bulleted list for research paper

How to Use Bullet Lists and Number Lists in a Research Paper

Academic articles often include lists, which organize the material and provide the reader with a quick overview of a section. There are different ways to format lists, but some general principles apply to all of them: they should be constructed in a parallel fashion, and they should be consistent. Numbers, letters, and bullet points are not required in all cases. Academic writers who use The Chicago Manual of Style will find various formats there, but four common list formats are presented here.

Types of List Formats

Run-in lists.

A run-in list, as the name suggests, is included as part of the general text. Elements can be separated in different ways, as shown in the examples below.

Separated with a Colon:   When a complete sentence is followed by a list of items, separate the sentence from the list with a colon.

E.g. “ Do not venture into the wilderness without these items: a knife, a book of matches, a flashlight, and a map. ”

Separated with Numbers:  When the list is part of the sentence, you can separate the items by numbering them.

E.g. “ The Housing Committee passed resolutions on (1) annual salaries, (2) fundraising efforts, and (3) community building. ”

Related: Need instant academic writing tips on your cell phone? Download the FREE Enago Academy mobile app now!

Vertical Lists

A vertical list should be preceded by a complete sentence that gives an overview of the points being listed. The list does not need to have a bullet point format and a punctuation mark is not at the end of the entries. For example:

Your admissions packet should include these items:

The three-page statement of purpose

The financial questionnaire

Your contact information

If the lead-in sentence is a complete one and all entries in the list are complete sentences, a punctuation mark should follow each entry. For example (using bullet points):

Make perfect banana bread every time by following these easy steps:

• Preheat the oven to 325 degrees.
• Grease an 8 x 8 baking dish.
• Combine all the dry ingredients (listed above).
• Gently fold in the wet ingredients (listed above).
• Pour the batter into the dish and bake for 45 minutes.

Again, note that because each entry in the list is a complete sentence, a final period is used.

Vertical Lists Punctuated as a Sentence

When a list is too long or convoluted to be presented as one sentence, you can use a vertical list that is punctuated like a sentence. This format is especially useful when the phrases include internal punctuations or the reader might find it difficult to follow the meaning. An example follows below.

Biology instructors have made significant changes to their curricula and classrooms, and today it is common to find

• innovative research techniques, especially those requiring knowledge of anatomy, in labs;
• greater focus on teamwork;
• in-class lectures customized for learning styles; and
• bilingual lesson plans.

Vertical Lists with Subdivided Items

A complex vertical list may be formatted in a way that resembles an outline, using numbers and letters to provide a logical structure. The lead-in (introductory) line should be a complete sentence, as seen in the example below.

Students should be prepared to discuss the following topics:

• Regional History
• Geography and landmarks
• Erosion in mountainous areas
• Notable Figures
• The first tribal chieftains
• The emergence of political divisions and leaders
• The role of women
• Cultural Developments
• The spread of language
• Music used to bind communities

The next time you read a research paper , look for lists and examine how they were constructed. Do the entries use a consistent format? Are the numbers and/or letters correctly placed and in the proper order? Is the lead-in line a complete sentence? If you find that these steps are all present, chances are that the author took the time to research the structure of lists and present them accurately. Now you can do the same.

References:

• Get It Write. Handling Vertical Lists.  Retrieved from http://www.getitwriteonline.com/archive/101406VerticalLists.htm

Very helpful and precise

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Bullet Point Your Research Paper: A How-To Guide

As the demand for college and university-level research papers grows, so too does the need for effective strategies to help students break down their written work into manageable pieces. One approach that is gaining traction among instructors and tutors alike is bullet point organization of a research paper. This method allows students to present information more concisely while still conveying enough detail in order to effectively support any argument or position they are trying to make. In this article, we will provide an overview of what bullet pointing involves and how it can be used as part of successful paper composition. We will also provide tips on making sure points are chosen wisely when constructing your essay structure with bullets, along with some useful techniques for enhancing readability through proper formatting conventions such as font size and spacing guidelines. Finally, we’ll offer advice on troubleshooting common issues related to presenting one’s writing using this style so that you can confidently submit papers which have been organized clearly via bulleted lists – no matter what assignment or academic setting you find yourself in!

1. Introduction to Bullet Pointing Research Papers

2. benefits of bullet pointing in writing processes, 3. strategies for effective bulletin point creation, 4. examples of well-formatted and cohesive bulleted points, 5. pitfalls to avoid when structuring bullets in a paper, 6. tips for paragraph development after listing points, 7. conclusion: utilizing bullets as an organizational tool.

Unleashing the Power of Bullet Points in Research Papers

Bullet points have become indispensable tools for expressing ideas and structuring content. With their succinct format, they can quickly summarize key concepts or arguments within research papers. While some academics regard bullet pointing as an oversimplification of complex material, when used effectively, it’s a powerful way to organize information into bite-sized chunks that are easier to digest.

At its core, the purpose of bullet point research is to provide clarity and facilitate understanding among readers by breaking up long texts with shorter points. They also help guide readers through different sections so they don’t get lost in meandering explanations and convoluted syntaxes – something which could easily be avoided with judicious use of bullets! So yes – can research papers have bullet points? . Absolutely! Not only do they make your paper look more organized but also communicate your thoughts better than sentences alone ever could.

Organization and Presentation of Ideas Bullet pointing is an effective writing tool for organizing ideas, which can help writers present complex information in a digestible manner. The structure allows readers to quickly skim over the text while still grasping important points without getting lost in details. This makes bullet-pointed paragraphs ideal when summarizing facts or providing quick overviews.

Moreover, bullets allow writers to connect pieces of information that might not have been otherwise related into categories, making them easier for readers to remember and absorb. Not only does this make it simpler to track concepts within texts but also highlights the most salient aspects of any given topic allowing readers to concentrate on more significant elements instead of wasting time with trivial details.

In terms of academic papers, researchers are often advised against using lists unless absolutely necessary due to their informal nature; however, there are instances where including some form bullets may improve readability such as when presenting survey results or numerical data. When used judiciously they can be beneficial by creating visual breaks between sections helping organize large chunks of content into manageable bitesize segments – something particularly useful during long-form assignments like dissertations or research papers.

Prioritize Points

Creating effective bullet points begins with prioritizing the most essential information. All topics should be given due consideration and weighted against each other. What is more important to emphasize in a research paper? Picking out key talking points can help readers understand the material quickly and easily, without overwhelming them with too much detail.

Organization is critical for creating memorable bullets that make an impression on viewers. Clarity must come first before aesthetic considerations are made about font type or size, as well as images or multimedia elements placed alongside them. It’s also worth considering if all parts of a topic will need bullet points or if some ideas can be explained further through text-based explanation; either way it’s important not to clutter up the page with too many bullets at once.

Balance Detail & Brevity

• Research papers often contain dry facts and technical language – but do these really have to appear in their plainest form within bullet lists?
• It helps to think of each point as having its own personality which comes from being able to capture complex ideas into concise words.

By using creative phrasing while still preserving meaning, content creators can craft captivating yet informative writing – especially when done right this provides an engaging entrypoint into understanding any subject matter no matter how complicated it may seem initially.

Bulleted points are a great way to add organization and structure to any type of document. They can be used in research papers, newsletters, brochures, webpages and other documents as they provide readers with an easy-to-read format that breaks down complex information into smaller chunks. When using bulleted points it is important to ensure that the content within each point is cohesive and well formatted for maximum impact.

Using Cohesive Points: To create effective bullet points it’s important that all of the items listed have some sort of common thread running through them so the reader doesn’t feel confused or overwhelmed by having too much unconnected material presented at once. For example if you were writing about different types of chocolate chip cookies then each point should contain relevant details like ingredients used, baking time required etc., rather than unrelated facts such as calorie counts or serving suggestions which could confuse readers who weren’t expecting these sorts of details included in your list.

• Chocolate Chip Cookies – 1/2 cup butter; 2/3 cup sugar; 1 egg…

Formatting Your Content: Additionally when creating bullet points make sure everything looks neat by formatting correctly including capitalizing words where appropriate, adding punctuation marks after each item on the list and not making individual entries run over multiple lines – unless absolutely necessary due to word count restrictions.

For instance instead of saying “chocolate chip cookie recipe contains Butter Sugar Egg Vanilla Extract Flour Baking Soda Salt” you’d want to write out something like this.

• “Chocolate Chip Cookie Recipe – Contains : Butter , Sugar , Egg , Vanilla Extract , Flour , Baking Soda & Salt .”

. This makes your work appear more professional while also helping break up difficult concepts into easier pieces for better understanding!

In conclusion yes research papers can include bulleted lists but bear in mind both cohesion among points as well as proper formatting rules must be adhered too for best results.

When structuring bullets within an academic paper, there are certain pitfalls that should be avoided for the most effective communication of ideas and research outcomes. The following tips will help you keep your writing clear and concise while also avoiding common errors.

The first mistake to avoid is using too many bullet points – this can quickly make the text seem cluttered or disorganized. It’s important to use bullet points judiciously; often, two or three well-structured sentences may convey more information than a lengthy list of bullets would. Additionally, it’s worth noting that while some instructors allow them in their papers, not all do – so it pays to check with yours before including any! Lastly, avoid treating each bullet as if its own individual paragraph – instead think of them as subheadings which organize long blocks of copy into manageable sections.

• For example:

Bullets can add structure when discussing complex topics by breaking down long texts into shorter parts – but they shouldn’t be overused and should always fit logically into the overall narrative arc being created by your paper. Can Research Papers Have Bullet Points? Yes – provided that they follow specific formatting guidelines such as keeping bullets relatively brief (three lines maximum)and only using relevant information pertaining directly to your topic at hand. If used correctly, then yes–research papers can certainly benefit from organized lists!

Developing the Paragraphs: Once the points are listed, it’s important to build on them and develop each idea within a paragraph. This is done by linking the information from one point with that of another in order to create sentences which flow naturally together. The transition words used should be relevant and help keep readers engaged in reading further. Additionally, providing supportive details for every argument presented is essential; this can include quotes from reliable sources or statistics related to an issue discussed in the paper.

Another helpful strategy when developing paragraphs after listing points is using bullet points if they fit better than plain text – some research papers may benefit from having clearly outlined ideas more so than lengthy descriptive passages. Be sure to use consistent font sizes for any bullets as well as indentation spacing between them – these will make key concepts easier for readers to comprehend quickly without disrupting their overall understanding of your paper’s main arguments.

Bullet Points: Streamlining Content for Improved Comprehension

The utilization of bullet points is an effective tool when it comes to presenting data and information in a more organized manner. It helps keep track of the various topics being discussed, as well as guiding readers through essential facts and conclusions easily. Bullets are especially useful in research papers where there is often too much detail included that could otherwise be overwhelming for readers to digest all at once. In addition, they allow researchers to present their findings succinctly without having to sacrifice clarity or context.

By utilizing bullets, authors can make sure their paper stands out from others by providing a clear structure and concise style that makes the content easier on the eyes while still retaining its value. Furthermore, this organization technique enables them to organize sections into subsections more effectively – something which may not always be possible with paragraphs alone since many times these tend towards lengthy digressions rather than straightforward statements of fact.

