how to write a psychological criticism essay

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Ai, ethics & human agency, collaboration, information literacy, writing process, psychological criticism.

• © 2023 by Angela Eward-Mangione - Hillsborough Community College

Psychological Criticism is

• a research method , a type of textual research , that literary critics use to interpret texts
• a genre of discourse employed by literary critics used to share the results of their interpretive efforts.

Psychological criticism, or psychoanalytic criticism, took off in popularity in the early decades of the twentieth century. Sigmund Freud, who based some of his theories on analyses of literature, particularly Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex , is the figure primarily associated with psychological criticism, though Jacques Lacan and Carl Jung have played key roles as well. Psychological criticism frequently addresses human behavior—at the conscious and/or unconscious level—as well as the development of characters through their actions. For example, according to Freud in The Ego and the Id, a work of literature is an external expression of the author’s unconscious mind.

Key Terms: Dialectic ; Hermeneutics ; Semiotics ; Text & Intertextuality ; Tone

Foundational Questions of Psychological Criticism

• What motivates the speaker or protagonist? Does the speaker or protagonist appear to be consciously or unconsciously motivated?
• How do desires and wishes manifest in the text? Do they remain largely fulfilled or unfilled? How does their fulfillment, or lack thereof, affect the character’s development?
• Does the text chart the emotional development of a character? How?
• How do the characters in the text evoke archetypal figures such as the Great or Nurturing Mother, the Wounded Child, the Whore, the Crone, the Lover, or the Destroying Angel)?

Brevity - Say More with Less

Clarity (in Speech and Writing)

Coherence - How to Achieve Coherence in Writing

Flow - How to Create Flow in Writing

Inclusivity - Inclusive Language

The Elements of Style - The DNA of Powerful Writing

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How to Write a Psychology Essay

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Before you write your essay, it’s important to analyse the task and understand exactly what the essay question is asking. Your lecturer may give you some advice – pay attention to this as it will help you plan your answer.

Next conduct preliminary reading based on your lecture notes. At this stage, it’s not crucial to have a robust understanding of key theories or studies, but you should at least have a general “gist” of the literature.

After reading, plan a response to the task. This plan could be in the form of a mind map, a summary table, or by writing a core statement (which encompasses the entire argument of your essay in just a few sentences).

After writing your plan, conduct supplementary reading, refine your plan, and make it more detailed.

It is tempting to skip these preliminary steps and write the first draft while reading at the same time. However, reading and planning will make the essay writing process easier, quicker, and ensure a higher quality essay is produced.

Components of a Good Essay

Now, let us look at what constitutes a good essay in psychology. There are a number of important features.

• Global Structure – structure the material to allow for a logical sequence of ideas. Each paragraph / statement should follow sensibly from its predecessor. The essay should “flow”. The introduction, main body and conclusion should all be linked.
• Each paragraph should comprise a main theme, which is illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).
• Knowledge and Understanding – recognize, recall, and show understanding of a range of scientific material that accurately reflects the main theoretical perspectives.
• Critical Evaluation – arguments should be supported by appropriate evidence and/or theory from the literature. Evidence of independent thinking, insight, and evaluation of the evidence.
• Quality of Written Communication – writing clearly and succinctly with appropriate use of paragraphs, spelling, and grammar. All sources are referenced accurately and in line with APA guidelines.

In the main body of the essay, every paragraph should demonstrate both knowledge and critical evaluation.

There should also be an appropriate balance between these two essay components. Try to aim for about a 60/40 split if possible.

Most students make the mistake of writing too much knowledge and not enough evaluation (which is the difficult bit).

It is best to structure your essay according to key themes. Themes are illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).

Choose relevant points only, ones that most reveal the theme or help to make a convincing and interesting argument.

Knowledge and Understanding

Remember that an essay is simply a discussion / argument on paper. Don’t make the mistake of writing all the information you know regarding a particular topic.

You need to be concise, and clearly articulate your argument. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences.

Each paragraph should have a purpose / theme, and make a number of points – which need to be support by high quality evidence. Be clear why each point is is relevant to the argument. It would be useful at the beginning of each paragraph if you explicitly outlined the theme being discussed (.e.g. cognitive development, social development etc.).

Try not to overuse quotations in your essays. It is more appropriate to use original content to demonstrate your understanding.

Psychology is a science so you must support your ideas with evidence (not your own personal opinion). If you are discussing a theory or research study make sure you cite the source of the information.

Note this is not the author of a textbook you have read – but the original source / author(s) of the theory or research study.

For example:

Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after two and a half to three years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e. there is a critical period.

Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fullfil the next one, and so on.

As a general rule, make sure there is at least one citation (i.e. name of psychologist and date of publication) in each paragraph.

Remember to answer the essay question. Underline the keywords in the essay title. Don’t make the mistake of simply writing everything you know of a particular topic, be selective. Each paragraph in your essay should contribute to answering the essay question.

Critical Evaluation

In simple terms, this means outlining the strengths and limitations of a theory or research study.

There are many ways you can critically evaluate:

Methodological evaluation of research

Is the study valid / reliable ? Is the sample biased, or can we generalize the findings to other populations? What are the strengths and limitations of the method used and data obtained?

Be careful to ensure that any methodological criticisms are justified and not trite.

Rather than hunting for weaknesses in every study; only highlight limitations that make you doubt the conclusions that the authors have drawn – e.g., where an alternative explanation might be equally likely because something hasn’t been adequately controlled.

Compare or contrast different theories

Outline how the theories are similar and how they differ. This could be two (or more) theories of personality / memory / child development etc. Also try to communicate the value of the theory / study.

Debates or perspectives

Refer to debates such as nature or nurture, reductionism vs. holism, or the perspectives in psychology . For example, would they agree or disagree with a theory or the findings of the study?

What are the ethical issues of the research?

Does a study involve ethical issues such as deception, privacy, psychological or physical harm?

Gender bias

If research is biased towards men or women it does not provide a clear view of the behavior that has been studied. A dominantly male perspective is known as an androcentric bias.

