water management methods essay

Essay On Water Management

500 words essay on water management.

Water management refers to activities that plan, develop, distribute and manage the optimum use of water resources. Everyone can do this from local authorities to individuals at home. Good water management allows access to safe water for everyone. Through an essay on water management, we will go through it in detail.

Importance of Water Management

Water management impacts various aspects of our lives. As water is common, we do not think much of its management. But, if we ask the deprived people, they will know the importance of water management very well.

As we require drinking water, clean drinking water is a necessity. No human can survive without water. Further, we also need water management for cleaning and washing. For instance, we bathe, wash our clothes and utensils to maintain hygiene .

Further, agriculture requires water for growing the food that we eat every day. Thus, a good water supply becomes essential. Moreover, we also enjoy swimming, boating and other leisure activities in the water.

For instance, swimming pools and more. Thus, water needs to be managed so people can enjoy all this. Most importantly, water management ensures that our rivers and lakes do not contaminate. Thus, it helps maintain biodiversity.

Ways of Water Management

There are various ways available through which we can manage water. The major ways of water management include recycling and treating wastewater. When we treat wastewater , it becomes safe to be piped back to our homes.

Thus, we use it for drinking, washing and more. In addition, an irrigation system is a very good way of water management. It involves a good quality irrigation system which we can deploy for nourishing crops in drought-hit areas.

By managing these systems, we can ensure water does not go to waste and avoid unnecessarily depleting water supplies. Most importantly, conserving water is essential at every level.

Whether it is a big company or a small house, we all must practise water management. The big industries use gallons of water on a daily basis. At homes, we can conserve water by using it less.

Further, it also applies to our way of consumption of products. A large amount of water goes into the production of cars or a simple item like a shirt. Thus, we must not buy things unnecessarily but consciously.

It is also essential to care for natural supplies like lakes, rivers , seas and more. As you know, these ecosystems are home to a variety of organisms. Without its support, they will go extinct. Thus, water management becomes essential to ensure we are not polluting these resources.

It is also crucial to ensure that everyone gets access to enough water. Some parts of the world are completely deprived of clean water while some have it in abundance. This is unfair to those who do not get it which also causes many deaths. Thus, we need water management to avoid all this.

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Conclusion of the Essay on Water Management

If we look at the current situation of water depletion, it is evident that we are in dire need of water management. We must come together to do our best to ensure that everyone is getting access to safe water daily so that we can lead happy lives.

FAQ of Essay on Water Management

Question 1: What is meant by water management?

Answer 1: Water management refers to the control and movement of water resources for minimizing damage to life and property. Moreover, it is to maximize effective beneficial use.

Question 2: What are the ways of water management?

Answer 2: There are numerous ways of water management. Some of them are the treatment of wastewater, deploying good irrigation methods, conserving water whenever possible. Further, we must also care for natural sources of water like rivers, seas, lakes and more.

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Essay on Water Management

Students are often asked to write an essay on Water Management in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Water Management

Introduction.

Water management is the control and movement of water resources to minimize damage to life and property. It involves managing water usage, quality, and distribution.

Importance of Water Management

Water is a limited resource. With increasing population, the demand for water is rising. Hence, effective water management is essential to ensure its availability for future generations.

Methods of Water Management

Water management methods include water conservation, recycling, and rainwater harvesting. These methods help to reduce water wastage and ensure its efficient use.

Water management is crucial for our survival. By conserving water, we can contribute to a sustainable future.

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10 Lines on Water Management

250 Words Essay on Water Management

Water is an essential resource for life on Earth, and managing this resource effectively is crucial for the survival and prosperity of human societies. Water management refers to activities that manage water resources to meet the needs of society, including the provision of safe drinking water, irrigation for agriculture, and water for industry and energy production.

Water management is vital to maintain the health of ecosystems, to ensure economic productivity, and to sustain human health. Without effective water management, we risk depleting water resources, causing environmental degradation, and exacerbating social and economic inequalities.

Challenges in Water Management

There are numerous challenges in water management. These include overuse and wastage of water, pollution of water sources, and the impacts of climate change, which can alter rainfall patterns and increase the frequency of droughts and floods.

Strategies for Effective Water Management

Strategies for effective water management include reducing water use and waste, protecting and restoring water sources, and adapting to the impacts of climate change. This can involve a range of measures, from implementing water-saving technologies and practices, to enforcing regulations to prevent pollution, to planning for the impacts of climate change on water availability.

In conclusion, water management is a critical issue that requires urgent attention. By adopting effective strategies, we can ensure the sustainable use of this vital resource, benefiting both people and the planet.

500 Words Essay on Water Management

Water is the lifeblood of our planet, a resource so vital that its careful management should be a global priority. Water management involves the planning, developing, distributing, and managing the optimum use of water resources. It is a complex issue that requires a comprehensive understanding of the water cycle and human demands on this precious resource.

The Necessity of Water Management

Water management is not merely a matter of ensuring a sufficient supply for human consumption. It is a multifaceted endeavor that involves environmental, economic, and social considerations. With climate change intensifying water scarcity issues and population growth increasing demand, effective water management has become more critical than ever.

Water management is also essential for preserving ecosystems. It helps to maintain the health of wetlands, rivers, and lakes, which are home to a wide variety of flora and fauna. These ecosystems play a crucial role in filtering pollutants, buffering against floods, and providing habitats for wildlife.

Despite its importance, water management faces numerous challenges. One of the most pressing issues is the unequal distribution of water resources. While some regions have abundant freshwater, others suffer from severe scarcity. This inequality can lead to conflict and requires careful management to ensure fair access.

Another challenge is the increasing pollution of water bodies. Industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and domestic sewage can contaminate water sources, making them unfit for consumption or use. Addressing this issue requires robust laws and enforcement, as well as public education about the importance of protecting water resources.

Given these challenges, what strategies can be employed for effective water management? One approach is the use of technology. Advances in data collection and analysis can help us understand water usage patterns and identify areas for improvement. For instance, remote sensing technology can monitor changes in water levels, while smart meters can provide real-time data on water use.

Another strategy is the adoption of sustainable practices. This includes water conservation measures such as rainwater harvesting and greywater recycling. Moreover, shifting towards more sustainable agricultural practices can significantly reduce water usage, as agriculture is one of the largest consumers of water.

In conclusion, water management is a complex but vital task. It requires a comprehensive approach that considers environmental, economic, and social factors. By harnessing technology and adopting sustainable practices, we can make strides towards more effective water management. As we face an uncertain future with climate change and population growth, the importance of managing our water resources wisely cannot be overstated.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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Water Management

Water management & water conservation methods, introduction.

The activity of movement and control of water resources to minimize the damage to property and life and also to maximize the efficient beneficial use is known as water management. If the management of water is good in dams and levees it reduces the risk of harm caused due to flooding.

Planning, developing, and managing water resources in terms of both water quantity and quality across all water applications is known as water resources management (WRM). It consists of organisations, facilities, financial aid programmes, and information systems that support and direct water management. In order to maintain clean, pure water while also safeguarding the ecosystem, water conservation is essential. Everyone relies on clean, unpolluted water for living, so we must learn how to preserve its finite supply. Water management is important since it influences what can be expected from irrigation in the future. Water management is the control of water resources according to established rules and guidelines. Due to droughts and overuse, water, once a plentiful natural resource, is becoming a more valuable commodity.

Water conservation methods, recommended videos, types of water management.

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Water management is a process of developing, optimizing and planning of water resources via many practices which are defined by many policies and regulations. With the increase in the population which has been doubled to over 6 billion people from 1900, the use of water has popped up to 600%. According to the statistics, the health of people is threatened by inadequate access to clean water for drinking and sanitation.

With a well-planned system, water is supplied to many places regularly in a city. This is generally planned by civic authorities in a city. But many times we observe that some amount of water is wasted through leakage of pipe and many other reasons. As we know that proper water management is necessary for the conservation of water. Thus, it is important for civic authorities to take care of these issues while supplying water to our homes.

Why Do We Need To Conserve Water?

Air and Water Pollution

We usually observe that most of the rainwater gets wasted although it is one of the most precious natural resources. This rainwater can be used to recharge the groundwater levels by a technique known as rainwater harvesting . Farmers can play an important role in water management by using a water conservation method for irrigation known as drip irrigation. In this technique, plants are watered using narrow tubes and this water is directly delivered at the base of the plant.

We can also play an important role in minimizing the wastage of the water we use. Some of those habits can be turning off the taps while brushing, mopping the floor instead of washing. A little water conservation methods that can be practised by individuals to reduce the wastage of water are provided below.

Installing flow-restricting shower heads to save water during showers.
Taking bucket-baths instead of showers.
Turning off the tap while shaving or brushing teeth.
Immediately fixing any leaking taps and pipes in our homes.
Practising rainwater harvesting to reduce the wastage of rainwater.

One of the oldest sites of the Indus Valley civilization, Dholavira in the state of Gujarat has well-documented lake-shaped storage reservoirs to store surface water during the rainy season.

Burhanpur, Madhya Pradesh, hosts the unique and elaborate network of well-connected water drainage and storage systems. Today the place is not so popular and is a must-visit for any hydrology student. Every fort which survives today has well-organized storage systems. This was important since forts were built to provide supplies during long-drawn wars where movement outside was constrained.

The Indian practice of cleaning water using brass vessels is well known and continues until today. Even today having water filter systems made from brass is not unusual. Older people in India use brass pots in the evening to store water and drink it during daytime.

While many technological devices are being developed to minimize water wastage, the impact will be greater if each individual contributes to water conservation by minimizing or optimizing the use of groundwater for daily work. Today, water conservation is becoming extremely critical at an individual level.

Each year our water supplies are depleting. Therefore, we can not produce artificial water and must be reliant on the available water sources on our planet earth. Water shortage is felt all over the world due to population growth and the unsustainable need for water to suit our ever-expanding modern lifestyle. It has given rise to substantial concerns about water conservation.

Water resource management traditionally involves managing water storage and water flows. Clients will need to invest in institutional reinforcement, information management, and (natural and man-made) infrastructure development to enhance water security against this backdrop of rising demand, water scarcity, growing uncertainty, greater extremes, and fragmentation challenges.

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

What is the importance of water management.

Water management is important as it helps to establish the expectations of future irrigation. Water management is water resources management in compliance with existing policies and regulations.

What is sustainable water management?

Sustainable water management (SWM) is a critical component of sustainable development and is responsible for issues that are similar to sustainability. Mays describes SWM as satisfying all water users current water demand without impacting future supply.

What are some examples of water resources?

Water resources are sources of usually fresh water that is useful or potentially useful to society, for example for use in agriculture, industry or recreation. Soil water, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs are examples.

Can water be extracted sustainably?

To irrigate community gardens, a sustainable water extraction system is needed. The sustainable water extraction method will reduce the use of fossil fuel, emissions and increase the yield of the gardens, thus increasing the resources available to the schools.

What is the purpose of water management?

Water budgeting and study of ground and sub-surface drainage systems are involved in wastewater management. Water management often involves modifying policies, such as drainage levels of groundwater, or allocating water for different purposes.

What are the ways of water management?

Reuse or conservation of water helps to recycle ground water by reducing the consumption and using alternative water sources. This approach involves the irrigation of rainwater, groundwater depletion, Grey water reuse, and wastewater recycling.

What are the objectives of water management?

Water Resources Management goals can include promoting conditions for sustainable, economically efficient and equitably allocated water resource use. These can involve improving advantages and reducing the risk associated with current hydraulic facilities.

What is the use of water management?

Water management is water resource protection and movement to mitigate risk to life and property and optimize successful beneficial usage. Efficient dam and levee water management decreases the risk of damage resulting from flooding.

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Essay on Rainwater Harvesting: Water Saving Techniques

Updated on
Oct 7, 2023

Writing an essay on rainwater harvesting requires you to describe sustainable water management practices, such as the collection and storage of rainwater for various purposes, like irrigation , landscaping, domestic use, etc. In recent years, this technique has gained popularity as a way to conserve this life-saving resource and reduce the demand for traditional water sources like rivers, lakes, and groundwater.

Did you know that Earth is not the only planet where the phenomenon of rain occurs? Other celestial bodies, such as Saturn’s moon Titan, have rain, but it consists of liquid methane and ethane rather than water due to the extremely cold temperatures. Let’s check out some essays on rainwater harvesting for a better understanding of this topic.

This Blog Includes:

Essay on rainwater harvesting in 100 words, essay on rainwater harvesting in 200 words, essay on rainwater harvesting in 300 words.

Shiva Tyagi

With an experience of over a year, I've developed a passion for writing blogs on wide range of topics. I am mostly inspired from topics related to social and environmental fields, where you come up with a positive outcome.

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Water Resources Management Essay

Impact of human activities on water resources, effects of water resources managements on the community, problems developed by fishing techniques.

This has adverse effects on the population of fish that are set to dwindle due to the destruction of their food resources or by killing them through mercury poison.

The mercury poison comes from industry effluents. Adverse temperatures that results from dumping of hot water from the industries near water resources also affect the number of fish by killing them. The presences of these pollutants always have the effect of destabilizing the ecological balance of the water (Feldman, 1995).

The management of these water resources is a very precarious and complicated. This process requires a careful balance of both ecological and economical considerations. The management plan will include the introduction of laws to curb the water pollution and preservation of fish resources. The laws will have to outlaw uncontrolled dumping and release of industrial effluents in the water.

The law should also set limits to the fishing practice the fishermen will have to use. This will include limiting of fishing licenses and setting limits to the size of fishing nets the fishermen will have to use and set limits the amount of fish the fishermen can be allowed to catch. The law should also carry stiff penalties to whoever found in violation of the environmental water laws.

Another management policy can be the introduction of an economic policy where the person responsible for the pollution to be made to pay for the cost of cleanup. This will mean that fishermen and other stake holders will have to take out insurance covers to cover their practices. Even consumers who use paper bags will have to pay for them.

Finally, the recycling of most materials that find their way to the water resources can go a long way in trying to manage the resources. Recycling of waste and purification of sewage waste should be encourages to avoid toxic wastes spilling up in the water.

The effects of the management will be received in different ways by both environmentalists and fishermen. To fishermen the proposal to recycle and reduce the waste effluents will be take positively as it will mean the increase to the number of fish but the proposal to introduce laws to enable the efficient sustainable of resources will be received negatively by the fishermen.

This is because the laws seek to limit the size of the nets and the amount of fish each fisherman can catch. In addition, by limiting on the number of fishermen it will result in the increase in the price of fishing licenses.

On the other hand, the environmentalists will take the introduction of the laws and the other management process positively (Feldman, 1995). This is because all these measures will lead to the protecting the water resources as well as allowing the population of fish to flourish. This solution will have different effects to the community.

In terms of jobs, the number of jobs might reduce in the community due to the limit of the number of fishermen allowed in the water resources. It will also mean that all the industries that depend on fish like fishmeal factories and filleting plants will have to suffer.

On the other hand, due to the cleanup of the water resources, it will have a positive effect on the lifestyle on the community. The practicing of swimming and other sports safely done without the fear of catching water-borne diseases that might have affected the water resource users before the clean up.

Fishing can lead to the extinction of species due to the overfishing of rare kinds of fish and other protected kinds .In addition it can lead to the killing and capturing of unwanted water species.

This is because some fishing methods like trawling are indiscriminate on what they catch. Water animals like turtles and water snakes can be caught thus changing the balance of the ecosystem.

Finally, fishing method likes trawling involves the dragging of nets at the bottom of the water bodies. The nets can cause the scrapping the floor leading to the destruction of polyps which is an important source of food to the fish.

Feldman, D. (1995). Water Resources Management: In Search of an Environmental Ethic. Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University press.

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Water Conservation Essay in English for Students

Water is among the most crucial resources on Earth. However, humans are misusing it alarmingly. This article has some water conservation essays for raising awareness.

October 19, 2023

Table of Contents

Water Conservation Essay: Water, essential for all life, is often overlooked as a finite resource. Water conservation is a shared responsibility to secure clean water for future generations. This blog covers the global water crisis, the importance of conservation, practical tips, successful projects, challenges, and the role individuals play.

