral History and Social Research Interviews:  

• To find oral histories, see the Oral History   page of this guide for helpful resources on Oral History interviewing.  
• Repositories for Qualitative Data It has not been a customary practice among qualitative researchers in the social sciences to share raw interview data, but some have made this data available in repositories, such as the ones listed on the page linked above. You may find published data from structured interview surveys (e.g., questionnaire-based computer-assisted telephone interview data), as well as some semi-structured and unstructured interviews.  
• If you are merely interested in studies interpreting data collected using interviews, rather than finding raw interview data, try databases like  PsycInfo ,  Sociological Abstracts , or  Anthropology Plus , among others. 

Finding Interviews in Archival Collections at Harvard Library:

In addition to the databases and search strategies mentioned under the  "Finding Oral History and Social Research Interviews" category above,  you may search for interviews and oral histories (whether in textual or audiovisual formats) held in archival collections at Harvard Library.

• HOLLIS searches all documented collections at Harvard, whereas HOLLIS for Archival Discovery searches only those with finding aids. Although HOLLIS for Archival Discovery covers less material, you may find it easier to parse your search results, especially when you wish to view results at the item level (within collections). Try these approaches:

Search in  HOLLIS :  

• To retrieve items available online, do an Advanced Search for  interview* OR "oral histor*" (in Subject), with Resource Type "Archives/Manuscripts," then refine your search by selecting "Online" under "Show Only" on the right of your initial result list.  Revise the search above by adding your topic in the Keywords or Subject field (for example:  African Americans ) and resubmitting the search.  
•  To enlarge your results set, you may also leave out the "Online" refinement; if you'd like to limit your search to a specific repository, try the technique of searching for  Code: Library + Collection on the "Advanced Search" page .   

Search in  HOLLIS for Archival Discovery :  

• To retrieve items available online, search for   interview* OR "oral histor*" limited to digital materials . Revise the search above by adding your topic (for example:  artist* ) in the second search box (if you don't see the box, click +).  
• To preview results by collection, search for  interview* OR "oral histor*" limited to collections . Revise the search above by adding your topic (for example:  artist* ) in the second search box (if you don't see the box, click +). Although this method does not allow you to isolate digitized content, you may find the refinement options on the right side of the screen (refine by repository, subject or names) helpful.  Once your select a given collection, you may search within it  (e.g., for your topic or the term interview).

UX & MARKET RESEARCH INTERVIEWS

Ux at harvard library  .

• User Experience and Market Research interviews can inform the design of tangible products and services through responsive, outcome-driven insights. The  User Research Center  at Harvard Library specializes in this kind of user-centered design, digital accessibility, and testing. They also offer guidance and  resources  to members of the Harvard Community who are interested in learning more about UX methods. Contact [email protected] or consult the URC website for more information.

Websites  

• User Interviews: The Beginner’s Guide (Chris Mears)  
• Interviewing Users (Jakob Nielsen)

Books  

• Interviewing Users: How to Uncover Compelling Insights by Steve Portigal; Grant McCracken (Foreword by)  Interviewing is a foundational user research tool that people assume they already possess. Everyone can ask questions, right? Unfortunately, that's not the case. Interviewing Users provides invaluable interviewing techniques and tools that enable you to conduct informative interviews with anyone. You'll move from simply gathering data to uncovering powerful insights about people.  
• Rapid Contextual Design by Jessamyn Wendell; Karen Holtzblatt; Shelley Wood  This handbook introduces Rapid CD, a fast-paced, adaptive form of Contextual Design. Rapid CD is a hands-on guide for anyone who needs practical guidance on how to use the Contextual Design process and adapt it to tactical projects with tight timelines and resources. Rapid Contextual Design provides detailed suggestions on structuring the project and customer interviews, conducting interviews, and running interpretation sessions. The handbook walks you step-by-step through organizing the data so you can see your key issues, along with visioning new solutions, storyboarding to work out the details, and paper prototype interviewing to iterate the design all with as little as a two-person team with only a few weeks to spare *Includes real project examples with actual customer data that illustrate how a CD project actually works.

Videos  

Instructional Presentations on Interview Skills  

• Interview/Oral History Research for RSRA 298B: Master's Thesis Reading and Research (Spring 2023) Slideshow covers: Why Interviews?, Getting Context, Engaging Participants, Conducting the Interview, The Interview Guide, Note Taking, Transcription, File management, and Data Analysis.  
• Interview Skills From an online class on February 13, 2023:  Get set up for interview research. You will leave prepared to choose among the three types of interviewing methods, equipped to develop an interview schedule, aware of data management options and their ethical implications, and knowledgeable of technologies you can use to record and transcribe your interviews. This workshop complements Intro to NVivo, a qualitative data analysis tool useful for coding interview data.

NIH Data Management & Sharing Policy (DMSP) This policy, effective January 25, 2023, applies to all research, funded or conducted in whole or in part by NIH, that results in the generation of  scientific data , including NIH-funded qualitative research. Click here to see some examples of how the DMSP policy has been applied in qualitative research studies featured in the 2021 Qualitative Data Management Plan (DMP) Competition . As a resource for the community, NIH has developed a resource for developing informed consent language in research studies where data and/or biospecimens will be stored and shared for future use. It is important to note that the DMS Policy does NOT require that informed consent obtained from research participants must allow for broad sharing and the future use of data (either with or without identifiable private information). See the FAQ for more information.

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Primary research involves collecting data about a given subject directly from the real world. This section includes information on what primary research is, how to get started, ethics involved with primary research and different types of research you can do. It includes details about interviews, surveys, observations, and analysis.

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Conducting qualitative interviews by telephone: Lessons learned from a study of alcohol use among sexual minority and heterosexual women

Laurie drabble.

San José State University School of Social Work, One Washington Square, San José, CA 95192-0124, (408) 924-5836, FAX: (408) 924-5912

Karen F. Trocki

Alcohol Research Group, Public Health Institute, 6475 Christie Ave. Suite 400, Emeryville, CA 94608, phone: 510-597-3440, fax: 510-985-6459

Brenda Salcedo

Social Worker, Special Services, East Side Union High School District, 830 N Capitol Ave, San Jose, CA 95133, Phone: 408.332.2836

Patricia C. Walker

Catholic Charities of Santa Clara County, 1670 Cherry Grove Drive, San Jose, CA 95125, phone: (408) 723-5201, fax: (408) 723-5201

Rachael A. Korcha

This study explored effective interviewer strategies and lessons-learned based on collection of narrative data by telephone with a sub-sample of women from a population-based survey, which included sexual minority women. Qualitative follow-up, in-depth life history interviews were conducted over the telephone with 48 women who had participated in the 2009–2010 National Alcohol Survey. Questions explored the lives and experiences of women, including use of alcohol and drugs, social relationships, identity, and past traumatic experiences. Strategies for success in interviews emerged in three overarching areas: 1) cultivating rapport and maintaining connection, 2) demonstrating responsiveness to interviewee content, concerns, and 3) communicating regard for the interviewee and her contribution. Findings underscore both the viability and value of telephone interviews as a method for collecting rich narrative data on sensitive subjects among women, including women who may be marginalized.

Introduction

Although the use of telephones for collecting quantitative survey data is common and well-represented in research literature, using telephones for qualitative interviews has generally been considered an inferior alternative to face-to-face interviews ( Novick, 2008 ). Qualitative interviews provide “a way of generating empirical data about the social world by asking people to talk about their lives” ( Holstein and Gubrium, 2003 , p. 3). Consequently, concerns about the use of telephones for qualitative interviews described in the literature predominately focus on the possible negative impact on the richness and quality of empirical data collected by telephone compared to face-to-face interviews ( Novick, 2008 ; Irvine et al., 2013 ). Some of the most commonly articulated concerns about telephone interviews include the challenges to establishing rapport, the inability to respond to visual cues, and potential loss of contextual data (i.e., the ability to observe the individual in a work or home environment) ( Novick, 2008 ; Holt, 2010 ; Smith, 2005 ).