Cultural bias

Is the theory / study ethnocentric? Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise. In some texts, over 90% of studies have US participants, who are predominantly white and middle class.

Does the theory or study being discussed judge other cultures by Western standards?

Animal Research

This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use animals. The main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. But benefits are almost always to humans and costs to animals.

Animal research also raises the issue of extrapolation. Can we generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy & physiology is different from humans?

The PEC System

It is very important to elaborate on your evaluation. Don’t just write a shopping list of brief (one or two sentence) evaluation points.

Instead, make sure you expand on your points, remember, quality of evaluation is most important than quantity.

When you are writing an evaluation paragraph, use the PEC system.

• Make your P oint.
• E xplain how and why the point is relevant.
• Discuss the C onsequences / implications of the theory or study. Are they positive or negative?

For Example

• Point: It is argued that psychoanalytic therapy is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority.
• Explain: Because psychoanalytic therapy involves talking and gaining insight, and is costly and time-consuming, it is argued that it is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority. Evidence suggests psychoanalytic therapy works best if the client is motivated and has a positive attitude.
• Consequences: A depressed client’s apathy, flat emotional state, and lack of motivation limit the appropriateness of psychoanalytic therapy for depression.

Furthermore, the levels of dependency of depressed clients mean that transference is more likely to develop.

Using Research Studies in your Essays

Research studies can either be knowledge or evaluation.

• If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding.
• If you comment on what the studies shows, and what it supports and challenges about the theory in question, this shows evaluation.

Writing an Introduction

It is often best to write your introduction when you have finished the main body of the essay, so that you have a good understanding of the topic area.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your introduction.

Ideally, the introduction should;

Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which “lie behind” the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. “Signpost” the essay’s key argument, (and, if possible, how this argument is structured).

Introductions are very important as first impressions count and they can create a h alo effect in the mind of the lecturer grading your essay. If you start off well then you are more likely to be forgiven for the odd mistake later one.

Writing a Conclusion

So many students either forget to write a conclusion or fail to give it the attention it deserves.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your conclusion.

Ideally the conclusion should summarize the key themes / arguments of your essay. State the take home message – don’t sit on the fence, instead weigh up the evidence presented in the essay and make a decision which side of the argument has more support.

Also, you might like to suggest what future research may need to be conducted and why (read the discussion section of journal articles for this).

Don”t include new information / arguments (only information discussed in the main body of the essay).

If you are unsure of what to write read the essay question and answer it in one paragraph.

Points that unite or embrace several themes can be used to great effect as part of your conclusion.

The Importance of Flow

Obviously, what you write is important, but how you communicate your ideas / arguments has a significant influence on your overall grade. Most students may have similar information / content in their essays, but the better students communicate this information concisely and articulately.

When you have finished the first draft of your essay you must check if it “flows”. This is an important feature of quality of communication (along with spelling and grammar).

This means that the paragraphs follow a logical order (like the chapters in a novel). Have a global structure with themes arranged in a way that allows for a logical sequence of ideas. You might want to rearrange (cut and paste) paragraphs to a different position in your essay if they don”t appear to fit in with the essay structure.

To improve the flow of your essay make sure the last sentence of one paragraph links to first sentence of the next paragraph. This will help the essay flow and make it easier to read.

Finally, only repeat citations when it is unclear which study / theory you are discussing. Repeating citations unnecessarily disrupts the flow of an essay.

Referencing

The reference section is the list of all the sources cited in the essay (in alphabetical order). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).

In simple terms every time you cite/refer to a name (and date) of a psychologist you need to reference the original source of the information.

If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites, then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.

References need to be set out APA style :

Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Journal Articles

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers

A simple way to write your reference section is use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.

Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.

Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.

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How to demonstrate critical evaluation in your psychology assignments

Thinking critically about psychology research

Critical thinking is often taught in undergraduate psychology degrees, and is a key marking criteria for higher marks in many assignments. But getting your head around how to write critically can sometimes be difficult. It can take practice. The aim of this short blog is to provide an introduction to critical evaluation, and how to start including evidence of critical evaluation in your psychology assignments.

So what does “critical evaluation” really mean?

Broadly speaking, critical evaluation is the process of thinking and writing critically about the quality of the sources of evidence used to support or refute an argument. By “ evidence “, I mean the literature you cite (e.g., a journal article or book chapter). By “ quality   of the evidence “, I mean thinking about whether this topic has been tested is in a robust way. If the quality of the sources is poor, then this could suggest poor support for your argument, and vice versa. Even if the quality is poor, this is important to discuss in your assignments as evidence of critical thinking in this way!

In the rest of this blog, I outline a few different ways you can start to implement critical thinking into your work and reading of psychology. I talk about the quality of the evidence, a few pointers for critiquing the methods, theoretical and practical critical evaluation too. This is not an exhaustive list, but hopefully it’ll help you to start getting those higher-level marks in psychology. I also include an example write-up at the end to illustrate how to write all of this up!

The quality of the evidence

There are different types of study designs in psychology research, but some are of higher quality than others. The higher the quality of the evidence, the stronger the support for your argument the research offers, because the idea has been tested more rigorously. The pyramid image below can really help to explain what we mean by “quality of evidence”, by showing different study designs in the order of their quality. 

Not every area of psychology is going to be full of high quality studies, and even the strongest sources of evidence (i.e., systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses) can have limitations! Because no study is perfect, it can be a good habit to tell the reader, in your report, (i) what the  design  of the study is that you’re citing, AND, (ii)  how  this affects your argument. Doing so would be evidence of critical thought. (See an example write-up below for implementing this, but do not copy and paste it!) 

But first, what do I mean by “design”? The design of the study refers to  how  the study was carried out. There are sometimes broad categories of design that you’ll have heard of, like a ‘survey design’, ‘a review paper’, or an ‘experimental design’. Within these categories, though, there can be more specific types of design (e.g. a  cross-sectional  survey design, or a  longitudinal  survey design; a  randomised controlled  experiment or a  simple pre-post  experiment). Knowing these specific types of design is a good place to start when thinking about how to critique the evidence when citing your sources, and the image below can help with that. 

