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Compendium of Design

6 types of civil engineering drawings [detailed guide].

In civil engineering, drawings at different stages play a pivotal role in project execution. Beyond serving as precise guidelines for engineers and architects, these drawings offer critical information for diverse stakeholders. And from the bidding stage to project completion, each type of civil engineering drawing has different requirements. To make these clear, this article will delve into six primary types of civil engineering drawings. Now let’s scroll down and explore them all.

What is Civil Engineering Drawing

Civil engineering drawings are technical documents used to convey and record design intent in civil engineering projects. Typically created by hand or engineering design software, these drawings are comprised of graphics, specifications, dimensions, and other elements of the project. They will also depict architectural structures, soil mechanics, road designs, drainage systems, and other infrastructure components.

Depending on the construction phase and specific needs, civil engineering design drawings can be categorized into site plans, cross-sectional drawings, construction drawings, as-built drawings, and more. These drawings are vital at different project stages. They can aid in bidding, provide information, standardize work, and ultimately ensure project completion. In essence, civil engineering design drawings are indispensable and precise guidance in the engineering process.

Type 1. Conceptual Drawings

In the early stages of civil engineering, conceptual drawings are required. In this phase, the drawings will not go deep into technical and construction details. Instead, their primary purpose is to communicate the overall design direction of the civil engineering project. Meanwhile, they are used to explore potential infrastructure scenarios and assess the strengths and drawbacks of the design.

Conceptual drawings are important at the project initiation stage. Although they are just a framework, they represent the results of extensive surveys and common understanding. If the project is approved, conceptual drawings will evolve into more specific design drawings, guiding the actual implementation.

Type 2. Master Plans

Once the conceptual drawings receive a positive nod from the government, it’s time to refine assumptions and commence with the formal design. At this point, the drawings become more comprehensive. Project-specific drawings are created for topography, infrastructure layout, traffic flow, and more. All thsese are referred to as Master Plans, zooming in on the coordination and consistency among different components of the project.

Besides, Master Plans are essential for project communication and decision-making. They will undergo review and risk assessment by stakeholders and safety teams. Simply, Master Plans uphold the project’s sustainability and leave room for reasonable expansion in the future.

Type 3. Tender Drawings

Tender drawings, following closely after conceptual design drawings, belong to the early stages of project planning and design. These drawings are a part of the tender documents and include execution details of the project. Information such as the basic design, structural requirements, land use planning, material specifications, and quantity schedules are all presented in the civil engineering tender drawings.

At this stage, the main purpose of tender drawings and related documents is to attract contractors and invite them to bid for the project. Also, based on these materials, contractors evaluate the project’s requirements, scope, and conditions and submit their bid proposals. Once the tender is completed, construction preparations can gradually commence.

Type 4. Contract Drawings

Contract drawings are part of the technical documents specified in an engineering contract. When a contract is signed with the contractor, engineers will modify the tender drawings in detail based on the budget and construction methods. If there are no changes in the contractor’s bid, the later contract drawings may be the same as the tender drawings. Meanwhile, in cases where alternative proposals are accepted, additional proposals are developed working with the tender plans.

Contract drawings are established on a legal basis and are preserved for the long term at this point. They are aimed at providing the contractor with specific guidance on design requirements and project implementation, ensuring that the expected standards are met.

Type 5. Construction Drawings

Compared to tender drawings and contract drawings, construction drawings are more detailed as they stand for the engineer’s final design for the project construction. For simpler projects, these drawings may not introduce extensive details. However, in the case of large-scale projects, construction drawings may be created by structural engineer software like ZWCAD to give an elaborate interpretation of tender and contract drawings.

Specifically, the design elements on construction drawings cover detailed specifications, dimensions, and material requirements for both buildings and structures. They also specify the exact quantities and precise locations on the construction site. Additionally, the methods, special requirements, and safety considerations involved in the construction are illustrated in the construction drawings.

Type 6. As-Built Drawings

Civil engineering as-built drawings are produced after the project completion, intended to document and reflect the actual construction results. Usually prepared by the design team or contractors, these drawings emphasize the authentic construction details for final project acceptance and archival purposes.

As-built drawings commonly depict the actual state of buildings and structures, construction amendments, and the materials and equipment actually used. This information serves as evidence that the project adheres to the design and specifications. Importantly, the historical data on as-built drawings is invaluable for the maintenance, repairs, and future expansions of the project.

Now that you are aware of the different roles and guiding significance of drawings at various stages in civil engineering. Only a thorough understanding of the positioning of these drawings can ensure the smooth progress of a project. Hope the type of civil engineering drawings provided here can be of assistance to you.

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Civil Engineering Drawings: The Blueprint for Construction Success! Unraveling the Secrets?

Introduction.

Civil engineering drawings are the bedrock of any construction project, acting as the visual roadmap that guides engineers, architects, and construction teams toward successful project completion. These meticulously crafted blueprints hold the key to turning grand ideas into tangible structures that shape our cities and landscapes. Let’s dive into the world of civil engineering drawings, uncovering their importance and the hidden intricacies behind their creation.

The Significance of Civil Engineering Drawings

At the heart of every construction endeavor lies a set of civil engineering drawings that breathe life into visionary concepts. These drawings act as a vital communication tool, ensuring seamless collaboration between stakeholders by providing a clear and precise representation of the project’s scope.

Types of Civil Engineering Drawings

Civil engineering drawings encompass various specialized blueprints that cater to different aspects of the project. Some of the most common types include:

Site Plans : Offering an overview of the construction site, including topographical details and proposed structures’ layout.

Floor Plans : Detailing the layout of each building floor, indicating the placement of rooms, doors, and windows.

Elevation Drawings : Presenting a vertical view of the building’s exterior, illustrating its height and design elements.

Section Drawings : Cutting through the structure to reveal internal details and construction layers.

Detail Drawings : Focusing on specific components like joints, connections, and other crucial details.

Foundation Plans : Outlining the foundation’s design and specifications to ensure stability and safety.

Structural Drawings : Depicting the framework and load-bearing elements, essential for structural integrity.

Plumbing and Electrical Drawings : Showing the layout of plumbing and electrical systems for seamless installation.

Landscape Drawings : Incorporating landscape elements to enhance aesthetics and functionality.

Creating Civil Engineering Drawings

The process of crafting accurate civil engineering drawings requires a blend of technical expertise and artistic vision. Key aspects of their creation include:

Utilizing Advanced Software : Modern tools like Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software streamline the drawing process, allowing for precision and efficiency.

Accurate Measurements and Scale : Precise measurements are vital to ensure the accuracy and safety of the final structure.

Compliance with Building Codes : Drawings must adhere to local building codes and regulations to ensure legal compliance.

Collaborative Efforts : Effective communication and collaboration between engineers, architects, and other stakeholders are crucial.

Iterative Design Process : Drawings often undergo multiple iterations to optimize design and functionality.

The Role of CAD in Modern Civil Engineering Drawings

In the digital age, CAD software revolutionized civil engineering drawings, enabling faster design iterations, improved accuracy, and enhanced project visualization.

How Civil Engineering Drawings Influence Project Execution

Civil engineering drawings play a pivotal role in ensuring the smooth execution of construction projects through:

Precision and Error Reduction : Detailed drawings minimize errors and rework, saving time and resources.

Material Estimations and Cost Management : Accurate quantity calculations aid in budgeting and resource allocation.

Project Visualization and Communication : Easy-to-understand visuals facilitate effective communication among teams.

Ensuring Safety and Compliance : Compliance with safety standards is reinforced through well-documented drawings.

Challenges in Civil Engineering Drawings

While civil engineering drawings are indispensable, they come with their fair share of challenges:

Handling Complex Designs : Large-scale and intricate projects require special attention to detail and coordination.

Addressing Changes and Revisions : As projects evolve, drawings must adapt to accommodate modifications.

Coordination Issues : Ensuring seamless coordination among various disciplines involved in the project.

Balancing Aesthetics and Functionality : Striking the right balance between aesthetics and practicality can be a delicate task.

The Evolution of Civil Engineering Drawings

From humble hand-drawn sketches to cutting-edge digitalization, civil engineering drawings have evolved significantly over the years:

From Hand Drawings to Digitalization : The transition from manual drafting to computer-based design improved efficiency and accuracy.

Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Integration : Emerging technologies allow stakeholders to experience projects in virtual environments.

Innovations in Civil Engineering Drawing Techniques

Advancements in technology have given rise to innovative drawing techniques that push the boundaries of creativity and efficiency:

3D Printing of Models : Prototyping through 3D printing allows physical visualization of complex structures.

AI-Driven Design Optimization : Artificial intelligence assists in generating optimal design solutions.

Drones for Surveying and Data Collection : Drones provide valuable data for drawing creation and site monitoring.

Building Information Modeling (BIM) : BIM integrates various project data into a centralized model for enhanced collaboration.

Common Mistakes in Civil Engineering Drawings

Awareness of common errors in drawing creation helps avoid costly setbacks:

Inaccurate Measurements : Precision is crucial, and errors in measurements can lead to catastrophic consequences.

Omission of Crucial Details : Vital elements may be overlooked, leading to construction issues.

Dos and Don’ts for Effective Civil Engineering Drawings

To create impactful and functional drawings, consider the following:

Do – Prioritize Clarity : Ensure all elements are easy to understand for seamless project execution.

Don’t – Neglect Compliance : Adhere to building codes and regulations to maintain project legality.