Can research papers have bullet points? Absolutely! Bullet points should never replace full sentences nor do away with important explanations or arguments but they can certainly supplement written text by helping convey complex ideas quickly and efficiently – something particularly valuable when dealing with long academic essays like those typically found in peer-reviewed publications!

English: This guide to bullet point research paper writing has provided an in-depth examination of the structure and organization that can make this process easier. By following these steps, writers will be able to produce concise yet effective papers with a well-crafted flow and thoughtful presentation of information. Furthermore, they may even find themselves inspired by the creative ways in which bullet points allow them to present their ideas. For those seeking further assistance with formatting or general academic writing skills, additional resources are available for consultation.

Capstone Form and Style

More apa style guidelines: lists.

When listing three or more items, include a serial comma (also known as an Oxford comma) before the last item and the conjunction “and” or “or.” If one or more clauses contains commas in them, use a semicolon instead of a comma to separate the clauses. (Note that the term "seriation" used in APA 6 does not appear in APA 7 and has been replaced by "lists.”)

You may also list items in three other formats: lettered, numbered, and bulleted.

Lettered Lists (APA 7, Section 6.50)

If you have a series of elements in the body of a paragraph, separate each element with lowercase letters enclosed in parentheses. Although only necessary for more complex elements, here is a simple example: (a) lions, (b) tigers, and (c) bears. Items and phrasing should be parallel.

Numbered Lists (APA 7, Section 6.51)

When ordinal position is important, list items vertically.

The organization’s emergency management protocol consists of seven sequential steps:

• Step 1 involves ...
• Step 2 consists of …
• Step 3 has five components: ...

This would be appropriate when you need to show a specific order of elements, such as in steps in a procedure or conclusions.

List items should be complete sentences or paragraphs in a series (not phrases).

Use Microsoft Word’s numbered list function to create the list; select the option with Arabic numerals (not enclosed within parentheses) followed by a period. Capitalize the first word after the number and the first word of any subsequent sentence. End each sentence with appropriate final punctuation. List items should be double-spaced and indented .5 inch.

Bulleted Lists (APA 7, Section 6.52)

Bulleted lists are appropriate when presenting a list of items in no particular order. Bulleted list items can be complete sentences or phrases or sentence fragments. Use Word’s bulleted list function to create the list. List items should be double-spaced and indented .5 inch.

If complete sentences, begin each list item with a capital letter as you would a regular sentence and insert final punctuation (usually a period) at the end of each list item.

Recommendations for improving patient safety at the facility include the following:

• Install adequate lighting and ventilation in wards, patient rooms, and other areas.
• Incorporate regular training and drills to promote staff awareness of safety procedures.
• Regularly solicit staff and patient and family feedback using an outside firm.

If phrases or sentence fragments, begin each list item with a lowercase letter.

In APA 7, you have two options for punctuating bulleted phrases: to include no punctuation after each list item and after the last list item or to include commas or semicolons, as appropriate, after each list item and final punctuation at the end of the list. (Note that APA 6 only recommended the option to punctuate lists with commas or semicolons.)

The first option may be better for shorter, less complex lists.

• installing adequate lighting and ventilation
• incorporating regular training and drills
• regularly soliciting staff and patient and family feedback

The second option may be better for longer, more complex lists.

• installing adequate lighting and ventilation in wards, patient rooms, and other areas;
• incorporating regular training and drills to promote staff awareness of safety procedures; and
• regularly soliciting staff and patient and family feedback using an outside firm.

Seriation Video

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• Previous Page: Serial Commas
• Next Page: Titles
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Writing Clear Science

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How to structure bullet point lists

What are bullet point lists?

When lists are presented with one list item per line, following an indented marker or symbol. they are commonly referred to as ‘bullet points’ or ‘bulleted lists’. Bullet point lists are widely used in science report writing but are rarely used in peer-reviewed journal articles (primarily due to save space).

What is the purpose of bullet points lists?

Bullet point lists are generally used for unnumbered and unordered lists and allow information to stand out separately from paragraphs and other surrounding text. Well-designed bullet points help attract the reader's attention when skimming a document and help them to quickly absorb multiple subtopics.

Making sure that bullet points are structured correctly also helps writers to clarify their thinking. Bullet point lists avoid the need to force a sentence or paragraph to contain lengthy and unwieldy lists. They allow the writer to be more succinct as the repetition needed to link connected sentences within a paragraph can be removed. They can also help to reduce the word count if the list is composed of simple phrases or sentence fragments rather than complete sentences.

The problems with the use of bullet point lists

Many writers are unsure how to structure bullet point lists and use them incorrectly. Some writers use paragraphs when they could have used bullet points and some overuse bullet points instead of writing paragraphs. Some writers haphazardly throw all types of information into bullet points, making them difficult to read. Therefore, guidelines are necessary.

When and how should bullet point lists be used?

There are different ways to structure bullet points. However, ensuring consistency and clarity of meaning is crucial. Two common questions I’m asked are, “ Should bullet points be capitalised ?’ and “ Should bullet points be followed with commas or semi-colons ?” My answer to both is, that it depends on what you are writing and how your structure your introductory elements and list items. An introductory element is the use of a phrase, sentence fragment or complete sentence to introduce the bullet point list.

1. Bullet point lists are introduced with a phrase, a sentence fragment or a complete sentence (introductory element). 

The introductory element is usually followed by a colon (See Example 1).

The following is a brief overview of:

- my understanding about the broad types of software tools on offer.

- how different pricing models influence my choice of tools.

- the current software tools I regularly use for writing, teaching and managing my training consultancy.

- what to keep in mind when searching for good software tools.

(from ‘ FAQ: What software tools do I use for writing and teaching ?’)

2. Each list member must logically complete the meaning conveyed in the introductory element .

As Example 1 is introduced with a sentence fragment (‘ The following is a brief overview of: ’) each list item must form a grammatically-correct complete sentence when combined with it. For example, the second list item would be read as: “ The following is a brief overview of how different pricing models influence my choice of tools .” This is why the first word of each list item is not capitalised and why full stops are used at the end of each list item.

It is very common for writers to avoid this important guideline and not check to see if each list item logically follows on from the introductory element. An incorrect way to represent the information in Example 1 would be as follows:

Hypothetical (incorrect) Example 2

- Includes a current list of software tools I regularly use for writing, teaching and managing my training consultancy .

- Also some tips to keep in mind when searching for the good software tools.

The last two list items, although still relating to the topic, do not follow on from the introductory element. For example, the 3rd list item would read, “ The following is a brief overview of Include a current list of software tools I regularly use for writing, teaching and managing my training consultancy . ” This does not make sense.

3. If an i ntroductory element stands alone as a heading, it doesn’t need any punctuation (see Example 3 below). 

- Plans are not meant to be perfect but act as a guide to your thinking and a framework to further develop the project you are working on.

- Keep all versions of your plans for future reference or to use as templates for future projects.

- Ask colleagues for feedback on your plans as well as your document drafts.

 (from ‘ The essentials of science writing: plan before you write ’ )

4. If the bullet points are composed of complete sentences, they should be each be treated as a normal sentence with capitalisation and terminal punctuation (e.g. full stop, question mark) (see Example 3 above).

5. Consistency is crucial:

- Use the same symbol or marker for your bullet points throughout your document.

- Although you may have different types (structures) of bullet point lists within the same document, all list items within a bullet point list should be the same format: all phrases, all sentence fragments or all complete sentences.

This is another reason why Example 3 is incorrect as the 3rd point is a complete sentence, while the 4th point is a sentence fragment and both are dissimilar in structure to the first two points.

6. Bullet point lists items that are phrases or sentence fragments need no punctuation (see Example 4 below).

Common writing problems often reflect that a writer has not thoroughly considered who their audience is, or what they need. This can cause the following problems:

- providing too much (or not enough) detail or background information

- providing too much detail on unrelated sub-topics or on a well-known topic

- using the wrong language or unfamiliar terminology

- assuming the audience ’s level of interest in, or understanding of, the topic

(from How to identify your target audience ,)

7. Ensure that your list items are distinct from each other (compare examples 5 & 6).

An example of distinct list items:

I agreed to the following decisions:

- the start date of the project.

- that the consultation committee have a  maximum of five registered members .

- the due date of the first stage of the report.

An example of indistinct list items:

- how different pricing models influence the way I research software tools.

In this example, the 3 rd list item is closely related to the 2 nd list item, so I would either combine them all leave point 3 out.

8. The list items can be presented in any order. If they must be presented in a certain order, they should be numbered and considered a ‘numbered list’ and not a bullet point list (See example 7).

Example 7 .

Example of a numbered list

Steps to complete your enrolment:

• Read the terms and conditions.
• Download and complete the application form
• Email the application form to [email protected]
• Follow instructions in enrolment notification email.

9. Use commas or semi-colons at the end of each list item if you are presenting a list as though it was part of an entire sentence (see Examples 8 and 9). 

Hypothetical Example 8 (with commas)

The site contained the following species:

- Eucalyptus saligna,

- Eucalyptus siderophloia,

- Eucalyptus oreades and

- Eucalyptus regen s.

As a complete sentence this would be written as “ The site contained the following species: Eucalyptus saligna, Eucalyptus siderophloia, Eucalyptus oreades and Eucalyptus regen s.”

This type of bullet point list could also make a complicated list easier to read than if it was written in a sentence (see Example 8).

Hypothetical Example 9 (with semi-colons)

- Acacia daviesioides (over 3 dozen seedlings);

- Acacia glaucoptera (3 shrubs);

- Acacia incurve (over 1000 small to medium shrubs);

- Eucalyptus saligna (over 200 seedlings);

- Eucalyptus siderophloia (one large tree and 3 saplings);

- Eucalyptus oreades (six saplings) and

- Eucalyptus regen s (over 300 trees).

As a complete sentence this example would be written as “ The site contained the following species: Acacia daviesioides (over 3 dozen seedlings); Acacia glaucoptera (3 shrubs); Acacia incurve (over 1000 small to medium shrubs); Eucalyptus saligna (over 200 seedlings); Eucalyptus siderophloia (one large tree and 3 saplings); Eucalyptus oreades (six saplings) and Eucalyptus regens (over 300 trees).

If you find you are writing these types of sentences or bullet point lists, depending on the type of document you are writing, it might be better to use tables instead.

© Dr Marina Hurley 2021 www.writingclearscience.com.au

Any suggestions or comments please email  [email protected] 

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How To Make a Bullet List For APA Or MLA Formatting

Whether you are writing a formal article, blogging, completing an academic essay or thesis, bullet lists are an important tool to add some flare to your work. There are, however, some important rules to follow when using lists in your work. We’ve created this helpful guide which complies with APA and MLA formatting standards. If you follow these helpful hints for structuring your lists with examples below from our professional writers at PapersOwl you will be sure to get a high grade.

First, identify when a list is necessary. Lists are useful when you have a lot of details to convey to the reader in a quick and easy manner without bogging the reader down through wordy passages. Lists can be used to give detailed instructions to a process, requirements to complete a certain task, or helpful references to inform of a schedule or event.

When using lists be sure to also follow a set of formatting standards that are accepted and you’ll build confidence in your audience and if you are writing an academic paper you will be sure to receive a high grade on your paper. Our advice – you can use online  APA format generator to avoid mistakes in the reference list in your paper.

