Research Design
- First Online: 13 April 2022
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- Yanmei Li 3 &
- Sumei Zhang 4
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This chapter introduces methods to design the research. Research design is the blueprint of how to conduct research from conception to completion. It requires careful crafts to ensure success. The initial step of research design is to theorize key concepts of the research questions, operationalize the variables used to measure the key concepts, and carefully identify the levels of measurements for all the key variables. After theorization of the key concepts, a thorough literature search and synthetization is imperative to explore extant studies related to the research questions. The purpose of literature review is to retrieve ideas, replicate studies, or fill the gap for issues and theories that extant research has (or has not) investigated.
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Li, Y., Zhang, S. (2022). Research Design. In: Applied Research Methods in Urban and Regional Planning. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93574-0_3
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Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research: The Differences Explained
From Scribbr
Empirical Research
What is empirical research.
"Empirical research is research that is based on observation and measurement of phenomena, as directly experienced by the researcher. The data thus gathered may be compared against a theory or hypothesis, but the results are still based on real life experience. The data gathered is all primary data, although secondary data from a literature review may form the theoretical background."
Characteristics of Empirical Research
Emerald Publishing's guide to conducting empirical research identifies a number of common elements to empirical research:
A research question , which will determine research objectives.
A particular and planned design for the research, which will depend on the question and which will find ways of answering it with appropriate use of resources.
The gathering of primary data , which is then analysed.
A particular methodology for collecting and analysing the data, such as an experiment or survey.
The limitation of the data to a particular group, area or time scale, known as a sample [emphasis added]: for example, a specific number of employees of a particular company type, or all users of a library over a given time scale. The sample should be somehow representative of a wider population.
The ability to recreate the study and test the results. This is known as reliability .
The ability to generalize from the findings to a larger sample and to other situations.
If you see these elements in a research article, you can feel confident that you have found empirical research. Emerald's guide goes into more detail on each element.
Emerald Publishing (n.d.). How to... conduct empirical research. https://www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/how-to/research-methods/conduct-empirical-research-l
- Quantitative vs. Qualitative
- Data Collection Methods
- Analyzing Data
When collecting and analyzing data, quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings. Both are important for gaining different kinds of knowledge.
Quantitative research
Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.
Qualitative research
Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended questions, observations described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts and theories.
Streefkerk, R. (2022, February 7). Qualitative vs. quantitative research: Differences, examples & methods. Scibbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-quantitative-research/
Quantitative and qualitative data can be collected using various methods. It is important to use a data collection method that will help answer your research question(s).
Many data collection methods can be either qualitative or quantitative. For example, in surveys, observations or case studies , your data can be represented as numbers (e.g. using rating scales or counting frequencies) or as words (e.g. with open-ended questions or descriptions of what you observe).
However, some methods are more commonly used in one type or the other.
Quantitative data collection methods
- Surveys : List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to a sample (online, in person, or over the phone).
- Experiments : Situation in which variables are controlled and manipulated to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
- Observations: Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’t be controlled.
Qualitative data collection methods
- Interviews : Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.
- Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions that can be used for further research.
- Ethnography : Participating in a community or organization for an extended period of time to closely observe culture and behavior.
- Literature review : Survey of published works by other authors.
When to use qualitative vs. quantitative research
A rule of thumb for deciding whether to use qualitative or quantitative data is:
- Use quantitative research if you want to confirm or test something (a theory or hypothesis)
- Use qualitative research if you want to understand something (concepts, thoughts, experiences)
For most research topics you can choose a qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods approach . Which type you choose depends on, among other things, whether you’re taking an inductive vs. deductive research approach ; your research question(s) ; whether you’re doing experimental , correlational , or descriptive research ; and practical considerations such as time, money, availability of data, and access to respondents.
Streefkerk, R. (2022, February 7). Qualitative vs. quantitative research: Differences, examples & methods. Scibbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-quantitative-research/
Qualitative or quantitative data by itself can’t prove or demonstrate anything, but has to be analyzed to show its meaning in relation to the research questions. The method of analysis differs for each type of data.
Analyzing quantitative data
Quantitative data is based on numbers. Simple math or more advanced statistical analysis is used to discover commonalities or patterns in the data. The results are often reported in graphs and tables.
Applications such as Excel, SPSS, or R can be used to calculate things like:
- Average scores
- The number of times a particular answer was given
- The correlation or causation between two or more variables
- The reliability and validity of the results
Analyzing qualitative data
Qualitative data is more difficult to analyze than quantitative data. It consists of text, images or videos instead of numbers.