Water Conservation Essay in English

Water represents one of life’s most fundamental elements, supporting the e500+ Words Essayxistence of all living organisms on Earth and serving as an indispensable resource for human survival. Despite the seeming abundance of water on our planet, the accessibility of clean, freshwater is a finite and restricted commodity. Thus, the preservation of water takes on paramount significance to guarantee that forthcoming generations can access this indispensable resource. In this article, we will explore the importance of water conservation and a variety of strategies to promote its prudent utilisation.

Water is an exhaustible resource, with Earth’s reserves of freshwater being limited. While approximately 70% of the Earth’s surface is enveloped in water, only a small portion of this constitutes freshwater, with a considerable fraction being locked away in glaciers and polar ice caps, rendering it inaccessible. The mounting global population and escalating water demands in agriculture, industry, and households have intensified concerns regarding the depletion of this valuable resource.

Among the most pressing concerns related to water conservation is the reckless and extravagant use of water in various parts of the world. Water wastage stems from issues like leaky faucets, continuously running toilets, and excessive irrigation practices. Addressing these issues necessitates the collaboration of individuals, communities, and governments to champion water conservation efforts.

Water conservation strategies are pivotal in securing the sustainability of our water supplies. The following are some effective approaches to conserve water:

Leak Rectification: Regularly inspect and rectify leaking faucets, pipes, and toilets to curtail water wastage.
Water-Efficient Appliances: Substituting outdated and inefficient appliances with water-efficient models like high-efficiency toilets, washing machines, and dishwashers, which consume significantly less water.
Rainwater Collection: Accumulating and storing rainwater for domestic and gardening use to alleviate the demand on local water reservoirs.
Xeriscaping: Opt for native and drought-resistant flora in landscaping to decrease the necessity for excessive watering.
Responsible Irrigation: Employ efficient irrigation techniques, such as drip irrigation, and schedule lawn and garden watering during cooler times to reduce water evaporation.
Curtail Shower and Bath Duration: Reducing shower and bath duration results in a considerable reduction in water consumption.
Faucet Management: Turn off taps when brushing teeth or washing dishes and employ basins for collecting water for rinsing vegetables or cleaning.
Educational Initiatives and Advocacy: Advocate for water conservation in your community and educate others about the importance of responsible water use.
Governmental Measures: Governments should enact and enforce water conservation regulations and provide incentives for individuals and businesses to save water.
Recycling and Reuse: Implement water recycling systems for industrial processes and utilise greywater for non-potable applications. Through the adoption of these practices, we can collectively wield a substantial influence on water conservation.

In summation, water conservation is not merely a choice; it is a necessity. The judicious and sustainable management of water is imperative to guarantee a continuous supply of clean and safe water for both the present and future generations. By implementing the aforementioned techniques for water conservation and fostering a culture of conscientious water use, we can collaborate to safeguard this invaluable resource and preserve the health of our planet.

Water Conservation Essay in 300 Words

Water conservation is a crucial endeavour in light of the finite nature of this life-sustaining resource. With the world’s population expanding and the demand for water rising across agriculture, industry, and households, responsible water use is imperative for future generations.

Minimising water wastage stands at the core of conservation efforts. Addressing issues like leaky faucets and pipes can result in significant savings. Moreover, the adoption of low-flow fixtures and appliances doesn’t compromise convenience while reducing consumption. Raising awareness and educational campaigns can promote these practices.

Efficient agricultural water management is pivotal. Techniques such as drip irrigation and precision farming minimise water wastage and enhance crop yields. Farmers can also embrace drought-resistant crops and rainwater harvesting for improved water efficiency.

Industries should prioritise water-saving technologies and recycling methods to reduce their water footprint. Government regulations and incentives can stimulate the adoption of sustainable water management practices.

Protecting natural water bodies like rivers, lakes, and wetlands is vital for ecosystem health. Pollution control and proper waste disposal are essential in safeguarding these sources. Preserving natural habitats plays a key role in maintaining water quality.

Community involvement is a potent driver of water conservation. Encouraging individuals to take responsibility for their water use and participate in local efforts can yield a significant impact on preservation.

In conclusion, water conservation is not a choice but a necessity. Responsible usage in homes, agriculture, and industry, combined with the safeguarding of natural water sources, ensures water’s availability for both current and future generations. This collective effort is indispensable for the survival of our planet.

Water Conservation Essay in 150 Words

Water stands as one of the most valuable resources on our planet, crucial for all life forms. Nevertheless, the availability of pure, freshwater is rapidly decreasing due to excessive use, contamination, and shifts in the climate. Hence, the preservation of water has emerged as a pressing global issue.

The act of conserving water is imperative to maintain ecosystems, support agriculture, and meet the rising needs of a continuously growing population. There exist several uncomplicated yet efficient methods to contribute to water conservation. Firstly, repairing leaks in pipelines and faucets can result in the preservation of numerous gallons of water annually. Secondly, employing low-flow fixtures and appliances aids in curtailing water consumption. Thirdly, cultivating mindfulness regarding water usage in daily routines, such as taking shorter showers and turning off the tap when not in use, can have a substantial impact.

In the realm of agriculture, implementing water-efficient techniques like drip irrigation can serve to conserve water. Industries have the potential to adopt recycling and wastewater treatment approaches to diminish water wastage.

Ultimately, it’s our collective responsibility to conserve water, as it ensures a sustainable future for ourselves and the generations to come. Water conservation is not just a choice; it’s a necessity.

Water Conservation and Management Essay

Water is Earth’s most precious resource, essential for all life, yet often overlooked. With a growing global population and escalating climate change, effective water conservation and management are critical. This essay discusses their importance, challenges, and strategies.

Scarce Resource: Freshwater is limited and under threat from pollution and overuse.
Ecosystems: Healthy aquatic systems maintain biodiversity and ecological balance.
Human Survival: Clean water is a fundamental human right.
Agriculture: Efficient water management in agriculture ensures food security.
Economic Stability: Water is integral to many industries.
Overuse and Wastage: Excessive consumption and wastage deplete resources.
Pollution: Chemicals, sewage, and industrial pollutants harm water sources.
Climate Change: Altered precipitation patterns make water management unpredictable.
Population Growth: Growing population strains resources.
Infrastructure: Many lack proper water infrastructure.
Education: Raise awareness about water conservation.
Technology: Develop water-saving solutions.
Infrastructure: Invest in water management infrastructure.
Legislation: Enforce water conservation and pollution control laws.
Ecosystems: Protect and restore natural habitats.
Recycling: Reuse treated wastewater.
Desalination: Sustainably harness desalination where needed.

In conclusion, water conservation and management are vital for our planet’s future, requiring education, technology, and responsible governance to address challenges and secure this invaluable resource. Act now to protect water for all.

Short Essay on Water Conservation

Water is an indispensable resource for life on Earth, but its supply is limited, necessitating urgent conservation. With global population growth, climate change, and increasing water demands in agriculture, industry, and households, preserving this resource is paramount.

Agriculture consumes about 70% of freshwater, making efficient irrigation methods and drought-resistant crops essential for conservation. Industries can reduce water usage through advanced recycling and treatment. At home, fixing leaks, using low-flow fixtures, and practising water-conscious habits make a big difference.

Government policies play a vital role through legislation, efficiency standards, and public awareness campaigns.

Water conservation is also tied to environmental preservation, as it prevents ecosystem disruption and reduces energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.

In conclusion, water conservation is a global imperative. It’s not just the responsibility of governments and industries but a shared duty of every individual. By acting now, we secure a sustainable future with abundant freshwater for generations to come.

Water Conservation Essay FAQs

Yes, many regions have regulations for water conservation, such as drought restrictions and efficient fixture requirements.

It ensures long-term water availability, essential for economic, social, and environmental sustainability.

Xeriscaping conserves water, lowers maintenance, and enhances aesthetics.

Yes, smart metres and data analytics enhance monitoring and efficiency in water conservation.

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Water Resources Management

An International Journal - Published for the European Water Resources Association (EWRA)

Water Resources Management is an international, multidisciplinary forum for the publication of original contributions and the exchange of knowledge and experience on the management of water resources. In particular, the journal publishes contributions on water resources assessment, development, conservation and control, emphasizing policies and strategies. Contributions examine planning and design of water resource systems, and operation, maintenance and administration of water resource systems.

Coverage extends to these closely related topics: water demand and consumption; applied surface and groundwater hydrology; water management techniques; simulation and modelling of water resource systems; forecasting and control of quantity and quality of water; economic and social aspects of water use; legislation and water resources protection. Water Resources Management is supported scientifically by the European Water Resources Association, a scientific and technical nonprofit-making European association.

Peer review is conducted using Editorial Manager®, supported by a database of international experts. This database is shared with the journal, Environmental Processes.

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Research Article

Water resource management: IWRM strategies for improved water management. A systematic review of case studies of East, West and Southern Africa

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations Soil, Crop, and Climate Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa, School of Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, Varmac Consulting Engineers, Scottsville, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Civil & Structural Engineering, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kakamega, Kenya

Roles Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Soil, Crop, and Climate Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa

Roles Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Agriculture and Engineering Services, Irrigation Engineering Section, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria

Tinashe Lindel Dirwai,
Edwin Kimutai Kanda,
Aidan Senzanje,
Toyin Isiaka Busari

Published: May 25, 2021
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236903
Reader Comments

The analytical study systematically reviewed the evidence about the IWRM strategy model. The study analysed the IWRM strategy, policy advances and practical implications it had, since inception on effective water management in East, West and Southern Africa.

The study adopted the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P) and the scoping literature review approach. The study searched selected databases for peer-reviewed articles, books, and grey literature. DistillerSR software was used for article screening. A constructionist thematic analysis was employed to extract recurring themes amongst the regions.

The systematic literature review detailed the adoption, policy revisions and emerging policy trends and issues (or considerations) on IWRM in East, West and Southern Africa. Thematic analysis derived four cross-cutting themes that contributed to IWRM strategy implementation and adoption. The identified four themes were donor effect, water scarcity, transboundary water resources, and policy approach. The output further posited questions on the prospects, including whether IWRM has been a success or failure within the African water resource management fraternity.

Citation: Dirwai TL, Kanda EK, Senzanje A, Busari TI (2021) Water resource management: IWRM strategies for improved water management. A systematic review of case studies of East, West and Southern Africa. PLoS ONE 16(5): e0236903. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236903

Editor: Sergio Villamayor-Tomas, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, SPAIN

Received: July 12, 2020; Accepted: May 2, 2021; Published: May 25, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Dirwai et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper.

Funding: This study was supported by the National Research Foundation (NRF) in the form of a grant awarded to TLD (131377) and VarMac Consulting Engineers in the form of a salary for TLD. The specific roles of the authors are articulated in the ‘author contributions’ section. The funders had no additional role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have read the journal’s policy and have the following potential competing interests: TLD is a paid employee of VarMac Consulting Engineers. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials. There are no patents, products in development or marketed products associated with this research to declare.

1 Introduction

Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is a concept that is meant to foster effective water resource management. GWP [ 1 ] defined it as “the process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, to maximise the resultant economic and social welfare equitably without compromising the sustainability of vital systems”. A holistic approach, in the form of the Dublin statement on Water and Sustainable Development (DSWSD), emerged and it became the backbone of IWRM principles.

According to Solanes and Gonzalez-Villarreal [ 2 ] the Dublin priciples are: “ (1) Freshwater is a finite and vulnerable resource , essential to sustain life , development and the environment; (2) Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach , involving users , planners and policy-makers at all levels , (3) Women play a central part in the provision , management , and safeguarding of water , and (4) Water has an economic value in all its competing uses , and should be recognised as an economic good .” The seamless conflation of the DSWSD and the Agenda 21 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992 further strengthened the IWRM discourse and facilitated the policy approach of IWRM [ 3 , 4 ]. Since its inception the IWRM policy has been the holy grail of water resource management in Africa, Asia, and Europe to mention a few. For policy diffusion, countries were required to develop an IWRM policy blueprints for effective water use [ 5 ].

This review sought to unveil the innovative IWRM strategy approach by critically examining its genesis, implementation, adoption and the main drivers in in East, Southern and West Africa. Secondary to this, the study endeavoured to determine whether the IWRM implementation has been a success or failure. The choice of East, West and Southern Africa was influenced by the regional dynamics of Sub-Saharan Africa which have unique problems in water resources management and the hydropolitical diversity in this region. The isolated cases provide a holistic representation t the implementation dynamics of IWRM. In addition, sub-Sahara Africa was the laboratory for IWRM with Zimbabwe and South Africa being the early implementers [ 6 ]. Apart from the IWRM strategy being a social experiment in sub-Sahara, there exists a gap on an overarching review on the performance and aggregated outcomes of the IWRM adopters in the continent. The selection of the countries of interest was based on the authors geo-locations and their expert experiences with the IWRM strategy in their respective localities. The study sought to draw trends, similarities, and potential differences in the drivers involved in achieving the desired IWRM outcome.

IWRM strategy approach and implementation are ideally linked to individual country’s developmental policies [ 7 ]. Southern Africa (Zimbabwe and South Africa) is the biggest adopter of the water resource management strategy and produced differed uptake patterns [ 8 ]. In East Africa, Tanzania,Uganda and Kenya also adopted the IWRM strategy, whilst in West Africa, Burkina Faso latently adopted the IWRM strategy in 1992 [ 4 ] and in Ghana, customary and traditional water laws transformed into latent IWRM practices [ 9 ].

Various initiatives were put in place to aid the adoption of IWRM in sub-Sahara Africa. For example, Tanzania benefited from donor funds and World Bank programmes that sought to alleviate poverty and promote environmental flows. The World Bank radically upscaled and remodelled IWRM in Tanzania through the River Basin Management—Smallholder Irrigation Improvement Programme (RBM-SIIP) [ 10 ]. The government of Uganda’s efforts of liberalising the markets, opening democratic space and decentralising the country attracted donor funds that drove the IWRM strategy agenda. The long-standing engagement between Uganda and the Nordic Fresh Water initiative helped in the diffusion of IWRM strategy in the country. Finally, in West Africa, Burkina Faso and Ghana made significant strides in operationalising the IWRM strategy by adopting the West Africa Water Resources Policy (WAWRP). A massive sense of agency coupled with deliberate government efforts drove the adoption status of Burkina Faso.

Total policy diffusion can be achieved when the practice or idea has supporting enablers. Innovation is key in developing plocies that altersocietal orthodox policy paths that fuel hindrance and consequently in-effective water governance [ 11 ]. Acknowledging the political nature of water (water governance and transboundary catchments issues) is the motivation to legislate water-driven and people-driven innovative policy [ 12 ]. Water policy reform should acknowledge the differing interests’ groups of the water users and its multi-utility nature; thus, diffusion channels should be tailored accordingly, avoiding the ‘one size fits all’ fallacy. IWRM as an innovative strategy approach diffused from the global stage to Africa and each regional block adopted the approach at different times under different circumstances.

The rest of this paper is outlined as follows; section 2 presents the conceptual framework adopted and the subsequent methodology. Section 3 presents the results and discussion. The discussion is structured around innovation driver in each respective region. Thereafter, sub-section 3.4 presents the prospect of IWRM in the East, West and Southern Africa regions. Lastly, the paper presents the conclusion.

2 Methodology

2.1 conceptual framework and methodology.

The analytical framework applied in the study is based on the water innovation frames by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) [ 13 ]. The UNDESA [ 13 ], classified water frames into three distinct categories namely water management strategies (e.g., IWRM), water infrastructure and water services. The former partly involves IWRM strategies and the latter encompasses economic water usage such as agriculture, energy production and industrial applications [ 12 ].

The literature review identified research gaps that informed the employed search strategy. The literature that qualified for inclusion was thoroughly analysed and discussed. The aggregated outcomes were used for excerpt extraction in the thematic analysis.

2.2 Literature handling

The study performed a systematic review as guided by the Arksey and O’Malley [ 14 ] approach. The approach details methods on how to scope, gather, screen and report literature. The study further employed a constructionist thematic analysis to extract common recurring themes amongst the regions.