A small but growing body of literature has documented the potential of in-depth telephone interviews as a viable option for qualitative research. Many methodological studies point to logistical conveniences and other practical advantages of telephone interviews, including enhanced access to geographically dispersed interviewees, reduced costs, increased interviewer safety, and greater flexibility for scheduling ( Cachia and Millward, 2011 ; Sturges and Hanrahan, 2004 ; Shuy, 2003 ; Carr and Worth, 2001 ; Musselwhite et al., 2007 ; Stephens, 2007 ). In addition to benefits related to convenience, several studies emphasize the methodological strengths of conducting qualitative interviews by telephone, such as perceived anonymity, increased privacy for respondents, and reduced distraction (for interviewees) or self-consciousness (for interviewers) when interviewers take notes during interviews ( Cachia and Millward, 2011 ; Sweet, 2002 ; Stephens, 2007 ; Lechuga, 2012 ). For example, privacy was noted as a strength of telephone interviews as an alternative to interviewing patients in a hospital setting ( Carr and Worth, 2001 ) or interviewing family members of incarcerated adults in a county jail ( Sturges and Hanrahan, 2004 ). Telephone interviews may also require interviewees to be explicit in follow-up questions, rather than relying on non-verbal cues ( Cachia and Millward, 2011 ). Finally, some researchers suggest that telephone interviews in qualitative data collection may mediate power dynamics that might otherwise emerge in the researcher-subject relationship. Specifically, telephone interviews, compared to in-person interviews, may be less intrusive and confer greater power and control to interviewees in terms of negotiating interviews to suit their schedules as well as rescheduling interrupting, or ending the interview ( Holt, 2010 ; Trier-Bieniek, 2012 ; Saura and Balsas, 2014 ).

A few studies have compared explicitly the outcomes and dynamics between telephone and in-person qualitative interviews. Irvine and colleagues found that interviews by telephone were somewhat shorter in duration than in-person interviews ( Irvine, 2011 ; Irvine et al., 2013 ). By contrast, other studies found no differences in the length, depth, and type of responses between telephone and in-person interviews ( Sturges and Hanrahan, 2004 ; Sweet, 2002 ; Vogl, 2013 ). In one of the few studies to examine dynamics between interviewer and interviewee, Irvine and colleagues (2013) found that interviewees were more likely to make requests for clarification and to check on the adequacy (specifically the sufficiency and relevance) of their responses during telephone interviews ( Irvine et al., 2013 ). Although studies typically have not investigated interviewee perspectives on their experiences, Sturges and Hanrahan (2004) allowed interviewees to select their mode of interview and followed up with a question about their perception of the choice at the close of the interview. Interviewees were equally positive about their respective interview modes, but telephone interviewees were more likely to comment on privacy as an advantage ( Sturges and Hanrahan, 2004 ).

In addition to the growing body of literature documenting telephone interviews as a viable mode for collecting qualitative data, a few studies draw on case examples to focus more explicitly on “how-to” strategies for successful in-depth telephone interviewing ( Glogowska et al., 2011 ; Musselwhite et al., 2007 ; Smith, 2005 ). In general, these studies emphasize the importance of ensuring that advance communications (such as letters) and initial telephone communications (such as telephone scripts) communicate the purpose of the study and the importance of the participant contribution ( Glogowska et al., 2011 ; Musselwhite et al., 2007 ; Smith, 2005 ). Other important success strategies include scheduling interviews at times convenient to interviewees, establishing rapport through small-talk and reviewing the purpose of the interview ( Glogowska et al., 2011 ), and taking time for pre-interview training and post-interview de-briefing ( Glogowska et al., 2011 ; Smith, 2005 ). Several authors of methodological studies of qualitative telephone interviews caution explicitly against “cold-calls” ( Glogowska et al., 2011 ; Musselwhite et al., 2007 ; Smith, 2005 ). For example, to avoid cold-calls, some studies described establishing rapport and recruiting participants in person, then scheduling a telephone interview at a later date ( Sweet, 2002 ; Sturges and Hanrahan, 2004 ; Musselwhite et al., 2007 ).

Irvine and colleagues (2013) note that there is still a need for methodological studies on qualitative telephone interviews focused on different topics and with interviewees who have different background characteristics. Methodological studies on the population-based National Alcohol Survey in the United States suggest that telephone interviews, like face-to-face interviews, are effective in collecting data about alcohol use, alcohol problems, and other sensitive questions in population-based surveys ( Greenfield et al., 2000 ; Midanik and Greenfield, 2003 ; Midanik et al., 2001 ). However, few studies explore the utility and strategies associated with collecting narrative data by telephone on sensitive topics such as alcohol use, sexuality, and traumatic life-experiences. Because telephone interviews appear to increase a perceived sense of anonymity ( Greenfield et al., 2000 ; Sturges and Hanrahan, 2004 ), they may be well suited to collecting data on sensitive topics ( Trier-Bieniek, 2012 ), but additional studies are needed to verify whether such interviews yield rich data.

In addition, there is a paucity of studies examining the effectiveness of telephone interviews with stigmatized or hard-to-reach populations, an issue that is particularly salient to social work, health, and other applied sciences. One notable exception is the study by Sturges and Hanrahan (2004) , which involved collecting qualitative data from correctional officers and visitors at county jails. The authors noted that “visitors to the jail felt stigmatized by their association with a jail inmate” (p. 114) and that the relative anonymity of the telephone interview reduced anxiety about participating in an interview. Sturges and Hanrahan also emphasized that recruitment of all participants was accomplished face-to-face, and that it was unclear whether another method of sampling would have been effective with hard-to-reach respondents. Another exception is a study by Trier-Bieniek (2012) , who interviewed women over the telephone about their emotional connection to an artist whose music addressed themes such as sexual violence, religious upbringing, and repressed sexuality. Trier-Bieniek found that use of the telephone appeared to create a safe space for participants to share traumatic experiences because of the relative anonymity and opportunity to stay in settings that were comfortable to them during phone interviews. The question of whether telephone interviews are viable with stigmatized or marginalized populations when using recruiting methods other than face-to-face (e.g., Sturges and Hanrahan) or internet social networks (e.g., Trier-Bieniek) is relatively unexplored.

The current study is based on our experience conducting in-depth follow-up interviews with women participants of the population-based National Alcohol Survey, including an oversample of sexual minority women. The aim of this study was twofold: 1) to explore effective interviewer strategies for collection of narrative data on sensitive topics by telephone, and 2) to document challenges and advantages of telephone interviews with a population-based sample, including marginalized populations of women such as sexual minority women.

Research Design

This research was conducted as part of a larger study examining mediators of hazardous drinking among sexual minority women compared to heterosexual women based on the National Alcohol Survey (NAS), a national telephone-based quantitative household probability survey. The term “sexual minority” is increasingly used in research to describe diverse groups who identify as lesbian, bisexual, or whose behavior or attractions are other than exclusively heterosexual ( Mayer et al., 2008 ); we use this term in the current study while noting that it does not reflect the variation in language that individual respondents used to describe their own identities during the interviews. Qualitative in-depth life history interviews were conducted over the telephone with women who were originally recruited as a part of a sample from the 2009–2010 NAS (n=3,825 women). The original quantitative interviews were conducted from 12–24 months prior to the qualitative interview after separate funding was acquired for this study of sexual minority women.

The original NAS probability sample included women who were classified as sexual minorities (identified as lesbian or bisexual and heterosexual-identified women who reported same-sex partners, n=122). The sampling frame for the follow-up interviews, which was designed to generate an oversample of sexual minority women, included all sexual minority women and a matched sample of heterosexual women. The matched heterosexual sample was created by generating list of randomly selected exclusively heterosexual women matched to key characteristics including age, ethnicity, relationship status, education, drinking status in the past year (drinker/none), and a lifetime measure of having consumed five or more drinks at least monthly throughout at least one decade of their life. The lifetime measure was constructed as a dichotomous variable based on responses to questions about how often respondents had five or more drinks on one or more occasions in each decade of their life (i.e., teens, 20’s, 30’s, and 40’s). The lifetime five-plus measure correlated with lifetime alcohol problem and dependence measures, and was assessed as a useful variable for matching respondents with a history of heavier drinking. The list of prospective heterosexual matches was identified as interviews with sexual minority women progressed. We did not plan to have one-to-one matching and this process allowed us to obtain matches for individuals or groups of respondents who shared similar characteristics. For example, one white heterosexual women, aged 50–59, in a partnered relationship and with a high school education, might serve as “match” for three sexual minority women with similar characteristics.

Excluding disconnected/wrong numbers or ineligible respondents, the response rate was 50 percent (48 interviewed, 26 refusals, 5 incomplete interviews, and 17 no response). Approximately 27.9 percent (n=41) were wrong numbers or no longer operative. Two of the individuals initially contacted were men (and not eligible for participation), and seven were mono-lingual Spanish-speaking (interviews were conducted in English). A 50% response rate has been typical for U.S. telephone surveys since the widespread use of caller identification ( Keeter et al., 2006 ). There were no significant differences in final response rates between prospective interviewees who were mailed information in advance compared to those who were contacted solely by telephone.