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How To List Things In Academic Papers Correctly

Here are some important factors to consider when using lists:

• If your list items are complete sentences, be sure to use proper capitalization and punctuation as if the list item were a stand-alone sentence.
• When using fragmented sentences, do not include any ending punctuation.
• When using semicolons  to separate list items, the last item on the list should contain a period.
• Be sure your list items have a consistent format and style i.e. when using full sentences ensure all list items are full sentences.
• Ensure all your list items are related to the same topic.

If you follow these hints from our custom writing service  your paperwork will look more professional and be more interesting to read. It is also a good idea to give a concluding sentence or two following the list to state its importance or usefulness.

Another interesting format for creating a list is when the list items are closely related, for example, instructions on a specific process are to form the list as one complete sentence. For example, here is a summary of the instructions to write a standard 5 paragraph essay .

• Write a strong thesis statement,
• compose the body of your essay,
• complete the introduction, and
• finally, draft your conclusion.

With this format, use commas after each list item and on the next-to-last list, item use the word and close the list with a period at the end of the final item.

Bullet List with Semicolons In APA Or MLA Papers

Here is an example of a formal list using semi-colons:

• Lists can be used in many papers from a simple essay to a Ph.D. dissertation ;
• Use lists to make your work more interesting;
• Be sure not to overuse lists.

Doing assignments online can be a great way to save time and energy. Not only are you able to access a wide range of resources and materials, but you can also find assistance from professionals who can help you complete your work quickly and accurately. The example lists above are compliant with many academic writing standards, such as APA or MLA formatting . Effective writing can be a difficult task and lists are a great way to deliver information to your readers in a clear, concise, and easy to read manner. If, however, you do not have the time or are having trouble drafting your composition there is help. You can hire one of our professional APA essay writers  or MLA writers at PapersOwl, and we will do the hard work for you! We will deliver your research paper on time and guarantee that you will get a high grade. Additionally, they offer a variety of services, including writing assignments, editing, proofreading, and formatting. So, if you are looking for an easy and efficient way to pay to get assignments done , PapersOwl is the perfect solution.

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Clearly Scientific

High-impact scientific copywriting & professional document design

Best practice for writing and formatting bulleted lists

November 20, 2022 by David Barden

Bulleted lists are great for breaking up long lists into manageable chunks and for making your copy easier to scan. But are you getting the most out of this useful format? Follow these 12 tips for writing and formatting bulleted lists, and your key points are guaranteed to come across more strongly.

Take your time over bulleted lists

When presenting a set of related ideas, categories, features or benefits, the bulleted list is a winner on several levels. Not only is a bulleted list more visually appealing than a solid wall of text, but it helps the reader by breaking a complex chunk of information down into simpler elements.

But although writing out a bulleted list might seem like a quick job, doing it well requires considerable thought. To help you ensure that your next one works well, I’d like to share this checklist of best-practices for writing and formatting bulleted lists in your copy.

#1: Avoid more than seven items in a bulleted list

The first point is a structural one – don’t list too many things at once. A long bulleted list is certainly better than the same information presented as a solid paragraph, but the more items there are, the less engaging the list is, and the less likely it is that the reader will spot the points that interest them.

So keep your bulleted list to a maximum of about seven entries, and if it’s more, ask yourself, are all of those points really necessary? And if they are, would splitting up the list under separate headers make the individual entries easier to find?

#2: Use bullet-points with visual impact

Round solid bullet-points are the default option for many, but it’s worth trying other symbols if they’re available ( see below ). I quite like the filled square, the right-hand arrowhead, and the right-hand French angular quotation mark, while the check-mark is familiar in lists of benefits or included features. You could even go for custom bullet-points that mirror your brand, so long as they’re not too elaborate.

Make sure the size is appropriate too – symbols that are too large can look clunky and amateurish, whereas symbols that are too small will lack impact.

#3: Avoid sub-bullets

Word-processing packages typically offer tempting options for formatting bulleted lists at multiple levels, but in practice you should only use them when you absolutely have to. The more complex your bulleted list, the less understandable it will be at first glance.

However, if you do decide to go down this route, I’d recommend using a different symbol with a reduced weighting or size, such as the en-dash, the right-hand angle-bracket, or the open circle (see below). This prevents them distracting attention away from the top-level entries.

#4: Pick a strong colour

Having your bullet-points the same colour as the body text is the norm, but in a piece of company literature, using the brand colour for the bullet-point symbols gives a more professional touch.

Many brands have complementary colours, and if this is sufficiently strong, then it can help draw attention to the bulleted list without causing a colour clash.

#5: Adjust the indents and spacing carefully

Indents are normally handled well enough using the default settings for bulleted lists, so there’s no excuse for badly indented text or inconsistent alignment. I like to indent the bullet-points themselves by a few points compared to the body copy, as this is more visually pleasing.

Sub-bullets should be indented further in, and it’s worth experimenting with the settings so that you achieve a satisfactory alignment that doesn’t distract the reader.

Also ensure that the paragraph space between separate bulleted items is sufficient to avoid a text pile-up. If the entries themselves are short, a spacing that is a bit less than the regular paragraph spacing helps to keep the list looking coherent.

#6: Keep the text as short as possible

Moving on to the text itself, and the impact of bullet-points is greatly reduced if each bulleted item drags on for several lines. I’d recommend a maximum of four lines of text per item, and preferably just one or two.

Also, try and keep each bulleted item about the same length – switching from short text to long text is distracting, and may give a misleading impression of the importance of the entries.

#7: Use lead-ins for longer entries

If the text of your bulleted items is relatively complex, and you can’t reduce the word-count, then a good tactic is the lead-in . This is a few words formatted in bold at the start of each item, usually followed by a colon, full-stop or en-dash (scroll down to see the example in the graphic below). You will, however, need to phrase the lead-ins carefully so that the reader doesn’t lose track of what you’re saying.

#8: Use a consistent text structure

Speaking of phrasing, a vital aspect of bullet-points (in my opinion) is parallelism . This is writing the text so that each bulleted item starts with the same part of speech (e.g. verb, adjective, noun, adverb), and ideally uses the same sentence structure. Following this rule lends emphasis to what you’re saying, makes it easier to scan, and avoids mismatched phrasing between the introduction to the bulleted list and the list itself.

Start each bulleted item with the same part of speech to make your bulleted list easier to scan

#9: Use punctuation consistently

There are various styles of punctuation used for bulleted lists, but one thing is clear: in running text, you should always introduce your the list with a colon (:). The semicolon (;), although widely used, is incorrect.

As for the punctuation should you use at the end of items in your bulleted list, being consistent shows off your attention to detail. There are three options:

• Nothing: recommended for single words or short entries.
• Full-stop: recommended for longer entries or complete sentences, and optional at the end of the last item in any list.
• Semi-colon: archaic and best avoided, along with the “and” at the end of the penultimate item.

Ultimately, you should avoid any usage that distracts from the text – if it looks odd, then change it!

#10: Use initial capitals

Starting each bulleted item with a capital letter is recommended in nearly all instances. But where the bulleted items ‘run on’ from the body text above, then lower-case can make it clear that the sentences are intended to be read in that way. I’ve shown an example of this in tip #11.

#11: Use them for the right reasons

The tips above cover how to use bullet-points, but when should you use them?

I think you should consider using a bulleted list:

• where you need to highlight a range of ideas, options, features or benefits
• where the entire list is worthy of attention
• where the items can be conveyed concisely
• where the items are logically distinct
• where listing the points in the body text would be cumbersome.

If any of these don’t apply, then check that a bulleted list really is the right way forward. If your message makes more sense as body copy, it’s probably better that way.

#12: Don’t overuse them

And one final word: because the eye is naturally drawn towards bulleted lists, using them too liberally will reduce their impact. So use them only where necessary, and where they don’t vie for attention with other elements of your copy.

Battling with bullet-points? If you need help structuring your message for easy understanding, please get in touch.

The complexities of academic writing are an uncontestable part of scientific research and reporting. But it’s up to the author to build the reader’s comprehension of the thought processes and methodology behind the experiment, from inception to outcome. To do this, it’s expected that a lot of specialized terminology is used, data is analyzed and explained, and other higher-level writing is included in the content.

As the author puts together the article with the intent of publishing it towards a wide audience, they have to consider what they are saying, how they are saying it, and how they are setting it up in the paper. Too much content put together without breaks for the brain to pause and consider what was read makes it difficult for the reader to understand the writing, no matter how simplistic it is. With structural tools like bulleted lists and numbering, the reader’s comprehension of your work can be improved, and it doesn’t take much from you to get the job done.

Separating Your Work With Bullets and Numbers

It’s common in academic articles to see bullets and numbers used to organize the content inside the document. Sometimes they are given to help the reader see what they can expect in the upcoming section; sometimes they’re used to separate items in a listing manner. Regardless of the reason for the bullets or numbers, they must be consistent and formatted according to the proper style of your paper.

Some of the most common list types include:

●      Run-ins, used as part of the text but separated with colons to show a list is the following part of the sentence. Without the colon designating the continued thought, the list itself ends up as a fragment.

●      Run-ins, also used as part of the text but separated by numbers instead of a colon.

●      Vertical lists to separate a long sentence instead of following the thought with a run-in list. In these lists, there is no need for bullets or ending punctuation as long as the leading sentence is complete. However, if the list entries finish the leading thought as complete sentences, do use bullets and punctuation.

●      Vertical lists with numbers and letters similar to an outline format can break up a complicated set of information by following a leading sentence.

No matter which way you choose to separate your text, be sure you’re following the proper style guide for the journal you are publishing with.

How to Use Bullets the Right Way

There are some guidelines to using bullets and numbered lists besides following the style requirements. You also need to make sure you’re limiting your bullets to only the key points you want to separate. Don’t overuse them or it makes your paper look unprofessional and detracts from the importance of the lists you want the reader to truly comprehend.

Bullets and numbers can be used with listings, examples, or to shorten a complex description. They’re also good for added support with details, to designate steps in a process, to give a list of parts or ingredients, and to define terms.

However, you should never use bullets or numbers of any kind in your thesis statement, introduction, or conclusion. They don’t work as hooks, and shouldn’t be used in quotes.

In general, bulleted lists should account for no more than one-quarter of your entire paper, and that’s pushing the limit. In some cases, a sub-paragraph might be a better choice.

Switching to Sub-Paragraphs Instead

Bullets are great to help the reader comprehend some parts of your paper. However, a sub-paragraph might be the way to go if you have a topic that is overly lengthy and complex. Sub-paragraphs are broken down underneath a smaller header and each paragraph has its own main idea and supporting details that cover the main topic in the section.

Sub-paragraphs work best when you have to give a lot of data or details but you’re talking about one major topic.

Both bullets and sub-paragraphs are common ways to break down a paper, and, when used right, they show your knowledge as an author.