Civil engineering drawings remain the cornerstone of construction projects, shaping the built environment as we know it. With the fusion of artistic vision and technical expertise, these blueprints provide the roadmap to turning dreams into reality. As technology advances, the potential for innovation in drawing techniques continues to grow, promising even greater achievements in the realm of civil engineering. So next time you marvel at a towering skyscraper or a beautifully designed bridge, remember the intricate drawings that made it all possible.

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Engineering Drawing sheets sizes as per ISO 216

It is very important to know the relation between the Engineering Drawing sheets in Engineering drawing works.

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HOW TO READ STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS: A DEEP DIVE FROM A TO Z

September 14, 2021

Structural drawings are a series of pages which explain and illustrate the structural framing of a building or structure including its strength, member size and stiffness characteristics.

If you are in the construction industry or renovating your own house, the ability to read structural drawings and plans is a very important skill to have and its relatively easy to learn.

When I was a wee Structural Engineer studying at university, reading structural drawings was not a skill my course provided. I found myself as a graduate engineer staring at linework having no idea what I was looking at

It wasn’t until several months into my career that I started to understand what it all meant and how to read Structural Drawings. This was largely a process of osmosis for me as being part of a busy structural engineering consulting firm I didn’t receive the “Structural Drawings 101” course, however dear reader, this is what I will endeavour to provide for you in this article.

As always, we need to properly define what we are going to learn before jumping in…

What are Structural Drawings?

Structural drawings are a series of pages which explain and illustrate the structural design intent of a building or structure. The aim of a good set of structural drawings is to provide the reader with enough information to:

Construct that building or structure if you are a contractor
Provide enough information to understand the size, shape and layout of the structural framing if you are an architect, part of the wider design team or a developer/owner.

To construct a building, many disciplines need to be coordinated, not just the Structure and Architecture. A set of structural drawings are usually read along with drawings from these other disciplines including:

Mechanical: Ducts for heating and cooling, ventilation and smoke systems etc.
Hydraulic: Sewer, hot and cold water supply, fire sprinkler system etc.
Electrical: High and Low voltage power, lighting etc.
Data: Smart building systems, building management system, security system etc.
Vertical Transport : Lifts, elevators, dock levellers, travellators etc.
Civil: Road and pavement details as well as storm water drainage.

Structural drawings are not to be confused with architectural drawings, these separate drawing sets provide very different pieces of information…

What is the Difference Between Architectural and Structural Drawings?

In general terms, Structural drawings show detailed information on the building elements which provide support and stability to the structure including material strength grades and reinforcement while Architectural drawings provide detailed information on the buildings aesthetics and usage such as colours, patterns and finishes.

For example, a load-bearing column is shown on both the Structural and Architectural drawings however the information provided for that column between the two sets of drawings is quite different:

In the case of Architectural drawings , the dimensions and appearance of the column are important to the architecture of the building so information such as the following is illustrated: Dimensions: Length, width or diameter. Appearance : Paint colour if its a painted finish or details on the materials if cladding is required.
In the case of Structural drawings , the strength and stiffness characteristics of the column are important so information such as the following is illustrated: Concrete/Steel Grade: The strength grade of the material used weather it be concrete, steel or timber. Reinforcement: In the case of a reinforced concrete column; the quantity, size and grade of the vertical reinforcement and ligatures.

Here is an example of an Architectural (top) and Structural (bottom) drawing illustrating the same office floor in the same building…

These examples are taken from a typical floor in an office building. At the bottom of the drawings is the location of the lift/stair shaft including the bathroom facilities.

You can see that the architectural drawing goes into much more detail on the look and usage of this zone with specifications on toilet pan locations, tiling, cubicle doors and so on. All of these elements are non-structural so they don’t appear at all on the structural drawing. only the structural slab thickness is shown (in this case 250mm thick or 9.84inch thick for those playing at home in the US).

Outside of the lift/stair shaft on the top of the drawings is the office floor plate. Its planned to be an open space office ready for the tenant to fitout exactly how they like with flexibility for partition walls for meeting rooms, office cubicles etc. That means that the base architecture for the office floor plan layout is carpet and ceiling with little else. The structural drawings on the other hand appears to have a bit more going on in this area, with slab thicknesses indicated (180-200mm or 7.08-7.87inch) as well as some additional dashed lines… this we will get into more detail later on.

General Drawing Elements

First we will go through the general drawing elements which are usually common across the disciplines.

Drawing Reference Grids:

Reference grids are like the glue that ties all of the engineering and architectural drawings together. They provide reference points which helps the reader identify the same locations on each disciplines drawing set.

The reference grids are read similar to the old fashioned game of battle ship; a row of grids following sequential numbers (for example running horizontally) and a row of grids following sequential letters (for example running vertically).

This means that a grid reference of E2 on the architectural drawing should be the exact same location in the building as the grid reference E2 on the structural drawing (you sank my battle ship, or in this case, column!)

Face Sheet / Title Page:

Building drawings are read similar to a book, and just like a book the drawings need a cover page. This is often referred to as a Face Sheet or a Title Page.

The face sheet will often contain a drawing contents table (similar to a book; a list of drawing titles and their corresponding drawing number).

The Face Sheet will also have the name of the project (often simply the project address or if the developer has started to brand the development, it may be the projects brand name).

The consultant may also use this opportunity to show an overall site plan to give the reader context of where the site is located and the neighbouring buildings nearby.

If the project has been documented by the consultant in a 3D modelling package, a 3D perspective view of the building or structure may be displayed on the face sheet as well.

Title Block:

A title block is usually included on every drawing in the structural drawing set (and all other discipline’s drawings for that matter)

The title block is located on the bottom boarder of the drawing or the right hand side (depending on the drawing size/orientation and set-up) and will generally include the following key information…

Revision Box: This portion keeps track of the revision history of that particular drawing. Here you can see the revision number/letter history, a brief summary of what the changes were for that revision (in the amendment section) and the date that that revision was issued.
Consultants Company Logo: Here may include the organisations logo, address, discipline and professional registration number (required for practicing engineers dependant on the state and country they are in).
Copyright Disclaimer: There is generally an inclusion of some form of intellectual property statement protecting the rights of the drawing creator.

4. North Point Indicator: In the case of a floor plan, this shows the orientation of that plan in relation to true north. This is generally left blank for detail drawings, elevation drawings and general notes drawings. 5. Development Address: Contains the projects address and sometimes is development name as well. 6. Name of the Drawing: An explanation of what the title of the drawing is. 7. Name of the Client: Generally the name of the person or company who has engaged the consultant to produce the drawings and the design. 8. Drawing Size and Scale Details: Two pieces of information; the intended drawing sheet size and the scale the drawing is at when printed at that sheet size (more on drawing scales later on). 9. Quality Assurance Information of the Drawings: Contains the QA and administrative information for the drawing including the initials of the people who drew it and checked it. This section may also include the project number which is usually a number assigned by the engineering consultant firm which follows its company project numbering system. Finally the drawing number and revision is also provided.

General Notes:

After the face sheet, a series of general notes sheets then follow and make up the first few sheets of the drawing set.

General notes drawings provide very important information on the structural detailing of the building. The general notes provide project-wide specifications and, for efficiency purposes, they are provided in a consolidated location to prevent the need to repeat them on later drawings multiple times. This information may include the following (and more!):

Concrete cover/grade/slump
Structural steel grades
Reinforcement and post-tensioning grades
Specifications for the performance of formwork
Founding depth and material for foundations
Standard lap lengths of reinforcing bar
Performance specification for shoring systems
Structural loading assumptions
General notes and guidance on how to read and interpret the drawing set

Typical Details:

Immediately following the general notes section are a series of typical standard detail sheets. These standard details are usually typical repetitive details which will be adopted at multiple locations on the project. These details also generally match the common construction approach used by the local industry where the drawings were produced and therefore are usually used from project to project on multiple occasions.

Below is a standard detail which you may find in the typical standard details portion of the drawing set, it is a cross-section looking through a slab with an edge beam located to the left. You will notice that reinforcing bar sizing and spacing is not provide, however the general arrangement of the reinforcement and the lapping requirements are. This allows the detail to be adopted at multiple locations on the project, with the detailed bar spacing and size requirements being illustrated at the specific location later in the drawing set.

General Arrangement Plans

Now that we are familiar with the general elements which make up the drawing set, lets start to get into details.

A structural general arrangement plan is a birds-eye view of the floor, roof or foundation arrangement (depending on which plan it is). It gives the reader a visual representation of the structural framing requirements for that level.