Image source: https://thelogicofscience.com/2016/01/12/the-hierarchy-of-evidence-is-the-studys-design-robust/

In summary, there are various types of designs in psychology research. To name a few from the image above, we have: a meta-analysis or a systematic review (a review paper that summarises the research that explores the same research question); a cross-sectional survey study (a questionnaire that people complete once – these are really common in psychology!). If you’re not familiar with these, I would  highly suggest  doing a bit of reading around these methods and some of their general limitations – you can then use these limitation points in your assignments! To help with this, you could do a Google Scholar search for ‘limitations of a cross-sectional study’, or ‘why are randomised control trials gold standard?’. You can use any published papers as further support as a limitation.

Methodological critical evaluation

• Internal validity: Are the findings or the measures used in the study reliable (e.g., have they been replicated by another study, and is the reliability high)? 
• External validity: Are there any biases in the study that might affect generalisability(e.g., gender bias, where one gender may be overrepresented for the population in the sample recruited)?  Lack of generalisability is a common limitation that undergraduates tend to use by default as a limitation in their reports. It’s a perfectly valid limitation, but it can usually be made much more impactful by explaining exactly  how  it’s a problem for the topic of study. In some cases, this limitation may not be all that warranted; for example, a female bias may be expected in a sample of psychology students, because undergraduate courses tend to be filled mostly with females! 
• What is the design of the study, and how it a good or bad quality design (randomised control trial, cross-sectional study)? 

Theoretical critical evaluation

• Do the findings in the literature support the relevant psychological theories?
• Have the findings been replicated in another study? (If so, say so and add a reference!)

Practical critical evaluation

• In the real world, how easy would it be to implement these findings?
• Have these findings been implemented? (If so, you could find out if this has been done well!)

Summary points

In summary, there are various types of designs in psychology research. To name a few from the image above, we have: a meta-analysis or a systematic review (a review paper that summarises the research that explores the same research question); a cross-sectional survey study (a questionnaire that people complete once – these are really common in psychology!). If you’re not familiar with these, I would highly suggest doing a bit of reading around these methods and some of their general limitations – you can then use these limitation points in your assignments! To help with this, I would do a Google Scholar search for ‘limitations of a cross-sectional study’, or ‘why are randomised control trials gold standard?’. You can use these papers as further support as a limitation.

You don’t have to use all of these points in your writing, these are just examples of how you can demonstrate critical thinking in your work. Try to use at least a couple in any assignment. Here is an example of how to write these up:

An example write-up

“Depression and anxiety are generally associated with each other (see the meta-analysis by [reference here]). For example, one of these studies was a cross-sectional study [reference here] with 500 undergraduate psychology students. The researchers found that depression and anxiety (measured using the DASS-21 measure) were correlated at  r  = .76, indicating a strong effect. However, this one study is limited in that it used a cross-sectional design, which do not tell us whether depression causes anxiety or whether anxiety causes depression; it just tells us that they are correlated. It’s also limited in that the participants are not a clinical sample, which does not tell us about whether these are clinically co-morbid constructs. Finally, a strength of this study is that it used the DASS-21 which is generally found to be a reliable measure. Future studies would therefore benefit from using a longitudinal design to gain an idea as to how these variables are causally related to one another, and use more clinical samples to understand the implications for clinical practice. Overall, however, the research generally suggests that depression and anxiety are associated. That there is a meta-analysis on this topic [reference here], showing that there is lots of evidence, suggests that this finding is generally well-accepted.”

• Notice how I first found a review paper on the topic to broadly tell the reader how much evidence there is in the first place. I set the scene of the paragraph with the first sentence, and then the last sentence I brought it back, rounding the paragraph off. 
• Notice how I then described one study from this paper in more detail. Specifically, I mentioned the participants, the design of the study and the measure the researchers used to assess these variables. Critically, I then described  how  each of these pieces of the method are disadvantages/strengths of the study. Sometimes, it’s enough to just say “the study was limited in that it was a cross-sectional study”, but it can really show that you are thinking critically, if you also add “… because it does not tell us….”. 
• Notice how I added a statistic there to further illustrate my point (in this case, it was the correlation coefficient), showing that I didn’t just read the abstract of the paper. Doing this for the effect sizes in a study can also help demonstrate to a reader that you understand statistics (a higher-level marking criteria). 

Are these points you can include in your own work?

Thanks for reading,

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How to Write an Introduction for a Psychology Paper

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

• Writing Tips

If you are writing a psychology paper, it is essential to kick things off with a strong introduction. The introduction to a psychology research paper helps your readers understand why the topic is important and what they need to know before they delve deeper.

Your goal in this section is to introduce the topic to the reader, provide an overview of previous research on the topic, and identify your own hypothesis .

At a Glance

Writing a great introduction can be a great foundation for the rest of your psychology paper. To create a strong intro:

• Research your topic
• Outline your paper
• Introduce your topic
• Summarize the previous research
• Present your hypothesis or main argument

Before You Write an Introduction

There are some important steps you need to take before you even begin writing your introduction. To know what to write, you need to collect important background information and create a detailed plan.

Research Your Topic

Search a journal database, PsychInfo or ERIC, to find articles on your subject. Once you have located an article, look at the reference section to locate other studies cited in the article. As you take notes from these articles, be sure to write down where you found the information.

A simple note detailing the author's name, journal, and date of publication can help you keep track of sources and avoid plagiarism.

Create a Detailed Outline

This is often one of the most boring and onerous steps, so students tend to skip outlining and go straight to writing. Creating an outline might seem tedious, but it can be an enormous time-saver down the road and will make the writing process much easier.

Start by looking over the notes you made during the research process and consider how you want to present all of your ideas and research.

Introduce the Topic

Once you are ready to write your introduction, your first task is to provide a brief description of the research question. What is the experiment or study attempting to demonstrate? What phenomena are you studying? Provide a brief history of your topic and explain how it relates to your current research.