To assess for nonresponse bias, we conducted several analyses to compare the final interview sample to non-respondents (including 17 sexual minority or heterosexual women who did not respond and 41 wrong or disconnected numbers; n=63) and refusals (who were contacted but declined; n=26). There were no differences in drinking measures (abstaining, drinking, heavier drinking, dependence, alcohol-related consequences, or past treatment) and few demographic differences between the final sample and non-respondents or refusals. No differences were found by ethnicity or relationship status. Non-respondents were generally younger and less educated than interviewees, and refusals were less likely to be employed.

The final sample included 32 sexual minority women (15 lesbians, 10 bisexuals, and 7 women who identified as heterosexual and reported same-sex partners) and 16 matched exclusively heterosexual women. Age of participants ranged from 21 to 67 years of age. Approximately 64.6 percent (n=31) of the participants were White, 22.9 percent (n=11) were African American, and 12.5 percent (n=6) were Latina. Approximately 31.3 percent (n=15) were heavier drinkers at some point in their lives. The original NAS study had an oversample of Blacks and Hispanics thus resulting in slightly disproportionate numbers of minorities, which was considered an advantage. Additional details about the follow-up interview methods are available in published manuscripts about a pilot study ( Condit et al., 2011 ) and analysis of narratives (Drabble and Trocki, 2013).

Prior to initiating telephone calls, a number of efforts were made to facilitate ease of communication with prospective interviewees. Approximately half of the sexual minority women in the original NAS provided a contact address and were mailed notification in advance of the initial telephone contact. The research team created a web page with information about the NAS and the follow-up study. The address of the web page was provided to prospective interviewees in the advance letter. A toll-free number was also established to minimize potential cost barriers for participants in calling with questions or to schedule an interview.

Three members of the research team conducted interviews: one lead investigator with prior experience conducting research based on qualitative interviews and two MSW graduate students. Graduate student researchers received training on skills, attributes, practices, and specific project tools for coordinating and conducting interviews. Students also reviewed pretest interview transcripts; they participated in role-plays; in addition, they discussed personal strengths, experiences and possible preconceived perceptions that they might bring to the research project and the interviews. In this process, students were trained in establishing rapport, minimizing interviewer bias, using probing questions, managing transitions, and determining when they had sufficient information to move to the next question. The senior research team member and students also debriefed after interview sessions to discuss dynamics of the interview, reflect on personal reactions, examine what went well, and identify opportunities for improving future interviews. Preparation for addressing possible distress among respondents included the adoption of a detailed protocol which provided interviewers with tools to recognize and respond to possible signs of distress, identification of local referral resources in advance (based on phone exchanges or zip code), and back-up support from senior research team members (on site) and clinical psychologists (on call) during interview sessions.

Interviews were conducted between March and December of 2011. A semi-structured interview guide was used, which included eight primary questions and follow-up probes related to study participants’ life experiences in several areas including family, friendships, identity, substance use, intimate relationships, trauma, and management of mood. Interviews generally ranged from approximately 45 minutes to 1.5 hours (mean 62.5 minutes). There were no differences in length of interviews between sexual minority and exclusively heterosexual respondents. Each respondent was given a $25 gift card. Interviews were audio taped and transcribed.

For the purposes of this paper, a content analysis of all 48 interviews was conducted to explore strategies employed by interviewers to engage interviewees and obtain rich narrative data. Qualitative data were managed with the assistance of a qualitative software program (NVIVO). Initial open coding to conceptualize, compare, and categorize data was followed by an iterative process to further define and identify connections between categories in the data ( Strauss, 1987 ; Strauss & Corbin, 1990 ). Specifically, two authors read a sample of transcripts and independently developed a list of provisional codes, which were reviewed and refined to use for coding transcripts. This was followed by an iterative process to further refine and use codes for defining and categorizing elements of successful interviews. For the purposes of analysis, success was defined as engagement of respondents from initial contact and throughout the lengthy interview, and respondent willingness to disclose and share their perceptions and experiences in multiple life domains, including personal or potentially sensitive topics. The authors used a consensus model in reviewing, revising, and finalizing categories, as well as in identifying connections between categories to define overarching themes. In addition, a separate review of debriefing notes was conducted to identify “lessons learned” from both planning and implementation phases of the interviews.

Effective Interviewer Strategies: Rapport, Responsiveness, and Regard

Specific strategies for success in interviews emerged in three overarching thematic areas: 1) cultivating rapport and maintaining connection, 2) demonstrating responsiveness to interviewee content, concerns, and 3) communicating regard for the interviewee and her contribution. Themes and specific strategies that emerged in each of these thematic areas are summarized in Table 1 and described with illustrations below.

Themes related to effective interviewer strategies for collection of narrative data through telephone interviews

Cultivating rapport and maintaining connection

This was critical to engaging interviewees and to maintaining a productive interviewer-interviewee relationship. Specific strategies identified in this general area included being friendly and personable through informal conversational exchanges, providing orienting statements to help guide the participants through the interview, and providing occasional reciprocal information.

Informal conversational exchanges

This included small talk before the start of the interview to put the interviewee at ease, friendly conversational exchanges, and the use of humor (light comments, laughter, and joking exchanges). Interviewers would sometimes participate in brief “side conversations,” then guide the respondent back to the interview, creating a balance between naturalness and structure. Some of the informal exchanges were directly related to the content of the interviews. For example, the following interchange occurred in the context of a question about a time that the respondent consumed significantly more alcohol that was typical for her (in this case, the respondent was with friends, who were driving, on her birthday):

Interviewee: …but typically I’m the driver, so I don’t drink, but since it was my birthday Interviewer: But it was your birthday after all <both laugh>. Interviewee: Right, it was my 30th birthday—so I was like, “Well, the hell with that.”

Orienting Statements

These statements were informally woven throughout the interview and commonly used to help participants know what to expect. Orienting statements early in the interview helped to inoculate the interviewee against feeling unheard when questions were redundant, illustrated by the following interviewer statement: “ Okay, and I’m real sorry if this sounds redundant, it’s the nature of the beast here, I’m asking questions that may sound similar, but they’re kind of different, they have different nuances .” Later in the interview, orienting statements helped reinforce interviewee participation when interview fatigue might otherwise become an issue, such as: “ So, we’re just about done and—again, I want to thank you for your patience—I’m going to ask a few final questions .” Orienting statements included giving permission to the interviewee to add information at any time: “ At any point, if you want to add anything else that you think you want me to know, might be important to the study or anything, you’re certainly welcome to do that too, okay?” Sometimes statements reinforced interviewee rights to exercise control during the interview, illustrated by the exchange below:

Interviewer: Okay. I’m going to move onto the substance use theme, and, of course, you just talked to me rather extensively about your alcohol experience. I’m going to go ahead and ask the question. Interviewee: Okay. <laughs> Am I allowed to say I already answered it? Interviewer: You certainly are. Interviewee: Okay. <both laugh> Well, maybe I’ll even expound.

Reciprocity

This involved interviewers giving back to interviewees by briefly sharing personal information pertinent to the topic in order to validate or encourage interviewees. For example, the human subjects protocol included procedures for checking in with clients about their level of distress; one interviewer made this check-in less intrusive through her personal disclosure: “ I lost both my parents and I still get very emotional and so I’m not saying you’re doing anything wrong, it’s perfectly fine with me, I just want to make sure you’re okay.” Interviewers sometimes included informal comments about their own enthusiasm about the research project. In debriefing, one interviewer commented: “ My excitement seemed to increase their excitement of being a part of such an important project.”

Demonstrating responsiveness to interviewee content and concerns

These strategies were also important to create a safe and empathetic interview environment. Specific strategies in this area included active listening, supportive vocalizations, and validation and clarification exchanges.

Active listening

This strategy included using of reflective and summary statements as well as follow-up questions specific to interviewee content. For example, the following reflective statement was followed by an interviewee-specific probe: “ You mentioned it was about six months that you were really having a rough time. What did you do to cope during that period?” Although interviewers were not able to respond to visual cues, there were instances where it was possible to respond to both narrative content and tone of voice. For example, one interviewer noted, “ I detect something in your tone ,” which prompted the interviewee to elaborate in detail about conflicts with a family member.