Lets take a look to see how a concrete framed floor may look on a structural general arrangement plan (often called a GA plan), lets not overwhelm ourselves and just look at a small portion of a larger floor plan…

Ok there’s a lot going on here! lets break it down into individual elements…

Grid System: Easy, we know this already!
Revision Cloud: The revision cloud is usually coupled with a revision “bubble” (the upside-down triangle with the letter “C” in it). The revision cloud outlines a portion of the drawing which has been altered, in this case something within this clouded zone has either been added, deleted or modified since the last revision (which would have been revision “B”). Since the revision cloud bubble says “C” that would make the drawing that this snapshot has been taken from also revision “C”. In order to see exactly what has changed at this location, you will need to reference the revision “B” drawing and compare the two.
Beam Tags: This is the “name” of the beam and usually it starts with a letter “B” (for beam) followed by a number. The GA plan is usually provided with a beam schedule, which is a table of beam tags with their corresponding beam depths/widths (an example is shown further below). The reason for not providing the dimensions of the beam on the general arrangement plan itself is to reduce the visual mess on the drawing to make it easier to read (although some engineering consultant firms will provide the dimensions on the GA and not use a schedule, depending on that offices drawing standard).
Slab Depth Tag: Simply provides the structural depth of the slab.
Column Tag (Under): Similar to a beam tag, the column tag is the columns “name” and usually starts with a “C” for column. The “U” in this case indicates that this is the column tag for the column beneath this floor. This is another main difference between structural and architectural drawings; since the columns beneath are what supports this very floor, it is an important structural element as far as this floor is concerned. So therefore structural drawings will often show the reader what is happening not only above the floor but beneath it as well.
Column Tag (Over): Same for Column Tag (Under) however this is for the column above the floor.
Soffit Step Line: A slab soffit is simply the bottom surface of the slab. A soffit step line is an indication that the slab soffit is stepping up/down at this location. Any steps or structure beneath a floor is usually shown as a dashed line.
Top Surface Step Line: This is also a step line, however instead of occurring on the bottom surface of the slab, it is a representation of a step which is occurring on the top surface of the slab.
Step Indicator Tag: It is sometimes not clear which portion of the slab either side of a top surface step line is the high side or the low side. For this reason, a step indicator tag is provided which shows a mini cross-section view of how the step is orientated. in this example above the left-hand-side of the top surface step line is higher than the right-hand-side.

Lets take a look at another floor with a different structural framing type this time. The following image is a snapshot of another typical office floor however the structure is a composite steel floor system. Also the drawing is produced by a different engineering consultant firm, you can see there are some slight variations in the beam and column tag format with all letters instead of a mixture of letters and numbers.

Beam Tag: The same as previous however notice “SB” is used instead of “B” (different engineering firms have different drawing standards). The beams are indicated as dashed lines as they are beneath the composite slab. Each beam is shown as three separate dashed lines, the outer lines represent the extremes of the beam flanges and the centre line indicating the centre-line of the beam.
Beam Tag : Same as previous
Column tag : Same as previous
Slab Depth Tag : Indicates the depth of the composite slab, and is also coupled with a symbol which looks like something Zorro may have written. This arrow type symbol indicates the span direction of the metal tray deck (in this case the span direction is up/down of screen).

Lets take a look at another drawing example but this time with a couple new symbols…

Void Cross: Two solid crossing lines generally represent a void in the structure (better known as a hole). The example above is showing a large rectangular hole in this floor slab.
Section Bubble: A section bubble indicates that a cross-section has been drawn for a specific slice of the slab and is located within the drawing set. There are a few pieces of information here… the section is given a unique identifier (in this case G.04 which is basically the name of the section). The bubble also gives a drawing reference where this section is located (in this case the drawing number is S-P3-N-2114). The orientation of the bubble which is pointing left of screen indicates that the cross section has been drawn assuming that the viewer is looking to the left of screen. The corresponding section bubble tail indicates how wide the section has been drawn (the extent of the section).

Turning to drawing number S-P3-N-2114 in this example drawing set and looking for section G.04 allows us to see what this section looks like in order to better understand what is shown on this general arrangement plan…

Now we can see the section view of this slice, we can also see our large hole/void within the slab which was indicated on the GA plan.

What are Drawing Scales?

A scaled drawing is a drawing which properly represents an objects size and proportions reduced or enlarged by a certain percentage. The scale of that drawing is an indication of the percentage that the drawing is smaller or larger than the real-world object. The scale is represented by a unit length on the drawing, followed by a colon (“:”) then by the corresponding length of the real-world object.

In order for structural drawings to fit on a manageable sized drawing sheet, the drawing is usually a small fraction of the real-world size. A scale of 1:100 is a very common scale to use for a structural framing plan. That is, a 1mm measurement taken on the drawing represents a 100mm length of the real-world object.

It is very important to understand scales when measuring off from printed drawings. If the drawing is not printed on the correct sheet size the intended drawing scale is not accurately represented. Sometimes it is preferable to print a drawing on a smaller sheet size as smaller sheets are easier to store and carry. If you would like to have a hard copy of the drawing on a smaller sheet size, it can still be measured using a scale ruler, however the scale needs to be converted accordingly depending if the sheet you are printing to is smaller or larger than the required original drawing sheet size….

Drawing Scale Converter

That was a run through of what I learned in my first few months being a structural engineer fresh out of University all those years ago. I hope some of you out there have found this useful and sped up your learning experience into this small fraction of the art of structural engineering.

Please feel free to leave a comment below on topics you would like to see covered on future posts on Sheer Force Engineering.

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Quentin Suckling is our founding director. Prior to starting Sheer Force Engineering, he spent almost 2 decades working as a practicing Structural Engineer at Tier 1 engineering consulting firms delivering multiple billions of dollars worth of projects and managing large multi-disciplinary engineering teams. View More Posts

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6 Types of Civil Engineering Drawings [Detailed Guide]

What is Civil Engineering Drawing

Type 1. Conceptual Drawings

Type 2. Master Plans

Type 3. Tender Drawings

Type 4. Contract Drawings

Type 5. Construction Drawings

Type 6. As-Built Drawings

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Design and manufacturing i, design handbook: engineering drawing and sketching.

To see an animated version of this tutorial, please see the Drawing and Drafting section in MIT’s Engineering Design Instructional Computer System. (EDICS)

Drawing Handout Index

Isometric drawing.

Orthographic or Multiview Drawings

Dimensioning

Drawing tools.

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Half-sections.

Sections of Objects with Holes, Ribs, etc.

More Dimensioning

Where to Put Dimensions

Introduction

One of the best ways to communicate one’s ideas is through some form of picture or drawing. This is especially true for the engineer. The purpose of this guide is to give you the basics of engineering sketching and drawing.

We will treat “sketching” and “drawing” as one. “Sketching” generally means freehand drawing. “Drawing” usually means using drawing instruments, from compasses to computers to bring precision to the drawings.

This is just an introduction. Don’t worry about understanding every detail right now - just get a general feel for the language of graphics.

We hope you like the object in Figure 1, because you’ll be seeing a lot of it. Before we get started on any technical drawings, let’s get a good look at this strange block from several angles.

Figure 1 - A Machined Block.

The representation of the object in figure 2 is called an isometric drawing. This is one of a family of three-dimensional views called pictorial drawings. In an isometric drawing, the object’s vertical lines are drawn vertically, and the horizontal lines in the width and depth planes are shown at 30 degrees to the horizontal. When drawn under these guidelines, the lines parallel to these three axes are at their true (scale) lengths. Lines that are not parallel to these axes will not be of their true length.

Figure 2 - An Isometric Drawing.

Any engineering drawing should show everything: a complete understanding of the object should be possible from the drawing. If the isometric drawing can show all details and all dimensions on one drawing, it is ideal. One can pack a great deal of information into an isometric drawing. However, if the object in figure 2 had a hole on the back side, it would not be visible using a single isometric drawing. In order to get a more complete view of the object, an orthographic projection may be used.

Orthographic or Multiview Drawing

Imagine that you have an object suspended by transparent threads inside a glass box, as in figure 3.

Figure 3 - The block suspended in a glass box.

Then draw the object on each of three faces as seen from that direction. Unfold the box (figure 4) and you have the three views. We call this an “orthographic” or “multiview” drawing.

Figure 4 - The creation of an orthographic multiview drawing.

Figure 5 - A multiview drawing and its explanation.

Which views should one choose for a multiview drawing? The views that reveal every detail about the object. Three views are not always necessary; we need only as many views as are required to describe the object fully. For example, some objects need only two views, while others need four. The circular object in figure 6 requires only two views.

Figure 6 - An object needing only two orthogonal views.

Figure 7 - An isometric view with dimensions.

We have “dimensioned” the object in the isometric drawing in figure 7. As a general guideline to dimensioning, try to think that you would make an object and dimension it in the most useful way. Put in exactly as many dimensions as are necessary for the craftsperson to make it -no more, no less. Do not put in redundant dimensions. Not only will these clutter the drawing, but if “tolerances” or accuracy levels have been included, the redundant dimensions often lead to conflicts when the tolerance allowances can be added in different ways.

Repeatedly measuring from one point to another will lead to inaccuracies. It is often better to measure from one end to various points. This gives the dimensions a reference standard. It is helpful to choose the placement of the dimension in the order in which a machinist would create the part. This convention may take some experience.

There are many times when the interior details of an object cannot be seen from the outside (figure 8).

Figure 8 - An isometric drawing that does not show all details.

We can get around this by pretending to cut the object on a plane and showing the “sectional view”. The sectional view is applicable to objects like engine blocks, where the interior details are intricate and would be very difficult to understand through the use of “hidden” lines (hidden lines are, by convention, dotted) on an orthographic or isometric drawing.

Imagine slicing the object in the middle (figure 9):

Figure 9 - “Sectioning” an object.

Figure 10 - Sectioning the object in figure 8.

Take away the front half (figure 10) and what you have is a full section view (figure 11).

Figure 11 - Sectioned isometric and orthogonal views.

The cross-section looks like figure 11 when it is viewed from straight ahead.

To prepare a drawing, one can use manual drafting instruments (figure 12) or computer-aided drafting or design, or CAD. The basic drawing standards and conventions are the same regardless of what design tool you use to make the drawings. In learning drafting, we will approach it from the perspective of manual drafting. If the drawing is made without either instruments or CAD, it is called a freehand sketch.

Figure 12 - Drawing Tools.

"Assembly" Drawings

An isometric view of an “assembled” pillow-block bearing system is shown in figure 13. It corresponds closely to what you actually see when viewing the object from a particular angle. We cannot tell what the inside of the part looks like from this view.