As you are introducing your topic, consider what makes it important. Why should it matter to your reader? The goal of your introduction is not only to let your reader know what your paper is about, but also to justify why it is important for them to learn more.

If your paper tackles a controversial subject and is focused on resolving the issue, it is important to summarize both sides of the controversy in a fair and impartial way. Consider how your paper fits in with the relevant research on the topic.

The introduction of a research paper is designed to grab interest. It should present a compelling look at the research that already exists and explain to readers what questions your own paper will address.

Summarize Previous Research

The second task of your introduction is to provide a well-rounded summary of previous research that is relevant to your topic. So, before you begin to write this summary, it is important to research your topic thoroughly.

Finding appropriate sources amid thousands of journal articles can be a daunting task, but there are several steps you can take to simplify your research. If you have completed the initial steps of researching and keeping detailed notes, writing your introduction will be much easier.

It is essential to give the reader a good overview of the historical context of the issue you are writing about, but do not feel like you must provide an exhaustive review of the subject. Focus on hitting the main points, and try to include the most relevant studies.

You might describe previous research findings and then explain how the current study differs or expands upon earlier research.

Provide Your Hypothesis

Once you have summarized the previous research, explain areas where the research is lacking or potentially flawed. What is missing from previous studies on your topic? What research questions have yet to be answered? Your hypothesis should lead to these questions.

At the end of your introduction, offer your hypothesis and describe what you expected to find in your experiment or study.

The introduction should be relatively brief. You want to give your readers an overview of a topic, explain why you are addressing it, and provide your arguments.

Tips for Writing Your Psychology Paper Intro

• Use 3x5 inch note cards to write down notes and sources.
• Look in professional psychology journals for examples of introductions.
• Remember to cite your sources.
• Maintain a working bibliography with all of the sources you might use in your final paper. This will make it much easier to prepare your reference section later on.
• Use a copy of the APA style manual to ensure that your introduction and references are in proper APA format .

What This Means For You

Before you delve into the main body of your paper, you need to give your readers some background and present your main argument in the introduction of you paper. You can do this by first explaining what your topic is about, summarizing past research, and then providing your thesis.

Armağan A. How to write an introduction section of a scientific article ?  Turk J Urol . 2013;39(Suppl 1):8-9. doi:10.5152/tud.2013.046

Fried T, Foltz C, Lendner M, Vaccaro AR. How to write an effective introduction .  Clin Spine Surg . 2019;32(3):111-112. doi:10.1097/BSD.0000000000000714

Jawaid SA, Jawaid M. How to write introduction and discussion .  Saudi J Anaesth . 2019;13(Suppl 1):S18-S19. doi:10.4103/sja.SJA_584_18

American Psychological Association. Information Recommended for Inclusion in Manuscripts That Report New Data Collections Regardless of Research Design . Published 2020.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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How to Write a Psychoanalytic Criticism Paper

Psychoanalysis provides an extraordinarily versatile tool for criticism, applicable to just about every genre and media form. The many fields it probes include film, documentaries, novels, academic treatises, art, poetry and politics. Jacques Lacan's development of Freudian theory, in particular, offers a uniquely powerful tool for yielding meanings and truths that a work's creator may not have intended or noticed. By paying close attention to a text, psychoanalysis goes beyond the obvious and locates other potentials ciphered within the consciously intended meanings.

Read as an analyst listens to her patients: Don't hunt for meanings; try to remain emotionally neutral and relaxed, and scan carefully through the whole work waiting for words, phrases or emotional tones to "strike" you. Treat the text or work before you as your psychoanalytic patient. If a word seems odd for the context or if the argument becomes strident or forceful, use a highlighter to note where these occur. The text is becoming "symptomatic" at these points -- stridency or marked authoritativeness usually means the author is trying to block alternate meanings.

Go back to the points in the text that aroused your curiosity or baffled you and let your mind wander freely around these points. Examine what you find yourself picturing or thinking. Give more credence to what you happen to think rather than what you try to think. Make notes of your musings and speculations. Take care to notice what feelings the text has aroused in you at various points and ask yourself why and if you agree or disagree with them. Determine if they elicit feelings of anger, irritation, depression or indifference. Record your responses on your notepad. You're starting to articulate the text's "unconscious" content.

Open closed doors in the text by imagining alternate meanings in your mind. From a psychoanalytic point of view, a "rich" text lends itself to more and more speculation whereas an over-controlled text attempts to shut it down. Use the points of "closure" in the work you're studying -- the sentences that curtail further debate -- as openings for your own free associations. Explore the "other words" the text tries to prevent you from thinking. Remember, psychoanalysis is the art of cultivating the full ambiguity of human expression, even where authoritative tones and phrases are used to discourage free thinking.

Read some psychoanalytic criticism, before you integrate your notes, to show you how hidden meanings apply within and between words. Adam Phillips and Slavoj Zizek provide innumerable examples in their works of excellent psychoanalytic criticism. Language is inherently ambiguous; it always hints at alternative meanings. Prohibitions, for example, invite contemplation of precisely that which they forbid, just as prescriptions encourage speculation about other paths and methods.

Study your notes and speculations and write an alternate account of the text you've studied, focusing on the attempted textual closures, the emotions stirred in you (and why) and the ideas your free speculation has generated in response. The alternative meanings you generate constitute the outcome of psychoanalytic criticism.

• Side Effects; Adam Phillips
• Everything You Always Wanted To Know About Lacan (But Were Afraid to Ask Hitchcock); Slavoj Zizek

Peter Evans previously trained as a physiologist, a teacher and a psychotherapist but now writes full-time. Based in London, he's written for "Spiked!," the health-and-wellness blog UltraFitnessDynamics, ContractingMadeEasy.com and a range of academic journals. Evans holds a Master of Science in socio-psychological studies from the University of London.