Supportive vocalizations

These vocalizations included encouraging tones, encouraging words, and non-language encouragement such as the following: “sure,” “right,” “yeah,” “I know what you mean,” “mm-hmm,” “wow,” “okay” “I see,” and “interesting.”

Validation and clarification exchanges

These exchanges involved the interviewer checking to ensure accuracy and understanding, responding to interviewee requests for clarification about questions, and reassuring interviewees about the content and quality of their responses. The following exchange typified this interaction—Interviewee: “ Am I being to lengthy ?” Interviewer: “ No, absolutely not. I’m enjoying listening to you .” Interviewees also expressed insecurity about whether the content of their narrative was valuable, such as, “ I don’t know if that answers your question or not ,” or “ I don’t know if I’m answering this very well ,” which prompted reassuring comments from interviewers such as, “ There are no wrong answers you can give me ” or “ You’re doing just fine .”

Communicating regard for the interviewee and her contribution

This involved acknowledgement of disclosure and statements of appreciation . For example, interviewers frequently expressed appreciation for disclosure of personal information, particularly in response to sensitive questions, exemplified by the following exchange:

Interviewer: Thank you very much for sharing that with me. I know that’s very personal, and it can be hard to share with someone on the phone, a stranger, but I want to thank you for being open and sharing that information with me. Interviewee: It’s really easier with a stranger than it is with someone that you know.

Interviewers also demonstrated respectful attention by maintaining an accepting, non-judgmental tone. Respect and positive regard were often communicated through simple affirming statements. This is illustrated by an exchange with one young sexual minority respondent during her response to questions about identity:

Interviewee: I mean, a couple of months ago I had pink hair in (names rural state). Nobody has pink hair in (state). Interviewer: That was pretty bold, huh? Interviewee: Exactly, but I liked it, and I do what I like….

It was notable that interviewees often expressed appreciation for “feeling heard” toward the end of the interview or otherwise commented about what they were getting out of participating in the study. For example, one interviewee commented, “Well, my experiences would not help anyone if I did not share them. And since you called and asked for it, I was more than glad to help you with it.” Upon being given gift certificate information at the end of the interview, another interviewee noted: “Oh yeah, I forgot all about that. That’s not why I was doing this—I would have done it anyway.”

Advantages, Challenges, and “Lessons Learned” for Addressing Challenges

The ability to conduct interviews across geographically disparate interviewees in the U.S. was a critical advantage for the purposes of our study. It would not have been feasible, in term of cost or logistics, to conduct follow-up interviews with a sub-sample of former respondents of a national sample through in-person interviews. The use of the telephone proved to maximize flexibility for interviewee scheduling and re-scheduling interviews. The telephone mode also made it possible for interviewees to schedule interviews at times that suited them and, in several cases, re-schedule. Some interviewees missed or were “late” to interview appointments, and research team members were able to reschedule. In addition to logistical advantages, it appeared that interviewees were comfortable creating privacy for their interview call and were open to providing details about their life experiences over the telephone. For example, one interviewee asked to skip a question and then, when the interviewer later asked if she was willing to answer the question (related to past trauma), the interviewee explained that her boyfriend had been in the room earlier and she postponed answering until he left.

The research team anticipated challenges in recruiting interviews given a lapse in time between the initial NAS interview and the follow-up calls (approximately 1–2 years) and the necessity for making “cold calls” in cases where mailing addresses were not available for sending advance notification. Other challenges included establishing rapport over the telephone and scheduling interviews in the context of a small research team with limited hours for scheduling interviews. Through debriefing, the team identified a number of “lessons learned” for addressing or minimizing challenges, which included the following: substantial pre-interview preparation, training, de-briefing, and effective use of relational skills.

Pre-interview preparation

Lessons learned from the debriefing include the following:

• In the absence of opportunities for face-to-face participant recruitment, options for communicating with participants in advance were critical. Specific strategies employed by the team and deemed helpful in retrospect included the following: developing telephone introductory and message scripts, sending introductory letters (by mail or email) to prospective interviewees for whom address information was available, establishing toll-free numbers for call-backs to minimize possible cost barriers for respondents returning calls from land-lines or from work, and creating a project web-page that prospective interviewees could visit to learn about the project and verify the legitimacy of the project,.
• Communication about designated blocks of time for interviews was more important than having mechanisms for access at any time. We initially put substantial effort into identifying a way to forward calls to project-specific cells phones to avoid losing opportunities to arrange interviews when respondents called back (as it was not feasible to support full time staffing). Interviewees frequently (and to the initial surprise of the researchers) agreed to be interviewed at the time that they answered the telephone. It is worth noting that the scripts for leaving telephone messages allowed the research team to mention the next windows in which calls would be made (typically on one or two weekday evenings and Saturdays). Participants may have already deliberated about their willingness to participate and, as such, simply answered the phone when they were inclined to be interviewed.
• Contacting former participants of a national population-based survey who are geographically dispersed also required pre-planning. For example, as part of a protocol for addressing possible distress during interviews, national and local referral resources (based on telephone area code or zip code if addresses were available) were compiled in advance of interviews. In addition, interviewers considered time zones when placing calls and scheduling interviews.

Training, debriefing and relational skills

We identified a number of other lessons learned in the process of implementing the research project that may be salient to individuals seeking to conduct in-depth interviews using population-based samples. These are outlined below:

• Selection of interviewers with strong interpersonal skills is an asset, particularly in the context of the need to establish rapport quickly and to conduct a semi-structure interview in a manner that is as “conversational” as possible. Interviewers also require skills in self-reflexivity, including the ability to reflect on the identities, social locations, assumptions, and the life experiences they bring to the research endeavor and their interactions with interviewees. Strong relational skills and competence in self-reflexivity helped to ensure that interviewers were authentic, attentive, able to critically examine their own reactions and responses, and open to working through tense or awkward moments that may arise in the interview interaction.
• Preparation for interviewers through training, mock interviews, and review of procedures in the event of interviewee distress is important to maximizing the opportunity to obtain rich, quality data. Orientation and procedures for using digital recorders designed for telephone interviews helped to avoid loss of data through technological errors.
• Chatting and small talk in advance of the interviews was critical to establishing rapport. Small talk often centered on weather, challenges of scheduling, or the research project. Friendly, clear, but not overly “canned” communications in advance of interviews was also helpful.
• Friendly persistence was helpful to reaching and retrieving prospective interviewees. For example, 8 of the 32 sexual minority women included in the final sample participated in interviews after multiple initial contact attempts and a gap of several (2–4) months. There were no significant differences in the number of contacts, or length of interviews, between respondents recruited using a “cold call” list (no addresses available for letters in advance of first call) and a list of respondents for whom advance information was available.
• De-briefing sessions after interviews are important for addressing the many issues that inevitably arise—from observations about what worked with interviewees to frustrations about rejection from prospective interviewees.

Findings from this study identified specific strategies that “worked” in conducting qualitative interviews over the phone. Specific strategies for success in interviews emerged in three overarching areas: 1) cultivating rapport and maintaining connection, 2) demonstrating responsiveness to interviewee content, concerns, and 3) communicating regard for the interviewee and her contribution. Use of the telephone for qualitative interviews was advantageous for the purposes of conducting follow-up interviews with geographically dispersed former respondents of a national survey. Through debriefing, the team identified a number of “lessons learned” for addressing potential challenges, including the importance of substantial pre-interview preparation, training, effective use of relational skills, and post-interview reviews.

In general, our experience affirms the both the viability and value of telephone interviews as a method for collecting rich narrative data with women from marginalized populations, including data related to sensitive subjects. Although there was variability in interview length, we found that interviewees were generally willing to engage in lengthy interviews (average of one hour) over the telephone and that these interviews yielded rich data. This is consistent with other researchers who have similarly noted that telephone interviews yield high quality data ( Lechuga, 2012 ; Holt, 2010 ; Saura and Balsas, 2014 ; Irvine, 2011 ; Sturges and Hanrahan, 2004 ; Sweet, 2002 ; Trier-Bieniek, 2012 ; Vogl, 2013 ; Musselwhite et al., 2007 ; Stephens, 2007 ; Cachia and Millward, 2011 ; Glogowska et al., 2011 ). Interviewees provided rich descriptions of their life experiences, including experiences related to sensitive topics, such as sexual identity, alcohol or other drug use, and traumatic experiences. Sexual minority women were notably open about their sexual identity, their current and past relationships, and, in many cases, about stressful experiences of discrimination or dynamics of acceptance and rejection in families of origin. In particular, our findings echo that of Trier-Bieniek, who suggests that telephone interviews are effective, and possibly preferable, when talking with interview participants about personal and sometimes painful experiences, because “they are being interviewed in familiar, comfortable settings and can dictate the course and direction of the interview” (p. 642). Furthermore, analyses of non-responders, comparisons of demographics between the in-depth interview sample and the original population-based NAS sample, and evaluation of response rates between prospective interviewees reached through “cold calls” and those receiving advance notice, all suggest that it is possible to obtain a sample of respondents for in-depth qualitative interviews that approximate the original probability sample.