• Afghanistan
• Åland Islands
• American Samoa
• Antigua and Barbuda
• Bolivia (Plurinational State of)
• Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba
• Bosnia and Herzegovina
• Bouvet Island
• British Indian Ocean Territory
• Brunei Darussalam
• Burkina Faso
• Cayman Islands
• Central African Republic
• Christmas Island
• Cocos (Keeling) Islands
• Congo (Democratic Republic of the)
• Cook Islands
• Côte d'Ivoire
• Curacao !Curaçao
• Dominican Republic
• El Salvador
• Equatorial Guinea
• Falkland Islands (Malvinas)
• Faroe Islands
• French Guiana
• French Polynesia
• French Southern Territories
• Guinea-Bissau
• Heard Island and McDonald Islands
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• Isle of Man
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• Marshall Islands
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• Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
• Saint Kitts and Nevis
• Saint Lucia
• Saint Martin (French part)
• Saint Pierre and Miquelon
• Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
• Sao Tome and Principe
• Saudi Arabia
• Sierra Leone
• Sint Maarten (Dutch part)
• Solomon Islands
• South Africa
• South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
• South Sudan
• Svalbard and Jan Mayen
• Switzerland
• Syrian Arab Republic
• Tanzania, United Republic of
• Timor-Leste
• Trinidad and Tobago
• Turkmenistan
• Turks and Caicos Islands
• United Arab Emirates
• United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
• United States of America
• United States Minor Outlying Islands
• Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)
• Virgin Islands (British)
• Virgin Islands (U.S.)
• Wallis and Futuna
• Western Sahara

How to do a seriation in an APA paper? Bulleted lists, numbered lists, etc.?

How do you include a list or a series of points in your paper? 

APA has rules on how to present lists to help the reader see the organization of key elements within sections, paragraphs and/or sentences in a paper. When using seriated lists, choose terms or phrases that are similar or in parallel throughout the list.

APA allows for three types of seriated lists:

• Lettered lists
• Numbered lists
• Bulleted lists

 Each is identified and given in the examples below:

Lettered Lists

Use a lettered list when you want to present a series within a sentence.  Each item is preceded with a letter within parentheses.  Note that this form or seriation may not draw as much of the reader's attention as a bulleted or numbered list.  

The study tested three groups of students: (a) children who attended a publicly funded pre-K program, (b) children who attended a privately funded pre-K program, and (c) children who did not attend a pre-K program.

Numbered Lists

Use numbered lists to display complete sentences or paragraphs in a series. 

The survey included the following questions:

1. What pre-reading strategies were covered in the session before the assessment?

2. Did the pre-reading strategy training improve performance on the assessment?

3. What outcomes were achieved through the pre-reading strategy training?

NOTE : Some may interpret items in a numbered list to be presented in order of importance.

Bulleted Lists

In some situations, a numbered list may give the impression that one item in the list is more important than another; a bulleted list may be preferable.  

Note: If you are reproducing, quoting, or paraphrasing a list taken from a source, the citation would appear at the end of the last item.  (APA 6th edition rules included a semicolon after each item in the list and a period following the last item listed.  APA 7th edition has removed all punctuation in the list.) Two variations on how that type of citation might look are below:

Example of a bulleted list presented as phrases:

Elisabeth Kulber-Ross is widely credited with identifying five stages of grief that many people go through when facing a terminal illness:

• acceptance (Hebert, Moore & Rooney, 2011, para. 9)

Hebert, Moore, and Rooney (2011) indicate that Elisabeth Kulber-Ross is widely credited with identifying five stages of grief that many people go through when facing a terminal illness:

• acceptance (para. 9)

Example of a bulleted list presented as sentences

Follow these steps to successfully search a library database:

• Develop a list of terms that describe the concepts you want expressed in an article.
• Combine the search terms with Boolean connectors by using the OR connector to link synonyms and the AND connector to connect concepts.
• Perform a search and modify the search statement to find desired results.

Example of a bulleted list that contains both phrases and sentences

SMART is a popular method for setting personal goals because well-written goals:

• Specific:  have a clear and high-specific end point.
• Measurable:  can be tracked.
• Attainable:  are realistic.
• Relevant: are in agreement with the organizational goals.
• Time-Bound: have a specific timeframe.

Here is a chart from APA that will help you pick which type of seriation to use:

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association  (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

Hebert, K., Moore, H., & Rooney, J. (2011). The nurse advocate in end-of-life care.  The Ochsner Journal, (11) 4, 325-329.

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Using Lists Effectively

Table of Contents (Guide To Publication)

Part ii: preparing, presenting and polishing your work – chapter 3, 3.2.2 using lists effectively.

Some journals provide advice on formatting lists, but it’s rare. Those that do tend to offer very specific guidelines, asking authors to use bulleted lists or not, to use numbers or letters instead of bullets depending on the placement of a list (within the body of a paragraph or separate), or to use a full stop or a semi-colon after each item depending on the length and grammatical nature of the items. If instructions of this kind are provided, read them carefully and follow them precisely – the journal editors wouldn’t have bothered to provide all those details if they didn’t want lists formatted exactly as they describe.

In most cases, however, such instructions won’t be provided and you will need to figure out for yourself how best to present information in lists, and whatever methods you choose as most effective for the information you need to present, balance and parallelism will be essential. This is to say that each item in the list should be worded and structured as similarly to other items in the list as possible. If the first item begins with a noun followed by a verb (e.g., ‘satisfaction is guaranteed’), then it’s best not to word the second item with a participle followed by a noun (e.g., ‘guaranteeing satisfaction’). Instead, adjust the wording so that every item in your list uses a similar structure, especially if the list as a whole forms a sentence, in which case the sentence must be complete and grammatically correct. Always be sure to observe correct grammar as much as possible, and if the items in your list are long, it’s best to use a full sentence (or more than one) for each item. In this way, your lists will function effectively whether they’re incorporated into a sentence in your text or separated in a bulleted list with several sentences in each item.

In all cases, you should take special care to introduce any lists you use by explaining exactly what is laid out in each list and making the transition between your prose and your list smooth and effective. For example, if you’re about to list categories of personality traits considered in the participants in your study, make the function of the list explicit by introducing it with something like ‘The following personality categories were considered in this study,’ using a colon after it and presenting the list immediately. Lists can be extremely effective ways of presenting or reporting complex information in clear and accessible ways, but only if they are formatted and introduced in a manner that makes their function and content absolutely clear to your readers, and if their grammar and syntax are correct and effective in relation to both content and good English (see also Section 4.4.1, and, for automatic formatting in lists, Section 5.3).

PRS Tip: The proofreaders at PRS read a lot of academic and scientific writing in a wide variety of disciplines and specialisations, so we’ve kind of seen it all when it comes to the presentation and layout of scholarly articles – the good, the bad and the ugly. As readers who need to understand the texts before us both quickly and thoroughly, we can attest to just how vital the use of informative, distinctive and consistent headings, the logical development of thoughtful paragraphs, the clear explanation of transitions and the effective construction of lists are to your readers’ understanding of your research and argument. Noticing when aspects of your writing aren’t working to improve communication or are in fact hindering it is precisely what we do, so we can offer suggestions and corrections to help you produce a carefully organised and beautifully presented article that looks as good as it reads.

This article is part of a book called Guide to Academic and Scientific Publication: How To Get Your Writing Published in Scholarly Journals . It provides practical advice on planning, preparing and submitting articles for publication in scholarly journals.

Whether you are looking for information on designing an academic or scientific article, constructing a scholarly argument, targeting the right journal, following journal guidelines with precision, providing accurate and complete references, writing correct and elegant scholarly English, communicating with journal editors or revising your paper in light of that communication, you will find guidance, tips and examples in this manual.

This book is focusing on sound scholarly principles and practices as well as the expectations and requirements of academic and scientific journals, this guide is suitable for use in a wide variety of disciplines, including Economics, Engineering, the Humanities, Law, Management, Mathematics, Medicine and the Social, Physical and Biological Sciences .

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Q. Are bulleted lists allowed in APA Style? How do I format a bulleted or numbered list?

• 2 Academic Integrity
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Answered By: Jonathan Faerber (he/him/his) Last Updated: Nov 04, 2021     Views: 171212

APA Style (7th ed.)

Bulleted and numbered lists are permitted by the APA Style rules; however, if you're unsure if your instructor will permit them in your assignment, please check with your instructor. Keep in mind that because bulleted or numbered lists only provide surface-level information rather than include analysis, and because the focus of academic writing is to demonstrate your critical thinking, these lists are used sparingly in formal academic writing in favor of communicating your ideas in complete sentences and paragraphs. See below for information regarding formatting lists.

Bulleted lists

The capitalization and punctuation for each bulleted item depends on whether the items form sentences or sentence parts. If the bulleted text is a full sentence, capitalize the first letter of the first word and end the paragraph with a period. For example:

• This is a sentence.
• This is another sentence.
• This is the last sentence of the bulleted list.

When a bulleted list separates three or more elements within a sentence, “begin each bulleted item with a lowercase letter” and either punctuate each item in the list as parts of a sentence (e.g., inserting commas), or exclude punctuation after each item (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020, pp. 190-191). For example:

In December 2018, British Columbia had an extreme storm that caused:

• massive damage due to high winds,
• widespread power outages that lasted many days, and
• flooded roads.

This storm affected multiple areas on Vancouver Island, including:

For other examples of bulleted lists, see Bulleted Lists in the APA Style Blog. For an explanation of the difference between a complete sentence and its parts, please see Sentences  and Sentence Elements  on the Writing Centre website.

Numbered lists

Numbered lists are helpful to identify the organization of information, such as "itemized conclusions” or “steps in a procedure" (APA, 2020, p. 190). Keep the following steps when creating a number list:

• Create the numbered list using the numbered list function on Microsoft Word or similar program.
• Set off Arabic numerals at the beginning of each item with a period rather than parentheses (i.e., “2.” rather than “(2)” or “2)”)
• Begin each item in the numbered list with a capital letter, and follow appropriate sentence punctuation throughout the list, using end marks like periods, exclamation, or question marks where required.

Please keep in mind that "the use of 'numbered lists' may connote an unwanted or unwarranted ordinal position (e.g. chronology, importance, priority) among the items" (APA, 2020, p. 190). To avoid this suggestion of position, use a bulleted list instead. For more information on numbered lists, see Numbered Lists in the APA Style Blog.

Lettered lists within a sentence

Lettered lists within a sentence are a good way to identify elements in a series within a paragraph or sentence without breaking the elements into a numbered or bulleted list. To indicate the list, use lowercase letters in parentheses (American Psychological Association, 2020, p. 189). For example, "students were asked to choose between completing (a) a formal research essay, (b) a documentary-style video, (c) a multi-media experience that involves participants". To punctuate a lettered list within a sentence, use commas between each of three or more items, or use semicolons when separating items that include commas, such as a series of phrases (APA, 2020, p.189). See Lettered Lists from the APA Style Blog for more information and examples.

American Psychological Association. (2020).  Publication manual of the American Psychological Association  (7th ed.).  https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

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Can Research Paper Use Bullet Points: When & How to Use them

Bullet points in research paper

A research paper means that the writer will be doing extensive primary and secondary research to find out the required facts, statistics, and quotations and introduce insight. So, can a research paper contain bullet points?

Yes, bullet points help your paper flow better, especially in a research paper. A well-written and correctly formatted research paper must use bullet points to organize and present the introductory three paragraphs that introduce the topic being researched. Keep reading for additional insights.