Some common approaches to analyzing qualitative data include:
- Qualitative content analysis : Tracking the occurrence, position and meaning of words or phrases
- Thematic analysis : Closely examining the data to identify the main themes and patterns
- Discourse analysis : Studying how communication works in social contexts
Comparison of Research Processes
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design : qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (Fifth). SAGE Publications.
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for validity and reliability. Design is basically concerned with the aims, uses, purposes, intentions and plans within the. pr actical constraint of location, time, money and the researcher's ...
describe 5 phases to the research process: the conceptual phase, the design and planning phase, the empirical phase, the analytic phase, and the dissemination phase (Table 1). This ... developing a research idea into a realistic and appropriate research design. This phase can be time-consuming, depending on the level of expertise of the ...
4.1.1 Introduction. Every type of empirical research has implicit, if not explicit, research design. In the most elementary sense, the design is a logical sequence that connects empirical data to a study's initial research questions and ultimately, to its conclusions. In a sense the research design is a blueprint of research, dealing with at ...
The empirical research design and methodology 136 in existing low matriculation pass rates. When monitoring data, the researcher will shelve irrelevant data and store all the data until the study is completed. _____ 4.3 ETHNOGRAPHY Ethnography is a specialised type of field study and one specific subtype of qualitative ...
Empirical researchers observe, measure, record, and analyze data with the goal of generating knowledge. Empirical research may explore, describe, or explain behaviors or phenomena in humans, animals, or the natural world. It may use any number of quantitative or qualitative methods, ranging from laboratory experiments to surveys to artifact ...
research involves philosophical assumptions as well as distinct methods or procedures. Research design, which I refer to as the plan or proposal to conduct research, involves the intersection of philosophy, strategies of inquiry, and specific methods. A framework that I use to explain the inter-action of these three components is seen in Figure ...
Research design is the blueprint of how to conduct research from conception to completion. It requires careful crafts to ensure success. The initial step of research design is to theorize key concepts of the research questions, operationalize the variables used to measure the key concepts, and carefully identify the levels of measurements for ...
ferent model of the research process than the traditional one offered in most text - books" (p. 10). This does not mean that qualitative research lacks design; as Yin (1994) says, "Every type of empirical research has an implicit, if not explicit, research design" (p. 19). Qualitative research simply requires a broader and less ...
3．4 EMPiRICAL RESEARCH 3．4．1Literaturestudy Primary and secondaryiiterature SOurCeS Played animPOrtant rO～ein eiucldating the COnCePtua口rameworkofthestudy・TheUniVerSityofthe FreeStateandtheNorth－West ... A research design refers to the way，n Wh～Ch datais gathered to answerthe research question（Hesser－Biber＆Leavy，2006 ...
11.1 Introduction. In chapter 1 the concept of measurement as a mathematical concept was discussed. Its use in disciplines outside mathematics involves trans-disciplinary study. At present, accounting is considered to be a measurement discipline. This suggests that the accounting concept of measurement involves trans-disciplinary study.
research design is, which one to adopt in a research and why. 2. Literature Review Research design is the overall plan for connecting the conceptual research problems to the pertinent and achievable empirical research. It is an inquiry which provides specific direction for procedures in a research (Creswell, 2014).
A conceptual framework lives at the center of an empirical . study. The conceptual framework serves as a guide and ballast to research (Ravitch & Riggan, 2016), functioning as an integrating ecosystem that helps researchers intentionally bring all aspects of a study together through a process that explicates their connec-
The method of science: In this conception, the essence of science as a method is in two parts. The first part concerns the vital role of real-world data. Science accepts the authority of empirical data and ideas have to be tested against data. The second part is the role of theory, particularly theory that explains.
Emerald Publishing's guide to conducting empirical research identifies a number of common elements to empirical research: A research question, which will determine research objectives. A particular and planned design for the research, which will depend on the question and which will find ways of answering it with appropriate use of resources.
Empirical research is a systematic approach for answering certain types of questions. Through the collection of evidence under carefully defined and replicable conditions, social science researchers seek to discover the influence of factors that affect human thought and action, and to understand when and why these influences occur. Nonempirical ...
The ethical use of empirical design 63 6.1. Empirical design as an engineering method 63 6.2. Example of off-label prescriptions 67 6.3. Engineering rigour 68 6.4. Conclusions 68 References 68 07 .....Case study I: Empirical design in historic structure assessment and preservation 71 7.1. Introduction 71 7.2.
Margins. APA specifies 1-inch margins all around (top, bottom, left, right). Pagination. Use your word processor's header function to put page numbers in the upper-right-hand corner one inch from the right-hand edge of the page. Start with the title page and go all the way through.
A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about: Your overall research objectives and approach. Whether you'll rely on primary research or secondary research. Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects. Your data collection methods.