Cachia and Millward (2011) observed that interviewees were likely to invest time in interviews “if they are sufficiently motivated and rapport has been successfully established” (p. 273). We found that small talk helped to establish rapport over the phone before the formal start of the interview and that continued affirming, encouraging exchanges helped to sustain a productive interview relationship. Participant motivation was often revealed at the end of the study (often after the close of the formal interview), and it was notable that many interviewees made explicit statements about feeling valued or heard by sharing their stories, finding meaning in contributing to a project that might ultimately benefit others, and even expressing ambivalence about accepting the cash incentive. Although motivation was not a focus of the study, our finding in this area is consistent with an observation by Cachia and Millard that the “positive impact of the cash incentive is reduced for people who are motivated by community involvement” (p. 268).

Interviewees frequently elicited reassurance or validation about their responses, which has been observed by other researchers ( Holt, 2010 ; Irvine et al., 2013 ). Holt described “participant’s preoccupation about how they should perform” as participant anxiety, suggesting that this phenomena may be more apparent for some groups than others (p. 118). Future studies might examine more explicitly whether this dynamic is more typical of populations that have experienced marginalization. Similar to others ( Holt, 2010 ; Saura and Balsas, 2014 ), we found that vocalizations, such as “uh-huh” and “right,” served as cues that the interviewer was listening in the absence of non-verbal cues, such as nods. Although less commonly mentioned in other studies, interviewers in our study often used orienting statements to guide respondents through the interview. The use of these kinds of orienting statements may have been necessitated in part by the follow-up sample (e.g., explaining that the kinds of questions in the qualitative interview would differ from their prior experience with a telephone survey) and by the inclusion of sensitive topics areas, such as substance use and past experiences of trauma.

This study has a number of limitations. Although the sample is drawn from former respondents of a population-based survey, it cannot be presumed that findings would be generalizable to the groups of women represented in the study. Although interviewees were similar in characteristics to prior NAS interviewees in many areas, they were generally higher in education and older than the NAS sample as a whole. Interviewees who were not available (e.g., who moved or whose numbers had changed) were likely different than those who still had the same active phone numbers at the time of the follow-up contact. Interview tape-recording began after an initial conversation with prospective interviewees and after conducting informed consent over the phone; consequently, transcriptions that would capture specific language and exchanges that occurred before taping were not available for analysis. Furthermore, the interview guide did not include questions specific to participant perceptions of their interview experience; consequently, it was not possible to describe what “worked” about interviews from the perspective of interviewees. Finally, metadata regarding number of visitors to the website was not collected and, other than a small number of contacts that were initiated through the website, it is not possible to document the degree to which the website was used or may have helped prospective participants become familiar and comfortable with the study before the telephone interview.

In spite of these limitations, findings of the study suggest that it is feasible to conduct in-depth interviews by telephone with a follow-up sample of respondents from a population-based survey, and to successfully engage sub-samples of women who are often considered marginalized or hard-to-reach. Findings underscore the opportunity afforded by telephone interviews for obtaining rich data, even when addressing sensitive topics such as substance use and past experiences of trauma.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism [grant number R21 AA017947 and P50 AA005595, National Alcohol Research Center to the Alcohol Research Group] and National Institute on Drug Abuse [1R01DA036606-01A1].

Contributor Information

Laurie Drabble, San José State University School of Social Work, One Washington Square, San José, CA 95192-0124, (408) 924-5836, FAX: (408) 924-5912.

Karen F. Trocki, Alcohol Research Group, Public Health Institute, 6475 Christie Ave. Suite 400, Emeryville, CA 94608, phone: 510-597-3440, fax: 510-985-6459.

Brenda Salcedo, Social Worker, Special Services, East Side Union High School District, 830 N Capitol Ave, San Jose, CA 95133, Phone: 408.332.2836.

Patricia C. Walker, Catholic Charities of Santa Clara County, 1670 Cherry Grove Drive, San Jose, CA 95125, phone: (408) 723-5201, fax: (408) 723-5201.

Rachael A. Korcha, Alcohol Research Group, Public Health Institute, 6475 Christie Ave. Suite 400, Emeryville, CA 94608, phone: 510-597-3440, fax: 510-985-6459.

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• Open access
• Published: 05 April 2024

Challenges to conducting research on oral health with older adults living in long-term care facilities

• Thayse Mayra Chaves Ramos 1 ,
• Álvaro Augusto da Silva Alves 1 ,
• Thais Andrade Apolinário 1 ,
• Flávia Fonseca de Toledo 1 ,
• Viviane Elisângela Gomes 1 ,
• Kevan Guilherme Nóbrega Barbosa 1 ,
• Aline Araújo Sampaio 2 &
• Raquel Conceição Ferreira 1  

BMC Oral Health volume  24 , Article number:  422 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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The challenges to conducting oral health studies involving older people in long-term care facilities (LTCFs) must be debated.

This study aimed to investigate researchers’ perceptions and experiences while conducting an epidemiological survey on oral health among older individuals residing in LTCFs.

A qualitative study was conducted involving six researchers who utilized field diaries to record their impressions during data collection through interviews (older individuals (or their proxies), caregivers, and LTCF coordinators) and oral examinations of the older people participants. Additionally, researchers responded to open-ended questions about their experiences. The collected material was subjected to content analysis by two researchers.

The themes that emerged from the analysis were institutional context, aspects affecting the operationalization of the study, and data collection oriented by the clinical-functional profile of the older people. According to the researchers’ perceptions, LTCF coordinators demonstrated concern for the study’s benefits for older adults and the preservation of institutional routines during the research process. Caregivers emerged as vital sources of information, guiding researchers in navigating the challenges posed by the physical and mental complexities of the older people participants, necessitating empathy, sensitivity, and attentive listening from the researchers. The organization of materials and a streamlined data collection process proved essential for optimizing time efficiency and reducing stress for participants and researchers.

The researchers recognized the important role played by LTCF coordinators and formal caregivers, underscoring the significance of empathetic methodologies and streamlined data collection processes in mitigating the challenges inherent to research conducted within LTCFs.

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Population aging is a global phenomenon presenting significant challenges to healthcare systems worldwide due to the burden of chronic age-related conditions [ 1 ]. The aging process often leads to frailty and increased functional dependence, resulting in a notable rise in institutionalization [ 2 ]. In Brazil, as observed in other countries like the United States, France, and China, the age pyramid has undergone an inversion, contributing to a higher prevalence of chronic diseases and functional dependence among older individuals. Consequently, the population residing in long-term care facilities (LTCFs) has grown substantially [ 3 , 4 , 5 ].

Older adults living in LTCFs generally depend more on daily activities than their non-institutionalized counterparts, and oral health is a prominent concern [ 6 , 7 ]. Institutionalization can negatively impact older individuals eating habits, cognition, and overall functioning, resulting in deteriorating health conditions [ 6 , 8 ]. Furthermore, significant barriers to oral health care exist within nursing home settings [ 9 , 10 ]. The oral health of this group is characterized by severe tooth loss, oral diseases, and biofilm accumulation [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. These conditions have been associated with adverse outcomes in terms of general health, quality of life, and mortality [ 14 ]. In Brazil, the operations of LTCFs are regulated by the National Vigilance Agency. However, despite the recognized need to improve oral health care provision in these institutions, the regulations do not explicitly address oral health. Therefore, research in LTCFs is imperative to generate robust scientific evidence concerning the oral health needs of older individuals. Such evidence is essential for enhancing standards of care and making informed decisions that prioritize the overall health and well-being of older populations. A recent review analyzing barriers to translating research into oral healthcare policy and practice for older adults stressed the need for increased efforts to undertake research involving older adults, including frail older adults living in residential care, to develop an evidence-informed paradigm for oral health care and expand policies and care practices for this age group [ 15 ].