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3.2: Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism: An Overview

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“Do I wake or sleep?” Keats’s question is perplexing, one we have probably asked ourselves. For our dreams often seem as real as our waking life. We dream, we wake, and we try to recollect our dream, which somehow seems to tell us something that we should know. We may tell friends our dreams, especially those strange ones that haunt our imagination, and they may venture an interpretation for us by reading our dream. Dreams are stories of our mind, albeit often bewildering narratives in need of interpretation.

Your Process

• Keep a dream journal for a least one week, jotting down those dreams that you can remember most vividly.
• Take one of your dreams and analyze it like a story: What is the plot? Who are the characters? What symbols seem to be operating in the dream-story?
• Now try to understand your dream: What might be the theme of your dream-story?

Psychoanalytical literary criticism, on one level, concerns itself with dreams, for dreams are a reflection of the unconscious psychological states of dreamers. Freud, for example, contends that dreams are “the guardians of sleep” where they become “disguised fulfillments of repressed wishes.”Sigmund Freud. The Interpretation of Dreams in The Freud Reader , ed. Peter Gay, (New York: Norton, 1989). To Freud, dreams are the “royal road” to the personal unconscious of the dreamer and have a direct relation to literature, which often has the structure of a dream. Jacques Lacan, a disciple of Freud, was influenced by Freud’s psychoanalytical theories and contended that dreams mirrored our unconscious and reflected the way we use language; dreams, therefore, operate like language, having their own rhetorical qualities. Another Freud disciple, Carl Jung, eventually rejected Freud’s theory that dreams are manifestations of the personal unconsciousness, claiming, instead, that they reflect archetypes that tap into the “collective unconsciousness” of all humanity.Sigmund Freud. The Interpretation of Dreams in The Freud Reader , ed. Peter Gay, (New York: Norton, 1989).

In this chapter, we explore three popular psychoanalytical approaches for interpreting literature—Freudian, Lacanian, and Jungian. In general, there are four ways to focus a psychoanalytical interpretation:

• You can analyze the author’s life.
• You can analyze the thematic content of the work, especially the motivations of characters and the narrator(s).
• You can analyze the artistic construction of a text.
• You can analyze yourself or the reader of the literary work using reader-response theory, which we examine in detail in Chapter 6.

Here is a quick overview of some psychoanalytical interpretations that demonstrate these approaches.

Analyze the Author’s Life

In The Life and Works of Edgar Allan Poe (1933), Marie Bonaparte psychoanalyzes Poe, concluding that his fiction and poetry are driven by his desire to be reunited with his dead mother (she died when he was three).Marie Bonaparte, The Life and Works of Edgar Allan Poe (London: Image Publishing, 1949). This desire leaves him symbolically castrated, unable to have normal relationships with others (primarily women). Bonaparte analyzes Poe’s stories from this perspective, reading them as dreams reflecting Poe’s repressed desires for his mother. While such an interpretation is fascinating—and can be quite useful—you probably won’t attempt to get into the mind of the author for a short paper. But you will find, however, that examining the life of an author can be a fruitful enterprise, for there may be details from an author’s life that might become useful evidence in your paper.

You can find out about Poe at the Poe Museum’s website ( http://www.poemuseum.org/index.php ).

Analyze the Thematic Content: The Motivations of Characters and the Narrator(s)

An example showing a psychoanalytic focus on literary characters is Frederick Crews’s reading in The Sins of the Fathers: Hawthorne’s Psychological Themes (1966).Frederick Crews, The Sins of the Fathers: Hawthorne’s Psychological Themes (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). Crews first provides a psychoanalytical reading of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s life: he sees reflected in Hawthorne’s characters a thwarted Oedipus complex (no worries, we’ll define that a bit later), which creates repression. Furthermore, Hawthorne’s ties to the Puritan past engenders his work with a profound sense of guilt, further repressing characters. Crews reads “The Birthmark,” for example, as a tale of sexual repression. Crews’s study is a model for psychoanalyzing characters in fiction and remains a powerful and persuasive interpretation.

You can read “The Birthmark,”Nathaniel Hawthorne, “The Birthmark,” in The Complete Novels and Selected Tales of Nathaniel Hawthorne , Modern Library ed., ed. Norman Holmes Pearson (New York: Random House, 1937; University of Virginia Library Electronic Text Center, 1996), etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/mo...c/HawBirt.html . which will become the story of choice for the three student sample papers in this chapter, at etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/mo...c/HawBirt.html .

Analyze the Artistic Construction

Jacques Lacan shows us how a psychoanalytical reading can focus on the formal, artistic construction of a literary text. In other words, Lacan believes that our unconscious is “structured like a language” and that a literary text mirrors this sense of the unconscious. In “Seminar on ‘The Purloined Letter’” (you can access the essay at http://www.lacan.com/purloined.htm ), Lacan argues that Edgar Allan Poe’s tale is not necessarily about the meaning of the message in the stolen letter; rather, the tale is about who controls the letter, who has power over the language contained in the letter.Jacques Lacan, “Seminar on ‘The Purloined Letter,’” Lacan.com, http://www.lacan.com/purloined.htm . You can read “The Purloined Letter”Edgar Allan Poe, “The Purloined Letter,” in Tales of Mystery and Imagination (London: J. M. Dent, 1912; University of Virginia Library Electronic Text Center, 1994), http://etext.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/PoePurl.html . at http://etext.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/PoePurl.html .

Analyze the Reader

Finally, a psychoanalytical reading can examine the reader and how a literary work is interpreted according to the psychological needs of the reader. We examine this approach in detail in Chapter 6 on reader-response criticism.

• Choose three authors and/or literary works that you think might be fruitful for applying the first three psychoanalytical approaches (remember, we’ll learn about the fourth approach in reader-response theory).
• Now jot down two reasons why you think your author and/or work might work well with these theories.
• Keep this material, for you may have already developed an idea for your paper, which you’ll be ready to write after reading the rest of this chapter.

Psychological Analysis Essay

The introduction: the importance of various psychological approaches, the thesis statement, the body: psychological analysis, the conclusion: lee’s enfj – sage according to mbti, reference list.