We can also show isometric views of the pillow-block being taken apart or “disassembled” (figure 14). This allows you to see the inner components of the bearing system. Isometric drawings can show overall arrangement clearly, but not the details and the dimensions.

Figure 13 - Pillow-block (Freehand sketch).

Figure 14 - Disassembled Pillow-block.

A cross-sectional view portrays a cut-away portion of the object and is another way to show hidden components in a device.

Imagine a plane that cuts vertically through the center of the pillow block as shown in figure 15. Then imagine removing the material from the front of this plane, as shown in figure 16.

Figure 15 - Pillow Block.

Figure 16 - Pillow Block.

This is how the remaining rear section would look. Diagonal lines (cross-hatches) show regions where materials have been cut by the cutting plane.

Figure 17 - Section “A-A”.

This cross-sectional view (section A-A, figure 17), one that is orthogonal to the viewing direction, shows the relationships of lengths and diameters better. These drawings are easier to make than isometric drawings. Seasoned engineers can interpret orthogonal drawings without needing an isometric drawing, but this takes a bit of practice.

The top “outside” view of the bearing is shown in figure 18. It is an orthogonal (perpendicular) projection. Notice the direction of the arrows for the “A-A” cutting plane.

Figure 18 - The top “outside” view of the bearing.

A half-section is a view of an object showing one-half of the view in section, as in figure 19 and 20.

Figure 19 - Full and sectioned isometric views.

Figure 20 - Front view and half section.

The diagonal lines on the section drawing are used to indicate the area that has been theoretically cut. These lines are called section lining or cross-hatching . The lines are thin and are usually drawn at a 45-degree angle to the major outline of the object. The spacing between lines should be uniform.

A second, rarer, use of cross-hatching is to indicate the material of the object. One form of cross-hatching may be used for cast iron, another for bronze, and so forth. More usually, the type of material is indicated elsewhere on the drawing, making the use of different types of cross-hatching unnecessary.

Figure 21 - Half section without hidden lines.

Usually hidden (dotted) lines are not used on the cross-section unless they are needed for dimensioning purposes. Also, some hidden lines on the non-sectioned part of the drawings are not needed (figure 12) since they become redundant information and may clutter the drawing.

Sectioning Objects with Holes, Ribs, Etc.

The cross-section on the right of figure 22 is technically correct. However, the convention in a drawing is to show the view on the left as the preferred method for sectioning this type of object.

Figure 22 - Cross section.

The purpose of dimensioning is to provide a clear and complete description of an object. A complete set of dimensions will permit only one interpretation needed to construct the part. Dimensioning should follow these guidelines.

Accuracy: correct values must be given.
Clearness: dimensions must be placed in appropriate positions.
Completeness: nothing must be left out, and nothing duplicated.
Readability: the appropriate line quality must be used for legibility.

The Basics: Definitions and Dimensions

The dimension line is a thin line, broken in the middle to allow the placement of the dimension value, with arrowheads at each end (figure 23).

Figure 23 - Dimensioned Drawing.

An arrowhead is approximately 3 mm long and 1 mm wide. That is, the length is roughly three times the width. An extension line extends a line on the object to the dimension line. The first dimension line should be approximately 12 mm (0.6 in) from the object. Extension lines begin 1.5 mm from the object and extend 3 mm from the last dimension line.

A leader is a thin line used to connect a dimension with a particular area (figure 24).

Figure 24 - Example drawing with a leader.

A leader may also be used to indicate a note or comment about a specific area. When there is limited space, a heavy black dot may be substituted for the arrows, as in figure 23. Also in this drawing, two holes are identical, allowing the “2x” notation to be used and the dimension to point to only one of the circles.

Where To Put Dimensions

The dimensions should be placed on the face that describes the feature most clearly. Examples of appropriate and inappropriate placing of dimensions are shown in figure 25.

Figure 25 - Example of appropriate and inappropriate dimensioning.

In order to get the feel of what dimensioning is all about, we can start with a simple rectangular block. With this simple object, only three dimensions are needed to describe it completely (figure 26). There is little choice on where to put its dimensions.

Figure 26 - Simple Object.

We have to make some choices when we dimension a block with a notch or cutout (figure 27). It is usually best to dimension from a common line or surface. This can be called the datum line of surface. This eliminates the addition of measurement or machining inaccuracies that would come from “chain” or “series” dimensioning. Notice how the dimensions originate on the datum surfaces. We chose one datum surface in figure 27, and another in figure 28. As long as we are consistent, it makes no difference. (We are just showing the top view).

Figure 27 - Surface datum example.

Figure 28 - Surface datum example.

In figure 29 we have shown a hole that we have chosen to dimension on the left side of the object. The Ø stands for “diameter”.

Figure 29 - Exampled of a dimensioned hole.

When the left side of the block is “radiuses” as in figure 30, we break our rule that we should not duplicate dimensions. The total length is known because the radius of the curve on the left side is given. Then, for clarity, we add the overall length of 60 and we note that it is a reference (REF) dimension. This means that it is not really required.

Figure 30 - Example of a directly dimensioned hole.

Somewhere on the paper, usually the bottom, there should be placed information on what measuring system is being used (e.g. inches and millimeters) and also the scale of the drawing.

Figure 31 - Example of a directly dimensioned hole.

This drawing is symmetric about the horizontal centerline. Centerlines (chain-dotted) are used for symmetric objects, and also for the center of circles and holes. We can dimension directly to the centerline, as in figure 31. In some cases this method can be clearer than just dimensioning between surfaces.

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General Arrangement Drawings 101: Understanding the Importance of GA Drawings

Updated: April 18, 2024

(GA) General Arrangement drawings, a critical element in design and construction processes across various industries, offer a comprehensive perspective of a structure or object.

These drawings provide an overview that shows how different components fit together to create a complete whole.

They essentially give life to the concept , transitioning an idea from mere thought into a tangible representation that can be further developed and eventually materialized.

The primary purpose of GA drawings is not just to visually display the overall layout of a building , structure, or piece of equipment.

They serve as crucial reference documents for engineers , architects , and designers throughout the design, construction, and even the maintenance stages of a project.

From showing the location of an assembly within an overall design to indicating the key dimensions and relationships between different parts, GA drawings act as a universal language that bridges the gap between conception and creation.

In this article, we will delve into the intricacies of GA drawings – how they’re created, understood, applied in practical scenarios, and standardized across the industry.

Understanding General Arrangement Drawings

General Arrangement drawings, sometimes also referred to as ‘location drawings’, provide an essential overview of an object or structure. These drawings offer comprehensive detail about the design, including a depiction of all parts and components, their exact locations, and how they fit together.

The object in question could be as small as a piece of equipment or as large as a multi-storied building. The level of detail and the number of different projections (such as plans , sections, and elevations) in a GA drawing depend on the complexity of the object or structure.

Different Types of Views in GA Drawings

GA drawings typically include various views to provide a complete understanding of the structure or object. These views commonly include orthographic projections and pictorial views.

Orthographic projections include plans (views from above), sections (views of a cross-section along a particular line), and elevations (views from the side).

These projections are dimensionally accurate and are used to gauge the exact measurements and orientations of different components.

On the other hand, pictorial views, like isometric drawings, offer a three-dimensional perspective. While these views may not be to scale or provide exact dimensions, they are valuable in visualizing the overall assembly and orientation of components, providing a more intuitive understanding of the structure or object.

Notation and Symbols in GA Drawings

General Arrangement drawings often include a variety of notations and symbols to communicate additional information about particular elements. These can indicate details like the material of a component, its position, or any specific treatments it may have undergone.

However, to avoid confusion, these symbols and notations need to be consistent and in line with industry standards. An understanding of this standard notation is crucial for accurately interpreting a GA drawing.

Moreover, the scale used in the drawings, which dictates the level of detail conveyed, also forms a significant part of understanding GA drawings.

The Creation Process of GA Drawings

The creation of general arrangement (GA) drawings begins in the preliminary design stages of a project.

This process is initiated once the overall design concept is established and basic design parameters are decided upon, such as the size, functionality, and configuration of the structure or object.

Creating a 3D Model for GA Drawing Generation

The next step involves developing a 3D model of the structure or object. This model serves as a basis for the General Arrangement drawings, providing a comprehensive view of the project.

Typically, a designer or engineer uses design software to create this model, considering all elements like the placement of structures, components, and equipment.

It’s crucial to note that this initial model is often conceptual and may be subject to changes as the project advances and more detailed engineering calculations are performed.

Evolution and Increasing Detail of GA Drawings as Project Progresses

As the design evolves and more specific information becomes available, the GA drawings are continually updated and refined. This iterative process involves adding more details, such as the exact dimensions, orientations, and relationships between different components.

General Arrangement drawings are prepared at each stage of the design, showing the overall relationship between the main elements.

The level of detail will increase as the project progresses, and they may need to be supplemented by more detailed drawings showing specific elements and assemblies.

Use of CAD Software and BIM Technology

Traditionally, General Arrangement drawings were produced by hand, but today, this process has been greatly improved with the use of Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software.

CAD allows for more accurate and detailed drawings, saving time and reducing potential errors. More recently, Building Information Modelling (BIM) technology is being adopted.

BIM offers a dynamic 3D model-based process that provides insights to help plan, design, construct, and manage buildings and infrastructures more efficiently.

General arrangement drawings can then be generated from the BIM model, providing a higher level of detail and a more comprehensive understanding of the project.