2.2.1 Eligibility criteria.

Eligibility criteria followed an adapted SPICE (Setting, Perspective, Intervention, Comparison and Evaluation) structure ( Table 1 ). The SPICE structure informed the study’s search strategy ( Table 2 ) and the subsequent formulation of the inclusion-exclusion criteria ( Table 3 ). The evidence search was conducted from the following databases: Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, UKZN-EFWE, CABI, JSTOR, African Journals Online (AJOL), Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), J-Gate, SciELO and WorldCat for peer-reviewed articles, books, and grey literature. The study did not emphasize publication date as recommended by Moffa, Cronk [ 15 ]. Databases selection was based on their comprehensive and over-arching nature in terms of information archiving. It is worth mentioning that the search strategy was continuously revised by trial and error until the databases yielded the maximum number of articles for screening.

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2.2.2 Search strategy.

The search strategy or query execution [ 16 ] utilised Boolean operators ( OR & AND ). The dynamic nature of the search strategy required the authors to change the search terms and strategy, for example, if digital databases did not yield the expected search items the study would manually search for information sources. The search queries included a string of search terms summarised in Table 2 .

2.2.3 Selection process.

DistillerSR © software was used for article screening. Online data capturing forms were created in the DistillerSR © software and two authors performed the article scoring process that eventully led to article screening. The screening was based on the article title, abstract and locality. The study employed a two-phase screening process [ 17 ], the first phase screened according to title and the second phase screened according to abstract and keywords. During the screening process, studies that the matched information in the left column of Table 3 we included in the literature review syntheses, whilst those that matched the exclusion list were discarded.

2.3 Thematic analysis

The review also adopted the thematic analysis approach by Braun and Clarke [ 18 ] to extract, code, and select candidate converging themes for the systematic review. The selected lieterature was subjected to qualitative analysis to capture recurring themes amongst the selected regions (East, West and Southern Africa). Data extracts from the respective regional analysis were formulated into theoretical themes. Thereafter, the extracted data was coded according to the extracted patterns from the information source to constitute a theme. It is worth mentioning that the authors used their discretion to extract and code for themes.

3 Results and discussion

Data charting comprised of the PRISMA flow-chart ( Fig 1 ). The study utilised 80 out of 183 records (n = 37, 46%) for East Africa, (n = 37, 46%) for Southern Africa, and (n = 6, 8%) for West Africa.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236903.g001

3.1 Case studies

The introduction of IWRM in the East African region was initiated in 1998 by the water ministers in the Nile basin states due to the need for addressing the concerns raised by the riparian states. These water sector reforms revolved around the Dublin principles initiated by the UN in 1992 [ 20 ]. In 1999, Kenya developed the national water policy and the enabling legislation, the Water Act 2002 was enacted [ 21 ]. The Act was replaced by the Water Act 2016 which established the Water Resources Authority (WRA) as the body mandated to manage water resources in line with the IWRM principles and Water Resource Users Association (WRUA) as the lowest (local) level of water management [ 22 ].

Similarly, Uganda developed the national water policy in 1999 to manage, and develop the available water resources in an integrated and sustainable manner [ 23 ]. The National Water Policy further provides for the promotion of water supply for modernized agriculture [ 24 ]. Tanzania’s water policy of 2002 espouses IWRM principles, and its implementation is based on a raft of legal, economic, administrative, technical, regulatory and participatory instruments [ 25 ]. The National Irrigation Policy (NIP), 2010 and the National Irrigation Act, 2013 provides the legal basis for the involvement of different actors on a private-public partnership basis [ 26 ].

West Africa possesses an unregistered IWRM strategy that is espoused in the West Africa Water Resources Policy (WAWRP) of 2008. The WAWRP is founded on the following legal principles; (a) “promote, coordinate and ensure the implementation of a regional water resource policy in West Africa, in accordance with the mission and policies of Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)and (b) “harmonization and coordination of national policies and the promotion of programmes, projects and activities, especially in the field of agriculture and natural resources”. The founding legal basis resonates with the Dublin principles.

The WAWRP design actors were ECOWAS, Union Economique et Monétaire Ouest Africaine (UEMOA), and Comité Permanent Inter-État de Llutte Contre la Sécheresse au Sahel (CILSS). CILSS is the technical arm of ECOWAS and UEMOA. The institutional collaboration was driven by the fact that West Africa needed a sound water policy for improved regional integration and maximised economic gains. ECOWAS established the Water Resources Coordination Centre (WRCC) to (a) oversee and monitor the region’s water resources and management activities and (b) to act as an executive organ of the Permanent Framework for Coordination and Monitoring (PFCM) of IRWM [ 27 ].

The inception and triggers of IWRM in West Africa can be traced back to the General Act of Berlin in 1885 which, among other things, dictated water resources use of the Congo and Niger rivers [ 28 ]. A multiplicity of agreements around shared watercourses in West Africa led to the realisation of the IWRM policy approach. For example, the Senegal River Basin (SRB) Development Mission facilitated collaboration between Senegal and Mauritania in managing the SRB. Another noteworthy agreement was Ruling C/REG.9/7/97, a regional plan to fight floating plants in the ECOWAS countries [ 28 ]. GWP (2003) categorised the West African countries according to the level of adoption into three distinct groups namely; (a) Group A comprised of countries with the capacity to develop and adopt the IWRM approach (Burkina Faso and Ghana), (b) Group B comprised of countries needing “light support” to unroll the IWRM plan (Benin, Mali, Nigeria, and Togo), and (3) Group C comprised of laggards which needed significant support to establish an IWRM plan (Cape Verde, Ivory Coast, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal and Sierra Leone).

Southern African Development Community (SADC) regional bloc has over 15 shared transboundary river basins (For detailed basin and catchment arrangement in SADC see [ 29 ]). SADC member states established the Protocol on Shared Water Systems (PSWS) which meant to encourage sustainable water resources utilisation and management. The PSWS was perceived to strengthen regional integration [ 30 ]. The regional bloc formulated the Regional Strategic Action Plans (RSAPs) that sought to promote an integrated water resources development plan. The action initiative mimicked IWRM principles and the shared water resources initiatives acted as a catalyst for the genesis of IWRM in Southern Africa [ 31 ]. SADC houses the Waternet and the GWP-SA research and innovation hubs upon which SADC’s IWRM adoption was anchored on. Besides the availability of trained water experts in the region who were willing to experiment with the IWRM policy approach, water scarcity fuelled by climate change prompted the region’s adoption of the IWRM policy approach at the local level.

3.2 Diffusion drivers of IWRM in East, West and Southern Africa

3.2.1 water scarcity..

The adoption of IWRM in East Africa was necessitated by water scarcity which is experienced by the countries in the region, which formed the need for adoption of prudent water resources management strategies as envisaged under the Dublin principles which was championed indirectly, according to Allouche [ 5 ], by the World Bank. Specifically, the need to give incentives and disincentives in water use sectors to encourage water conservation.

Kenya is a water-scarce country with per capita water availability of 586 m 3 in 2010 and projected to 393 m 3 in 2030 [ 32 ]. Uganda is endowed with water resources, however, it is projected that the country will be water-stressed by 2020 which could be compounded by climate variability and change, rapid urbanization, economic and population growth [ 33 ].

Using water scarcity was in essence coercing countries to adopt the IWRM principles with the irrigation sector, the contributor of the largest proportion of water withdrawals, becoming the major culprit [ 5 ]. The researchers opine that the effects of water scarcity in the region can be countered by adopting IWRM strategy, but adaptively to suit the local context and thus, persuasive rather than coercive, is the appropriate term. Indeed, as put forward by Van der Zaag [ 34 ], IWRM is not an option but it is a necessity and therefore, countries need to align their water policies and practices in line with it.

West African climatic conditions pose a threat on the utilisation of the limited water resource. Water resource utilisation is marred by erratic rainfalls and primarily a lack of water resources management know-how [ 27 ]. Countries in the Sahelian regions are characterised by semi-arid climatic conditions. Thus, dry climatic conditions account as an IWRM strategy driver to ensure maximised water use efficiency. Although the region acknowledges the need for adopting the IWRM strategy, they have varied adoption statuses (GWP, 2003).

Southern African countries also face serious water scarcity problems. Rainfall in South Africa is low and unevenly distributed with about 9% translating to useful runoff making the country one of the most water scarce countries in the world [ 35 ]. Generally, SADC countries experience water scarcity resulting in conflicts due to increasing pressure on the fresh water resources [ 36 ]. Thus, the researched opine that water scarcity pushed the region to adopt the IWRM strategy inorder to mitigate the looming effects of climate change on surface water availainility.

3.2.2 Trans-boundary water resources.

Water resources flow downstream indiscriminately across villages, locations, regions and nations/states and therefore necessitates co-operation. The upstream and downstream relationships among communities, people and countries created by the water is asymmetrical in that the actions upstream tend to affect the downstream riparian and not the other way round [ 34 ]. In East Africa, the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) and the Lake Victoria Basin Commission (LVBC) plays a critical component in promoting the IWRM at regional level [ 20 ].

The Nile River system is the single largest factor driving the IWRM in the region. Lake Victoria, the source of the Nile River is shared by the three East African states of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Irrigation schemes in Sudan and Egypt rely exclusively on the waters of River Nile and are therefore apprehensive of the actions of upstream states notably Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi. The source of contention is the asymmetrical water needs and allocation which was enshrined in the Sudan–Egypt treaty of 1959 [ 37 ]. All the riparian countries in the Nile basin have agricultural-based economies and thus irrigation is the cornerstone of food security [ 38 ]. Therefore, there was the need for the establishment of basin-wide co-operation which led to the formation of NBI in 1999 with a vision to achieve sustainable socio-economic development through the equitable utilisation of the Nile water resources [ 39 ].

The Mara River is another trans-boundary river which is shared between Tanzania and Kenya and the basin forms the habitat for the Maasai Mara National Reserve and Serengeti National Park in Kenya and Tanzania, respectively, which is prominent for the annual wildlife migration. Kenya has 65% of the upper part of the basin, any development on the upstream, such as hydropower or water diversion, will reduce the water quantities and therefore affect the Serengeti ecosystem and the livelihoods of people in Tanzania [ 40 ]. The LVBC, under the East African Community, developed the Mara River Basin-wide—Water Allocation Plan (MRB-WAP) to help in water demand management and protection of the Mara ecosystem [ 41 ]. The mandate of the LVBC is to implement IWRM in Lake Victoria Basin riparian countries [ 20 ].

Other shared water basins include the Malakisi-Malaba-Sio River basin shared between Uganda and Kenya and the Kagera River basin traversing Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. The two river basins form part of the Upper Nile system and are governed through the LVBC and the NBI.

The universal transboundary nature of water creates dynamics that warrant cooperation for improved water use. West Africa has 25 transboundary watercourses and only 6 are under agreed management and regulation. The situation is compounded by the fact that 20 watercourses lack strategic river-basin management instruments [ 28 ]. Unregistered rules and the asymmetrical variations associated with watercourses warranted the introduction of the IWRM principle to set equitable water sharing protocols and promote environmental flows (e-flows). The various acts signed represent an evolutionary treaty development that combines th efforts of riparian states to better manage the shared water resources (for detailed basin configuration in West Africa see [ 42 ]). Hence, adoption of the IWRM strategy driven WAWRP of 2008 ensured the coordinanted and harmonised regional water usage mechanisms.

The SADC region has 13 major transboundary river basins which calls for development of agreements on how to handle the shared water resources with the contraints of varying levels of economic development and priorities among the member states. The multi-lateral and bi-lateral agreeements on shared water resources in the SADC is hampered by the hydropolitics where economic power dynamics favour South Africa as in the case of the Orange-Senqu basin [ 43 ].

3.2.3 Donor influence.

The World Bank has been pushing for IWRM principles in the East Africa through the NBI and by pressurising Egypt to agree to co-operate with the upstream riparian countries in the Nile basin [ 38 ]. In the early 1990s, the World Bank had aligned its funding policies to include sustainable water resources management [ 44 ].

In Tanzania, Norway, through NORAD, played a key role in implementing IWRM by promoting water projects including hydropower schemes [ 45 ]. Indeed the transformation of the agricultural sector in Tanzania through Kilimo Kwanza policy of 2009 which emphasised on the commercialization of agriculture including irrigation was driven by foreign donors such as the USAID and UK’s DFID [ 26 ].

In Uganda, however, the reforms in the water sector were initiated devoid of external influence [ 46 ]. However, this assertion is countered by Allouche [ 5 ] who pointed that Uganda had become a ‘darling’ of the donor countries in the early 1990s and that DANIDA helped to develop the Master Water Plan and the country was keen to show a willingness to develop policy instruments favourable to the donor. East African countries are developing economies and therefore most of their development plans are supported by external agencies, which to some extent come with subtle ‘conditions’ such as free-market economies. In fact imposition of tariffs and other economic instruments used to implement IWRM in water supply and irrigation is a market-based approach which was favoured by the World Bank and other development agencies.

Donor aid cannot be downplayed in pushing for IWRM diffusion in low-income aid-dependent countries of West Africa. GoBF [ 47 ] reported that from the period 1996–2001, more than 80% of water-related projects were donor funded. Cherlet and Venot [ 48 ] also found that almost 90% of the water investments in Mali were funded outside the government apparatus. It can, therefore, be argued that donor-aid plays a pivotal and central role in diffusing policy and innovation in aid-depended countries because of the incentive nature it provides for the low-income countries in the sub-Sahara region.

Southern Africa’s experience with western donors including the World Bank in terms of IWRM adoption favoured the urban areas and neglected rural areas (see [ 8 ]). The National Water Act drafting process in South africa was a multi-stakeholder and intersectoral activity that brought in international consultancies. Notable IWRM drivers were Department of International Development—UK (DFID), Danish Danida, and Deustsche Gesellschaft fur Zusammernarbeit (GIZ). The DFID was instrumental in water reform allocation law whilst the GIZ and Danida were active in experimental work in the catchments [ 3 ]. On the contrary, in Zimbabwe, a lack of access to international funding and fleeting donor aid exacerbated the policy uptake as such the anticipated implementation, operationalisation and continuous feedback mechanism for policy revision and administering process was never realised.

3.2.4 Government intervention and pro-active citizenry.

This was predomint in West Africa. For example the Burkinabe government exhibited political goodwill such that in 1995 the government brought together two separate ministries into one ministry of Environment and Water thus enabling coherent policy formulation and giving the ministry one voice to speak on water matters. The dynamic innovation arena (where policy players interact) allows continuous policy revision and redesign thus water policy reform diffusion, and policy frameworks are in a perpetual state of shifting. For example, in the 1990s the Burkinabe government was engaged in several water-related projects and was continuously experimenting with local governance and privatization (from donors) [ 1 ]. This policy shift according to Gupta [ 49 ] qualifies as an innovation driver.

Burkina Faso and Mali’s adoption story is accentuated by heightened agency, the individual enthusiasm on influencing the outcome facilitated policy diffusion and can be argued to be a potential innovation diffusion driver for the IWRM policy approach in the region. The individual policy diffusion fuelled by an enthusiastic citizenry was a sure method that effectively diffused awareness around the IWRM innovation and acted as a driver of the IWRM practices in the region. Individual strategies were honed in smallholder farming institutions to diffuse the IWRM practice and drawing from the Sabatier and Jenkins-Smith [ 50 ] advocacy coalition theory, having individuals with common agendas promoted the transfer and diffusion of water reforms in parts of West Africa.

3.2.5 Legal, political and institutional incoherence.

This was a major factor which dictated the pace of IWRM implementation in Southern Africa. For example, the Fast Track Land Reform (FTLR) programme in Zimbabwe disaggregated the large-scale commercial farms and created smallholder farming [ 51 ], consequently influencing and dictating IWRM policy path. The FTLR programme had a negative impact on the spread and uptake of IWRM. A series of poor economic performance and poor policy design compounded the limited diffusion and the adoption of IWRM practices at local levels in Zimbabwe. The FTLR programme compounded the innovation diffusion process as the Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) lost account of who harvested how much at the newly created smallholder farms. Thus, water access imbalance ensured, and ecological sustainability was compromised.

Policy incoherence was a major factor in poor IWRM diffusion and adoption, for example, the government did not synchronise the land and water reforms thus it meant at any given point in time there was a budget for one reform agenda [ 8 ] and the land reform agenda would take precedence because of political rent-seeking. IWRM in its nature couples growth to the coordinated consumption of finite resources, hence the circular approach cannot be easily realised because finte resources are at the core of the strategy’s existence.