Can Research Paper Use Bullet Points?

A research paper can use bullet points if they help in presenting the findings of the research or listing the objectives of the study. In addition, including bullet points in your writing might be helpful to structure your text or draw attention to certain aspects of the topic you are discussing.

However, do not over-use them in writing.

If it helps the reader understand what you are saying better or makes it easier for them to read long lists of data or statistics, then it is acceptable to use bullet points in a research paper.

Yes, you can use bullet points in a research paper. It is all about the way you write them.

Bullets, or dot points, are used in many contexts to present information.

When writing a research paper , you may find that you want to use bullet points to highlight the most important parts of your paper.

Bullet points can be effective in this context because they are easy to read, allow you to present lots of information quickly, and keep your reader on track.

Research papers follow a specific structure and format.

You need to start with a good introduction, then give the supporting evidence for your thesis, and present everything in a well-structured manner. The conclusion sums up everything that you have written and allows the reader to have a clear picture of what your research has been focused on.

A research paper contains several sections: an abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. Each section is crucial and should be presented clearly and adequately organized by using headings or subheadings if necessary.

However, when using bullet points, make sure they follow the same grammatical structure as the rest of your text.

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How to Use Bullet Points in a Research Paper

Bullet points are a great way to organize your thoughts and help readers follow along. Writers sometimes use bullet points to list items because, in some cases, they can be more readable than an ordinary list of items.

For example, if there are three or more items in the list, the bullet points become easier to scan than a numbered list. The best approach is to observe the following:

1. Use Bullets for Shortlists

Bullets work best when you have three or more items on a list.

If your list is only one or two things long, consider rewriting your sentence not to require a list.

2. Use Bullets for Similar Ideas

Bullets work best when all of the items in the list are roughly equal in importance and length.

When your items differ significantly, using bullets can lead to confusion and make it harder for your reader to follow along.

3. Use Parallel Structure in your Bulleted Lists

Parallel structure is a grammatical term that uses the same structure in multiple parts of a sentence or paragraph.

In other words, if one item in your bullet list begins with a verb, all the different items should also begin with verbs; if one item is a phrase, all other items should also be phrases, etc.

How to Use Bullets

There are no fixed rules about how to use bullet points in academic writing, but here are some guidelines for their effective use:

• Only use bullet points when the order of the items listed is not essential. If a sequence or charge is needed, then use numbers instead.
• Do not start every sentence with a bullet point. This makes it look as though you cannot be bothered to write full sentences, and your work will appear sloppy., ,,, Use bullet points only when you have a list of two or more points; do not use them when introducing an individual issue (e.g., ‘The next topic is …’)
• If you have multiple levels of information (i.e., sub-points), use different bullets to differentiate between them.
• Indent all lines after the first line of each bullet point (similar to this paragraph). Do not add extra space between paragraphs.
• Use phrases rather than complete sentences within the bullet points. Do not add punctuation at the end unless it is necessary for clarity (e.g., an internal comma or colon).

People Also Read: Can a Research Paper be Opinionated: Persuasive or Personal

Importance of Using Bullet Points

Highlight Important Information

The key to using bullet points effectively is to ensure that they are consistent throughout your document and not overused.

Only use bullet points to clarify the material or help break up text and make it more readable.

Outline a Process

Bullet points are always used in conjunction with other paragraphs in papers, so they are not the paper’s main focus or a section of the paper. Because of this, they usually do not begin or end with a complete sentence.

The first word in a bullet point is usually capitalized, but the rest are lowercase unless proper nouns. Bullet points also use periods in the end to separate them.

Enhances Readability

It makes your paper more readable. It gives the readers a clear idea of what you are talking about without reading through long sentences and paragraphs of irrelevant information.

Mention items of Interest

Ensure that you include everything necessary for the paper. This consists of all items of interest and any extra things not mentioned in the paper’s main body. If you did not mention in the main body of the paper, then it should be appear in the reference section.

Highlight key Points

The importance of bullet points in research papers is to highlight the key points of your paper. In other words, it helps the reader to focus on the main topic and understand what you are discussing.

For example, if you were to write a paper about building a house, you would want to include bullet points to help the reader follow along with your construction process. In this article, we will discuss how bullet points can help you write your research paper.

People Also Read: Can you do a Research Paper in a day or Write 10-page essay

Instances When You Should Avoid Bullet Points in Research Paper

One of the most common ways to organize information in a document or presentation is through the use of bullet points. They are simple to read and easy to understand. However, they can also be overused. Here are several instances when you should avoid using bullet points in your research paper:

1. When You Are Not Sure How to Organize Your Points

The best way to keep track of your ideas is by using an outline. It helps you organize your thoughts into a clear and concise structure.

If you do not know how to write an outline, you should learn how before considering using bullet points in your paper.

2. When There Is No Clear Connection between Points

In general, bullet points are organized into groups that share a common theme or idea.

Using them willy-nilly with no particular order can make it difficult for the reader to follow what you are saying. Therefore, look for connections between ideas when writing a paper that uses bullet points.

3. When Your Paper Does Not Have an Introduction and Conclusion

Bullet points should occur as part of a larger argument or point made in a research paper. You can check how to present an argumentative research paper and learn the issue of points in a paper.

If no introduction or conclusion is tying those points together, then it will be difficult for the reader to follow along with what you are saying.

When not handling complex essays and academic writing tasks, Josh is busy advising students on how to pass assignments. In spare time, he loves playing football or walking with his dog around the park.

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Vertical Lists, Bullets

Q. A vertical list lettered with “a.,” “b.,” “c.,” etc. (using periods after each letter) is provided in a document. Later on in the write-up, I reference this list with the sentence, “[Name] has managed projects that cover items a through f.” Do “a” and “f” require some kind of punctuation or special treatment?

A. To refer to a lettered list item, you can normally use italics regardless of how the letters are punctuated in the list itself. For example, you could refer to item a or, if the letters in the list are capitals, item A . This is an application of the rule about using italics to refer to letters as letters (see CMOS 7.64 ). To refer to a number, on the other hand, use regular type regardless of whether the numerals are arabic or roman: item 1, item I, item i.

But if the letters or numbers in the list are in parentheses, then you can use parentheses in the text: item (a), item (i). One advantage of this approach is that lowercase letters and roman numerals in particular are easier to read when placed in parentheses. Whichever choice you make, be consistent.

Q. When a vertical list is introduced by a phrase (rather than a complete sentence), how is it punctuated?

A. Chicago recommends punctuating a phrase that introduces a list as if the list were a continuation of a sentence begun by the introductory phrase. This holds true whether the list is run into the text or presented vertically:

The items included bananas, pears, and grapes.

The items included

bananas pears grapes

Many writers would add a colon after “included”—especially in the example with the vertical list, whose structure seems to warrant it. But a colon would separate the verb “include” from the objects it introduces.

To avoid that problem, add “the following” or otherwise reword the introduction so that it becomes an independent clause:

The items included the following:

or, for example,

The bag included three varieties of fruit:

See CMOS 6.130 for more examples and information.

Q. Which of the following is correct to introduce a list?

1. My service includes: 2. My service includes

Should the colon be used after the word “includes”? From my understanding, a colon should not be used after a verb (or a preposition). Also, the sentence “My service includes” is not a complete sentence by itself.

A. You are right. “My service includes” is not grammatically complete, because the transitive verb “includes” is missing a direct object. If you wrote “My service includes the following,” a colon should follow.

Q. What is the proper way to punctuate or structure a bulleted list of items that ends with “and much more!”? Thank you!

A. “And much more” can be the last item in the list, or it can be the first words of a paragraph that continues after the list. Punctuate the items as you would a list in running text. For guidelines on punctuating different kinds of lists, please see CMOS 6.127–32 .

Q. I am evaluating annual reports for a large business, and have been unable to find the answer to my question of when to write numbers as words and when to use numerals when they begin the items in vertical (bulleted) lists. For example: sixty-nine people chose . . . or 69 people chose . . . Which is the correct choice? I would certainly appreciate your answering my question and I have no understanding of the reason this issue isn’t discussed in information concerning vertical lists.

A. Often when an issue is not discussed in CMOS it’s because it calls for common sense and flexibility rather than a one-size-fits-all rule. Our hope is that users can apply guidelines from other sections and use their judgment. At the beginning of chapter 9 you can find guidelines for spelling out numbers. For a vertical list, weigh the options: Are the listed items sentences, which read better with spelled-out numbers at the beginning? Are all the numbers at the beginning of a sentence? Can they be moved? Are there big, nonround numbers like 345 and 6,712, which are awkward to spell out? Look at your text and decide what style works best for making your lists readable. If numerals work best for some lists and words for other lists, you might decide that consistency need not be a goal except within a given list.

Q. I have a question about bulleted lists and capitalization. I’ve always written lists with the first word capitalized and then subsequent words, not (unless proper nouns of course). A colleague believes that every word other than prepositions or conjunctions should be capitalized.

—No artificial colors, flavors, or preservatives

—No Artificial Colors, Flavors, or Preservatives

I can’t seem to find a “rule” on this. Any help?

A. When a colleague wants to do something you find bizarre, the burden is on her to produce the rule. After all, CMOS doesn’t have the space to write “Don’t do this; don’t do that” with regard to every possibility. Meanwhile, you might point out that none of the examples of lists or outlines in CMOS 6.127–32 show headline-style capitalization of the items.

Q. When creating an outline for a research paper, does each object in the list regardless of hierarchy need to be a complete sentence?

A. In Chicago style, outline entries should be grammatically parallel whether they are all sentences or all fragments. However, your professor or thesis adviser might have rules that diverge from Chicago style, so it’s best to ask.

Q. I’m an editor for a training department. In our instructional material we often have long lists of objectives. Using Chicago’s standard for vertical lists ( CMOS 6.130 ) makes them a little hard to read. Do you have an alternate suggestion? The instructional designers feel that it takes away from the meaning of the objectives when we reword the lead-in to be a complete sentence. For example, they don’t like “At the completion of this module you will complete the following.” They don’t like it because instructionally you’re not always “completing” something. Other ideas?

A. The instructional designers are reasonable to object to a sentence that sounds redundant and doesn’t accurately reflect what follows, whether it’s complete or not. Your job is to write the sentence so it works for them (as elegant and accurate) and for you (as a complete sentence). Ask them to supply the wording that satisfies them most by giving them a template with a blank or some multiple choices, such as “The following are (objectives? tasks? goals?) for this module:” or “Here are some topics you’ll explore:” and see if that makes them happy.

Q. I do not believe it makes sense to use a bulleted list of one item. If it is just one item, should it not simply be a paragraph? At the end of many of our sections in an advocacy guide we have “Advocacy Reminders.” Sometimes there are many; sometimes there is only one reminder. It seems to me if there is one reminder it should be a paragraph.

A. Although logically a list should have more than one item, bullets are more forgiving, especially if throughout a book like yours, reminders are formatted in a special section the same way in every chapter. The visual cue of the identical formatting would override a quibble about the logic of a single bullet point. Your bullets can be considered more like decorations than hierarchy markers.