However, conducting studies involving older people in LTCFs poses numerous challenges, demanding meticulous planning, considerable time, and ample resources to overcome these obstacles [ 16 ]. Nevertheless, there is a lack of research discussing these challenges [ 17 , 18 , 19 ], particularly strategies to include older individuals with dementia in studies [ 20 , 21 ]. Although health research may share similar challenges, none of these studies have discussed research experiences, including oral health assessment. The previously reported challenges were related to obtaining consent, conducting interviews, engaging caregivers and family members, maintaining privacy, addressing participant attrition, obtaining sufficient sample sizes, accounting for intra-institution cluster effects, dealing with incomplete data, and navigating rigid LTCF practices and routines [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]. For older individuals with dementia, researchers emphasize the need for inclusive strategies, considering their communication difficulties, memory loss, diminished autonomy in decision-making, and emotional disposition [ 20 ]. The only identified systematic review on methods for involving older people in health-related studies highlights the viability of studies involving older adults, emphasizing the importance of clear communication, building good relationships, and employing flexible approaches [ 22 ].

This study aimed to investigate researchers’ perceptions and experiences while conducting an epidemiological survey of oral health among older individuals residing in LTCFs. The findings of this study can provide a valuable understanding of the challenges faced during the study and identify effective strategies to improve the quality and efficiency of future research in this context. Furthermore, understanding researchers’ perspectives makes it possible to develop specific recommendations to enhance research methods for this vulnerable population. By addressing these challenges and designing effective strategies, this research can improve the quality of studies focusing on older populations living in LTCFs and promote evidence-informed oral healthcare policies and practices for this age group.

This study employed a qualitative method with a phenomenological approach to explore the experiences of researchers during data collection with older individuals residing in LTCFs and their perceptions of the execution of this work. The phenomenological approach, centered on language, seeks to capture the essence of the lived experience and the emergent meanings from that experience. Previous knowledge of the phenomenon is disregarded to explore how the subjects experience events [ 23 , 24 ]. Field diaries and an online form with open-ended questions were used to explore the researchers’ experiences.

Context of study

The research was conducted at philanthropic LTCFs in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, during a cross-sectional study between August 2022 and March 2023. In 2022, there were 28 philanthropic LTCFs in the city. The sample planning aimed to include all older individuals residing in these facilities, irrespective of their cognitive status. The study participants were coordinators of the LTCFs, formal caregivers of older people, and individuals aged 60 years or older residing in these facilities. The formal caregivers of the older adults were remunerated professionals with employment ties in the LTCFs, having received specific training as elderly caregivers or being nursing technicians. During data collection, they assisted and cared for the older adults. Epidemiological data were collected through interviews with the coordinators, formal caregivers, and older individuals or their proxies (caregivers). The collected variables followed the model of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (Fig.  1 ), which included anthropometric measures and physical and oral examinations conducted at the LTCFs.

Model adapted from International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health

The six researchers involved in the study had undergone prior training for conducting interviews, and four of them received calibration exercises for the oral examinations. All six researchers participated in the data collection process for the epidemiological research. These researchers consisted of both undergraduate dental students and master’s degree graduate students, who formed pairs to serve as interviewers, examiners, and/or assistants (annotators).

A pilot study was carried out at one of the LTCFs participating in the research to ensure the smooth execution of the study. This pilot study allowed for testing the digital data recording tools and refining the sequence and dynamics for conducting interviews and examinations. The pilot study served as a preparatory phase, ensuring the research procedures were well-coordinated and optimized before the main data collection phase.

Procedure and participants

The research utilized a field diary as the primary method to record informal conversations, observations of the behavior of older people and formal caregivers during data collection, reflections on the examination process and methods employed, as well as the researchers’ impressions regarding the data collection process within the LTCF setting [ 25 , 26 ]. Researchers independently and freely made digital-format entries in their respective field diaries.

All six researchers independently and freely made digital-format entries in their respective field diaries. Criterion sampling was the method utilized for selecting this sample, which encompassed all researchers who have shared an experience, yet exhibit variations in characteristics and individual experiences [ 27 ]. In addition to the field diary, an online form with open-ended questions was employed to collect individual feedback from each researcher about their feelings and experiences as a researcher during the fieldwork. The form included the following guiding questions: (1) How was your experience collecting data at the LTCFs, considering the older people, caregivers, and LTCF context? (2) What was the most striking aspect during the days you collected data at the LTCFs? (3) If you were to advise a researcher about beginning data collection at a long-term care facility through interviews with older people, what observations would you share to ensure their success? (4) what is the main aspect that should be considered for satisfactory data collection with older people similar to those encountered at the LTCFs? The responses to these questions contributed to the researchers’ reflections and perspectives. They were considered part of the corpus of analysis for the study.

Data analysis

The contents of the field diaries and open-ended questions were independently submitted to exhaustive readings by two researchers with experience in qualitative studies for a more in-depth capturing of the information. Subsequently, the data underwent content analysis, following the approach proposed by Graneheim and Lundman [ 28 ]. The researchers identified units of meaning within the records and extracted the essence of each unit, resulting in the creation of condensed units of meaning. Through this process, categories and themes that emerged from the analyzed content were identified. Reliability was ensured through continual discussion of the data with the team. Consensus meetings were held to ensure agreement on the themes that emerged. In the final analysis, codes such as R1, R2, and so forth were used to represent each of the interviewees, allowing for a systematic and organized representation of the participants’ contributions.

Ethical aspects

This study received approval from the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. The participants signed a statement of informed consent.

Results and discussion

The data collection for the epidemiological study on oral health assessment in 14 LTCFs, 311 older people, and 164 formal caregivers involved six researchers. They recorded their observations in field diaries and responded to open-ended questions. Through content analysis of the field diaries and open-ended questions, three main themes emerged: (1) institutional context, (2) aspects affecting the operationalization of the study, and (3) data collection oriented by the clinical-functional profile of the older people. The categories under each theme are presented in Table  1 .

Institutional context

Results regarding the institutional context are presented in Table  2 , showcasing the units of meaning that illustrate the categories within this theme. The researchers recognized the crucial social role played by LTCFs in reintegrating older people, particularly those who have experienced neglect or loneliness, perceiving these institutions as mandated by Brazilian legislation to care for and support older individuals [ 29 ]. Regarding the ambience of LTCFs , the study revealed a wide variation in the activities and services offered to residents across different institutions. As stipulated by the Brazilian Resolution, LTCFs should provide a welcoming environment that upholds older people’s human rights and dignity, including aspects such as identity, freedom of beliefs, freedom to come and go, privacy, and respect [ 30 ]. The ambience also encompasses fostering family and community involvement in caregiving, the coexistence of residents with different degrees of dependence, supporting residents’ autonomy, promoting leisure opportunities, and preventing violence or discrimination against residents [ 29 ]. The Brazilian regulation also standardizes structural aspects of the LTCFs, human resources, health care, nutrition, washing, processing, and storage of clothing, and cleaning facilities [ 29 ]. The researchers’ perceptions indicated the importance of establishing systematized assessment processes to reveal the different levels of quality of the LTCFs, indicating the need for policies that favor achieving the principles of ambience and the well-being of the older people who reside in these facilities.

The profile of the older people living in the LTCFs , as recorded by the researchers, was characterized by high frequencies of cognitive impairment, clinical-functional frailty, mental and behavioral disorders, and dependence in performing basic and instrumental activities of daily living. These characteristics posed challenges during the data collection process, as many participants exhibited refusal, resistance, and low levels of cooperation with the study due to their health conditions. This clinical-functional profile is similar to that described for older people living in long-term care facilities worldwide [ 8 , 14 ]. The researchers also observed rapid functional decline among the older people during the data collection period when the same individuals were visited on different occasions from one week to the next. As a cross-sectional study, the researchers sought to conclude data collection in the first and only approach to older people, whenever possible.

Moreover, fluctuating interest in participation necessitated additional attempts to secure their involvement due to emotional and health-related fluctuations. A previous study involving older people with dementia found that verbal communication varied between weeks, from one day to another, and even within the same day [ 20 ]. Another challenge was dealing with the losses of individuals. Data collection began with mapping all residents at the institution by consulting the records. When seeking older people for interviews, there were cases of death – either recent or longer ago. In the latter case, it was perceived that the LTCFs did not perform regular updating and the separation of records.