South Africa’s transition from Integrated Catchment Management (ICM) strategies to the IWRM strategy, hindered the operationalisation and diffusion of the IWRM strategy [ 52 ]. Despite acknowledging the “integration”, researchers argued that the word lacked a clear-cut definition thus failing to establish a common ground for water’s multi-purpose use [ 53 ]. For maximised adoption of a practice, incremental innovation is required, which was Danida’s agenda in the quest to drive IWRM in South Africa. According to Wehn and Montalvo [ 54 ] incremental innovation “is characterised by marginal changes and occurs in mature circumstances”,

Land reform in South Africa is characterised by (a) redistribution which seeks to transfer land from the white minority on a willing buyer willing seller basis, (b) restitution which rights the discriminatory 1913 land laws that saw natives evicted from their ancestral land, and (c) land tenure that provides tenure to the occupants of the homelands. This new pattern created a new breed of smallholder farmers that are, more often than not, excluded from diffusion and water governance channels [ 55 ]. In addition, researchers argue that a farm once owned by one white farmer is owned by multiple landowners with different cultural backgrounds and, more often than not, IWRM strategy is met with resistance [ 56 ]. Another challenge posed by multi-cultural water users is the interpretation and translation of innovations.

To foster water as an economic good aspect of IWRM the licensing system was enacted in South Africa. The phenomenon was described by van Koppen (2012) as paper water precedes water, thus the disadvantaged black smallholder farmers could not afford paper water which consequently limits access to water. The licensing system can be interpreted as stifling the smallholder sector and hence negative attitudes develop and hinder effective policy diffusion. Another issue that negatively impacted adoption was that issuing a license was subject to farmers possessing storage facilities. The smallholder farmers lack resources hence the requirement for obtaining a license excluded the small players in favour of the large-scale commercial farmers. This consequently maintains the historically skewed status-quo, where “big players” keep winning. Van Koppen [ 57 ] and Denby, Movik [ 58 ] argue the shift from local water rights system to state-based water system have created bottlenecks making it hard for smallholder farmers to obtain “paper water” and subsequently “wet water”. The state-based system is characterised by bureaucracies and local norms are in perpetual change, hence denying the IWRM innovation policy approach stability efficiency.

A lack of political will and pragmatism amplified the poor adoption and operationalisation of IWRM, a poorly performing economy and fleeing donor agencies resulted in less funding for water-related project. Political shenanigans created an imbalance that resulted in two forms of water i.e., water as an economic good vs. water as a social good [ 59 ]. Manzungu [ 60 ] argued post-colonial Zimbabwe continuously failed to develop a peoples-oriented water reform policy. In a bid to correct historical wrongs by availing subsidised water to the vulnerable and support the new social order, the initiative goes against the neo-liberalism approach that defines the “water as an economic good” [ 61 ] which is a founding principle of IWRM.

Water redistribution in South Africa has been fraught with political and technical issues, for example, the Water Allocation Reform of 2003 failed to reconcile the apartheid disparity hence the equity component of IWRM was compromised. IWRM suffered another setback caused by the governing party when they introduced radical innovations that sought to shift from the socialist to neoliberal water resource use approach. The radical innovation through the government benefited the large-scale commercial farmers at the expense of the black smallholder farming community [ 53 ].

3.3 Systematic comparison of findings on East, West and Southern Africa

Data extracts from the respective regional analysis were formulated into theoretical candidate themes. The thematic analysis extracted recurring themes common to all the three regions. An independent reviwer performed the subjective thematic analysis and the authors performed the review on the blind thematic analysis outcome. The analysis performed a data extraction exercise and formulated codes ( Fig 2 ). Themes were then generated from the coded data extracts to create a thematic map. It is worth mentioning that the data extracts were phrases/statement from with in the literature review.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236903.g002

3.3.1 Donor aid and policy approach.

Donor activity invariably influenced the policy path that individual countries took. The three regions had significant support from donors to drive the IWRM strategy. Zimbabwe experienced a different fate. The political climate caused an exodus of donor support from the nation, which consequently caused a laggard. The absence of donor support was at the backdrop of the two formulated water acts namely National Water Act [ 62 ] and the Zimbabwe National Water Authority Act of 1998 [ 63 ], which were meant to promote equitable water provision amongst the population. This highlights the latent adoption of IWRM strategy. The 2008/2009 cholera outbreak raised alarm and facilitated the return of donor activity in Zimbabwe’s water sector. The availability of donor support motivated the redrafting of a water clause in the 2013 constitution that espoused the IWRM strategy to water management [ 64 ].

Whilst Mehta, Alba [ 64 ] argue that South Africa enjoyed minimal donor support it cannot be downplayed how much donor influence impacted the IWRM strategy adoption. For instance, the Water Allocation Reform (WAR) was drafted with the aid of the UK Department of International Development. The WAR fundamentals are informed by IWRM principles. The economic structural programmes spearheaded by The World Bank and the IMF were active in facilitating the diffusion of the IWRM strategy in Kenya and Uganda. Uganda made strides because of a long-standing relationship with donor nations. The Uganda—donor relationship dates back to early 1990 where Uganda was elected to be the NBI secretariat, this in itself evidence of commitment to water policy reform [ 4 , 65 ]. Donor aid acts as an incentive and augments the low African goverments’ budgets, as such proper accountability and usage of the funds ensures that more funds come in for projected water related projects.

3.3.2 Transboundary water resources.

The Nile River system is the single largest factor driving the IWRM in the region since it is shared across several upstream and downetream nations. Irrigation schemes in Sudan and Egypt rely exclusively on the waters of River Nile and are therefore apprehensive of the actions of upstream states notably Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi. The source of contention is the asymmetrical water needs and allocation which was enshrined in the Sudan–Egypt treaty of 1959 [ 37 ]. Over time, the upstream countried demanded equitable share of the Nile waters and this led to the establishment of NBI. In Eastern Africa, the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) and the Lake Victoria Basin Commission (LVBC) plays a critical component in promoting the IWRM at regional level [ 20 ]. The LVBC is deeply intertwined with the East African Community (EAC) and thus has more political clout to implement policies regarding utilization of the Lake Victoria waters [ 66 ]. This, therefore, implies that for NBI to succeed, it must have a mandate and political goodwill from the member countries.

The conflicts around the utilization of the Nile water resources persists due to the treaty of 1959 which led to the signing of Cooperative Framework Agreement (CFA) by a number of the Nile basin countries, with the notable exceptions of Egypt, Sudan and South Sudan [ 67 ]. The CFA was signed between 2010 and 2011 and establishes the principle that each Nile Basin state has the right to use, within its territory, the waters of the Nile River Basin, and lays down some factors for determining equitable and reasonable utilization such as the contribution of each state to the Nile waters and the proportion of the drainage area [ 68 ]. The construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam has been a source of concern and conflict among the three riparian countries of Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt [ 67 ]. The asymmetrical power relations (Egypt is the biggest economy) in the Nile Basin is a big hindrance to the co-operation among the riparian countries [ 69 ] and thus a threat to IWRM implementation in the shared watercourse. While Ethiopia is using its geographical power to negotiate for an equitable share in the Nile water resources, Egypt is utilizing both materials, bargaining and idealistic power to dominate the hydro politics in the region and thus the former can only succeed if it reinforces its geographical power with material power [ 70 ].

Therefore, IWRM implementation at the multi-national stage is complex but necessary to forestall regional conflicts and war. The necessity of co-operation rather than conflict in the Nile Basin is paramount due to the water availability constraints which is experienced by most countries in the region. The transboundary IWRM revolves around water-food- energy consensus where the needs of the riparian countries are sometimes contrasting, for example, Egypt and Sudan require the Nile waters for irrigation to feed their increasing population while Ethiopia requires the Nile waters for power generation to stimulate her economy. The upstream riparian States could use their bargaining power to foster co-operation and possibly force the hegemonic downstream riparian States into the equitable and sustainable use of Nile waters [ 71 ].

The SADC region has 13 major transboundary river basins (excluding the Nile and Congo) of Orange, Limpopo, Incomati, Okavango, Cunene, Cuvelai, Maputo, Buzi, Pungue, Save-Runde, Umbeluzi, Rovuma and Zambezi [ 72 ]. The Revised Protocol on Shared Watercourses was instrumental for managing transboundary water resources in the SADC. The overall aim of the Protocol was to foster co-operation for judicious, sustainable and coordinated management, the protection and utilization of shared water resources [ 73 ].

Ashton and Turton [ 74 ] argue that the transboundary water issues in Southern Africa revolved around the key roles played by pivotal States and impacted States and their corresponding pivotal basins and impacted basins. In this case, pivotal States are riparian states with a high level of economic development (Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe) and a high degree of reliance on shared river basins for strategic sources of water supply while impacted States are riparian states (Angola, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, and Zambia) that have a critical need for access to water from an international river basin that they share with a pivotal state, but appear to be unable to negotiate what they consider to be an equitable allocation of water and therefore, their future development dreams are impeded by the asymmetrical power dynamics with the pivotal states. Pivotal Basins (Orange, Incomati, and Limpopo) are international river basins that face closure but are also strategically important to anyone (or all) of the pivotal states by virtue of the range and magnitude of economic activity that they support. Impacted basins (Cunene, Maputo, Okavango, Cuvelai, Pungué, Save-Runde, and Zambezi) are those international river basins that are not yet approaching a point of closure, and which are strategically important for at least one of the riparian states with at least one pivotal State.

The transboundary co-operation under IWRM in Southern Africa is driven mainly by water scarcity which is predominant in most of the SADC countries which may imply the use of inter-basin transfers schemes [ 74 ]. Further, most of the water used for agriculture, industry and domestic are found within the international river basins [ 75 ] which calls for collaborative water management strategies. The tricky feature hindering the IWRM is the fact that States are reluctant to transfer power to River Basin Commissions [ 76 ]. Indeed most of the River Basin Organizations (RBO) in Southern region such as the Zambezi Commission, the Okavango River Basin Commission, and the Orange-Sengu River Basin Commission have loose links with SADC and therefore lack the political clout to implement the policies governing the shared water resources [ 66 ]. Power asymmetry, like in Eastern Africa, is also a bottleneck in achieving equitable sharing of water resources as illustrated by the water transfer scheme involving Lesotho and South Africa [ 77 ]. The hydro-hegemonic South Africa is exercising control over any negotiations and agreements in the Orange-Senqu basin [ 43 ]. Limited data sharing among the riparian States is another challenge which affects water management in transboundary river basins e.g. in the Orange-Senqu basin [ 78 ].

West Africa has 25 transboundary watercourses and only 6 are under agreed management and regulation. The situation is compounded by the fact that 20 watercourses lack strategic river-basin management instruments [ 28 ]. Unregistered rules and the asymmetrical variations associated with watercourses warrant the introduction of the IWRM principle to set equitable water sharing protocols and promote environmental flows (e-flows). The various acts signed represent an evolutionary treaty development that combines the efforts of riparian states to better manage the shared water resources. It is important to note that evolutionary treaties are incremental innovation. Water Resources Coordination Centre (WRCC) was established in 2004 to implement an integrated water resource management in West Africa and to ensure regional coordination of water resource related policies and activities [ 79 ].

The Niger River basin covers 9 Countries of Benin, Burkina, Cameroon, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Mali, Niger and Nigeria. The Niger River Basin Authority (NBA) was established to promote co-operation among the member countries and to ensure basin-wide integrated development in all fields through the development of its resources, notably in the fields of energy, water resources, agriculture, livestock, forestry exploitation, transport and communication and industry [ 80 ]. The Shared Vision and Sustainable Development Action Programme (SDAP) was developed to enhance co-operation and sharing benefits from the resources of River Niger [ 81 ]. The Niger Basin Water Charter together with the SDAP are key instruments which set out a general approach to basin development, an approach negotiated and accepted not only by all member states but also by other actors who utilize the basin resources [ 82 ].

The main agreement governing the transboundary water resource in River Senegal Basin is the Senegal River Development Organization, OMVS (Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal) with its core principle being the equitably shared benefits of the resources of the basin [ 82 ]. The IWRM in the Senegal River Basin is hampered by weak institutional structures and lack of protocol on how shared waters among the States as well as conflicting national and regional interests [ 83 , 84 ]. The Senegal River Basin, being situated in the Sudan-Sahelian region, is faced by the threat of climate change which affects water availability [ 84 ] The Senegal River Basin States have high risks of political instability.

3.4 Prospects of IWRM Africa

The countries in the three regions are at different stages of implementation ( Table 4 ). In East Africa, Uganda and Kenya are at medium-high level while Tanzania is medium-low. Majority of the countries in the Southern Africa region are at medium low. Comoros Islands is the only country at low level of implementation in the region. West African countries are evenly spread between low, medium-low and medium-high levels of implementation. Generally, East Africa is ranked as medium-high level with average score of 54% while Southern Africa and West Africa are ranked as medium low-level at 46% and 42% respectively. However if you include, medium low countries of Rwanda, Burundi, Ethiopia and South Sudan and the low-level Somalia, then East Africa’s score drops to 39% (medium-low).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236903.t004

The implementation of IWRM in the continent, and more so the inter dependent and multi purpose water use sectors, will continue to evolve amid implementation challenges. The dynamics of water policies, increased competition for finite water resources from rapid urbanization, industrialization and population growth will continue to shape IWRM practices in the region. Trans-boundary water resources management will possibly take centre stage as East African countries move towards full integration and political federation as envisaged in the four pillars of the EAC treaty. Decision support tools such as the Water—Energy—Food (WEF) nexus appraoch will be very relevant in the trans-boundary water resources such as the Nile system, Mara and Kagera river basins. The approach can potentially ameliorate the after effects of the devolved governance system in Kenya that consequently created a multiplicity of transboundary sectors.

Adoption of the IWRM policy in West Africa is fraught with many challenges. For example, despite having significant water resources, the lack of a collective effort by the governments to train water experts at national level presents a challenge for adoption. Unavailability of trained water experts (who in any case are diffusion media) results in a lack of diffusion channels that facilitate policy interpretation, translation and its subsequent implementation. Helio and Van Ingen [ 27 ] pointed out how political instability possesses a threat to current and future implantation initiatives. The future collaboration projects and objective outlined by ECOWAS, CILSS, and UEMO highlight a major effort to bring the region to speed with the IWRM policy approach. The WAWRP objectives can potentially set up the region on an effective IWRM trajectory which can be mimicked and upscaled in other regions. Positives drawn from the region are the deliberate institutional collaborations. Burkina Faso and Mali have the potential to operationalise and facilitate policy diffusion to other neighbouring states. Donor driven reform is essential and national ownership is critical in ensuring the water reform policies and innovation diffusion processes are implemented at the national level.

The IWRM policy approach and practice in South Africa was government-driven whereas in Zimbabwe external donors were the main vehicles for diffusion. For both countries, the water and land reform agenda has a multiplicity of overlapping functionaries; however, they are managed by separate government departments. The silo system at national level prevents effective innovation diffusion and distorts policy interpretation and the subsequent dissemination at the local level.i.

Water affairs are politicised and often, the water reform policy fails to balance the Dublin’s principles which form the backbone of the IWRM innovation policy approach. Failure by national governments to address unequal water access created by former segregationist policies is perpetuated by the lack of balance between creating a new social order and recognising the “water as an economic good” principle.

4 Conclusion

Africa as a laboratory of IWRM produced varied aggregated outcomes. The outcomes were directly linked to various national socio-economic development agendas; thus, the IWRM policy took a multiplicity of paths. In East Africa, Kenya is still recovering from the devolved system of government to the County system which created new transboundary sectors with the country. Water scarcity, trans-boundary water resource and donor aid played a critical role in driving the IWRM policy approach in the three regions. Southern Africa’s IWRM experience has been fraught with policy clashes between the water and land reforms. Similar to Africa, the transboundary issue in Europe and Asia and the subsequent management is a major buy-in for formulating water resources strategies that are people centric and ecologically friendly. Global water scarcity created fertile grounds for IWRM adoption in Asia, specifically India. Thus, we postulate that some of the drivers that influenced the uptake and diffusion in Africa are not only unique to the continent.