Q. Is it ever okay to start a list with a sentence ending in a period instead of a colon? (“To determine the answer, use the following concepts.”) Does it matter if the list is set off by bullets or that the typesetting is different (by color or font, etc.)? What is the preferred method if both ways are correct? What if it is not a complete sentence? I appreciate the response. Me and a fellow copy editor are at odds.

A. Chicago’s preference is to use a colon, but there are times when a period might better serve. Please see CMOS for details on how to punctuate vertical lists and for examples that include sentences and sentence fragments. If you use a period, the list items should begin with capital letters. (P.S. I am averting my eyes from “Me and a fellow copy editor are at odds”—please tell me that this is just your fun email-writing style, or if it isn’t, that you aren’t editing anything important to our national security.)

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Creating Vertical Lists in MLA Style

Note: This post relates to content in the eighth edition of the MLA Handbook . For up-to-date guidance, see the ninth edition of the MLA Handbook .

Although in humanities essays,  lists are generally run into the text , in other types of material, a vertical list may be preferable. Vertical lists call attention to the items listed, so such lists are often desirable in pedagogical and promotional contexts. The MLA’s guidelines for styling vertical lists are derived from  The Chicago Manual of Style (6.127–132). Below are examples of vertical lists—which may be unnumbered, numbered, or bulleted—and how to introduce, punctuate, and capitalize them.

Lists Introduced with a Complete Sentence 

A list may be introduced with a complete sentence followed by a colon, as in the examples below. The items in the list can be composed of complete sentences or fragments but should be consistent in using one or the other method.

List Items with Complete Sentences

If the list items are complete sentences, as in the examples below, the first letter of the first word of each item should be capitalized, and the item should be followed by closing punctuation, such as a period or question mark.

Finally, I posed the following overarching questions for students to consider throughout the semester: How can a man embody modern, bourgeois norms of masculinity in a country still strongly tied to the ancien régime? How do aristocratic and bourgeois models of manhood interact with one another in the Spanish realist novel? How are working-class men depicted in Spanish realism?  How can we apply Cartagena Calderón’s definition of the crisis of masculinity to the late-nineteenth-century Spanish context? 

List Items with Fragments

If the list items are not complete sentences and the list is numbered, capitalize the start of each item:

These raw materials can be grouped in four main areas: Early modern Christian beliefs inherited from the medieval period, indeed the very period that Shakespeare is writing about in the history plays The structure of feudal and and semifeudal society Emergent humanist ideas about history and politics imported from Renaissance Italy, especially those of Niccolò Machiavelli The key events of the Wars of the Roses and the corresponding key plot points of Shakespeare’s two tetralogies 

If the list is unnumbered or bulleted, generally lowercase the start of each item: 

These raw materials can be grouped in four main areas: early modern Christian beliefs inherited from the medieval period, indeed the very period that Shakespeare is writing about in the history plays the structure of feudal and and semifeudal society emergent humanist ideas about history and politics imported from Renaissance Italy, especially those of Niccolò Machiavelli the key events of the Wars of the Roses and the corresponding key plot points of Shakespeare’s two tetralogies

In some contexts, though, you may capitalize the first letter of the first word of each item if you wish to call attention to the items.

Lists That Continue the Sentence Introducing Them

A list may also start with a sentence continued in the list. No colon should appear before such lists.

If the list items are not complete sentences, you can often begin each item with a lowercase letter and use no punctuation after the item.

The MLA Style Center  is a free companion to the  MLA Handbook . The only official website devoted to MLA style, it provides  the opportunity to submit your own questions insights about MLA style from the MLA’s editors sample research papers instructions on formatting research papers teaching resources tools for creating works-cited-list entries

List Items Punctuated like a Sentence

In formal contexts, you may use semicolons between the list items and “and” before the final item: 

The MLA is expanding its advocacy efforts by

• sharing urgent information with members;
• developing strategic partnerships; and
• aggregating advocacy news, calls to action, and other resources on the MLA Action Network .

Sample lists taken or adapted from  the MLA website and the following publications:  Zachary Erwin’s “Teaching Masculinity in Pardo Bazán’s Novels” ( Approaches to Teaching the Writings of Emilia Pardo Bazán ,  edited by Margot Versteeg and Susan Walter, Modern Language Association of America, 2017, pp. 58–63) and Neema Parvini’s “Historicism ‘By Stealth’: History, Politics, and Power in  Richard II and  Henry IV” ( Approaches to  Teaching Shakespeare’s English History Plays , edited by Laurie Ellinghausen, Modern Language Association of America, 2017, pp. 94–99).

The Chicago Manual of Style.  17th ed., U of Chicago P, 2017, www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/book/ed17/part2/ch06/psec127.html.

13 Comments

Pam 27 january 2020 at 04:01 pm.

Please advise as to whether semicolons should be used in a vertical list of names or only in a linear list of names. Thank you.

Your e-mail address will not be published

Jennifer A. Rappaport 28 January 2020 AT 07:01 AM

Thanks for your question. No punctuation is required in a vertical list of names.

C Haulenbeek 29 January 2020 AT 09:01 PM

In a bulleted list, are the entries single spaced or double spaced?

Jennifer A. Rappaport 30 January 2020 AT 07:01 AM

Thanks for your question. If your paper is double-spaced, you can double-space the list.

Mohamed Iliyas 05 October 2020 AT 05:10 AM

Should the list item numbers in vertical list be with period (1. list item) ? or it can be like '1) list item'. Thanks in advance.

Jennifer A. Rappaport 05 October 2020 AT 07:10 AM

Thanks for your question. The numbers in a numbered vertical list should be followed by a period, as shown in the example above.

John 30 October 2020 AT 12:10 PM

Is there a space between the heading and subpoints?

Jennifer A. Rappaport 02 November 2020 AT 07:11 AM

Yes, for readability, include a line space above and below a heading. See our post on headings: https://style.mla.org/styling-headings-and-subheadings/.

johanna 22 April 2021 AT 10:04 AM

I'm listing single words in a vertical list (with bullet points) which don't add up to form a full sentence. Should I capitalize the innitial letters? Should I use commas in my list?

e.g.: Complications include: - kidney failure - arrhythmia - re-operation - ...

Thanks in advance!

C. Barney Latimer 26 April 2021 AT 05:04 PM

As noted in the post, the items in a bulleted list of fragments generally start with lowercase letters, and no punctuation is needed after each item.

Aspen Anderson 04 June 2021 AT 05:06 PM

This info was incredibly helpful, thank you! How do you format it if each bullet has an intro concept/sentence, i.e. "1. Drink more water: When you drink water throughout the day..."

C. Barney Latimer 11 June 2021 AT 01:06 PM

If it’s important to begin an item in a vertical list with an introductory phrase or sentence, feel free to apply distinctive formatting (e.g., bold or italics) to the introductory wording, which should then be followed with a period. The example you’ve provided might therefore be formatted as follows: "1. Drink more water . When you drink water throughout the day..."

Virginia Kirk 16 May 2022 AT 05:05 PM

In your last example, "List Items Punctuated Like a Sentence," are you using the semi-colon because the last item in the list includes commas? Would you use the semi-colon in such a list if there were no commas in the last item?

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I’m having trouble writing my essay for class. What should I do?

Essays can be a challenging type of writing, and the OWL provides many useful resources on writing essays. For our collection of resources on essay writing section .

Writing is so tough! I feel like I can never come up with enough good ideas. Can you help me?

We recommend constructing a list of topics and drafting some theses about those topics, after which we would be more than happy to aid you in your initial stages of the writing process. For ways to start invention work, we suggest reviewing our resource on invention.

I’ve been told that my workplace/business emails aren’t professional enough. How do I properly write a workplace/business email?

When writing (and formatting) a business email, use the block format. In other words, do not indent, but use line spaces between paragraphs (as in this paragraph). The level of complication (in a sentence) should be appropriate to your audience. In other words, if your immediate audience is familiar with the terminology, then it is appropriate to include complex ideas and information. If this is a first letter to a customer, make sure you develop and maintain a balanced level of professional friendliness in the email. A polite sentence about appreciating their business would be good. Since it is an email, there is no signature included; you should—at the very least—type a closing salutation (e.g., “Best,”) and type your name under that. Some people also place their title/position, company name, and contact information in the signature line of an outgoing business emails.

So, I’m a graduate student and now it’s time for me to tackle my thesis/dissertation. This is such a daunting task! Help!

While the Purdue OWL doesn't currently have resources that pertain to thesis/dissertation writing, you may find it useful to review the website published Professor S. Joseph Levine at Michigan State University. This is a general, non-discipline-specific guide to getting yourself organized and ready to write the dissertation. You are strongly advised to bring specific questions about your research and the type of document your discipline demands to a professor on your dissertation committee.

I have to write a critical analysis for one of my classes. Please advise!

First, you'll want to prepare by reading all the material thoroughly and thinking about some of the different issues raised in your reading. You'll want to do what's called a “critical read” of the material, where you don't just accept the information, but—after you understand it—you question it. Then, select one of the ideas, which has lingered in your mind because you disagree or are uncomfortable with it, or because you agree with it but believe it needs much more thought. Narrow down your ideas into a question about this idea that you might want to investigate in your paper. Ask yourself what your feelings are about this issue, and what reasons you might use to support your feelings. If you like what you have come up with, then you are ready to form a preliminary thesis. If you do not like it then go back and consider another question from your reading. Write down a preliminary thesis statement that specifies your topic, states your ideas about this topic, and suggests the arrangement of your paper's argument. Make sure you refer back to your reading and choose details that support your arguments. If you use quotations or refer to the text, it should only be to support your own ideas. Then try writing a first draft and leaving it for a day. Then go back, reread and revise as necessary.

I paid one of my friends to write my essay for me. When the teacher found out, he/she failed me, and he/she said that I had violated academic integrity by committing plagiarism. I thought that plagiarism was only if I copied something. I paid for this; why isn’t this essay mine?

While you may have paid for the work done on the essay, the work is still not yours. It does not represent your intellectual effort or your original ideas, nor does it represent your abilities with written English. Under most commonly accepted definitions of plagiarism used in most North American academic institutions, plagiarism is not limited to copying text. It also includes, but is by no means limited to: “ghost writing”—having someone else write for you; purchasing a text—online or from a friend; patchwriting—copying together various parts of different texts in new ways; borrowing a paper from a friend or fraternity/sorority archives; or turning in unaltered work from a previous course.

How do I create a “proper” bulleted list?

Consistency is the most important aspect here. If the writer of a text is inserting a bulleted list within a longer, non-bulleted text, and the bulleted text forms a sentence, so to speak, the first letter is usually not capitalized. Here is an example. In all of Virginia Woolf’s major texts of fiction, she includes: - stream of consciousness, - references to her family, and - feminist issues. The other way to do it is as follows. All of Virginia Woolf’s major texts of fiction include the following: - Stream-of-consciousness texts - Family references, especially so her mother - Issues directly related to feminism It is important, in the last type, to precede the bulleted list with a complete sentence. It is also very important to remember parallelism . In other words, make sure you begin each bulleted list with either a noun or an action verb, but not one or the other. Again, consistency is the key.

Also, remember that as in an outline, there should never be only one bullet item; you should only use bullets with an actual list.

What is an absolute phrase?