Regarding oral health , the researchers identified a precarious situation among older people, with a high frequency of tooth loss, caries, and periodontal disease in the remaining teeth, along with unsatisfactory dental prostheses and accumulation of biofilm and dental calculus. This oral health profile aligns with previous studies in different countries, highlighting the substantial burden of oral diseases among institutionalized older individuals [ 13 , 31 , 32 ]. This researchers perception reflects the oral health profile of older people living in LTCFs in Belo Horizonte for more than a decade and a half [ 12 ], demonstrating that this population is a special needs group requiring oral care improvements [ 11 , 31 ].

The researchers recorded the difficulty of older people accessing routine oral care, as many depend on caregivers who have an excessive workload, have little time available to perform oral hygiene, do not prioritize it, or are unaware of its importance. A daily routine of oral hygiene during bathing was often observed, as reported in a previous study, in which nurses reported that the teeth of the majority of residents were brushed at least once a day [ 13 ]. The researchers’ findings underscore the pressing need for improved oral care for this special needs population, emphasizing the importance of incorporating oral hygiene into routine healthcare practices, promoting oral care initiatives, and providing training for caregivers [ 13 , 33 ].

Aspects affecting the operationalization of the study

The researchers encountered various challenges related to the operationalization of the study, particularly in gaining the acceptance and cooperation of LTCFs. Results regarding the operationalization of the study are presented in Table  3 . The signing of informed consent by the LTCF coordinators proved to be a complex process, with many expressing resistance and skepticism about the study’s potential impact and benefits for the older residents. Some questioned the importance of a study involving individuals at the end of life. The researchers faced concerns about interrupting institutional routines and potential risks to the residents without any direct return. Similar challenges have been observed in studies conducted in the United Kingdom, where the presence of researchers was perceived as intrusive [ 17 ]. In compliance with Brazilian legislation on research involving human beings, participation must be consented to clearly and voluntarily with no financial compensation. As experienced by other researchers, flexibility and creativity were needed to justify the importance of the project to generate evidence that reinforces the importance of oral health for this group. It was also essential to emphasize the low risk associated with the participation of older individuals [ 17 ]. Establishing a trusting relationship with the coordinators of the LTCFs proved vital for their willingness to participate in the study. The researchers tried to showcase the study’s potential in generating valuable knowledge, organizing academic extension activities tailored to this specific population, and the potential benefits it could bring to enhance resident care. The presence of researchers might have encountered increased resistance during the pandemic, leading to visit cancellations due to concerns about the higher risk of mortality and morbidity from the coronavirus among older people [ 34 ].

The study planning at LTCFs should include the time spent on recruitment and the need for different approaches for contact: repeated telephone calls, personal visits, the presentation of documents/written projects, and the joint determination of a data collection timeframe. Researchers should also be prepared to deal with refusals, as occurred in this study when coordinators vehemently refused to participate, stating that they did not have the authorization or that the LTCF was part of a network that did not permit study participation. This challenge shows that building collaborative relationships with LTCFs is essential to understand research concerns clearly and to plan a project involving vulnerable adults jointly [ 15 ]. In contrast, the researchers also recorded situations in which the coordinators were receptive to the study, recognizing that it is important to demonstrate the needs of this population, which could result in programs and policies for older people who reside in LTCFs.

The process of obtaining informed consent from the older residents themselves was also challenging, especially for those with severe cognitive impairment. In such cases, consent was given by caregivers or LTCF coordinators acting as guardians of the older people. The issue of consent by proxy and the ability of the proxy to represent the wishes of cognitively impaired adults has been a subject of debate [ 15 ]. Several researchers have highlighted the challenges of obtaining informed consent and respecting the autonomy of individuals with dementia [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 35 ]. Hubbard and Maas emphasized the importance of continually monitoring the individual’s desire to participate, even when a proxy provides consent through the interpretation of verbal and nonverbal signs. They asserted that consent is an ongoing process rather than an a priori one-time event, as Crossan & McColgan (1999) mentioned. We encountered similar situations where residents could not provide direct consent. In such cases, the researchers took great care to explain the study and obtain their assent while interpreting their facial expressions and behavior to respect their autonomy and wishes. Despite these efforts, 15 invited older people chose not to participate.

The institutional routines of LTCFs significantly impacted the study execution. Researchers had to consider and respect the schedules and activities of the older residents, leading to adjustments in the data collection timeframe. Additionally, finding suitable times for interviews and examinations was challenging due to the residents’ mobility problems and caregivers’ availability. The researchers had to collaborate with LTCF coordinators to find mutually agreeable time slots while ensuring minimal disruption to the institution and its residents. Finding suitable time slots to conduct interviews was also a significant challenge, as observed in a previous study exploring the perception of dignity among older people residing in LTCFs [ 19 ]. The authors of that study emphasized the need to avoid peak activity times, such as meals or regular visits by physicians, and to avoid conducting interviews immediately after an activity, such as lunch, as participants often displayed weariness and lethargy during such periods [ 19 ]. To overcome this challenge, the research team collaborated with the LTCF coordinators to agree on appropriate data collection times that did not disrupt the institution’s routines or inconvenience the residents. This required a significant consideration of each location’s availability and the staff’s workload. Other researchers have noted these challenges [ 17 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 35 ], especially considering that caregivers are crucial as proxies for older people. Researchers also had to contend with the unavailability of caregivers to answer questions due to their multifaceted responsibilities in caring for many residents. Introducing the study could thus be an additional burden for them, which many might perceive as unwanted.

In addition to respecting the institutional dynamics, the execution of data collection required careful organization by the researchers regarding the selection of data collection location and methods . Many residents faced mobility issues, making moving from one place to another challenging. In some instances, caregivers were unavailable to assist in this task, requiring additional time to reach the most suitable location for the interview or oral examination. Factors such as lighting, privacy, and participant comfort had to be considered during this process. Adapting the data collection process to the specific situation encountered at each LTCF was necessary. Some facilities had designated spaces for the study, while others lacked appropriate areas, leading to examinations being conducted wherever possible, such as in TV armchairs or beds. Previous studies have discussed the need for such adaptations [ 17 , 20 ]. According to Hall, Longhurst and Higginson, these field situations also posed challenges to maintaining privacy during data collection, which became especially sensitive during oral examinations [ 19 ]. The proximity required for oral examinations could generate discomfort, mainly when conducted in the presence of colleagues and staff. Efforts were made to ensure privacy in such situations. Consequently, conducting studies in this context demanded considerable flexibility and reciprocity, considering the limitations and demands of the LTCFs [ 19 ]. The researchers were also concerned about biosafety and cross-infection prevention [ 36 ], mainly due to the vulnerability of older people to the COVID-19 pandemic. Adhering to strict protocols and protective measures during data collection became essential to safeguard the health of both residents and researchers.

Various measures can be employed to ensure standardization and successful data collection. Providing proper training and ongoing supervision for the researchers is essential. This training should cover all aspects of the data collection process, including interview techniques, oral examination protocols, and ethical considerations. Additionally, it is crucial to ensure that the researchers have access to the minimum necessary resources required for data collection, such as sterilized clinical kits, personal protective equipment, and appropriate data recording tools. A comprehensive manual of norms and standard procedures should be prepared to maintain consistency and adherence to established protocols. This manual should outline step-by-step instructions for each stage of the data collection process, from participant recruitment to data recording and analysis. Regular reference to this manual will help researchers follow standardized procedures and minimize the risk of errors or deviations during the study [ 37 ].

The high proportion of older people with cognitive impairment created additional complexities. Variables related to subjective aspects, such as quality of life and self-perception of health, posed challenges since some residents had limited discursive capacity. The researchers utilized validated instruments designed for older adults with adequate cognitive levels but recognized the need for more context-specific tools for individuals with dementia. Challenges to assessing subjective aspects of the lives of older people with dementia have been discussed, considering the lack of validated instruments for this population. There is a debate in the literature on whether data collected from individuals with dementia are reliable due to cognitive impairment [ 38 ]. However, more recently, there has been growing recognition that such individuals can express perceptions, needs, and concerns [ 38 , 39 ], and their subjective experiences should be considered and investigated in studies [ 20 , 39 ]. Approaches such as structured observation focused on nonverbal communication (facial expressions and body language) and nonstructured observation within the ethnographic tradition have been employed in previous studies to understand the social world of older people [ 20 ]. A study assessing quality of life among older people with dementia combined observation with interviews using open-ended questions, and older people were included based on their capacity to communicate verbally in a conversation rather than based on the diagnosis of dementia [ 20 ]. The literature describes the need to use multiple (qualitative and quantitative) methods in studies involving individuals with dementia with different levels of verbal communication skills to promote a contextualized, multidimensional assessment [ 39 ]. Such approaches should also be considered strategies to understand the quality of life in the context of oral health assessments in future studies and to guide care strategies considering the experiences and wishes of individuals with dementia.