For the future, IWRM policy approach can be implemented in Africa and the continent has the potential to implement and adopt the practice. Endowed with a significant number of water bodies, Africa must adopt a blend of IWRM strategy and the water energy food nexus (WEF) for maximising regional cooperation and subsequent economic gains. WEF nexus will help combat a singular or silo approach to natural resources management. WEF nexus and IWRM is a fertile area for future research as it brings a deeper understanding of the trade-offs and synergies exsisting in the water sector across and within regions. In addition, the WEF nexus approach can potentially facilitate a shift to a circular approach that decouples over dependence on one finte resource for development.

Supporting information

S1 checklist..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236903.s001

S1 Table. Data extracts with the applied codes.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236903.s002

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Importance of Water Conservation

Categories: Water Conservation

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Published: Jan 30, 2024

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Introduction, the significance of saving water, methods of saving water, case studies/examples, challenges in water conservation and protection efforts, a. water conservation practices at homes.

Installing water-saving fixtures and appliances, such as low-flow showerheads, faucets, and toilets.
Fixing leaks and reducing water wastage by taking shorter showers, turning off the tap while brushing, and fixing dripping taps.
Implementing efficient water usage habits such as using a broom instead of a hose to clean outdoor areas and washing laundry and dishes only with full loads.

B. Agriculture Water Management

Implementing efficient irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation and precision irrigation, which reduce water wastage by up to 30%.
Crop selection and rotation to optimize water usage by selecting crops that require less water and reducing water-intensive crops, such as rice and cotton.
Using precision farming methods such as soil moisture sensors, weather forecasts, and crop modeling to optimize water usage.

C. Industrial Water Conservation

Recycling and reusing water in manufacturing processes by using closed-loop systems.
Implementing water-efficient technologies such as water-efficient boilers, cooling towers, and dry lubrication processes.
Promoting water stewardship among industries by adopting best practices and engaging in water conservation efforts.

D. Government Policies and Programs

Providing incentives for water-saving practices such as tax credits, rebates, and grants for installing water-efficient appliances and fixtures.
Implementing water regulations and enforceable laws such as water pricing, water rights, and zoning regulations to ensure efficient water use.
Educating and creating awareness among citizens through campaigns such as the WaterSense program, which educates consumers on water-efficient products.
United Nations. (2021, March 22). Water and Sanitation. https://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/water-and-sanitation/
WaterSense. (n.d.). Water-Efficient Products. https://www.epa.gov/watersense/water-efficient-products
Valsecchi, G. B., & Faggian, R. (2019). The Alliance for Water Stewardship certification program in the Netherlands: measuring the performance of a water sustainability standard for industries. Water, 11(12), 2608. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11122608
Maheshwari, B. L. (2019). Rainwater harvesting impacts on crop yield: a review with a case study of Tamil Nadu, India. Water, 11(5), 1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11051018

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Volume 24, issue 10
HESS, 24, 4691–4707, 2020
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History of hydrology (HESS/HGSS inter-journal SI)

Hydrology and water resources management in ancient India

Pushpendra kumar singh, pankaj dey, sharad kumar jain, pradeep p. mujumdar.

Hydrologic knowledge in India has a historical footprint extending over several millenniums through the Harappan civilization ( ∼3000 –1500 BCE) and the Vedic Period ( ∼1500 –500 BCE). As in other ancient civilizations across the world, the need to manage water propelled the growth of hydrologic science in ancient India. Most of the ancient hydrologic knowledge, however, has remained hidden and unfamiliar to the world at large until the recent times. In this paper, we provide some fascinating glimpses into the hydrological, hydraulic, and related engineering knowledge that existed in ancient India, as discussed in contemporary literature and revealed by the recent explorations and findings. The Vedas, particularly, the Rigveda , Yajurveda , and Atharvaveda , have many references to the water cycle and associated processes, including water quality, hydraulic machines, hydro-structures, and nature-based solutions (NBS) for water management. The Harappan civilization epitomizes the level of development of water sciences in ancient India that includes construction of sophisticated hydraulic structures, wastewater disposal systems based on centralized and decentralized concepts, and methods for wastewater treatment. The Mauryan Empire ( ∼322 –185 BCE) is credited as the first “hydraulic civilization” and is characterized by the construction of dams with spillways, reservoirs, and channels equipped with spillways ( Pynes and Ahars ); they also had an understanding of water balance, development of water pricing systems, measurement of rainfall, and knowledge of the various hydrological processes. As we investigate deeper into the references to hydrologic works in ancient Indian literature including the mythology, many fascinating dimensions of the Indian scientific contributions emerge. This review presents the various facets of water management, exploring disciplines such as history, archeology, hydrology and hydraulic engineering, and culture and covering the geographical area of the entire Indian subcontinent to the east of the Indus River. The review covers the period from the Mature Harappan Phase to the Vedic Period and the Mauryan Empire.

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Singh, P. K., Dey, P., Jain, S. K., and Mujumdar, P. P.: Hydrology and water resources management in ancient India, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 4691–4707, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-4691-2020, 2020.

Water is intimately linked to human existence and is the source of societal and cultural development, traditions, rituals, and religious beliefs. Humans created permanent settlements about 10 000 years ago when they adopted an agrarian way of life and began developing different sociocultural societies and settlements, which were largely dependent on water in one way or another (Vuorinen et al., 2007). These developments established a unique relationship between humans and water. Most of the ancient civilizations, e.g., the Indus Valley, Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Chinese, developed at places where water required for agricultural and human needs was readily available, i.e., in the vicinity of springs, lakes, rivers, and seas (Yannopoulos et al., 2015). As water was the prime mover of the ancient civilizations, a clear understanding of the hydrologic cycle, nature, and patterns of its various components along with water uses for different purposes led those civilizations to flourish for thousands of years.

The Harappan (or Indus Valley) civilization ( ∼3000 –1500 BCE), one of the earliest and most advanced civilizations of the ancient times, was also the world's largest in spatial extent and epitomizes the level of development of science and society in the protohistoric Indian subcontinent. The Harappan civilization did not have the “single state” concept as was practiced by the other contemporary civilizations such as the Mesopotamian civilization, pointing to evidence of centralized control of palaces and temples and differentiated burials (Kenoyer, 1994; Possehl, 1998, 2003). The Harappan society was based on shared concepts of power; dominance and patterns of military conquests have not been found in this society (Kenoyer, 2003). However, more information will be revealed to the world once the linguists decipher the Harappan script inscribed on the seals, amulets, and pottery vessels (Kenoyer, 2003). Jansen (1989) states that the citizens of the Harappan civilization were known for their obsession with water; they prayed to the rivers every day and accorded the rivers a divine status. The urban centers were developed with state-of-the-art civil and architectural designs with provisions for sophisticated drainage and wastewater management systems. It is interesting to note in this context that the water and wastewater management systems have been highly amenable to the sociocultural and socioeconomic conditions and religious ways of societies through all the ages of the civilizations (Sorcinelli, 1998; Wolfe, 1999; De Feo and Napoli, 2007; Lofrano and Brown, 2010).

Agriculture was the main economic activity of the Harappan society and an extensive network of reservoirs, wells, canals as well as low-cost water-harvesting techniques were developed throughout the region at that time (Nair, 2004). Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira, the two major cities of the Indus Valley, are the best examples of advanced water management and drainage systems. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro of the Indus Valley is considered the “earliest public water tank of the ancient world” (Mujumdar and Jain, 2018). Adequate archeological evidence exists to testify that the Harappans of the Indus Valley were well aware of the seasonal rainfall and flooding of the Indus River during the period between 2500 and 1700 BCE, which is corroborated by modern meteorological investigations (Srinivasan, 1976).

Following the de-urbanization phase ( ∼1900 –1500 BCE) of the Harappan civilization, the Vedic Period in the Indian subcontinent can be bracketed between ∼1500 and 500 BCE. The “ Rigveda ” (the earliest of the four Vedas) as well as many other Vedic texts was composed in this period and in later periods (Kathayat et al., 2017; Witzel, 2014; Sen, 1999). The Vedic Period can be further classified into two stages as the “Early Vedic Period” ( ∼1500 –1100 BCE) and the “Late Vedic Period” ( ∼1100 –500 BCE) (Kathayat et al., 2017; Witzel, 1987, 1999). During the Late Vedic Period, agriculture, metallurgy, commodity production, and trade were largely expanded (Kathayat et al., 2017); after the Late Vedic Period the period of “Mahājanapadas” came into existence, which finally converged into the “Mauryan Empire”. The Vedic texts contain valuable references to the hydrological cycle. It was known during Vedic and later times ( Rigveda , VIII, 6.19; VIII, 6.20; and VIII, 12.3) (Sarasvati, 2009) that water is not lost in the various processes of the hydrological cycle, namely, evaporation, condensation, rainfall, streamflow, etc., but gets converted from one form to another. At that time Indians were acquainted with cyclonic and orographic effects on rainfall ( Vayu Purana ) and radiation, as well as convectional heating of the Earth and evapotranspiration. The Vedic texts and other Mauryan period texts such as Arthashastra mention other hydrologic processes such as infiltration, interception, streamflow, and geomorphology, including the erosion process. Reference to the hydrologic cycle and artesian wells is available in Ramayana ( ∼200 BCE) (Goswami, 1973). Groundwater development and water quality considerations also received sufficient attention in ancient India, as evident from the Brihat Samhita (550 AD) (Jha, 1988). Topics such as water uptake by plants, evaporation, and clouds and their characteristics, along with rainfall prediction by observing the natural phenomena of previous years, had been discussed in Brihat Samhita (550 AD), Meghamala (900 AD), and other literature from ancient India.

The Arthashastra , attributed to Kautilya “who reportedly was the chief minister to the emperor Chandragupta (300 BCE), the founder of the Mauryan dynasty” (Encyclopaedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Artha-shastra , last access: 27 April 2020), deals with several issues of governance, including water governance. It mentions a manually operated cooling device referred to as “ Variyantra ” (revolving water spray for cooling the air). The Variyantra was similar to the water cooler. According to Megasthenes (an ancient Greek historian, who visited the court of king Chandragupta Maurya around 300 BCE), the Variyantra was used by the wealthier sections of the society for cooling the air. The Arthashastra also gives an extensive account of hydraulic structures built for irrigation and other purposes during the period of the Mauryan Empire (Shamasastry, 1961).

The Pynes and Ahars (combined irrigation and water management system), reservoir (Sudarshan lake) at Girnar, and many other structures were also built during the Mauryan Empire ( ∼322 –185 BCE). McClellan III and Dorn (2015) noted that “the Mauryan Empire was first and foremost a great hydraulic civilization”. This suggests that the technology of the construction of the dams, reservoirs, channels, measurement of rainfall, and knowledge of the various hydrological processes existed in the ancient Indian society. Megasthenes mentions that “more than half of the arable land was irrigated and was in agriculture and produced two harvests in a year”. Further, there was a separate department for supervision, construction, and maintenance of a well-developed irrigation system with extensive canals and sluices, wells, lakes and tanks. The same bureau was responsible for planning and settlement of the uncultivated land. A similar description of the different institutional arrangements during the Mauryan period can be seen in Arthashastra . The importance of the hydraulic structures in the Mauryan period can be judged on the basis of the punishments or fines imposed on the offenders. As mentioned in the Arthashastra , “when a person breaks the dam of a tank full of water, he shall be drowned in the very tank; of a tank without water, he shall be punished with the highest amercement; and of a tank which is in ruins owing to neglect, he shall be punished with the middle-most amercement”.

Remarkably, the Mauryan Empire did not lack the other hallmarks associated with the hydraulic civilizations (McClellan III and Dorn, 2015). It had departments concerned with the rivers, excavating, and irrigation along with a number of regional and other superintendents such as the superintendent of rivers; agriculture; weights and measures; store house; space and time; ferries, boats, and ships; towns; pasture grounds; road cess; and many others along with other strata of the associated officers such as head of the departments (adhyakshah), collector general (samahartri), and chamberlain (sannidhatri), etc. Olson (2009) also mentions that there was an extensive irrigation network organized by a state bureaucracy. According to Wittfogel (1955), the Mauryan Empire had virtually all of those characteristics that a hydraulic civilization must possess (though it was rather short lived).

Water pricing was also an important component of the water management system in the Mauryan Empire. According to Arthashastra , those who cultivate through irrigation (i) by manual labor ( hastaprávartimam ) would have to pay one-fifth of the produce as water rate ( udakabhágam ); (ii) by carrying water on shoulders ( skandhaprávartimam ), one-fourth of the produce; (iii) by water lifts ( srotoyantraprávartimam ), one-third of the produce; and (iv) by raising water from rivers, lakes, tanks, and wells ( nadisarastatákakúpodghátam ), one-third or one-fourth of the produce. The superintendent of agriculture was responsible for compiling the meteorological statistics by using a rain gauge and for observing the sowing of the wet crops, winter crops or summer crops depending on the availability of the water.

Historical development of hydro-science has been dealt with by many researchers (Baker and Horton, 1936; Biswas, 1969; Chow, 1964). However, not many references to the hydrological contributions in ancient India are found. Chow (1974) rightly mentions that “the history of hydrology in Asia is fragmentary at best and much insight could be obtained by further study”. According to Mujumdar and Jain (2018), there is rigorous discussion in ancient Indian literature on several aspects of hydrologic processes and water resources development and management practices as we understand them today.

Evidence from ancient water history provides an insight into the hydrological knowledge generated by Indians more than 3000 years ago. This paper explores many facets of ancient Indian knowledge on hydrology and water resources with a focus on hydrological processes, measurement of precipitation, water management and technology, and wastewater management, which are based on reviews of the Indian scriptures, such as the Vedas, Arthashastra (Shamasastry, 1961), Astadhyayi (Jigyasu, 1979), Ramayana (Goswami, 1973), Mahabharata ; Puranas, Brihat Samhita (Jha, 1988), Meghamala , Mayurchitraka ; Jainist and Buddhist texts; and other ancient texts. In this review, we present a glimpse of the knowledge that existed in ancient India in water sciences by exploring many disciplines such as history, archeology, hydrology, and hydraulic engineering, history of technology and history of culture. The paper follows the order based on process or technology. While doing so, the historical order of those processes or technologies has also been followed in each section. The review covers the geographical area of the entire Indian subcontinent to the east of the Indus River. Specifically, it includes the parts of the Harappan civilization (in present-day Pakistan) and the whole of India with historical boundaries from the Mature Harappan Phase to the Mauryan Empire. These boundaries encompass the major centers or regions of development in ancient India, and the Mauryan Empire is considered the terminal point of ancient India, which is also consistent with the views of Olson (2009) that the Mauryan Empire can be considered the historical boundary of ancient India.

The hydrologic cycle is the most fundamental concept in hydrology that involves the entire Earth system comprising the atmosphere (the gaseous envelop), the hydrosphere (surface and subsurface water), lithosphere (soils and rocks), the biosphere (plants and animals), and the oceans. Water passes through these five spheres of the Earth system in one or more of the three phases: solid (ice), liquid, and vapor. The Rigveda , which is an ancient religious scripture, contains many references to the hydrologic cycle and associated processes (Sarasvati, 2009). The Rigveda mentions that “the God has created Sun and placed it in such a position that it illuminates the whole universe and extracts water continuously (in the form of vapor) and then converts it to cloud and ultimately discharges as rain” (verse I, 7.3). Many other verses of the Rigveda (I, 19.7; I, 23.17; I, 32.9) further explain the transfer of water from the Earth to the atmosphere by the Sun and wind; breaking up of water into small particles, evaporation due to Sun rays, and subsequent rain; and formation of cloud due to evaporation of water from Mother Earth and returning in the form of rain. Verse I, 32.10, of the Rigveda further mentions that the water is never stationary but it continuously gets evaporated, and due to smallness of particles we cannot see the evaporated water particles. According to Atharvaveda also ( ∼1200 –1000 BCE), the Sun rays are the main cause of rain and evaporation (verse I, 5.2, in Sanskrit language):

amurya up surye yabhirg suryah sah | ta no hinvantvadhavaram | |

The Yajurveda ( ∼1200 –1000 BCE) explains the process of water movement from clouds to Earth and its flow through channels and storage into oceans and further evaporation (verse X, 19). During the time of Atharvaveda , the concepts of water evaporation, condensation, rainfall, river flow and storage, and again repetition of the cycle were also well known as in the earlier Vedas. Therefore, it can be inferred that, during the Vedic and earlier periods in India, the concepts of infiltration, water movement, storage, and evaporation as part of the hydrologic cycle were well known to the contemporary Indian scholars.