An absolute phrase is a phrase that modifies a noun and is connected to a sentence without the use of a conjunction. An absolute phrase could be removed from a sentence and the sentence would still make sense. Here are some examples:

In this sentence above, "her fears creeping up on her" is the absolute phrase. “Creeping” modifies the noun “fears.” While the word “creeping” modifies the noun “fears,” the absolute phrase, “her fears creeping up on her,” modifies the complete sentence, “Marsha looked worried.”

I have grammar homework for my language arts/ESL grammar class. I need help with number 27, which deals with appositives. Here’s what question number 27 says…

Unfortunately, OWL staff are unable to answer large numbers of questions that require detailed responses. If you require more in-depth grammatical information, we recommend books such as the following: English Grammar in Use by Raymond Murphy The Gregg Reference Manual by William Sabin Rhetorical Grammar by Martha Kolln

While we understand that some of these books may be expensive, it is possible that your school library, or your local public/municipal library may have these books in their references section.

How to List Publications on Your Resume (+ Examples)

3 key takeaways

• Adding publications can add credibility and authority to your resume. 
• Only include publications to your resume if they’re relevant to the job. 
• Teal’s AI Resume Builder makes it easy to add a properly formatted publications section

If you’re an author, researcher, or in academia, you should include your published works on your resume. Adding publications on a resume can boost your credibility and authority. Plus, it may help you stand out. 

You can add a publications section to your current resume template or use resume builders to help you list and format each piece. Teal is one of the best resume builders for listing publications. 

If you’re applying for a job where your writing isn’t relevant, you can simply uncheck that section to exclude it. That makes it easy to have various resume versions for different roles. 

This guide walks you through best practices when including publications on a resume. 

Struggling to land interviews with your resume? Get started with Teal’s AI Resume Builder for free.

What are publications on a resume?

Publications on a resume include written and scholarly works published in reputable journals, websites, or other distinguished platforms. Blog posts on sites like WordPress, Medium, or Substack do not often qualify for the publications section of a resume and should often not be linked on your resume .

Examples of publications worthy of a resume include:

• Book title , if you’re an author, researcher, or academic
• Peer-reviewed journal articles or papers , if you’re a professor, researcher, or in academia
• Research papers , if you’re in law, science, medicine, etc. 
• Article title , if you’ve written articles for a well-known journal, website, or magazine (e.g. Journal of the American Medical Association , The New York Times, The Los Angeles Times, The Washington Post, National Geographic, TIME)
• Conference papers , if you’re a researcher or academic 

The publications and presentations on your resume should be related to the industry you’re in and the open position in question.

Should you include publications on your resume?

You may have an impressive list of publications. But now that you’re on the job search, you’re not sure about adding publications on a resume. 

To help you decide, ask yourself: Is this related to the job? Could it help me land a job interview? If so, your potential employers want to see them. 

If the answer is no, skip it. Bryan Berthot , a project manager, scrum master, and Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) candidate at Univ. of South Florida shares his strategy. 

“My practice is to add publications when they’re germane to the job in question and when they maximize the chance that my resume will be noticed. I walk the line between academia and industry, as I’m both a project manager practitioner and an adjunct faculty member who teaches.”

That means including published works for academic positions and leaving them off other positions. 

“Even though most adjunct faculty positions involve teaching and not research, for those jobs I always send my entire CV, which includes my academic publications. It sets me apart from many instructional faculty because by including my publications, it demonstrates that I can bring aspects of research into the classroom to give students real-world examples."

Finally, Berthot shared examples of when not to include publications on your resume.

For project manager jobs, I typically omit my academic publications and books from my resume—unless I suspect that it will set me apart from other candidates.”

Sometimes, the answer is obvious. If you match one of the following descriptions, it makes sense to add research publications on your resume.

• Author. If you’ve published a book, it establishes your credibility in a certain field. If you’re applying for a professorship or a writing-heavy role, include the book title. 
• Researcher. If you’ve published your research and are applying for an academic position, research-based role, or as a speaker for a conference, it makes sense to include your research paper on your resume. 
• Student. If you’re a full-time student, research and writing might be your full-time job right now. In lieu of current working experience, listing publications on a resume can show your areas of expertise and highlight your writing skills.
• Professor. Getting published is an important step on your journey to becoming a professor. If you’re applying for a teaching or research role, include all of your publications on your resume. 

Teal’s Resume Builder can help you add your publications to your resume easily. You can see resume templates and get guidance on what to include based on the job description. 

How to list publications on your resume

If you’ve determined your published works are relevant to the job you’re applying for, you can add them to your resume. 

Here’s how to list publications on your resume:

• Add a Publications section. You should create a dedicated resume section to list publications. In most cases, your Publications section will follow your Education section. 
• List each publication in a bullet point. Include the publication title, the name of the publisher, and the date (month and year).
• Choose a style. Depending on your field, there might be a specific citation style you should use. Some examples include MLA format, APA style, AMA style, or IEEE style. 
• Start with your most recent publications. List your publications on your resume in reverse chronological order. That means starting with your most recent publication and listing your older work in descending order.
•  Refine your list. If you’re including a co-authored piece, make that clear and list out your role in the piece, such as “Lead author.” You can also include pending pieces by including the article title and noting it’s “Under review” or “Submitted for publication.” If any publications aren’t relevant to the job, delete them from the list.

While there are nuances to every field and industry, these are best practices for how to show publications on your resume. Consult peers in your field and the job description instructions to properly format publications on your resume.

How to list scientific publications on resume

If you’re in the sciences and have published papers, you’ll likely use American Psychological Association (APA) or the Council of Science Editors (CSE) style when citing your work. 

There are also slight differentiations on how to cite the publication based on the type of work. For instance, listing a book is different from listing a journal on your resume. 

CSE also has different citation variations:

• Citation-sequence
• Citation-name

Choose a style and cite your work using the appropriate format. According to Boston University Libraries , the general format for citing a journal using CSE is:

Author. Year (or Date). Title of article. Title of journal. Volume number and issue number. Page numbers. URL in angle brackets. Date accessed.

The key is to use the same style for each publication listed on your resume. Not only is this more visually appealing, it’s also easier to understand. 

How to list academic publications on a resume

Academic publications typically use either MLA or APA style. MLA refers to the Modern Language Association and APA is the American Psychological Association. Which one you should use may depend on your field. MLA is generally used in the humanities while APA is generally used in the sciences. 

According to the Library of Congress , article citations using MLA style include:

Last name, First name. Title. Title of the Website, Version or edition, Publisher. Day Month Year of publication, URL. Day Month Year of access.

You can use a tool like Citation Machine to easily cite journal articles in APA style. The basic APA journal citation formula is:

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (The year it was published). Article title. Publisher title, Volume or Issue , page range.

How to list research publications on a resume

Many research publications use MLA or APA style for citations. You can choose which style best fits and use the formula when putting publications on your resume. 

If you’re a research assistant and don’t have publications to list quite yet, you can still add your skills to your resume. You can create a research section on your resume if you have a lot to add. If it’s only a couple of items, include it in your achievements section. 

For example:

• Conducted 100 interviews on the relationship between social media and mental health for study published in the Journal of Applied Psychology

Teal’s Resume Builder can help you start so you can easily list and format publications on your resume.

Sample publications on a resume

You have a range of citation styles to choose from; some may be a better fit than others, depending on your industry. Here are some examples of how to cite publications on your resume using common citation styles:

Smith, Peter. Stoicism in the Modern Era, Philosophy Guide. 6 May 2020, [website]. Accessed 25 April 2024. 

Hernandez, J. F. 2023. Sugar and Depression. Today in Mental Health, Volume 3, pgs 5-10.

General format

If you’re looking for a general format, you can use Teal to add your publications on your resume.

Inside the Resume Builder , you can include a publications section.

You can then input the Publication, Publisher, and the Date. 

Then you’ll see it added to your resume. You can uncheck the boxes if you want to take them off any resume. 

You can customize and add publications to your resume using Teal’s Resume Builder and have control of how it looks and when it’s used.

Include your publications on your resume 

If your publications are related to your career and the job you’re applying for, include them. Doing so highlights your expertise and skills. 

You worked hard to get your work published. You don’t want to risk losing that credibility due to poor resume formatting. 

The good news is that figuring out how to put publications on your resume is simple with Teal’s Resume Builder . Add your papers to your resume with a clean, well-respected format. You can turn this section on and off and create different versions of your resume. So whether you’re applying for a professorship at a university or a management position at a startup, you can customize your resume based on the role. 

Try out the Resume Builder today to showcase your experience, projects, and publications in the best possible way.

Frequently Asked Questions

How do you list publications on a legal resume.

If you only have one publication, list it in the Education or Achievements section of your resume. If you have more than one publication, create a Publications section. Use The Bluebook when citing your publications on your resume.

How do you list only one publication on a resume?

If you have just one article or paper to include on a resume, place it in your Education or Achievements section. Include the title, publisher, and date. You can choose a specific format such as APA format, MLA style, etc.

How do you list publications in progress on a CV?

If you have submitted publications now in review, you can list the title and put “Under review” or “In progress.” For publications that have been accepted but not yet published, you can list the title and put “In press” in parentheses.

Do research posters count as publications on a resume?

Research posters don’t carry the same weight as other peer-reviewed publications. If you have other academic papers, include those in a separate section on your resume, such as Education or Achievements. If you don’t, you may still want to include research posters in your Achievements section. Include the publication or conference, if applicable.

Should you list publications in your professional summary on your resume?

Your publications should be listed under a separate Publications section. If you’re pursuing an academic or research position, you may want to highlight your top publication as part of your professional summary.

Melanie Lockert

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Noteshelf 3: Digital Notes 4+

Note taking & pdf annotation, fluid touch pte. ltd..