Generally, there are many definitions of psychology. There are many approaches to the ways to define the science. In my opinion, psychology studies various mental processes and their impact on human’s behavior. In other words, the relationships between the mental processes are of primary importance.

The ways a person’s organism reacts, feels, acts, thinks, etc. are the issues psychology is related to. As far as the science or the branch of medicine studies human and social points, one may affirm that psychology is not only a natural science, but also a social one.

The science consists of numerous subcategories, which most important are psychodynamic theories, behaviorism, cognitive science, and the humanistic approach.

Thus, psychodynamic theories are associated with Sigmund Freud’s studies. In other words, on the one hand, there are unconscious mental processes, which are of primary importance; on the other hand, early childhood experiences are also rather significant as they impact on the development of personality. Behaviorism is a psychological perspective, which states that the science is to be totally objective.

The idea that any behavior can be controlled is one of the key questions behaviorism is based on. Cognitivism is a subcategory, which studies the impact of thoughts and ideas on human behavior. In other words, the ways persons think determine their acts. The key point of the humanistic approach is a human potential. On the other hand, the approach is mostly related to conscious experience. The importance of free will is one of the key points the humanistic approach studies.

Psychology is a science which studies numerous aspects of human behavior. Learning, reasoning, understanding, emotion are the basic points mental forces consist of. The science analyzes the laws of thoughts and emotions of persons.

The person I want to represent as a subject of my analysis is famous American singer-songwriter Amy Lynn Hartzler. She is known as lead vocalist of famous American rock band Evanescence . Lee was born in 1981. When Amy was six, one of her youngest sisters died. The singer devoted to her sister the songs Hello and Like You . She studied music theory at a public university MTSU. In 2007, Amy married a therapist Josh Hartzler.

When Amy was young, she wanted to be a veterinarian, but when she saw open heart surgery on a cat on TV, she changed her decision (Steele, 2007, p. 1). Amy is fond of Smashing Pumpkins and Beork. She thinks that a real signer is to be open-minded and different. A singer is to write the songs for herself or himself, but not to try to impress others. In other words, Amy thinks that honesty is one of the best traits persons are to develop.

She doesn’t support the private relationships with someone she works with. According to the interview of a journalist Steele (2007) Amy says, “If you really want to be respected and taken seriously you need to keep your eye on the ball and stay focused” (p. 1). The singer doesn’t afraid of the difficulties or problems. She is sure that the problems make her stronger. She takes into account not her own viewpoints, but also the opinions of others.

Evanescence’s albums are successful. Amy is sure that it is the desire of all the members of a rock band, which influences the success of the songs.

So, I suppose it is a cognitive neuroscience I can rely on to analyze Amy’s behavior. I decided to choose the type of psychology as we are familiar with the singer’s thoughts and philosophy. In other words, as far as cognitivism determines the impact of a person’s thought on his/her behavior, this perspective is the most appropriate one.

Taking into account Amy Lee’s life story and the worldview, I can say that the singer differentiates between her career and personal life. There are two separate aspects of Amy Lee’s life. The singer doesn’t display hypocrisy, as according to her, honesty is the best policy. For this reason, while analyzing the singer’s thoughts, it is difficult to impugn Lee’s honesty.

Child development is one of the most important points cognitivism studies. Thus, as far as we know that Amy lost her sister, one can make a conclusion that she values family relations. The singer has strong principles, which were formed due to various situations/events she experienced in the past.

Another psychological approach Amy’s behavior can be explained with is the humanistic approach. According to the approach people seek to actualize (make real through action) their potential as creatively as they can (Utdallas.edu, 2011, p. 14). So, it is exactly about Amy Lee, who actualized her potential in music career.

Another aspect of the singer’s life I want to consider is her decision to be a singer, but not a veterinarian. Thus, Amy took a conscious decision about the direction of her life. She perceives reality she sees; she is independent and creative; she accepts herself; she solves problems; she has a sense of humor; and she enjoys her life. She has a self-concept, which filters her perceptions. These are the fundamentals of the human approach Amy’s behavior is analyzed according to.

According to the types of Meyers Briggs, Amy Lee is mostly associated with ENFJ – Sage type. Extraversion, Intuition, Feeling, Judgment are the basic point of the type. According to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), Lee is “warm, empathetic, responsive, and responsible.

Highly attuned to the emotions, needs, and motivations of others. Finds potential in everyone, wants to help others fulfill their potential. May act as catalysts for individual and group growth. Loyal, responsive to praise and criticism. Sociable, facilitates others in a group, and provides inspiring leadership” (Asu.edu, 2008, p. 3).

Asu.edu. (2008). The 16 Myers-Briggs Types. Web.

Steele, S. (2007). Interview with Amy Lee. Web.

Utdallas.edu. (2011). What is Psychology? Web.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2018, October 31). Psychological Analysis. https://ivypanda.com/essays/psychological-analysis/

"Psychological Analysis." IvyPanda , 31 Oct. 2018, ivypanda.com/essays/psychological-analysis/.

IvyPanda . (2018) 'Psychological Analysis'. 31 October.

IvyPanda . 2018. "Psychological Analysis." October 31, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/psychological-analysis/.

1. IvyPanda . "Psychological Analysis." October 31, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/psychological-analysis/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Psychological Analysis." October 31, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/psychological-analysis/.

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9 Practicing New Criticism

Now that you’ve learned about New Criticism, practiced this method of analysis with “Ars Poetica,” and reviewed some examples, you will complete a theoretical response to a text using New Criticism as your approach. You will read three different texts below. Choose one text and respond to the questions in a short essay (500-750 words). I have included questions to guide your reading. You may choose to respond to some or all of these questions; however, your response should be written as a short essay, and you will need to come up with a thesis statement about your chosen text. Post your short essay as a response to the New Criticism Theoretical Response discussion board. I have included the theoretical response assignment instructions at the end of this chapter.

Checklist for New Criticism

Remember, when using the New Criticism approach, the goal is to closely examine the text itself and draw interpretations from its inherent literary qualities rather than relying on external context or authorial intent. Use “the speaker” instead of “the author” when writing about the text, and do not assume that the speaker is the author.