The epic Mahabharata (verse XII, 184.15–16) explains the water uptake process by plants and mentions that rainfall occurs in 4 months (the Indian summer monsoon, ISM) (verse XII, 362.4–5); in the next 8 months (non-monsoon months), the same water is extracted by the Sun rays through the process of evaporation. Likewise, in other Indian mythological scriptures such as Puranas (which are dated probably between 600 BCE and 700 AD), numerous references to hydrological cycle can be found (NIH, 2018). The Matsya Purana (verse I, 54.29–34) and Vayu Purana (verse 51.23–26) mention the evaporation process which burns water by Sun rays and which is converted to vapor (i.e., the process of evaporation). These vapors ascend to the atmosphere with the help of air and fall as rain in the next rainy season for the goodness of the living beings (NIH, 2018). The Vayu Purana and the Matsya Purana also mention the rainfall potential of clouds and the formation of clouds by cyclonic, convectional, and orographic effects (Nair, 2004). Similarly, the Linga Purana (verse I, 36.67) clearly explains the various processes of the hydrologic cycle such as evaporation, and condensation and mentions that water cannot be destroyed; it gets changed from one form to another (NIH, 2018; Sharma and Shruthi, 2017) as the following.

jalasya nasho vridwirva natatyevasya vichartah | ghravenashrishthto vayuvrishti sanhrte punah | |

The Brahmanda Purana (verse II, 9.138–139; 167–168) explains that the Sun has rays of seven colors which extract water from all sources through heating (evaporation), and it gives to the formation of clouds of different colors and shapes and finally these clouds rain with high intensity and great noise (NIH, 2018). The Vayu Purana also refers to the various underground structures and topography such as lakes, barren tracts, dales, and rocky rift valleys between mountains (verse 38.36).

The Kishkindha sarga (chap. 28; verses: 03, 07, 22, 27, 46) of the epic Ramayana discusses various aspects of the hydrological cycle. Verse 3 mentions the formation of clouds by Sun and wind (through the process of evaporation from the sea) and raining the elixir of life (water), and verse 46 mentions the overflowing of the rivers due to heavy rains in the rainy season. Verse 22 explains the process of cloud transportation laden with water and elevational effects of the mountains on the whole process. Based on these verses (and many more not mentioned here), a depiction on the various stages of the hydrologic cycle may also be established similar to Horton (1931). Malik (2016) also compared the various concepts of the modern hydrologic cycle with those presented in the Ramayana and found that a corollary may be established between them.

The Brihat Samhita (literally meaning big collection) (550 AD) by Varahamihira contains many scientific discourses on the various aspects of meteorology, e.g., “pregnancy” of clouds, pregnancy of air, winds, cloud formations, earthquakes, rainbows, dust storms, and thunder bolts among other things such as colors of the sky, shapes of clouds, the growth of vegetation, behavior of animals, the nature of lightning and thunder, and associated rainfall patterns (Jha, 1988). The water falling from the sky assumes various colors and tastes from differences in the nature of Earth. Out of 33 chapters in the Brihat Samhita , 10 chapters are specifically devoted to meteorology. This highlights the depth of the meteorological knowledge prevalent during the period of Varahamihira and his predecessors in ancient India.

Verse 54.104 of Brihat Samhita explains the relation between soil and water. It is mentioned that pebbly and sandy soil of copper color makes water astringent. Brown-colored soil gives rise to alkaline water, yellowish soil makes water briny, and in blue soil underground water becomes pure and fresh. Brihat Samhita also discusses about the geographical pointers such as plants, reptiles, and insects as well as soil markers to gauge the groundwater resources (occurrence and distribution) (chap. 55, “Dakargalam”). It explains groundwater recharge as “the water veins beneath the earth are like vein's in the human body, some higher and some lower” as given in the following verses (NIH, 2018):

Dharmyam yashashyam va vadabhaytoham dakargalam yen jaloplabdhiha Punsam yathagdeshu shirastathaiva chhitavapi pronnatnimnasanstha.

Ekayna vardayna rasayna chambhyashchyutam namasto vasudha vishayshanta Nana rastvam bahuvarnatam cha gatam pareekshyam chhititulyamayva.

The Dakargalam ( Brihat Samhita , chap. 55) deals with groundwater exploration and exploitation with various surface features, which are used as bioindicators to locate sources of groundwater, at depths varying from 2.29 m to as much as 171.45 m (Prasad, 1980). The bioindicators, described in this ancient Sanskrit work, include various plant species, their morphologic and physiographic features, termite mounds, geophysical characteristics, soils, and rocks (Prasad, 1986). All these indicators are nothing but the conspicuous responses to biological and geological materials in a microenvironment, consequential to high relative humidity in a groundwater ecosystem, developed in an arid or semiarid region. Variation in the height of the water table with place, hot and cold springs, and groundwater utilization by means of wells, along with well construction methods and equipment, are fully described in the Dakargalam (Jain et al., 2007). It also means that the water which falls from the sky originally has the same color and same taste but assumes different color and taste after falling on the surface of the Earth and after percolation. There are also mentions of the plant species and/or stone pitching in details for bank protection of water channels in Brihat Samhita .

Glucklich (2008) opines about the Brihat Samhita : “as the name of the work itself indicates, its data came from numerous sources, some of them probably quite old. However, the prestige and systematic nature of the Brihat Samhita gave its material the authority of prescriptions”. Further, it is also appropriate to quote Varahamihira (chap. 1, verse II, Brihat Samhita ) that “having correctly examined the substance of the voluminous works of the sages of the past, I attempt to write a clear treatise neither too long nor too short” (Iyer, 1884). Here, it would be appropriate to recollect words of Murty (1987) that Varahamihira could be considered the “earliest hydrologist” of the contemporary world in the same vein as Leonardo da Vinci being considered the “Master of Water”.

An interesting fact covered in detail by Varahamihira is the role of termite knolls as an indicator of underground water. Apart from underground water exploration, some of the verses of the chapter deal with topics such as digging of wells; their alignment with reference to the prevailing winds; dealing with hard refractory stony strata; sharpening and tempering of stone-breaking chisels and their heat treatment; treating water with herbs when having an objectionable taste or smell; protection of banks with timbering, stoning, and planting with trees; and such other related matters.

The Jainist literature also made considerable contributions in the field of meteorology. The “ Prajnapana ” and “ Avasyaka Curnis ” provide outstanding references to the various types of winds (Tripathi, 1969). The Avasyaka Curnis furnishes a list of 15 types of winds, and the Prajnapana also mentions snowfall and hailstorms as forms of precipitation. The Buddhist literature also throws significant light on meteorology. In the narrative of the first Jataka, named “ Apannaka ”, several climatological facts are described therein. The Buddhist literature refers to two general classes of clouds: monsoon cloud and storm clouds or accidental ones (Tripathi, 1969). The Samyutta Nikaya classifies clouds into five categories as (i) cool clouds, (ii) hot clouds, (iii) thunder clouds, (iv) wind clouds – formed due to the activity of convection current in the atmosphere, and (v) rain clouds – most probably cumulonimbus, which brings copious downpours of rain.

The Arthashastra and Astadhyayi of Panini (700 BCE) mention the rain gauges (Nair, 2004), which were introduced by the Mauryan rulers in the Magadha country (south Bihar) in the fourth or third century BCE. They are also credited with the establishment of the first observatory. The system continued to be used by the succeeding rulers until the end of the sixth century AD (Srinivasan, 1976). During the Mauryan period, the rain gauge was known as “ Varshamaan ”. In the Arthashastra , the construction of the rain gauge is described as “in front of the store house, a bowel (Kunda) with its mouth as wide as an aratni (24 angulas = 18 in. nearly) shall be set up as rain gauge”. However, the Arthashastra does not have any information about the height of the rain gauge (Srinivasan, 1976). This rain gauge continued to be employed effectively by the succeeding rulers until the end of 600 AD (Srinivasan, 1976; Murty, 1987).

The distribution of rainfall in various regions was well known during the Mauryan period. The Arthashastra mentions the following (Shamasastry, 1961):

The quantity of rain that falls in the country of jangala (desert regions) is 16 dronas ; half as much more in anupanam (moist regions); as the regions which are fit for agriculture (desavapanam) ; 13.5 dronas in the regions of asmakas (Maharashtra); 23 dronas in Avanti (probably Malwa); and an immense quantity in aparantanam (western regions, the area of Konkan); the borders of Himalayas and the countries where water channels are made for use in agriculture.

Kautilya's method of classification of rainfall areas in relation to the annual average quantity is indeed remarkable and he is the only classical author who treats this aspect in a nutshell covering almost the whole of the Indian subcontinent (Srinivasan, 1976). From this, it is evident that the methodology of measurement of rainfall given in Arthashastra is the same as we have today; the only difference is that rain was expressed in weight units. Discussing the further geographical details of rainfall variation, it is mentioned therein that “when one-third of the requisite quantity of the rainfall, during both the commencement and closing months of the rainy season, and two-third in the middle, then the rainfall is considered very even”.

The science of forecasting the rains had also come into existence as (and must have been) developing empirically. It is further mentioned in the Arthashastra that “the rainfall forecasting can be made by observing the position, motion and pregnancy (garbhadhan) of Jupiter ( Brihaspati ), the rising, setting, and motion of Venus; and the natural or unnatural aspects of the Sun. From the movement of Venus, rainfall can be inferred”. Detailed descriptions on the classification of clouds and their water holding capacity (equivalent to the concept of atmospheric rivers) and the interrelationship of rainfall patterns and agriculture can also be found in the Arthashastra .

Therefore, it can be concluded that during the Vedic era and afterwards in the age of epics and Puranas (i.e., from 3000 BCE to 500 AD), knowledge of the hydrologic cycle, groundwater, and water quality was highly advanced, although the people of those times were solely dependent upon their experience of nature, without the sophisticated instruments of modern times. In the Vedic age, Indians had developed the concept that water gets divided into minute particles due to the effect of Sun rays and wind, which ascends to the atmosphere by the air column (the invisible drains); there, it gets condensed and subsequently falls as rainfall ( Vayu Purana , 51.14–16). The Linga Purana also details the various aspects of the hydrological cycle (Sharma and Shruthi, 2017). Monthwise change in the facets of the hydrological cycle was also known. Water uptake by plants, which is facilitated by the conjunction of air along with the knowledge of infiltration, is revealed in the ancient literature. In Brihat Samhita , a full chapter is devoted to the formation of clouds ( Garbhalakshanam ). A detail discussion has been given on the properties of rainy seasons and their relationship with the movement of the planets and cloud formations (Murty, 1987). The Brihat Samhita also discusses the measurement of rainfall and the dimensions of the rain gauge (Murty, 1987).

During the Mauryan period, it was possible to describe the distribution of rainfall in different areas of India. Mauryans are credited with the installation of the first observatory worldwide (Srinivasan, 1976). Modern meteorological facts like the arid region of the Tibetan rain shadow area and no rainfall due to polar winds are extensively covered in Puranas. The Jainist and Buddhist works estimated the actual height of clouds. Knowledge of monsoon winds (Tripathi, 1969) and their effects as conceived by ancient Indians ( Brihat Samhita ) is in accordance with modern hydro-science. These facts show that there was enriched knowledge of water science and associated processes, including meteorology during ancient times in India, which is on par with modern water science.

Based on review of the work on water sciences from Mature Harappan Phase to the Mauryan period, it can be very well established that the ancient Indians were aware of cloud formation, rainfall prediction and its measurements, underground water-bearing structures, high and low water tables at different places, hot and cold springs, groundwater utilization by means of wells, well construction methods and equipment, underground water quality, and even the artesian well schemes. This shows that well-developed concepts of the hydrological cycle, groundwater, and water quality were known to the ancient Indians in those ancient times while the contemporary world was still struggling with unscientific ideas on the distribution of water (see e.g., Dooge, 2004).

The development of sociocultural societies, agricultural establishments, and permanent settlements led to the establishment of a unique relationship between humans and water (Vuorinen et al., 2007; Lofrano and Brown, 2010). Scarborough (2003) and Ortloff (2009) discussed the impacts of water management practices on ancient social structures and organizations with examples from the eastern and western hemispheres. Lofrano and Brown (2010) presented an in-depth review of wastewater management in the history of mankind, and they have categorically discussed about the evolution of sanitation through different civilizations of the world, including the ancient Indus Valley civilization.

As in many other parts of the world, civilization in India also flourished around rivers and deltas. Rivers remain an enduring symbol of national culture (Nair, 2004). The Harappan (or Indus Valley) civilization (Fig. 1), which prospered during 2600–1900 BCE (Chase et al., 2014) or about 5000 years ago (Dixit et al., 2018), had well-planned cities equipped with public and private baths, a well-planned network of sewerage systems through underground drains built with precisely laid bricks, and an efficient water management system with numerous reservoirs and wells (Sharma and Shruthi, 2017). Evidence shows that the Indus people developed one of the smartest urban centers in those ancient times with an exemplary fusion of civil, architectural, and material sciences (Possehl, 2002; Kenoyer, 1998; Wright, 2010). According to Shaw et al. (2007), the development of advanced irrigation systems in ancient India led to the development of the complex urban societies and centers. The Indus Valley civilization was prominent in hydraulic engineering and is known to have developed the earliest known systems of flush toilets in the world (Sharma and Shruthi, 2017). Kenoyer (2003) states that “no other city in the ancient world had developed such a sophisticated water and waste management system. Even during the Roman Empire, some 2000 years later, these kinds of facilities were limited to upper-class neighborhoods”.

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Figure 1 Geographical extent of the Indus Valley civilization (source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).png , last access: 23 August 2020).

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Figure 2 The southern (a) and eastern (b) reservoirs of Dholavira (source: Iyer, 2019).

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Figure 3 Dockyard (a) and ancient Indus port (b) of Lothal (source: https://www.harappa.com , last access: 27 April 2020).

Dholavira, an important city in the Indus Valley civilization, contained sophisticated water management systems comprising series of reservoirs, step wells, and channels (Kirk, 1975; Sharma and Shruthi, 2017; Wright, 2010) (Fig. 2a and b). The city is ringed with a series of 16 large reservoirs (7 m deep and 79 m long), with some of them interconnected together; these storage structures account for about 10 % of the area of the city (Iyer, 2019). The ability to conserve every drop of water in the parched landscape speaks volumes about the engineering skills of the people of Dholavira. Recently, a rectangular step well was found at Dholavira which measured 73.4 m long, 29.3 m wide, and 10 m deep, making it 3 times bigger than the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro ( https://www.secret-bases.co.uk/wiki/Dholavira , last access: 28 April 2020).

The systems that Harappans of Dholavira city developed for conservation, harvesting, and storage of water speak eloquently about their advanced hydraulic engineering capabilities, given the state of technology (Baba et al., 2018). The “Lothal” (meaning “mound of the dead”), known as the harbor city of the Harappan civilization (Bindra, 2003), is located at the doab of the Sabarmati and Bhogavo rivers. A roughly trapezoidal structure having dimensions of 212.40 m on the western embankment, 209.30 m on the eastern one, 34.70 m on the southern one, and 36.70 m on the northern one (Rao, 1979) at Lothal is an example of advanced maritime activities in those old days; and it is claimed by the archeologists to be the first known dockyard of the world (Nigam et al., 2016). Figure 3a and b show the dockyard at the Lothal after rains and the ancient Lothal as envisaged by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). According to Nigam et al. (2016), the existence of the massive protective wall (thickness of up to 18 m) around the Dholavira city indicates that the ancient Indians were aware of oceanic calamities such as tsunami and storms.