How to Read and Interpret GA Drawings

Understanding orthographic views.

Orthographic views are a key aspect of general arrangement drawings. These views represent different faces of a structure, displayed as though the viewer is looking directly onto that face.

Typically, GA drawings include top, front, and side views, each providing crucial information about the building or object’s dimensions, positions of elements, and spatial relationships.

These views are two-dimensional, and their purpose is to depict the exact size and shape of parts and their features.

Learning to read orthographic projections involves understanding the scale of the drawing, which should be clearly indicated, and interpreting the dimensions, notation, and symbols correctly.

Understanding Pictorial Views

In addition to orthographic views, GA drawings often include pictorial views, the most common of which is the isometric view. These offer a more intuitive way to visualize the overall structure as they represent a three-dimensional perspective.

While they don’t generally provide precise dimensions due to their nature, isometric views provide a valuable visual aid that helps to understand how the various components fit together in the overall design.

These views are especially helpful for non-technical stakeholders who may find orthographic projections harder to interpret.

Understanding Notation, Symbols, and Scales

GA drawings employ various symbols, notations, and scales to convey important information. Standardized symbols are used to represent specific components or features, while notations can provide additional details such as materials, finishes, or specific assembly instructions.

Understanding these symbols and notations often requires reference to a key or legend included in the drawing.

The scale of the drawing is another critical element to understand. The scale indicates the ratio between the size of the drawing and the size of the actual object or structure.

This allows the viewer to understand the true size of the object and to make accurate measurements from the drawing. The scale should be clearly marked on the drawing.

Understanding and interpreting GA drawings, therefore, requires a combination of reading precise measurements from orthographic views, visualizing the overall arrangement from pictorial views, and correctly interpreting the notation, symbols, and scales used.

Together, these allow a complete and accurate understanding of the structure or object being represented.

Practical Applications of General Arrangement Drawings

General arrangement drawings serve as essential tools in various applications, significantly contributing to the success of design and construction processes, as well as post-construction activities.

Use in Design and Construction Processes

From the initial design to the final construction stages, GA drawings play a pivotal role. They offer a holistic view of the project, allowing engineers, architects, and construction professionals to visualize how all components will fit together in the completed structure.

During the design phase, GA drawings are vital in facilitating discussions among stakeholders. They provide a detailed overview of the project, prompting constructive conversations on design choices and potential improvements.

They enable comprehensive planning, ensuring that all elements of the structure – from the overall layout down to the individual components – are carefully considered and appropriately positioned.

Once construction commences, GA drawings serve as crucial guides on the ground. They provide precise dimensions and locations for each part of the structure, directing construction workers in the accurate placement and assembly of components.

Role in Equipment Verification, Assembly, and Integration

General arrangement drawings are also indispensable for equipment verification.

They detail the dimensions, weights, and orientations of individual components, enabling professionals to verify whether each piece of equipment has been manufactured to the correct specifications and installed in the right location.

Further, these drawings depict the assembly and integration of all system components. Should issues arise or parts need replacement, GA drawings can be used to identify the problematic components and guide the repair or replacement process.

Importance in Maintenance, Repairs, and Modifications

Beyond the design and construction phases, GA drawings remain relevant in the lifespan of a structure. They serve as vital references during maintenance and repair works, helping to pinpoint exact locations of components and understand their interrelations within the system.

In the event of modifications or renovations, GA drawings provide a detailed record of the original design . They enable architects and engineers to understand the existing structure thoroughly, ensuring that any changes or additions are integrated seamlessly.

In conclusion, general arrangement drawings are not just documents created during the design process.

They serve as comprehensive guides from the design stage through construction, and well into the life of the structure, contributing to its efficient operation, maintenance, and potential adaptation.

Standardization in GA Drawings

The importance of uniformity and consistency in creating and interpreting General Arrangement (GA) drawings cannot be overstated. Standardization plays a key role in ensuring these elements, which is vital in avoiding costly errors, misinterpretations, and project delays.

Role of Standards like BS EN ISO 7519:1997

One of the most relevant standards in this context is BS EN ISO 7519:1997. This standard offers comprehensive guidelines on the general principles of presentation to be applied to construction drawings, including general arrangement and assembly drawings .

It provides instructions on how to present information, how to use symbols and notations, how to set out dimensions, and other key aspects.

Following this standard ensures that GA drawings are easy to read and interpret by all stakeholders involved, regardless of their location or cultural background.

Importance of Consistent Presentation and Clarity

In addition to facilitating interpretation, the standardization of GA drawings also promotes clarity. Different projects or companies may use varying terminologies, symbols, and notations. By adhering to industry standards, these elements become universally understandable.

The use of a common language in the form of standards helps prevent misunderstandings and ensures that all professionals involved in a project – from architects and engineers to builders and maintenance staff – are on the same page.

Moreover, standardization is particularly crucial when it comes to digital representation of GA drawings. With the increased use of CAD and BIM software, standards help ensure compatibility and interoperability across different software platforms and devices.

In conclusion, standardization is an integral part of the creation and use of GA drawings. It ensures that these important documents are accurate, clear, and easy to interpret, which is crucial in achieving project objectives efficiently and effectively.

Future updates to these standards are expected to further embrace technological advances and continue to ensure clarity and consistency in GA drawings.

To sum up…

General Arrangement (GA) drawings play a critical role in multiple industries, from architecture and civil engineering to industrial design. They offer a comprehensive representation of an object or structure, demonstrating the location and connection of all components.

The ability to visualize an entire assembly and its details, allows for more efficient design, construction, verification, and maintenance processes.

As we have seen, the creation of GA drawings has been significantly enhanced with technological advancements, particularly the use of 3D modeling, Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software, and Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology.

These tools not only expedite the drawing process but also increase the accuracy and detail captured in the drawings.

The ability to accurately interpret GA drawings, understanding the various views, notations, and symbols, is an invaluable skill for any professional involved in the design, construction, or maintenance of structures or equipment.

Adherence to recognized standards, such as BS EN ISO 7519:1997, ensures that GA drawings provide consistent, clear, and universally understandable information, promoting effective communication among all project stakeholders.

As technology continues to advance, we can anticipate further developments in how GA drawings are created and utilized. Tools like BIM are likely to become increasingly sophisticated, allowing for even more precise and detailed GA drawings.

Regardless of these advancements, the core purpose of GA drawings will remain the same: to provide a comprehensive, detailed, and clear overview of an object or structure, serving as an essential guide in design, construction, and beyond.

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Civil Engineering & Site Design: A Definitive Guide

Civil Engineering-Planning & Site Design: A Definitive Guide

Civil engineers are responsible for designing, building, and maintaining the very foundations of our society. We develop roads, bridges, water and utility systems, waterways and seaports, airports, as well as infrastructure for countless homes, buildings, and services. So how do complex, sometimes massive projects like these even get started? In today’s blog, we’re going to find out!

This Definitive Guide to Civil Engineering-Planning & Site Design explains the major steps we as civil engineers take in planning and designing a construction project from start to finish. Whether it’s a municipal , residential , commercial , industrial, or institutional development project, the processes involved generally remain the same.

Feasibility Studies

Feasibility studies are among the first thing to take place during the initial design stage of any project. It tells us if the overall project proposal is viable, and what fundamental challenges will need to be solved. Experienced civil engineers help you define the scope of your project, conduct risk assessments, and cost analyses while reviewing the technical and organizational needs. This phase also provides clients with an array of tools used to further plan their project, such as information on the municipality, utilities, permitting, and required approvals to name a few.

Conceptual Design

During the Conceptual Design phase, the engineer works hand and hand with the client to develop the overall layout for the site. While the specific design criteria are in mind, the plan is more intended to show the overall layout than the actual specific design parameters. This enables the client to help bring what are often thoughts and visions to paper and can be a very exciting part of the project. Here we also work with the existing site features to ensure Natural Resources are protected and live in harmony with the planned project. Often times this phase goes hand and hand with the Feasibility Study Phase.

Site Design Concepts

Here's an example of a subdivision design with landscaping design included.

Grading & Drainage Design

Site grading and drainage design is an essential element of the land development process that provides the layout for various entities while ensuring safety and the proper flow of water. This phase takes into account roadway and parking lot slopes, building pad elevations, and surface water flow to name a few. The existing grade of a site is important to assess in the early stages of a project in order to develop a site properly while ensuing value engineering and cost savings during construction. For example, a poorly planned site may need to pump water and/or sewer, adding a great expense to your project. All buildings require approved grading plans in order to proceed with construction.

Erosion and Sedimentation Control Design

Erosion and Sedimentation (E&S) control designs prevent hazardous and unwanted erosion on construction sites, where land is disturbed. E&S control is a concern throughout a construction project and must be carefully planned to ensure all regulations are met. The size and scope of the project define what E&S controls and permitting will be required. These requirements change slightly based on the Municipality and County where the project lives, different size projects may have their own requirements. Here, the right engineer on your project will allow you to devise means and methods that can save you thousands of dollars in construction costs alone.

Utility Layout

Utility layouts show the system details of utilities such as water, sewer, gas, and electric lines. They can show both existing and proposed underground lines, the locations of buildings, driveways, and parking areas on the property, and the demand of each utility, among many other details. Utility planning involves many outside agencies, this is one major aspect where the communication skills of your engineer are important.