• Start with a close reading of the text. If you are working with a poem, number the lines. Then look for meter, rhythm, rhyme, stanzas, etc. (or identify whether the poem is free-verse)
• Try to identify the work’s oppositions, tensions, paradoxes, and ironies (complexities in the text).
• Look for evidence of unity in the work through specific elements including metaphor, point of view, diction, imagery, meter/rhyme, and structure.
• Once you have identified the text’s complexities and found evidence in its elements, create a thesis statement about how the poem’s various elements create unity. What is the the theme of the text, and how do the elements/complexities support that theme?

“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot (1915)

S’io credesse che mia risposta fosse A persona che mai tornasse al mondo, Questa fiamma staria senza piu scosse. Ma percioche giammai di questo fondo Non torno vivo alcun, s’i’odo il vero, Senza tema d’infamia ti rispondo.

Before the taking of a toast and tea.

My necktie rich and modest, but asserted by a simple pin —

(They will say: “But how his arms and legs are thin!”)

Beneath the music from a farther room.

               So how should I presume?

To spit out all the butt-ends of my days and ways?

               And how should I presume?

Arms that lie along a table, or wrap about a shawl.

               And should I then presume?

               And how should I begin?

Scuttling across the floors of silent seas.

And I have seen the eternal Footman hold my coat, and snicker,

And in short, I was afraid.

If one, settling a pillow by her head

               That is not it, at all.”

               That is not what I meant, at all.”

At times, indeed, almost ridiculous—

Almost, at times, the Fool.

I shall wear the bottoms of my trousers rolled.

I do not think that they will sing to me.

Here are some New Criticism questions you can use to guide your response. You to do not have to use every question. You should formulate a thesis statement about the text and include this thesis statement in your response. Then support the thesis statement with evidence from the text.

• How does the poem’s use of imagery and symbolism contribute to the overall meaning of the poem? Explore specific instances of imagery and symbolism, such as the “yellow fog” or the “mermaids,” and discuss how they enhance the poem’s themes.
• Analyze the structure and form of the poem. How does the irregular rhyme scheme and meter influence the reader’s experience? How does Eliot’s use of enjambment and punctuation affect the pacing and interpretation of the text?
• Examine the diction and word choice in the poem. What impact do specific words and phrases have on the reader’s understanding of Prufrock’s character, his anxieties, and the sense of disillusionment conveyed in the poem?
• Explore the use of allusions and references. What are some examples of literary, historical, or cultural allusions in the poem? How do these allusions contribute to the poem’s meaning?
• Analyze the shifts in tone and mood throughout the poem. How do these shifts reflect the speaker’s changing emotions and the complexities of his self-perception? How does tone and mood contribute to the poem’s overall themes?
• Consider the role of time and temporality in the poem . How does the speaker’s preoccupation with time connect to the larger themes of regret, indecision, and mortality? How does the poem’s structure manipulate time?

2. The Parable of the Prodigal Son (c. 90 CE) King James Version

And he said, A certain man had two sons:

And the younger of them said to his father, Father, give me the portion of goods that falleth to me. And he divided unto them his living.

And not many days after the younger son gathered all together, and took his journey into a far country, and there wasted his substance with riotous living.

And when he had spent all, there arose a mighty famine in that land; and he began to be in want.

And he went and joined himself to a citizen of that country; and he sent him into his fields to feed swine.

And he would fain have filled his belly with the husks that the swine did eat: and no man gave unto him.

And when he came to himself, he said, How many hired servants of my father’s have bread enough and to spare, and I perish with hunger!

I will arise and go to my father, and will say unto him, Father, I have sinned against heaven, and before thee,

And am no more worthy to be called thy son: make me as one of thy hired servants.

And he arose, and came to his father. But when he was yet a great way off, his father saw him, and had compassion, and ran, and fell on his neck, and kissed him.

And the son said unto him, Father, I have sinned against heaven, and in thy sight, and am no more worthy to be called thy son.

But the father said to his servants, Bring forth the best robe, and put it on him; and put a ring on his hand, and shoes on his feet:

And bring hither the fatted calf, and kill it; and let us eat, and be merry:

For this my son was dead, and is alive again; he was lost, and is found. And they began to be merry.

Now his elder son was in the field: and as he came and drew nigh to the house, he heard musick and dancing.

And he called one of the servants, and asked what these things meant.

And he said unto him, Thy brother is come; and thy father hath killed the fatted calf, because he hath received him safe and sound.

And he was angry, and would not go in: therefore came his father out, and intreated him.

And he answering said to his father, Lo, these many years do I serve thee, neither transgressed I at any time thy commandment: and yet thou never gavest me a kid, that I might make merry with my friends:

But as soon as this thy son was come, which hath devoured thy living with harlots, thou hast killed for him the fatted calf.

And he said unto him, Son, thou art ever with me, and all that I have is thine.

It was meet that we should make merry, and be glad: for this thy brother was dead, and is alive again; and was lost, and is found.

The speaker in this text is Jesus, as reported in Luke’s Gospel. This passage is Jesus’s response to an accusation from the scribes and Pharisees that he “welcomes sinners” and even shares a table with them. The story seems to answer this accusation. How does knowing the context affect your reading of the parable? If you were raised and/or follow a Christian religious tradition, you may have extratextual interpretations for this parable. In your response, please try to set those aside. Remember that with New Criticism, the text itself is our focus, not the context or our outside knowledge of the text.