Agriculture was practiced on a large scale having extensive networks of canals for irrigation (Nair, 2004). The irrigation systems, such as different types of wells, water storage systems and sustainable low-cost water-harvesting techniques, were developed throughout the region at that time (Nair, 2004; Wright, 2010). There is evidence that the Harappans constructed low-cost water-harvesting structures such as small check dams and bunds using rock-cut pieces and boulders. The Dholavira city was located between the ephemeral nullahs (streams) Mansar in the north and Manhar in the south (Fig. 4) and was equipped with a series of small check dams, stone drains for diverting water, and bunds to reduce the water velocity and thus to reduce siltation in the main reservoirs (eastern and western reservoirs) (Nigam et al., 2016; Agrawal et al., 2018). The Gabarbands were also in use in the Harappan civilization. Similarly, the Ahar–Pyne system (an excellent example of participatory irrigation management and rainwater harvesting in the Mauryan era) is an example of sustainable low-cost rainwater-harvesting structures. Mohenjo-Daro was one of the major urban centers of the Harappan civilization, receiving water from at least 700 wells and almost all houses had one private well (Angelakis and Zheng, 2015). The wells were designed as circular to Pipal ( Ficus religiosa ) leaf shaped (Khan, 2014). Canalizing flood waters through ditches for irrigating the Rabi crops (crops of the dry season) was also practiced at that time (Wright, 2010). The farmers of Harappa frequently used “contouring, bunding, terracing, benching, Gabarbands (dams), and canals” for water management (Mckean, 1985). The Gabarbands (stone-built dams for storing and controlling water) were also prevalent in these times for irrigating agricultural lands during the dry seasons (Rabi crops) (Wright, 2010). It may be noted that the Rabi irrigation was mainly spate irrigation throughout the Indus Valley civilization (Miller, 2006; Petrie et al., 2017; Petrie, 2019), and water was provided by canals and wells. In the Indus context, it has been argued that perennial and ephemeral water courses were exploited for flood inundation when present, and when not, the inhabitants relied on rainfall, small-scale irrigation, well and/or lift irrigation, and ponds to supply water (Miller, 2006, 2015; Petrie, 2019; Weber, 1991, Petrie and Bates, 2017) as well as the Ahar–Pyne system during the Mauryan era.

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During the Vedic age, the principle of collecting water from hilly areas of undulating surface and carrying it through canals to distant areas was known (Bhattacharya, 2012). In the Rigveda , many verses indicate that agriculture can be progressed by use of water from wells and ponds (verse I, 23.18, and verse V, 32.2). Verse VIII, 3.10, mentions construction of artificial canals by ( Ribhus or engineer) to irrigate desert areas. Verses VIII, 49.6, and X, 64.9, emphasize efficient use of water; i.e., the water obtained from different sources such as wells, rivers, rain, and from any other sources on the earth should be used efficiently, as it is a gift of nature, for the wellbeing of all. There are also references to irrigation by wells (verse X, 25), canals (word “ kulya ” in Rigveda ) (verse X, 99), and digging of the canal (verse X, 75) in the Rigveda . In Mahâbhâsya of Patañjali (150 BCE) the word “ kulya ” is also used.

Interestingly, the Rigveda (verses X, 93.12, and X, 101.7) has a mention of “ asma-cakra ” (a wheel made of stones). Water was raised with help of the wheel in a pail using a leather strap. There is also a mention of “ Ghatayantra ” or “ Udghatana ” (a drum-shaped wheel) around which a pair of endless ropes with ghata (i.e., earthen pots) tied at equal distances. In Arabic literature, the water-lifting wheel is also known as “Noria”. Yannopoulos et al. (2015) state that the ancient Indians had already developed water lifting and transportation devices. Further, according to Joseph Needham ( https://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/1294/noria-history , last access: 28 April 2020), based on evidence documented in Indian texts dating from around 350 BCE, the “Noria” was developed in India around the fifth or fourth century BCE and the knowledge was transmitted to the west by the first century BCE and to China by the second century AD. It is worth mentioning here that during the Vedic Period, water for irrigation purposes was taken from lakes ( hradah ), canals ( kulya ), and wells. The exact meaning of the “ asma-cakra ” is “stone pully” or a “disk of stone”. The buckets ( kosa ) tied with the strings made of leather ( varatra ) were pulled around a stone pulley and then emptied into the channels (Mukerji, 1960; Yadav, 2008). The Arthashastra also mentions irrigating the agricultural fields by raising water from rivers, lakes, tanks, and wells using a mechanical device known as “Udghatam” (Srinivasan, 1970).

Similar to Rigveda , Yajurveda also contains references to water management. Verses VI, 100.2, and VII, 11.1, of Yajurveda mention “that the learned men bring water to desert areas by means of well, pond, canals, etc., and the man should think about the drought and flood like natural calamities in advance and take preventive measures accordingly”. Verse XII, 1.3, of Atharvaveda mentions that those who use rainwater by means of rivers, wells, and canals for navigation, recreation, agriculture, etc., prosper all the time. Similarly, verse XX, 77.8, of the Atharvaveda directs the king to construct suitable canals across mountains to provide water for his “subjects” for agriculture and other purposes. The Yajurveda also has references directing the man to use rain and river water by means of wells, ponds, and dams and to distribute it to various places having need of water for agriculture and other purposes. The Atharvaveda talks about drought management through efficient use of available water resources and emphasizes that these waters are used efficiently and will reduce the intensity of droughts. Verse 2.3.1 of the Atharvaveda instructs the reader for proper management of various water bodies such as brooks, wells, and pools and an efficient use of their water resources for reducing the drought intensity and water scarcity (Sharma and Shruthi, 2017). At this juncture, it would be appropriate to mention Kenoyer (2003) that stated “both Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro support the settlements dating to the Vedic Period”. Therefore, more research work is needed for the Vedic Period (1500–500 BCE) coupled with archeological investigations.

Agriculture and livestock rearing occupied a prominent role during the Jainism and Buddhism period (600 BCE), and channel irrigation was in vogue (Bagchi and Bagchi, 1991). Field embankments were constructed surrounding the fields to increase water holding capacity at strategic points with sluice gates to harness river water with proper regulation facilities ( Arthashastra ), and irrigation through conduits was in practice to deliver water to the irrigation field for attaining higher efficiency (Bagchi and Bagchi, 1991). Literature suggests that a large number of hydraulic structures (dams, canals and lakes) were built during the Mauryan period in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and other parts of the country for irrigation and drinking purposes (Shaw et al., 2007; Sutcliffe et al., 2011). Many of these structures were equipped with spillways as a safety measure against incoming large floods. During the Mauryan Empire (400–184 BCE), the emperor Chandragupta Maurya constructed Sudarsana dam in Girnar, Junagadh, Gujarat. Subsequent structural improvements involved the addition of conduits during the reign of Asoka the Great, by his provincial governor the “Yavana Administrator (Greek Administrator)”, Tusaspha (Kielhorn, 1906; Shaw and Sutcliffe, 2001). In an excavation work conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) during 1951–1955, in Kumhrar (the site of ancient Pataliputra), which is a few miles south of Patna, Bihar, “a canal 45 feet broad 10 feet deep and traced up to the length of 450 feet” was found, which is possibly belonging to the Mauryan period. The canal was linked with the “Sone river” and also with the “Ganges” for navigation purposes and also for providing irrigation to the adjoining area (Bhattacharya, 2012).

Similarly, as discussed in Sect. 1, the Ahar–Pyne system of the Mauryan Empire is an excellent example of a hydraulic structure used for rainwater harvesting and participatory irrigation management, and it is still widely practiced in the regions of the southern Bihar and Chhota Nagpur (Naz and Subramanian, 2010; Pant and Verma, 2010). The Pynes are constructed channels to utilize the river water flowing through the hilly regions, whereas the Ahars are catchments with embankments on three sides to store rainwater and the water from the Pynes. The Pynes feed many Ahars and several distributaries are then constructed from both Pynes and Ahars for irrigating the field (Sengupta, 1985; Verma, 1993). The Ahar–Pyne system is extremely well suited for regions that have a scanty rainfall, highly undulating and rocky terrain, soils with heavy clay or loose sand (lower moisture holding capacity), and steep slopes, thus causing extensive surface runoff. The Ahar–Pyne system also works as flood mitigation system (Roy Choudhry, 1957). The Pynes are of different sizes. If the Pynes are originating from the Ahars, then these are smaller in size (3 to 5 km) and used for irrigating cultivable fields, whereas if these Pynes are originating from the rivers, then the size may vary from 16 to 32 km in length and some of them are known as “dasianpynes” (Pynes with 10 branches) to irrigate many thousand acres of the land (O'Malley, 1919). Apart from being a participatory irrigation system, the Ahar–Pyne system also works as a flood mitigation system (Roy Choudhry, 1957). It is worth mentioning here that recently the Government of Bihar has taken up renovation of the traditional water bodies (Ahar–Pyne system) under the “Jal Jeevan Hariyali” program (Water Resources Department, 2020) as shown in Fig. 5. This reflects the importance of this ancient hydraulic structure for water harvesting even in the modern times in India.

https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4691/2020/hess-24-4691-2020-f05

Figure 5 Renovated Ahar–Pyne system in Bihar, India (photo courtesy of Jal Jeevan Hariyali mission, Bihar, India).

In this context, it is instructive to quote Bhattacharya (2012):

by the beginning of 300 BCE, a firm administrative setup had taken shape. As a recognition of high position accorded to agriculture by the rulers as well as the people at large, the construction of tanks and other types of reservoirs was considered to be an act of religious merit. Here the religious merit indicates “the welfare and wellbeing of the society”. The Arthashastra mentions that “He (the King) shall construct reservoirs ( sétu ) filled with water either perennial or drawn from some other source. Or he may provide with sites, roads, timber, and other necessary things to those who construct reservoirs of their own accord”. Similarly, construction of places of pilgrimage ( punyasthána ) and of groves was given a great importance. The king, with the help and advice of his tiers of officials, ministers, and consultants started acting as the “Chief trustee” for optimizing, rationalizing, and overall management of water resources. The Arthashastra of Kautilya gives us an idea of principles and methods of management of irrigation systems… that the Mauryan kings took keen interest in the irrigation schemes is borne by the report of Megasthenes (a Greek traveler), who mentions a group of officers responsible for superintending the rivers, measuring the land as is done in Egypt, and inspecting the sluices through which the water is released from the main canals into their branches so that everyone may have an equal supply.

Shaw and Sutcliffe (2001) presented hydrological background of the historical development of water resources in South Asia with particular emphasis on ancient Indian irrigation system at the Sanchi site (a well-known Buddhist site and a UNESCO World Heritage site located in Madhya Pradesh). They investigated a 16-reservoir complex located in the Betwa river subbasin (a tributary of Yamuna in Ganga basin) in Madhya Pradesh, India, during 1998 and 2005 (Shaw, 2000; Shaw et al., 2007; Shaw and Sutcliffe, 2001, 2003a, b, 2005). In addition to Sanchi, four other known Buddhist sites of Morel-khurd, Sonari, Satdhara, and Andher, all established between 300 and 200 BCE (Cunningham, 1854; Marshall, 1940), were also surveyed by them. The rainfall is highly seasonal in this area, and about 90 % of the rainfall occurs in the period between mid-June and September. There is a period of water deficit from January to June (when evapotranspiration exceeds rainfall) followed by a period from July to September (rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration) (Shaw and Sutcliffe, 2001).

The heights of the dams were found to vary from 1 to 6 m and their lengths from 80 to 1400 m with flat downstream faces; presumably designed to reduce damage from overtopping. At least two of the larger dams were equipped with spillways, which could pass floods of about a 50-year return period, and it suggests that flood protection was also taken into account while designing these structures (Shaw and Sutcliffe, 2003a). Their reservoir volumes range from 0.03 to 44.7×10 6 m 3 and these estimates are closely related to the runoff generated by their catchments based on the present hydrological conditions. These dams were constructed to a height sufficient to ensure that the reservoir volume would be closely related to the volume of runoff from the upstream catchment of each site (Shaw and Sutcliffe, 2001). This indicates that these structures would have been constructed based on the detailed hydrological investigations of the region. These dams were specifically built for irrigation purposes, particularly for irrigation of rice (Shaw and Sutcliffe, 2001). According to Shaw and Sutcliffe (2005), it is more likely that the Sanchi reservoirs were part of the complementary irrigation systems providing extensive irrigation for rice cultivation and would have also supplemented rabi crops due to higher moisture holding capacity of the black cotton soils found in that region. More or less identical spillways were also found with a group of much smaller reservoirs in the neighboring Devni Mori area of Gujarat (Mehta, 1963). There are close similarities between the Sanchi dams and a well-known Sudarsana dam (Shaw and Sutcliffe, 2003b). Sutcliffe et al. (2011) opines that it is likely that some of the larger dams in the Sanchi area may have been fitted with similar spillways, which have subsequently been obscured by siltation or erosion.

According to Shaw and Sutcliffe (2001), a close relationship between runoff and reservoir volume in the Sanchi area suggests a high level of understanding of water balance based on considerable period of observation and understandings of local conditions. While excavating the area around the “Heliodorus” pillar in Vedisa (present-day Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh), Bhandarkar (1914) found the remains of a 300 BCE canal, which would have been drawing water from the river Betwa. However, Shaw and Sutcliffe (2001) further mention that a more comprehensive understanding of ancient Indian irrigation would have been developed had adequate attention been paid to the Sanchi reservoir complex during the Vedisa excavations. Based on these findings, Shaw and Sutcliffe (2003a, b) and Sutcliffe et al. (2011) conclude that the Sanchi dam system would have been built on the basis of a sound knowledge of the principles of water balance with detailed hydrological investigations and by “engineers with experience of reservoir irrigation” with a higher level of understanding of hydraulic technology.

During the Sangam Period (300 BCE to 300 AD), in the southern parts of India, the rainwater-harvesting structures such as tanks ( ery in Tamil) were constructed for irrigating the paddy fields (Fardin et al., 2013; Sita, 2000), and fishing was also practiced in lotus ponds ( tamaraikulam in Tamil) (Sita, 2000). The Grand Anicut (Kallanai Dam) was constructed by the Chola King Karikalan during the first century AD on the river Cauvery for protection of the downstream populations against flood and to provide for irrigation supplies in the Cauvery delta region. The Grand Anicut is the world's oldest still in use dam and is also credited with being the fourth oldest dam in the world and the first in India. In Brihat Samhita (550 AD), there are references regarding the orientation of ponds, bank protection through pitching, plantation, and also sluicing arrangements. Brihat Samhita contains many references regarding the orientation of ponds so as to store and conserve water efficiently (reducing evaporation losses), plantation type for bank protection, and proper sluicing to protect the pond or reservoir from any possible damage. Verse 54.118 mentions that a pond oriented in an east-to-west direction retains water for a long time, while one oriented from north to south loses invariably by the waves raised by the winds. Verse 54.120 suggests that construction of a spillway as an outlet for the water should be made on a side with the passage being laid with stones.

Sanitation and wastewater management has always been one of the most important socio-environmental challenges that humankind has ever faced and the societies in ancient India had developed state-of-the-art technological solutions by utilizing their knowledge of hydraulic systems with structural and material advancements.

The Harappan cities were one of the very first and most urbanized centers developed with excellent civil and architectural knowledge in the Old World. Even as early as 2500 BCE, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro included the world's first urban sanitation systems (Webster, 1962). Lofrano and Brown (2010) presented an in-depth review of wastewater management in the history of mankind and found that the “Indus Valley civilization was the first to have proper wastewater treatment systems” in those ancient times. Wastewater management and sanitation were the major characteristics of the first urban sites of the Harappan civilization (Kenoyer, 1991). The sewage and drainage systems were composed of complex networks, especially in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa (Jansen, 1989). Latrines, soak pits, cesspools, pipes, and channels were the main elements of wastewater disposal (Fardin et al., 2013).

All the houses were connected to the drainage channels, which were covered with bricks and cut stones, and the household wastewater was first collected through tapered terracotta pipes into the small sumps for sedimentation and removal of larger contaminants (primary wastewater treatment) and then into drainage channels in the street. This most likely was the first attempt at wastewater treatment on record (Lofrano and Brown, 2010). The pipes were built with well-burned bricks (Gray, 1940) having U-shaped cross sections and set in clay mortar with various coverings (brick slabs, flagstones, or wooden boards); they could be removed easily for cleaning the pipes. These ancient terracotta pipes are the precursor of our modern vitrified clay spigot-and-socket sewer pipes (Gray, 1940). These drainage channels had the provision of cleaning and maintenance by removing the bricks and cut stones (Wolfe, 1999). The cesspits were fitted at the junction of several drains to avoid clogging of the drainage systems (Wright, 2010).