Data collection oriented by the clinical-functional profile of the older people

The researchers revealed that the clinical-functional profile of older people requires differentiated approaches for data collection, particularly the use of relational skills, such as empathy, active listening, patience, sensitivity, and flexibility to deal with different behaviors – ranging from cooperative to resistant individuals. Results regarding the data collection oriented by the clinical-functional profile of the older people are presented in Table  4 . Cognitive impairment and levels of cooperation were identified as obstacles to the data collection process, with frequent resistance to the study. The progression of cognitive decline leads to a deterioration of cognitive functions and behavior and mood disorders, including depression, irritability, and aggressiveness [ 40 , 41 , 42 ].

This profile of the older people also required communication strategies on the part of the researchers, who needed to be direct and clear, often involving the participation of the caregivers. The researchers manifested insecurity, feeling unprepared to understand and deal with older people in some situations. Hubbard, Downs, and Tester [ 20 ] suggest that researchers dealing with dementia should be trained as skilled verbal and nonverbal communicators, sensitive to how dementia impacts memory, decision-making capacity, and emotions. Developing strategies tailored to each participant’s unique experiences and listening to their voice is essential. Hall, Longhurst, and Higginson [ 19 ] add that researchers must be particularly patient, and the extra time and training for this must be built into the research design. Establishing set protocols for handling various responses ensures uniformity and consistency [ 19 ]. Researchers also had to contend with parallel conversations,” where older people spoke about other subjects and extended the conversation. This required employing different communication strategies and striking a balance between listening to the older person and returning to the assessment without causing discomfort [ 16 , 20 ].

Sensory impairments, such as low visual and hearing acuity, also compromise communication. Hearing impairment is common among older people [ 43 ], and there are also high proportions of blindness and vision impairment among residents of LTCFs [ 44 , 45 ]. Interviews involving older people with hearing impairment were found to be draining, as the researchers needed to raise their voices and repeat questions. This limitation can negatively impact the quality of dialogue and create discomfort for the older person [ 20 ].

The researchers highlighted the caregivers’ knowledge in guiding the data collection process according to the clinical-functional profile of the participants. Being familiar with older people and their physical and mental status, caregivers served as valuable mediators, offering insights into effective communication and strategies for dealing with each case. Caregivers of older people perform the functions of accompaniment and care, offering emotional support as well as support in their social interactions, assisting and accompanying routines of personal and environmental hygiene, nutrition, preventive health care, the administration of medications and other health procedures, and assisting and accompanying the mobility of older people in activities of education, culture, recreation, and leisure [ 46 ]. Moreover, caregivers also acted as a proxy for older adults with cognitive impairment, providing information about health and daily activities. The researchers recognized caregivers as a source of support during data collection, contributing to a more efficient and enjoyable data collection process by helping identify older people and guiding them to data collection locations.

The research techniques proved suitable and valuable for understanding the researchers’ experiences. The records of these experiences revealed various challenges and strategies in conducting studies involving older people residing in LTCFs, considering the diversity of residents’ profiles and the institutional context. Table  5 presents a synthesis of the main challenges and the strategies employed to deal with them during the data collection process. Additionally, practical aspects have been listed as recommendations for future studies involving this population.

The main limitation of this study was to have restricted the researchers’ records to field diaries and a form with open-ended questions. Verbal manifestations during the interviews could have revealed new or different perceptions from what was recorded. However, all material obtained was analyzed. The information on the forms at the end of the data collection period had similar content to that recorded during the process but was more synthesized and systematized. Thus, these were complementary methods that demonstrated consistency in the perceptions of the researchers’ experiences.

The researchers recognized the important role played by LTCF coordinators and formal caregivers, underscoring the significance of empathetic methodologies and streamlined data collection processes in mitigating the challenges inherent to research conducted within LTCFs. The institutional context significantly influences the planning and execution of research involving older adults residing in LTCFs, particularly those with clinical-functional profiles that necessitate specific tailored approaches. Respecting older adults’ autonomy and establishing effective and respectful communication are fundamental for building trust. Recognizing the caregivers’ knowledge provides valuable understanding for the data collection process. The LTCF willingness to participate in the research reflects their commitment to advancing knowledge in the field while upholding institutional routines and residents’ well-being. Beyond methodological considerations, such as selecting appropriate variables, defining the sample, and employing valid measures, social and cultural aspects of the LTCFs can impact costs, required human resources, and the execution timeline. In conclusion, conducting studies in LTCFs demands careful planning, effective communication, and flexibility to address institutional and residents’ diverse profiles. Collaborating closely with LTCF staff and caregivers is essential for successful data collection and ultimately benefiting this vulnerable population.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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This research was supported by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (001), Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (PPM-00603-18), and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico Tecnológico (CNPq: 310938/2022-8).

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The authors contributions were: Conceptualization, RCF and TMCR; Acquisition of data or analysis and interpretation of data, TMCR, AASA, TAA, FFT, RCF, AAS, VEG; Supervision, RCF, AAS; Writing – original draft, TMCR; Writing – review & editing, TMCR, RCF, AAS, VEG, KGNB; All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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People say they're leaving religion due to anti-LGBTQ teachings and sexual abuse

Jason DeRose

The PRRI poll found that the vast majority of those who are unaffiliated are content to stay that way. Just 9% of respondents say they're looking for a religion that would be right for them. Hanan Isachar/Getty Images hide caption

The PRRI poll found that the vast majority of those who are unaffiliated are content to stay that way. Just 9% of respondents say they're looking for a religion that would be right for them.

People in the U.S. are leaving and switching faith traditions in large numbers. The idea of "religious churning" is very common in America, according to a new survey from the Public Religion Research Institute (PRRI).

It finds that around one-quarter (26%) of Americans now identify as religiously unaffiliated, a number that has risen over the last decade and is now the largest single religious group in the U.S. That's similar to what other surveys and polls have also found, including Pew Research .

PRRI found that the number of those who describe themselves as "nothing in particular" has held steady since 2013, but those who identify as atheists have doubled (from 2% to 4%) and those who say they're agnostic has more than doubled (from 2% to 5%).

This study looks at which faith traditions those unaffiliated people are coming from.

Despite church prohibitions, Catholics still choose IVF to have children

"Thirty-five percent were former Catholics, 35% were former mainline Protestants, only about 16% were former evangelicals," says Melissa Deckman, PRRI's chief executive officer. "And really not many of those Americans are, in fact, looking for an organized religion that would be right for them. We just found it was 9%."

That these people are not looking for a religion has, Deckman says, implications for how and even whether houses of worship should try to attract new people.

Among other findings: The Catholic Church is losing more members than it's gaining, though the numbers are slightly better for retention among Hispanic Catholics.

There is much lower religious churn among Black Protestants and among Jews who seem overall happy in their faith traditions and tend to stay there.

As for why people leave their religions, PRRI found that about two-thirds (67%) of people who leave a faith tradition say they did so because they simply stopped believing in that religion's teachings.

An Arizona church known for feeding migrants now says the city is blocking its work

And nearly half (47%) of respondents who left cited negative teaching about the treatment of LGBTQ people.

Those numbers were especially high with one group in particular.

"Religion's negative teaching about LGBTQ people are driving younger Americans to leave church," Deckman says. "We found that about 60% of Americans who are under the age of 30 who have left religion say they left because of their religious traditions teaching, which is a much higher rate than for older Americans."

Hispanic Americans are also more likely to say they've left a religion over LGBTQ issues. Other reasons cited for leaving: clergy sexual abuse and over-involvement in politics.

The new PRRI report is based on a survey of more than 5,600 adults late last year.

Purim — a festive Jewish holiday with an ending often ignored

About one-third of religiously unaffiliated Americans say they no longer identify with their childhood religion because the religion was bad for their mental health. That response was strongest among LGBTQ respondents.

The survey also asked about the prevalence of the so-called "prosperity Gospel." It found that 31% of respondents agreed with the statement "God always rewards those who have good faith with good health, financial success, and fulfilling personal relationships."

Black Americans tend to agree more with these theological beliefs than other racial or ethnic groups. And Republicans are more likely than independents and Democrats to hold such beliefs.

• losing faith
• sexual abuse