Stormwater Management

Stormwater management is handled by engineers who propose, design, and supervise the stormwater systems of a construction project. We ensure drainage and stormwater management systems are appropriately implemented while safeguarding you and your neighbors from potential flooding caused by increased impervious areas. Impervious areas are features that do not allow water to penetrate them, such as buildings, asphalt roads, concrete sidewalks, etc. Stormwater infiltration is one aspect of stormwater management that specifically deals with how water re-enters the soil and feeds back into streams, lakes, and other natural waterways. This project phase allows you to explore using unconventional building materials such as pervious paving, which enables you to reduce your impervious surface footprint and the size of your stormwater management requirements.

Landscape Architecture

Landscape architecture focuses on the analysis, planning, design, and management of both natural and constructed environments. Landscape architecture includes parks and recreation projects, streetscapes, conservation and preservation, transportation corridors, institutional properties, and specialty lighting and security. All major projects have this aspect as part of the Municipal requirements for set minimums and can be handled directly by your engineer. A Landscape Architect is sourced when you want to take your landscape to the next level. Landscape architects work closely with civil engineers throughout the site design and planning processes.

Streetscape Design

Streetscape design looks at the size, placement, and features of roadways. Pedestrian-scale streetscape design considers building materials, brickwork and paving, signage, lighting, landscaping, crosswalks, and decorative elements to create defined separate spaces for people and vehicles. Landscape and streetscape designers work closely together to develop properties that have the right balance of form and function to suit the unique needs of the occupants.

Construction Specifications

Construction specifications describe the products, materials, and building methods needed to complete the project. They don’t include the complete details of a project, like material costs and quantities, so they’re generally used in combination with other project details, schedules, and drawings.

Construction Management

Here we oversee the site work of the project during the construction phase. We conduct pre-construction meetings to ensure all parties are on the same page and are set up for success before a shovel hits the ground. We review contractor shop drawings and material submittals to ensure what is built meets or exceeds the specifications of the design. We also answer questions and respond to Requests for Information (RFI’s) submitted during construction. Site visits and observation is also provided during critical stages/site activities. An engineer who is good at project solving and thinking on their feet is critical for this phase. This is where all the hard work is finally realized and the final product is built.

Get Your Project Started

As you begin to plan your next project, start thinking about each of the elements above. The key to success in any of these areas is to have the right civil engineer on your side. From traditional markets like government and infrastructure to emerging markets like sustainability and LEED, we deliver the best engineering solutions and customer service to each project. Seeing a project from the initial concept through final construction is something that can be very satisfying and we love being a big part of that process.

For more information about Carroll Engineering’s Planning & Site Design Services , please contact:

Pennsylvania Projects – John L. Koutsouros , P.E., Planning and Site Design Department Manager directly by email at [email protected] or by phone at 215-343-5700 ext. 355.

New Jersey Projects – Thomas J. Fik , P.E., CME, LEED AP by email at [email protected] or by phone at 908-874-7500 ext 216.

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CMCE 1211-Construction Drawing II, FALL 2021

A city tech openlab course site, cmce 1211 construction drawings ii – computer aided drawing (cad).

Professor Michael Loo [email protected]

Office Hours: Tuesday 11:00 am-12:00 pm Email for link

CLASS MEETING LINK

Join Zoom Meeting

Meeting ID: 818 6144 0906 Passcode: 309981

Course Description

This course provides the students with advanced skills and working knowledge using computer aided drafting techniques. Through the use of residential and commercial drawings, students build on their basic knowledge of both civil engineering and construction drawing principles and standards. Students will use advanced editing and drawing commands to create construction drawings. Three dimensional (3D) drawing and modeling techniques will be developed to facilitate students understanding of three dimensional design principles.

Prerequisites: CMCE 1110,CMCE 1155

1 class hr, 3 lab hrs, 2 credit

Textbook AutoCAD® 2015 and AutoCAD LT® 2015 Essentials, Scott Onstott

Autodesk Press

Reference Using AutoCAD, Autodesk Press

Student Learning Outcomes

Upon graduation, each student is expected to demonstrate the following:

utilize principles, hardware, and software that are appropriate to produce drawings, reports, quantity estimates, and other documents related to civil engineering; (ABET Program Criterion a.)
an ability to apply the knowledge, techniques, skills, and modern tools of the discipline to narrowly defined engineering technology activities; (ABET Criterion 3.a)
an ability to apply written, oral, and graphical communication in both technical and nontechnical environments; and an ability to identify and use appropriate technical literature; (ABET Criterion 3.f)

Student Evaluations

Drawings: 45%

Midterm Exam: 20%

Final Exam: 25%

Participation 10%

Final Grade = 100%

Individual Assignment Grading Policy:

Correctness 50% (Assignment meet requirements)

Craftsmanship 50% (Assignment uses correct layers, lineweight, linetypes, etc)

***Note: Grades will be downgraded proportionally for incomplete work.***

Students will prepare and submit drawings, using the AutoCAD drawing program.

Class Policies:

Class Attendance: Come to every class prepared and on time! You will not be able to participate in class if you do not have your supplies with you. As this is a Synchronous Class, You must be actively participating in class demonstrations, Discussions and work sessions in order to be considered in attendance.

All students are expected to attend all class sessions fully. It is highly recommended and preferred for all students to have live video turned on during class time. I believe we build a better, more engaging community together when we can see each other during class.

We will review the use of video conference software to display a background to limit the visibility of your surroundings. All students are asked to manage their audio such that background noise does not distract from the class discussion or presentation.

Students who participate in this class with their camera on or use a profile image are agreeing to have their video or image recorded solely for the purpose of creating a record for students enrolled in the class to refer to, including those enrolled students who are unable to attend live. If you are unwilling to consent to have your profile or video image recorded, be sure to keep your camera off and do not use a profile image. Likewise, students who un-mute during class and participate orally are agreeing to have their voices recorded. If you are not willing to consent to have your voice recorded during class, you will need to keep your mute button activated and communicate exclusively using the “chat” feature, which allows students to type questions and comments live.

No more than 10% absences are permitted during the semester. For the purposes of record, two late arrivals are considered as one absence. Exceeding this limit will expose the student to failing at the discretion of the instructor due to lack of class participation and mastery of class material.

An absences does not absolve a student from submitting assignments or exam on time.

Students are responsible for getting any assignments missed due to absence/tardy.

Students should make every effort to be on time to class. If there is a conflict with schedule or in cases of emergency where the student will be late, it is the student’s responsibility to contact the instructor before the scheduled class to avoid late attendance penalty.

Late Policy:

Any student who arrives after the attendance has been taken will be considered late.

Two such latenesses will count as one absence.

“Real World” Clause: In life there are emergencies, certain events, and other extenuating circumstances that are beyond our control. In the event that a student cannot adhere to the policies listed the student MUST :

Contact me immediately via e-mail, SLACK or in person and inform me of the situation.
Meet with me to discuss and document an alternative agreement. If you have a problem, please arrange and appointment ASAP to discuss it with me in private. I will do the best that I can to HELP YOU .

Homework Assignments

Assignments must be submitted on the Due Date (unless otherwise noted), otherwise they are considered late.
Late Assignments are only accepted at the start of the following session and receive a 10 point deduction. Drawings more than one session late will not be accepted. No Excuses!
You will not be able to resubmit Assignments.

Final Project:

Late Final Projects will not be accepted under any circumstances. The Final Project is due by the end of class of the last class session. An incomplete Final Project will automatically be downgraded a minimum of 25% based on completion.

Free Pass – Each student is allowed one Free Pass for the given semester. The Free Pass may be used to extend an Assignment Deadline by one class session. The student must submit their copy of the pass when they turn in the assignment and have it signed by the Professor .

Academic Integrity: Students and all others who work with information, ideas, texts, images, music, inventions and other intellectual property owe their audience and sources accuracy and honesty in using, crediting and citation of sources. As a community of intellectual and professional workers, the college recognizes its responsibility for providing instruction in information literacy and academic integrity, offering models of good practice, and responding vigilantly and appropriately to infractions of academic integrity. Accordingly, academic dishonesty is prohibited in The City University of New York and is punishable by penalties, including failing grades, suspension and expulsion.

File Naming Standards: CMCE_1211-LOO_SP_21-FirstName_LastName-Dwg_1.dwg

Submission Requirements: Autocad File, PDF, Hard copy. As described in Drawing Assignment.

Class “Supply List”: MUST HAVE FOR 2 ND CLASS MEETING

City Tech Email Account Text Book (optional)

DropBox Account Architectural Scale

Blackboard Access Tape Measure

Flash Drive Graph Paper

Access to Computer with Autocad

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AutoCAD practice drawings with PDF eBook

Updated on December 18, 2023 | By Jaiprakash Pandey | Category AutoCAD | min reading time

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2D and 3D practice drawings and projects

Get our collection of more than 100 fully dimensioned 2D and 3D practice drawings and projects

The best way to practice AutoCAD skill is with AutoCAD practice exercises, the more your practice the better you get at making drawings using AutoCAD.

So, to help you practice I have created this article with ten 2D and ten 3D drawings that you can make using AutoCAD or any other CAD software as well.

To get the full list of 2D and 3D practice drawings download the PDF eBook which contains more than 70 drawings fully illustrated with dimensions.

Click the download button above to get your eBook.

2D drawings

Use AutoCAD, BricsCAD, ZWCAD or any other similar CAD software to make these drawings.

2D practice drawing 1

2D practice drawing 2

2D practice drawing 3

2D practice drawing 4

2D practice drawing 5

2D practice drawing 6

2D practice drawing 7

2D practice drawing 8

2D practice drawing 9

2D practice drawing 10

Learn to make these drawings in AutoCAD

The step by step method of making these practice drawings along with more than 50 other 2D practice drawings is in the following course.