Multiple flushing lavatories attached to a sophisticated sewage system were provided in the ancient cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (Pruthi, 2004). The Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro and the 16 reservoir system of the Dholavira as well as the dockyard are perfect examples of the excellent hydraulic engineering in the Harappan civilization.

Fardin et al. (2013) mention that almost all the settlements of Mohenjo-Daro were connected to the drain network. However, at the same time, at Kalibangan, toilets and bathroom outflows were connected in U-shaped channels made of wood or terracotta bricks with decentralized sewage systems. These effluents poured into a jar placed in the main street (Chakrabarti, 1995). The same model of wastewater collection was used in Banawali, where effluents were channeled into drains made of clay bricks before reaching the jars (Bisht, 1984). Several types of stone and terracotta conduits and pipes were also used to transfer water, drain storm water, and wastewater in the Minoan civilization (ca. 3200–1100 BCE) (De Feo et al., 2014).

In many other parts of ancient India, e.g., Jorwe (Maharashtra), a similar drainage system was established during 1375–1050 BCE (Fardin et al., 2013; Kirk, 1975). Apart from the detailed references to various aspects of hydrology as discussed earlier, we also get some references to water quality in Vedas and other early literature, especially in Atharvaveda, Charaka Samhita , and Susruta Samhita (both of the pre- and early Buddhist era) (NIH, 2018). There are hymns in Rigveda stating the role of forest conservation and tree plantation on water quality (verse V, 83.4). Verse V, 22.5, of Atharvaveda cautioned people from diseases living in a region with heavy rainfall and bad quality of water. There are instances of classifying water based on taste in epic Mahabharata (verse XII, 184.31 and 224.42). The Brihat Samhita also discussed the relationship between soil color and water quality (verse 54.104), and techniques are mentioned for obtaining potable water with medicinal properties from contaminated water (verses 54.121 and 54.122).

At around 500 BCE, the city of Ujjain was also provided with a sophisticated drainage system having soak pits built of pottery-ring or pierced pots (Kirk, 1975; Mate, 1969). In Taxila around 300 BCE, a very much similar drainage system to that of Mohenjo-Daro was in place (Singh, 2009). This shows that during ancient times, modern concepts of sanitation and wastewater management technology were very well known to the Indians and were in their advanced stages during the Indus Valley civilization and later periods.

All the ancient civilizations, i.e., Harappan, Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Chinese, and Minoan, that flourished and attained their pinnacle were largely dependent on the degree or extent of their advancements in water technologies. With efficient management of water resources, they were able to produce more food grains and mitigate the damages due to natural hazards such as droughts and floods. At the same time, the advanced wastewater management techniques helped in healthy lifestyles, hygiene, and clean environments. The ancient Indian literature covering the period from the Harappan civilization to the Vedic Period followed by the Mauryan Empire, including the hymns and prose in Vedic Samhitas and Puranas, contains detailed discourses on the various processes of the hydrological cycle, including groundwater exploration, water quality, well construction, and irrigation by channels (kulya). Water technological advancements coupled with the architectural sophistication during the Harappan civilization were at their zenith. Nowhere in the contemporary world can such a sophisticated and impressive planning relating to the water supply and effluent disposal system be found (Jansen, 1989). Almost all houses had private wells with bath and toilet area lined with the standard size burned bricks and draining into the soak pit or into the street drains.

The effluent disposal drainage systems were well known to almost all the civilizations at that time with varying levels of technological advancements. The Egyptian civilization ( ∼2000 –500 BCE) lacked flushing lavatories and sophisticated sewer and wastewater disposal systems at that time as was prevalent in the Harappan civilization. Copper pipes were in use in some pyramids for building bathrooms and sewerage systems (De Feo et al., 2014). The Mesopotamian civilization (ca. 4000–2500 BCE) also had well-constructed storm drainage and sanitary sewer systems. However, there seems to be no system of vertical water supply by means of wells, and it was even practically unknown in the early urban cultures (Jansen, 1989; De Feo et al., 2014). According to Jansen (1989) and De Feo et al. (2014), very efficient drainage and sewerage systems and flushing toilets, which can be compared to the modern ones, were re-established in Europe and North America a century and a half ago.

Mohenjo-Daro was serviced by at least 700 wells, whereas the contemporary Egyptians and Mesopotamians had to fetch water, bucket by bucket, from the river and then store the water in tanks at home (Jansen, 1989). The bathing platforms in the Harappan civilization were also unique compared to the Mesopotamian and other civilizations. The ancient cities of the Mesopotamian civilization, i.e., Ur and Babylon, had effective drainage systems for storm water control, sewers and drains for household waste, and drains specifically for surface runoff (Jones, 1967; Maner, 1966). The ancient Mesopotamians had also developed canal irrigated agriculture and constructed dams across the Tigris river for diverting water to meet the irrigation and domestic supplies. The “qanat” systems were widely used in the Mesopotamian civilization for transferring water from one place to another using gravity. The urban centers of the Sumer (Sumerian) and Akkad (Akkadian) (third millennium BCE) had water supplies by canal(s) connected to the Euphrates river. The water-lifting devices were also used in the Mesopotamian civilization, and the Saqia (or water wheel) was widely used for lift irrigation using oxen for irrigating the summer crops (Mays, 2008). The “ asma-cakra ” and “ Ghatayantra ” were widely in use during the Vedic and Mauryan periods. The Varshamaan was widely used in the Mauryan Empire for rainfall measurements. It may be noted that we do not have any reference to “rainfall measurement” in other contemporary civilizations in the Old World. The Ahar–Pyne system of participatory irrigation and rainwater harvesting is a unique system developed in ancient India. The water fortification ( audaka ) around the forts was also a prime requirement in the Mauryan Empire.

In the Chinese (Hwang-Ho) civilization, the Shang Dynasty (1520–1030 BCE) developed extensive irrigation works for rice cultivation. Various water works such as dikes, dams, canals, and artificial lakes proliferated across the Chinese civilization. During the period 1100–221 BCE, Lingzhi city (covering an area of 15 km 2 ) also had a complex water supply and drainage system, which was combined with the river, drainage raceway, pipeline, and moat (De Feo et al., 2014). The underground urban drainage systems were also in existence in China during the Shang Dynasty ( ∼10 –15 BCE).

The Minoan civilization ( ∼3200 –1100 BCE) is considered to be the first and the most important European culture (Khan et al., 2020). Crete was the center of the Minoan civilization and was known for architectural and hydraulic operation of its water supply, sewerage, and drainage systems (Khan et al., 2020). Aqueducts made of terracotta were in use for transporting water from the mountain springs. Water cistern were used for storing rainwater and spring water for further transporting it by using aqueducts. Lavatories with a flushing system were also in use in this civilization.

In the words of Jansen (1989), “for the first time in the history of mankind, the waterworks developed in Harappan civilization were to such a perfection which was to remain unsurpassed until the coming of the Romans and the flowering of civil engineering and architecture in classical antiquity, more than 2000 years later”. Overall, if we closely look at the scale of the hydro-technologies in all the civilizations, the Harappan civilization is not only credited with the more advanced and larger-scale application of hydro-technologies (hydrologic, hydraulic, and hydro-mechanical) but also worked as a “archetype” for contemporary civilizations to achieve the great heights in human civilizations, on the whole.

The decline of the Harappan civilization is still a puzzle; there is no clear reason, and the topic is still being debated in historical and scientific circles. Many factors such as climatic, economic, and political factors have been attributed to the spectacular decline of the Harappan civilization. However, no single explanation can be thought of as the sole descriptor of this decline (Lawler, 2008). Keeping in view the status and developments of the civilization, it is likely that there were multiple factors that went against the sustainability of the Harappan civilization, and nature-related factors are likely to have played a dominant role. Here we list some of the factors which might have eventually led to the decline of the Harappan civilization.

Climate change . The dry epoch that lasted for about 900 years due to weakening of the Indian summer monsoon (around 4350 years ago) adversely impacted the agrarian society of this civilization (Das, 2018; Dixit et al., 2014). The period of a long dry spell reduced the snow cover in the northwest Himalaya, causing reduced water availability in the Indus River (Dutt et al., 2018; Kathayat et al., 2017). The reduction in water availability severely impacted agricultural systems (Sarkar et al., 2016) and production, which ultimately led to the migration of the population towards the Gangetic plains.

Infectious diseases. The vulnerable state of Harappan society may have been compounded by concurrent social and economic changes, promoting further disintegration of the Harappan civilization. The stratified social structure and urbanization facilitated propagation of infectious diseases (leprosy, tuberculosis) within the marginalized population. These factors led to massive migration of the population from the Indus Valley around 1900 BCE (Schug et al., 2013).

Natural disasters. The presence of silt deposits and topographic and geological anomalies suggest that the occurrence of massive floods might have caused the decline of the Harappan civilization. Tectonic disturbances might have altered the course of the Indus River, affecting the water availability for agricultural production (Dales, 1966).

This paper has explored the hydrological developments in ancient India starting from the Harappan civilization to the Vedic Period and during the Mauryan Empire using references from Vedas; mythological epics such as Mahabharata and Ramayana ; Jainist and Buddhist literature; the references to Arthashastra , Astadhyayi , and many other Vedic texts such as Puranas ( Brahmana , Linga , etc.); Brihat Samhita ; and other ancient literature. The following conclusions can be drawn from this investigation.

The Harappan civilization epitomizes the level of development in water sciences. Agriculture was the main economic activity of Harappan society. Extensive networks of canals, water storage structures, different types of wells, and sustainable low-cost water-harvesting structures were developed during this period. Harappans had created sophisticated water and wastewater management systems, planned networks of sewerage systems through underground drains, and also had the earliest known system of flush toilets in the world. The Harappan civilization is also credited with the first-known dockyard in the entire world. The Harappans were also aware of the oceanic calamities such as tsunami.

The Vedas, particularly the Rigveda , Atharvaveda , and Yajurveda , had specifically dwells upon the hydrologic cycle and various associated processes. The concepts of evaporation, cloud formation, water movement, infiltration and river flow, and repetition of the cycle are explicitly discussed in these ancient texts. Rigveda also mentions a water-lifting device such as Asma-cakra and Ghatyanta (similar to Noria), among others. Ramayana has also mentioned the hydrologic cycle and artesian wells. Mahabharata explains about the monsoon seasons and the water uptake process by plants. Matsya Purana, Vayu Purana , Linga Purana , and Brahmanda Purana also mention the processes of evaporation; formation of clouds due to cyclonic, convectional, and orographic effects; rainfall potential of clouds; and many other associated hydrological processes.

The Rigveda, Atharvveda, Brihat Samhita, Susruta Samhita , and Charaka Samhita have numerous references to water quality and nature-based solutions (NBS) for obtaining potable water. The Dakargalam chapter of Brihat Samhita dwelt upon the occurrence and distribution of groundwater resources using geographical pointers and soil markers.

The first observatory for measuring rainfall using Varshamaan (rain gauge) was established during the Mauryan Empire in India. The reservoirs, dams, and canals equipped with spillways were constructed for irrigation and domestic supplies with adequate knowledge of water balance. A water pricing system was developed. Some structures were also constructed that considers 50-year return periods. In water history, the Mauryan period is recognized as the first and foremost hydraulic civilization. They had also developed a system to forecast rainfall.

There are pieces of evidence to show that the Harappans had developed one of the smartest urban centers in those ancient times with an exemplary fusion of civil, architectural, and material sciences. The Indus Valley civilization is known to have developed the earliest-known system of flush toilets in the world. They had also developed sophisticated water management systems comprising a series of reservoirs, step wells, and channels.

Agriculture was practiced on a large scale having extensive networks of canals for irrigation. The irrigation systems, different types of wells, water storage systems, and sustainable low-cost water-harvesting techniques were developed throughout the region at that time. There are many pieces of evidence that the Harappans constructed low-cost water-harvesting structures using locally available materials through public participation. Mohenjo-Daro was one of the major urban centers of the Harappan civilization receiving water from at least 700 wells and almost all houses had one private well (Angelakis and Zheng, 2015).

The Mauryan kings took keen interest in the irrigation schemes. The Ahar–Pyne system of the Mauryan Empire, an excellent example of rainwater harvesting and irrigation management, is still practiced in southern Bihar and Chhota Nagpur. A number of hydraulic structures were built during the Mauryan period for irrigation and drinking purposes. An excavation work by the Archaeological Survey of India close to Patna revealed a large canal, likely belonging to the Mauryan period, which was possibly constructed for navigation and irrigation. Interestingly, a verse of Atharvaveda mentions that those who use rainwater by means of rivers, wells, and canals for navigation, recreation, agriculture etc., prosper all the time.

Tanks (rainwater-harvesting structures) were constructed for irrigating the paddy fields in southern India about 2000 years ago. The Chola King Karikalan constructed the Grand Anicut on the Cauvery river for flood protection and for irrigation in the Cauvery delta during the first century AD.

As early as 2500 BCE, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro had the world's first urban sanitation systems. The sewage and drainage systems were composed of complex networks connecting the houses, including latrines, soak pits, cesspools, pipes, and channels.

A number of factors might have eventually led to the collapse of the Harappan civilization: a dry epoch that lasted for about 900 years due to weakening of the Indian summer monsoon; the stratified social structure and urbanization facilitated propagation of infectious diseases; and natural disasters including the occurrence of massive floods and tectonic disturbances.

Hydrologic knowledge in ancient India was contained in the shlokas of scriptures and very few people are conversant with the languages of the scriptures. Hence, knowledge and wisdom remained largely unknown to the later generations. Further, the script of the Harappans has not yet been deciphered. If further research is carried out on ancient literature and when the script of the Harappans is deciphered, many more facts will emerge which may be much more fascinating than what we know so far.

No data sets were used in this article.

PPM and SKJ conceptualized the paper and its contents. PKS, PD, SKJ, and PPM developed the structure of the paper. PKS wrote most parts of the paper; PD contributed to Sect. 5 and also contributed to referencing and formatting the article. SKJ and PPM wrote some parts of the article as well as reviewed, revised, and supervised the progress of article.

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

This article is part of the special issue “History of hydrology” (HESS/HGSS inter- journal SI). It is not associated with a conference.

This paper was edited by Roberto Ranzi and reviewed by Stefano Barontini and one anonymous referee.

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Introduction
Knowledge of hydrological processes in ancient India
Measurement of precipitation
Water management technology in ancient India
Wastewater management in ancient India
Hydraulic interlinkages between the ancient Indian and nearby cultures
Decline of Harappan civilization – role of climate and natural disasters
Summary and conclusions
Data availability
Author contributions
Competing interests
Special issue statement
Review statement
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The Alliance for Water Stewardship certification program in the Netherlands enables companies to adopt water-efficient methods and reduce water usage by 20-30%. Similarly, the Singapore Water Story emphasizes water conservation and management, which has enabled the country to create a self-sustainable water supply system.
Hydrology and water resources management in ancient India
Abstract. Hydrologic knowledge in India has a historical footprint extending over several millenniums through the Harappan civilization (∼3000-1500 BCE) and the Vedic Period (∼1500-500 BCE). As in other ancient civilizations across the world, the need to manage water propelled the growth of hydrologic science in ancient India. Most of the ancient hydrologic knowledge, however, has ...

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Essay on Water Management

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Water Management

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Water resource management: IWRM strategies for improved water management. A systematic review of case studies of East, West and Southern Africa

1 Introduction

2 Methodology

2.2 Literature handling

2.2.1 Eligibility criteria.

2.2.2 Search strategy.

2.2.3 Selection process.

2.3 Thematic analysis

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Case studies

3.2 Diffusion drivers of IWRM in East, West and Southern Africa

3.2.2 Trans-boundary water resources.

3.2.3 Donor influence.

3.2.4 Government intervention and pro-active citizenry.

3.2.5 Legal, political and institutional incoherence.