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Introducing the all-new Noteshelf 3 for MacOS – Experience a powerful and distraction-free method of note-taking with smarter note organization and AI-generated handwritten notes. TAKE NOTES IN A VARIETY OF WAYS - Create notes in diverse styles and formats, including bulleted/numbered lists and checklists. - Capture audio to ensure you never miss crucial information, making it perfect for lectures and meetings. - Transform your freehand strokes into precise shapes or select from a wide range of shapes for constructing flowcharts and diagrams. - Highlight, underline, or annotate imported PDFs, documents, and images with exceptional precision. NOTESHELF AI - Welcome Noteshelf AI, an intelligent assistant capable of deciphering your handwriting and aiding you in various tasks. - Witness Noteshelf AI generate exquisite handwritten notes on any subject. - Utilize Noteshelf AI to craft study notes, summarize entire pages of handwritten notes, translate text, clarify complex terms, and much more. PERSONALIZE YOUR NOTE-TAKING - Customize your toolbar by adding, removing, or rearranging tools to align with your workflow. - Take notes on custom lined, dotted, or grid paper in any color of your choosing. - Choose from a selection of beautifully crafted covers or design your own from the Unsplash library. - Enhance your notes with emojis and an entertaining collection of stickers. EXPLORE AN EXTENSIVE TEMPLATE LIBRARY - Dive into a vast repository of over 200 templates created by the Noteshelf team, catering to student notes, lesson plans, health tracking, bullet journaling, and more. - Plan and structure your days with an array of configurable digital diaries and journals. ENHANCE FOCUS AND ELIMINATE DISTRACTIONS - Activate Focus Mode with a single tap or gesture to hide the toolbar, enabling distraction-free note-taking. - Enjoy an unobstructed view of your content with a floating toolbar while taking notes on paper that fills the entire screen. EFFICIENT ORGANIZATION AND QUICK ACCESS - Organize your notebooks into groups and subgroups. - Bookmark important pages, assign names and colors to create a personalized table of contents for your notes. - Tag your pages and notebooks for seamless organization and effortless retrieval. - Utilize Content Views, automatic folders that consolidate photos, audio recordings, and bookmarks from all your notebooks, for powerful content searching. ACCESS YOUR NOTES ANYWHERE - Access your notes seamlessly across your iPad, iPhone, and Mac devices with iCloud sync. - Automatically synchronize notes with Evernote for convenient access from any location. SEARCH AND FIND HANDWRITTEN NOTES - Search through your handwritten notes in 65 supported languages. - Seamlessly convert handwritten notes into typed text and even add custom words to enhance recognition accuracy. KEEP YOUR NOTES SECURE - Automatically back up your notes to Google Drive, OneDrive, Dropbox, or WebDAV. AND MUCH MORE... - Presentation Mode: Project your notes and slides on an external screen, and utilize features like the laser pointer and a variety of markers for engaging presentations in classes and meetings. - Illustrate your notes with visuals from the Unsplash and Pixabay libraries. - Share your notes as images and PDFs. STAY TUNED FOR EXCITING UPDATES - Noteshelf is constantly evolving with numerous exciting features in development. Noteshelf 3 offers free use with some limitations. Upgrade to Premium for a comprehensive experience, available for a one-time fee, and enjoy: - Unlimited notebooks - Handwriting recognition and search capabilities - Digital Diaries We value your feedback. Reach out to us at [email protected] with your suggestions and ideas. Happy Note-Taking!

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Improved but needs a little more.

The app is a little better than the Noteshelf 2, however it could go a little further. I have been with Noteshelf since the first version and I see the change. One of my pet peeve is not having the ability to draw lines or rotate items on the 0, 15, 30 90 degree angle "easily". I think it should have a free and a set option. Rotating something 90 degrees should be easier, not fighting with the 1 degree off. It should have a flip / mirror option. Those are just two things I fight with on the regular. It has other things that could use adjusting but over all it is a good app. I have tried others and they have features that this one doesn’t, but I find myself using Noteshelf the most. Hopefully a rep from NS will read this…..when you upgrade and import the books, does it convert the old book to a new one? Or does it modify the old book. Do I now have 2 copies of the book? If so can I sadly delete the old book? My books are large and contain lots of pictures and audio thus it takes up a lot of space. Definitely need to know this info before I run out of space and find out the hard way. It you have made it this far in my review…… the app is worth it. I would buy it again.

Developer Response ,

Thank you for your detailed review and feedback! We appreciate your loyalty as a long-time user of Noteshelf. We will definitely take your suggestions into consideration for future updates and improvements. As for your questions about migrating books, pls take note that it'll create a new copy itself. The old copy inside NS2 will not be modified. You can safely delete the old books in NS2 once you have confirmed that the new version has successfully imported the books. Feel free to send us an in-app email via the 3-dot icon on the main Shelf→Settings→Noteshelf Help→Compose icon→Send Email option if you have any further questions, so we can suggest accordingly.

Room for Improvement!

I have used Noteshelf for over 8 years and recommended it to everyone. I would always give it 5 stars and is my go-to app for almost everything. But, NS3 needs more work to get my 5 star rating again. I Easily transferred from NS1 to NS2. For me Transferring to NS3 has been a pain. First, not all of my custom templates transferred, many of which are related to my businesses. I had to transfer them one at a time. For the hyperlinks to work you need to be in read only mode...never had to do that before and seems read mode turns off all the time. Im not comfortable with the tool bars...technically 3. I would prefer the pen, highlight and erase bar be on same tool bar as colors. I would prefer having my favorite colors remain open like NS2. The erase/return is also separate from the others. This last update just created more issues...but once they get it all together, hopefully all will be good. I love that they added AI. Now I just wish they would let me add stickers from outside vendors that better relate to my business. They do have very good customer service, my reason for the 4th star. Hopefully soon, I'll be able to recommend them again as being the best. I

Thank you for your detailed feedback! We appreciate your long-term support and recommendation. We apologize for the inconvenience you faced while transferring to Noteshelf 3. Our team is continuously working on improving the app & user experience. We value your suggestions and we'll take them into consideration for future updates. We're glad to hear that you appreciate our customer service. Your satisfaction is our top priority, and we're committed to providing you with the best experience. Kindly send us an in-app email via the 3-dot icon on the main Shelf→Settings→Noteshelf Help→Compose icon→Send Email option OR send us the ticket # you received if you've already raised these issues over an email so we can discuss in detail.

Long time Noteshelf 2 user

Love Noteshelf 2 and was excited to see what Noteshelf 3 brought. Love the new design and features all very welcome. Love to see the update keep them coming. However it feels like 3 steps forward 2 steps back. I feel like you changed how certain worked just to change them and you changed them for the worst. When they worked just fine in Noteshelf 2. Such as the zoom view, share options, all seem to have bugs that make it perform worse than in Noteshelf 2 or the old way was far superior. Some cool features I’d like to see added if possible. I take a lot of math notes for work and it would be great if you could include math translate feature to convert hand written math into latex,png. To have inline math with the handwritten notes for ease of reading or for sharing. Something like nebo does. I think I will stick to Noteshelf 2 for now until some of the bugs get worked out.

Thank you for your positive review of Noteshelf 3! We appreciate your feedback and are glad to hear that you are enjoying the new design and features. We apologize for any inconvenience you may have experienced with certain functions, and we are continuously working to improve the app. Also, update your app to the latest v1.2 then restart your device once to fix the issues, we've made a lot of bug fixes lately. We will certainly take your suggestions for adding a math translate feature into consideration for future updates. Please send us an in-app email via the 3-dot icon on the main Shelf->Settings->Noteshelf Help directly with more details about the issues & requests so we can work on them accordingly.

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Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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Main Article Content

There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

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[5] Concerning the moral philosophies of stem cell research, our paper does not posit a personal moral stance nor delve into the “when” of human life begins. To read further about the philosophical debate, consider the following sources:

Sandel M. J. (2004). Embryo ethics--the moral logic of stem-cell research.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 207–209. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048145 ; George, R. P., & Lee, P. (2020, September 26). Acorns and Embryos . The New Atlantis. https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/acorns-and-embryos ; Sagan, A., & Singer, P. (2007). The moral status of stem cells. Metaphilosophy , 38 (2/3), 264–284. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24439776 ; McHugh P. R. (2004). Zygote and "clonote"--the ethical use of embryonic stem cells.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 209–211. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048147 ; Kurjak, A., & Tripalo, A. (2004). The facts and doubts about beginning of the human life and personality.  Bosnian journal of basic medical sciences ,  4 (1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.17305/bjbms.2004.3453

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[7] Socially, at its core, the Western approach to ethics is widely principle-based, autonomy being one of the key factors to ensure a fundamental respect for persons within research. For information regarding autonomy in research, see: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). The Belmont Report. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research.; For a more in-depth review of autonomy within the US, see: Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (1994). Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Oxford University Press.

[8] Sherley v. Sebelius , 644 F.3d 388 (D.C. Cir. 2011), citing 45 C.F.R. 46.204(b) and [42 U.S.C. § 289g(b)]. https://www.cadc.uscourts.gov/internet/opinions.nsf/6c690438a9b43dd685257a64004ebf99/$file/11-5241-1391178.pdf

[9] Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005, H. R. 810, 109 th Cong. (2001). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr810/text ; Bush, G. W. (2006, July 19). Message to the House of Representatives . National Archives and Records Administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/07/20060719-5.html

[10] National Archives and Records Administration. (2009, March 9). Executive order 13505 -- removing barriers to responsible scientific research involving human stem cells . National Archives and Records Administration. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/removing-barriers-responsible-scientific-research-involving-human-stem-cells

[11] Hurlbut, W. B. (2006). Science, Religion, and the Politics of Stem Cells.  Social Research ,  73 (3), 819–834. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971854

[12] Akpa-Inyang, Francis & Chima, Sylvester. (2021). South African traditional values and beliefs regarding informed consent and limitations of the principle of respect for autonomy in African communities: a cross-cultural qualitative study. BMC Medical Ethics . 22. 10.1186/s12910-021-00678-4.

[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

[14] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics , 22 (2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[15] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics, 22(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[16] Jackson, C.S., Pepper, M.S. Opportunities and barriers to establishing a cell therapy programme in South Africa.  Stem Cell Res Ther   4 , 54 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/scrt204 ; Pew Research Center. (2014, May 1). Public health a major priority in African nations . Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2014/05/01/public-health-a-major-priority-in-african-nations/

[17] Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2021). Health Research Priorities (revised) for South Africa 2021-2024 . National Health Research Strategy. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-Health-Research-Priorities-2021-2024.pdf

[18] Oosthuizen, H. (2013). Legal and Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research in South Africa. In: Beran, R. (eds) Legal and Forensic Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_80 , see also: Gaobotse G (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[19] United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. (1998). Tunisia: Information on the status of Christian conversions in Tunisia . UNHCR Web Archive. https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230522142618/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df0be9a2.html

[20] Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[21] Kooli, C. Review of assisted reproduction techniques, laws, and regulations in Muslim countries.  Middle East Fertil Soc J   24 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43043-019-0011-0 ; Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[22] Pang M. C. (1999). Protective truthfulness: the Chinese way of safeguarding patients in informed treatment decisions. Journal of medical ethics , 25(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.25.3.247

[23] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[24] Wang, Y., Xue, Y., & Guo, H. D. (2022). Intervention effects of traditional Chinese medicine on stem cell therapy of myocardial infarction.  Frontiers in pharmacology ,  13 , 1013740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1013740

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[28] Zhang, J. Y. (2017). Lost in translation? accountability and governance of Clinical Stem Cell Research in China. Regenerative Medicine , 12 (6), 647–656. https://doi.org/10.2217/rme-2017-0035

[29] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H.  et al.  Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017.  BMC Public Health   22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan.  Curr Stem Cell Rep   1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

[33] Park, S. (2012). South Korea steps up stem-cell work.  Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.10565

[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned.  Accountability in research ,  13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

[56] Sivaraman, M. & Noor, S. (2017). Ethics of embryonic stem cell research according to Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, and Islamic religions: perspective from Malaysia. Asian Biomedicine,8(1) 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.5372/1905-7415.0801.260

[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

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Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

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Evaluation of the Full-Frontal Crash Regulation for the M1 Category of Vehicles from an Indian Perspective

2024-01-2750.

• 1 What should be the appropriate test speed for the full-frontal test based on Indian accident data?
• 2 What is the suitable dummy configuration in terms of gender, seating position, and age to maximize occupant safety in full frontal accidents?
• 3 Is the proposed ATD’s anthropometry (weight and height) suitable, based on the people involved in full frontal cases in India?
• 4 What are occupant injury attributes in full-frontal accidents?