3D Drawings

You can use AutoCAD, BricsCAD, ZWCAD, Solidworks, Fusion 360 or any other software with 3D workspace to practice these drawings.

3D practice drawing 1

3D practice drawing 2

3D practice drawing 3

3D practice drawing 4

3D practice drawing 5

3D practice drawing 6

3D practice drawing 7

3D practice drawing 8

3D practice drawing 9

3D practice drawing 10

Learn to make these 3D drawings in AutoCAD

The step by step method of making these practice drawings along with more than 50 other 3D practice drawings is in the following course.

These practice drawings are part of our collection of nearly 100 2D and 3D practice drawings from our practice drawing eBook.

You can get this eBook for free using the download bar at the top of this page.

Disclosure: On this site, we have placed some recommended products and services from which we get an affiliate commission for every purchase you make without any extra cost to you. Learn more about our affiliate process here .

About the Author

Jaiprakash Pandey

Jaiprakash Pandey is the published author of “Practical AutoCAD book” by Packt publication he is also an Autodesk AutoCAD certified professional and Autodesk expert elite community. He has been delivering CAD training to corporate clients for more than 8 years and his clients include Steel, Power, Automobile industries and also government organizations, fortune 500 companies and the military.

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2d drawing Problem 10

You can get its step by step tutorial in this course https://sourcecad.com/courses/2d-autocad-practice-drawing-and-projects/

Where i can get video tutorial of these diagrams

It’s in this course https://sourcecad.com/courses/2d-autocad-practice-drawing-and-projects/

Hi, I have a circle with no radius, 2 parallel lines (4.3 apart) with the length of 75 to the center of the circle. The circle is attached to the line via an Ogee Curve with a Radius of 5. The question is how big is the circle and where is the line trimmed so that the circle, the curve, and the line all meet. If I had more information I would give it. The circle I am guessing is about twice the radius of the curve. I have been working on this for a few hours and have tried almost everything to get everything to work. Not even YouTube works when I ask this question. 😕

Hi Kim, could you roughly draw a shape or deign and send it to me as an image or screenshot it will be helpful for us to guide you better.

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CAREER PATHWAYS

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How to Become a Civil Drafter

By Bridget Smith

Published: March 5, 2024

Are you fascinated by the world of civil engineering and eager to contribute to the creation of impressive structures? Join us in this blog post as we delve into the journey of becoming a proficient civil drafter. Discover the steps and skills required to embark on this thrilling career, where you can transform architectural visions into vibrant reality through meticulous technical drawings.

Career Summary

Civil drafter salary.

When it comes to the financial aspect of a career as a civil drafter, it’s important to consider the earning potential. According to data from Glassdoor.com , here is an overview of civil drafter salaries in the United States:

Entry Salary (US$38k – $50k)
Median Salary (US$50k – $65k)
Executive Salary (US$65k – more)

Compared to the general average income of US citizens , civil drafter salaries can be considered mid-range. While they may not reach the highest income levels, civil drafters enjoy stable and respectable earnings within the engineering and construction industry.

What does a Civil Drafter do?

Civil drafters play a vital role in the field of engineering and construction, turning ideas and concepts into detailed technical drawings and plans. They work closely with engineers and architects to create accurate and precise blueprints that serve as the foundation for various civil projects, such as highways, bridges, buildings, and infrastructure. They are responsible for producing detailed technical drawings, incorporating dimensions, specifications, and other essential elements that guide construction teams.

Civil Drafter Career Progression

Junior Civil Drafter/Entry-Level Drafter: At the start of their career, junior civil drafters assist senior drafters in creating drawings and plans. They gain practical experience by working on smaller projects, learning software tools, and developing their drafting skills.
Civil Drafter: As civil drafters gain experience, they take on more responsibilities. They create detailed drawings, incorporating technical specifications, dimensions, and other crucial elements necessary for construction projects.
Senior Civil Drafter: Senior civil drafters oversee and review the work of junior drafters, ensuring accuracy and adherence to project requirements. They also collaborate closely with engineers and architects, providing technical insights and recommendations.
Project Coordinator: In this role, civil drafters coordinate the drafting aspects of a project. They assist in project planning, prepare cost estimates, review drawings for compliance, and communicate with the design team to ensure project objectives are met.
Executive/Managerial Positions: With significant experience and leadership skills, civil drafters can progress into executive or managerial roles. They oversee drafting departments, make strategic decisions, manage budgets, and coordinate with senior management and clients to ensure successful project delivery.

Creative Outlet: You’ll use your creativity and technical skills to contribute to the construction of impressive structures and infrastructure projects.
Impactful Contributions: By creating accurate and detailed drawings, you play a crucial role in turning concepts into tangible structures that improve communities and people’s lives.
Professional Growth: Advancements in drafting technology and software provide chances to expand your skill set and stay up-to-date with industry trends, keeping your work dynamic and engaging.
Stability and Demand: With infrastructure development and renovation projects continually taking place, there is a steady stream of job opportunities, offering stability and potential career advancement.
Repetitive Tasks: Some aspects of civil drafting can involve repetitive tasks, such as creating similar drawings or making revisions based on client feedback, which may become monotonous over time.
Deadline Pressures: Meeting project deadlines can sometimes result in high-pressure situations for civil drafters, requiring them to work efficiently and effectively to complete drawings and plans within tight timelines.
Rigorous Precision: The nature of civil drafting demands meticulous attention to detail. While this is essential for ensuring accuracy, it can also be mentally exhausting to constantly double-check dimensions, annotations, and other critical elements.
Work Environment Challenges: Civil drafters may face challenging work environments, such as spending long hours sitting at a computer, dealing with tight spaces for drawing reviews, or being exposed to noisy construction sites during field visits.

Useful Skills to Have as a Civil Drafter

Proficiency in CAD Software
Knowledge of engineering and construction principles
Attention to Detail
Problem-Solving Skills
Effective communication

Popular Civil Drafter Specialties

Structural Drafting
Transportation Drafting
Land Development Drafting
Environmental Drafting
GIS (Geographic Information System) Drafting

How to become a Civil Drafter

Becoming a civil drafter involves a combination of education and practical experience. In this section, we will explore the common steps, including the educational requirements and the practical experience needed to excel in this field.

Do I need a degree to become a Civil Drafter?

No, you do not necessarily need a degree to become a Civil Drafter. While a degree in drafting, engineering, or a related field can provide a strong foundation and enhance your job prospects, many entry-level positions in civil drafting can be obtained with a high school diploma or an associate’s degree in Drafting and Design Technology or a similar field. Practical experience, proficiency in CAD software, and a strong portfolio of drawings and projects can also contribute to securing a civil drafting position. However, it’s important to note that some employers may prefer or require a degree for more advanced or specialized roles within civil drafting.

Why is it important to get a degree in Civil Drafting?

Getting a degree in Civil Drafting is important because it provides a comprehensive education and a deeper understanding of drafting principles, engineering concepts, and industry practices. A degree enhances your technical skills, expands your knowledge base, and can make you more competitive in the job market, opening up opportunities for advanced positions and specialized roles within civil drafting.

How long does it take to get a degree in Civil Drafting?

The duration to obtain a degree can vary depending on the program and educational institution. Typically, an associate’s degree in Drafting and Design Technology can be completed in approximately two years of full-time study.

However, pursuing a bachelor’s degree in a related field, such as Civil Engineering or Architectural Engineering, may take around four years to complete. It’s important to note that part-time or online study options may extend the overall duration of the degree program.

How much does it cost to study Civil Drafting at university?

The cost of studying Civil Drafting at university can vary significantly depending on factors such as the institution, location, program duration, and whether you are an in-state or out-of-state student. On average, the tuition fees for a four-year bachelor’s degree in Civil Drafting can range from $6,000 to $20,000 per year . It’s important to consider additional expenses like textbooks, supplies, and living costs when estimating the total cost of studying Civil Drafting at a university.

Can I become a Civil Drafter through online education?

Yes, you can become a Civil Drafter through online education . Many reputable institutions offer online programs and courses in Civil Drafting, providing flexibility for individuals who prefer remote learning or have other commitments. Online education allows you to study at your own pace, access course materials digitally, and interact with instructors and classmates virtually. It’s important to ensure that the online program you choose is accredited and provides comprehensive instruction in drafting principles and CAD software.

What are some web resources to learn skills to become a Civil Drafter?

There are several web resources available to learn skills and gain knowledge in order to become a Civil Drafter. Some notable ones include:

AutoCAD Tutorials: AutoCAD is a widely used software in the field of drafting. Resources like Autodesk University and the AutoCAD YouTube channel offer tutorials and guides to help you learn and improve your AutoCAD skills.
Online CAD Learning Platforms: Websites like CADLearning and LinkedIn Learning offer extensive libraries of online courses and tutorials specifically focused on CAD software, including AutoCAD and other drafting tools.
Professional Associations and Forums: Joining professional associations such as the American Design Drafting Association (ADDA) or participating in drafting-related forums and communities can provide access to valuable resources, discussions, and networking opportunities.
Blogs: Many experienced professionals and educators share their knowledge and expertise through blogs dedicated to drafting. Blogs like The CAD Geek and Draftsperson.net offer informative content and tips for aspiring drafters.

Civil Drafter Practical Experience

Practical experience is a crucial aspect of becoming a successful civil drafter. It allows individuals to apply their theoretical knowledge, develop their skills, and gain insights into the real-world application of drafting principles.