• Examine the parable’s structure and narrative sequence. How does the parable’s storytelling structure contribute to its impact? Consider the introduction, the conflict, the climax, and the resolution. How do these elements build tension and emotion?
• Analyze the characters’ personalities and development. How are the characters of the prodigal son, the father, and the older brother presented? How does their characterization contribute to the overall message of the parable?
• Explore the use of symbolism and metaphors. What symbolic elements in the parable contribute to its deeper meanings? How does the idea of the prodigal son’s journey and return symbolize themes like forgiveness, repentance, and redemption?
• Examine the parable’s language and diction. How does a phrase like “the fatted calf” affect the tone of this parable? What other examples of archaic diction contribute to the voice? What impact do specific words and phrases have on the parable’s meaning and emotional resonance?
• Analyze the use of repetition and rhetorical devices. How does the repetition of certain phrases or ideas contribute to the parable’s emphasis and rhythm? How do rhetorical techniques like parallelism or contrast enhance the storytelling?
• Discuss the use of irony in the parable. What examples of irony can you find? How do they contribute to the text’s meaning?

3. “Recuerdo” by Edna St. Vincent Millay (1922)

• Explore the poem’s title and its significance. How does the title “Recuerdo” (Spanish for “I remember”) set the tone for the poem? How does the title’s choice of language relate to the theme and content of the poem?
• Analyze the use of imagery and diction in the poem. What vivid images does the speaker use to describe the scene and events in the poem? How does the language style contribute to the poem’s atmosphere and themes? Are there any specific words or phrases that stand out as particularly significant? How does the poem explore the idea of remembering a past experience? What emotions and reflections does the speaker’s recollection evoke, and how are these emotions conveyed through the poem’s language and imagery?
• Examine the poem’s tone and mood. How does the tone shift throughout the poem, from the playful and carefree beginning to the reflective and contemplative ending?
• Analyze the poem’s structure and form. How do the poem’s rhyme and meter contribute to the work? Does the poem conform to a set genre (e.g., quatrain, sonnet, villanelle, etc.)? How does its use of or rejection of a specific genre contribute to the poem’s overall themes?
• Examine the use of punctuation. How does Millay’s use of  punctuation affect the rhythm and pacing of the poem? How does it impact the reader’s interpretation?
• Discuss the use of the second-person point of view. How does the poem’s use of “you” and “I” create a sense of intimacy and immediacy? How does this choice of point of view contribute to the poem’s unity?

Theoretical Response Assignment Instructions

Instructions.

• 15 points: theoretical response
• 10 points: online discussion (5 points per response) OR class attendance.

Critical Worlds Copyright © 2024 by Liza Long is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Why Letting Go of the Inner Critic Is Such a Struggle

Keeping your enemy close—the mistake so many people make..

Updated May 13, 2024 | Reviewed by Jessica Schrader

• Find counselling near me
• Despite knowing that our inner critics harms us, many people struggle to let go of theirs.
• Fearing mediocrity is often cited as one of the main reasons people don't want to let go.
• Embracing your flaws through self-kindness and self-encouragement will get you further in life.

In the world of self-improvement and personal growth, there's often a prevailing narrative that encourages us to silence our inner critic , to banish it to the furthest recesses of our minds. We're told that this inner voice, with its relentless criticism and negativity, is detrimental to our well-being and hinders our progress. And yet, despite our best efforts to suppress it, many of us find ourselves strangely reluctant to let go of this familiar companion.

But why is it so hard to say goodbye to the inner critic that is killing your self-confidence ? What keeps you tethered to its judgment, even when you know it does you more harm than good?

1. Fear of Mediocrity

Paradoxically, the inner critic often masquerades as a motivational force, driving you to strive for perfection and excellence. Many fear that without its harsh judgments, they'll become complacent, settling for mediocrity instead of pushing to achieve their full potential. In this way, the inner critic becomes entwined with your aspirations, convincing you that its presence is necessary for success.

The reality is that the inner critic is tearing you down and hurting your self-confidence, not making you better. Parents somehow instinctively know that berating their child when the child is learning to walk doesn't work. Instead, they know to use an encouraging voice. Replacing the critic with a voice that encourages you instead of tearing you down will get you a lot further.

2. Familiarity Breeds Comfort

The inner critic, for better or worse, has been a constant presence in your life. It's a voice you've grown accustomed to hearing, perhaps since childhood . In a strange way, its criticisms can feel like a warped form of validation, reinforcing familiar patterns and beliefs about yourself, no matter how damaging they may be.

3. Coping Mechanism

For some, the inner critic serves as a coping mechanism—a shield against vulnerability and rejection. By preemptively criticizing yourself, you may attempt to guard against potential criticism from others, believing that if you're the first to point out your flaws, they'll sting less when pointed out by others. It's a flawed defense mechanism , but one that's deeply ingrained in your psyche.

4. Cultural Conditioning

Our society often glorifies self-criticism as a sign of humility and self-awareness. From an early age, we're taught to be self-critical—to constantly evaluate and improve ourselves. As a result, you learn to internalize this cultural narrative, equating self-criticism with virtue and self-worth .

5. Identity Attachment

Over time, you can become so identified with your inner critic that it becomes intertwined with your sense of self. You mistakenly believe that without its constant commentary, you'd lose touch with who you are—that the absence of criticism would leave a void in your identity.

Moving Toward Self-Kindness

Recognizing the reasons behind your attachment to the inner critic is the first step toward liberation. It's about acknowledging that while the inner critic may have served a purpose at some point in your life, its presence is no longer conducive to your growth and well-being.

Instead of silencing the inner critic through brute force, you can cultivate a more compassionate relationship with yourself. Self-kindness involves treating ourselves with the same compassion and understanding that we would offer to a friend in times of struggle. It means acknowledging your flaws and imperfections without judgment, and recognizing that your worth is inherent, regardless of your achievements or shortcomings.

By embracing self-kindness, you can begin to loosen the grip of the inner critic and create space for self-acceptance and growth. It's a journey fraught with challenges and setbacks, but one that ultimately leads to greater peace, fulfillment, and authenticity .

So, start talking back to the tyrant that is your inner critic. Tell it to go away; tell it that you don’t need or want it anymore. Welcome in its place the supportive voice of self-kindness, because when we embrace our imperfections, we discover the beauty of our humanity.

Jennice Vilhauer, Ph.D. , is the Director of Emory University’s Adult Outpatient Psychotherapy Program in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science in the School of Medicine.

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