Engaging in internships, whether paid or unpaid, provides valuable opportunities to work alongside industry professionals, learn from their expertise, and contribute to actual projects. It also offers a chance to develop essential skills, establish professional connections, and enhance career prospects.

What are Internship Opportunities for a Civil Drafter?

Internship opportunities for civil drafters are widely available in various industries and organizations.

Here are some common internship opportunities that aspiring civil drafters can explore:

Architectural, Engineering, or Construction Firms: Internships in these firms offer civil drafters exposure to their respective fields. In architectural firms, interns assist in designing and drafting architectural projects, working on detailed drawings and 3D modeling. Engineering consulting firms provide drafting experience in infrastructure design, site development plans, and utility layouts. Construction companies offer internships involving construction drawings, blueprint review, and on-site visits to observe the construction process.
Government Agencies: Government agencies at various levels, such as transportation departments or municipal planning departments, offer internships for civil drafters. Interns may assist in creating drawings for public infrastructure projects, conducting site surveys, or supporting planning initiatives.
Educational Institutions: Colleges, universities, and technical schools with civil engineering or drafting programs may have internship opportunities within their own departments or through partnerships with local organizations.
Professional Associations: Professional associations related to civil engineering, drafting, or architecture sometimes offer internship programs or have connections with organizations that offer internships. Networking with professionals in these associations can provide leads on internship opportunities.

What Skills Will I Learn as a Civil Drafter?

As a civil drafter, you will develop a diverse range of skills that are essential for the profession.

Here are some key skills you can expect to learn:

Proficiency in CAD Software: You’ll become proficient in Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software, such as AutoCAD or Revit. You will learn to navigate the software interface, create accurate and detailed drawings, utilize drafting tools, and generate 3D models.
Technical Drawing and Annotation: Civil drafting involves creating precise technical drawings. You will learn to accurately represent dimensions, symbols, and annotations, ensuring clarity and adherence to industry standards. Mastery of technical drawing techniques and standards is essential.
Understanding of Building Codes and Regulations: As a civil drafter, you will gain knowledge of relevant building codes and regulations. You will learn to incorporate code requirements into your drawings, ensuring compliance with safety standards and legal obligations.
Collaboration and Communication: Civil drafters often work as part of a team, collaborating with architects, engineers, and other professionals. You will develop skills in effective communication, both verbal and written, to convey design ideas, understand project requirements, and coordinate with team members.
Attention to Detail and Problem-Solving: Precision and attention to detail are vital skills in civil drafting. You will learn to meticulously review drawings, spot errors or inconsistencies, and make necessary revisions. Problem-solving skills will also be honed as you encounter challenges in translating design concepts into practical drawings.
Time Management and Organization: Meeting project deadlines is crucial in civil drafting. You will learn to manage your time effectively, prioritize tasks, and handle multiple projects simultaneously. Organization skills will help you stay on top of project requirements and ensure a smooth workflow.
Knowledge of Construction Practices and Materials: You will gain knowledge of construction practices and materials to accurately represent them in drawings. Understanding construction techniques, terminology, and materials enhances your ability to create drawings that are practical and constructible.

What is the Work-Life Balance of a Civil Drafter?

The work-life balance of a civil drafter can vary depending on factors such as the specific role, project deadlines, and the organization’s culture.

While civil drafting often involves regular office hours, there may be instances where additional hours or project-related deadlines require an extra commitment. However, many organizations strive to maintain a healthy work-life balance, promoting regular working hours and respecting personal time.

Civil drafters can often enjoy a good work-life balance by effectively managing their time, prioritizing tasks, and maintaining open communication with supervisors and colleagues.

What’s the Career Outlook for Civil Drafter?

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the employment of civil drafters is projected to decline by 3% from 2021 to 2031.

However, approximately 18,900 positions for drafters are estimated to be available annually, despite a decrease in employment. These openings are anticipated to arise from the necessity to replace workers who transition to alternative professions or retire.

What are the Job Opportunities of a Civil Drafter?

Civil drafters have diverse job opportunities within the engineering and construction industry.

Some common job opportunities for civil drafters include:

Architecture and Construction: Civil drafters can find employment in architectural firms, working alongside architects to create detailed drawings and plans for architectural projects. They are also often employed by construction companies, where they assist in producing construction drawings, collaborating with architects and engineers, and supporting the construction process.
Municipalities and Planning Departments: City or town planning departments often hire civil drafters to assist in creating zoning maps, subdivision plans, and other documents related to urban development.
Transportation and Transit Authorities: Transportation agencies and transit authorities employ civil drafters to assist in the design and development of transportation infrastructure, such as roads, highways, bridges, and transit systems. Civil drafters contribute to the creation of accurate drawings and plans that adhere to safety standards and optimize traffic flow.
Engineering Departments in Universities: Universities often have engineering departments that engage in research and development projects. These departments may hire civil drafters to assist with creating technical drawings and documentation.
Freelancing and Contract Work: Civil drafters can work as freelancers or independent contractors, offering drafting services to various clients, including engineering firms, architects, and construction companies. Online platforms and job boards can help connect freelancers with potential clients.

These job opportunities can be found in a variety of settings, including private companies, government organizations, and consulting firms. The demand for civil drafters is driven by ongoing infrastructure development, renovation projects, and the need to replace aging infrastructure.

What Type of Companies Hire a Civil Drafter?

Civil drafters are hired by various types of companies and organizations within the engineering and construction industry.

Here are some examples of the types of companies that typically hire civil drafters:

Construction Companies: Civil drafters create detailed construction drawings and plans using CAD software, based on the designs provided by engineers and architects. They collaborate with the project team, review blueprints, and ensure accuracy and compliance with building codes and regulations.
Land Development Companies: Civil drafters can work with land development companies, creating drawings and plans for residential, commercial, and industrial property development projects.
Surveying Companies: Civil drafters with knowledge of land surveying and mapping can find job opportunities with surveying companies, assisting in creating survey maps and supporting surveying activities.
Utility Companies: Utility companies, including those in the energy, water, and telecommunications sectors, hire civil drafters to support their infrastructure development and maintenance. Civil drafters assist in creating detailed drawings and plans for utility networks, including power lines, pipelines, and communication systems.
Oil and Gas Companies: Oil and gas companies often require civil drafters to support their exploration, drilling, and pipeline projects. Civil drafters assist in creating drawings and plans that encompass site layouts, pipeline routes, and equipment installations, ensuring compliance with industry regulations and safety standards.
Manufacturing and Industrial Companies: Some manufacturing and industrial companies require civil drafters to design and document the civil aspects of their facilities, including site layouts, foundations, and utility systems.

These are just a few examples, and civil drafters may also find opportunities in other industries or sectors where drafting skills are required. The demand for civil drafters spans across a wide range of companies and organizations involved in engineering, construction, land development, and infrastructure projects.

Should I become a Civil Drafter?

Deciding whether to pursue a career as a civil drafter is a significant choice that requires careful consideration. It can be a rewarding path for those who possess a passion for design, a meticulous eye for detail, and an interest in engineering and construction.

The field offers opportunities to contribute to meaningful projects, collaborate with professionals from various disciplines, and make a tangible impact on the built environment.

Consider your passion for CAD software, technical drawing, and the ability to work independently as well as part of a team. Reflect on your problem-solving skills, attention to detail, and willingness to continuously learn and adapt to advancements in drafting technology.

Ultimately, it is important to make an informed decision based on a thorough understanding of the requirements and skills discussed in this article, along with your own personal interests and long-term goals.The main duties of a civil drafter involve creating detailed drawings of architectural and structural elements for buildings or producing topographical relief maps used in civil engineering projects like bridges, highways, and public works. Their work requires knowledge of building materials, engineering practices, and mathematical skills to ensure accurate and comprehensive drawings.Civil drafters create topographical maps for construction and civil engineering projects, such as bridges and highways. On the other hand, mechanical drafters focus on designing layouts for tools, devices, and equipment like medical instruments and large construction tools.To pursue a career as a drafter, acquiring an associate’s degree is typically recommended. Programs in drafting provide instruction in design fundamentals, sketching, and the use of computer-aided design (CAD) software. Completing an associate’s degree usually takes around two years of full-time education.Drafters frequently utilize CAD drafting software for their work. Autodesk’s AutoCAD and AutoCAD LT are widely used programs that enable the creation of precise 2D and 3D drawings for various purposes, including building structures, products, and designs. AutoCAD web and mobile apps also provide convenient on-the-go accessibility.

Careers Related to Civil Drafter

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AutoCAD practice drawings with PDF eBook
So, to help you practice I have created this article with ten 2D and ten 3D drawings that you can make using AutoCAD or any other CAD software as well. To get the full list of 2D and 3D practice drawings download the PDF eBook which contains more than 70 drawings fully illustrated with dimensions. Click the download button above to get your eBook.
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Compendium of Design

What is Civil Engineering Drawing

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Type 2. Master Plans

Type 3. Tender Drawings

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Type 5. Construction Drawings

Type 6. As-Built Drawings

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6 Types of Civil Engineering Drawings [Detailed Guide]

What is Civil Engineering Drawing

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Different Types of Views in GA Drawings

Notation and Symbols in GA Drawings

The Creation Process of GA Drawings

Creating a 3D Model for GA Drawing Generation

Evolution and Increasing Detail of GA Drawings as Project Progresses

Use of CAD Software and BIM Technology

How to Read and Interpret GA Drawings

Understanding Pictorial Views

Understanding Notation, Symbols, and Scales

Practical Applications of General Arrangement Drawings