research project on yoga

Research Trends in the Application of Yoga to Human Health: A Data Science Approach

Affiliations.

1 Department of Music, Auburn University Auburn, Alabama, USA.
2 Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA.
3 Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
4 Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.
5 AU MRI Research Center, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA.
6 Department of Psychology, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA.
7 Alabama Advanced Imaging Consortium, University of Alabama Birmingham, Alabama, USA.
8 Center for Health Ecology and Equity Research, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA.
9 Center for Neuroscience, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA.
10 School of Psychology, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China.
11 Key Laboratory for Learning and Cognition, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China.
12 Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India.
PMID: 34553079
PMCID: PMC8455111

Yoga is an integrative mind-body system of wellbeing developed in India since at least three millennia. Yoga has gained considerable attention in recent decades, partly driven by recent research and evidence about its effectiveness. In this work, we extracted research trends on the effects of Yoga on human health from the US National Library of Medicine's PubMed database (peer-reviewed journal papers). We found that Yoga research spans all organ systems and system-wide issues such as pain and cancer. Research on the nervous system far outpaces other systems, which is expected because of the effects of breathing and exercise on stress reduction, which has been a major application of Yoga. The next cluster of impact concerns the musculoskeletal system and pain (both related to the exercise [asana] aspects of Yoga), as well as cardiovascular/endocrine (also related to stress) and cancer. Stress and mental health, pain, diabetes, and cancer are health issues for which a permanent cure is not available in a majority of cases in modern medicine, although alleviating treatments are available. This has probably fueled interest in complementary approaches such as Yoga for these health issues. Research timeline shows that Yoga-related research largely expanded only after the 2000s. There was a specific uptick after 2004. Similar trends are seen if we look at just clinical trials or randomized control trials (RCTs) or systematic reviews. The percentage of trials (Clinical and RCT) among published literature is around 10-15 % This is comparable to other fields that gained traction around 2000s (e.g. non-invasive brain stimulation). Geographical distribution shows that 37% of all Yoga related research output originates in the USA, 19% from India, 13% from Europe and 31% from the rest of the world. Therefore, the interest is widespread and global. At least the uptick in Yoga-related research in the US post-2000s can be attributed to a substantial jump in funding between 1998 and 2005 from US National Institutes of Health's National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH). We can only surmise that research in this field reached a critical mass in late-1990s, which infused more money into this field, generating more research and creating a positive feedback loop that has sustained the growth so far. We propose that in order to sustain or even accelerate future research in the area, rigor and reproducibility must be enhanced in addition to performing more RCT and clinical trials (increasing % of trials to 20-25% from 10-15%). The fruits of research in the field has to reach the common man in terms of evidence-based solutions to health issues. Without this, accelerated funding in democracies such as India and the USA will not be realizable.

Grants and funding

R01 EY025978/EY/NEI NIH HHS/United States

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The Yoga in the World study is a first-of-its-kind research effort, examining various aspects of the practice and profession. The study aims not only to provide an updated panorama of the global yoga community but also to uncover existing perceptions, key demographic data, and shed light on societal and economic barriers limiting access to the practice.

Study Overview

In 2022, Yoga Alliance commissioned a global survey and national focus groups aimed at gathering insight into yoga participation and practices across various audiences.

The “Yoga in the World” study is the first of an on-going series of research efforts by Yoga Alliance to benchmark and track not only yoga trends around the globe, but public perception and barriers that prevent individuals from practicing yoga.

Building on the organization’s 2016 survey of “Yoga in America” (focused on the United States), Yoga Alliance recognized the need to expand its research to more fully understand how to increase the accessibility of yoga globally.

Conducted in collaboration with Sensis, a partner organization, a comprehensive global survey targeted yoga practitioners and the general population in 10 countries, including the United States, United Kingdom, Brazil, Germany, Chile, China, India, Kenya, Nigeria, and the United Arab Emirates. Teachers and studio owners were also surveyed in the U.S., U.K, Brazil, and Germany.

Eleven focus groups were also conducted in the United States fielded by partner organization Ebony Marketing Systems, to understand yoga participation among Asian, Black, and Hispanic communities.

View Executive Summary

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Yoga in the united states.

An 11-part qualitative focus group study was conducted to explore the real-life experiences of individuals from Asian, Black, and Hispanic communities, including those who practice yoga and those who do not. The objective was to gain insights into their perceptions of yoga, identify barriers influencing their decision to practice, and explore strategies for reducing these barriers.

To create the most holistic snapshot of the yoga landscape in the States, the survey targeted specific audiences, including practitioners, teachers, studio owners, and the general population. Many questions were retained from previous Yoga in America surveys to provide comparison data and track the change in perception and behavior. Additional demographic data was captured for the first time to determine who does and does not have access to yoga and better understand barriers to practicing.

View U.S. Insights

Yoga in the World

For the first time, Yoga Alliance's survey extended beyond the U.S., gathering first-of-its-kind data across nine additional countries. In the United Kingdom, Brazil, and Germany, data was captured across all four audience groups. In Chile, China, India, Kenya, Nigeria, and United Arab Emirates, data was captured on practitioners and the general public.

View Key insights across surveyed countries:

India Overview | Read the key insights and findings from India.

United Kingdom Overview | Read the key insights and findings from the United Kingdom.

Germany Overview | Read the key insights and findings from Germany.

Brazil Overview | Read the key insights and findings from Brazil.

China Overview | Read the key insights and findings from China.

Chile Overview | Read the key insights and findings from Chile.

Nigeria Overview | Read the key insights and findings from Nigeria.

Kenya Overview | Read the key insights and findings from Kenya.

United Arab Emirates Overview | Read the key insights and findings from the United Arab Emirates.

In the News

First of Its Kind Global Study of Yoga Reveals Stress Management and Mental Health are Driving Growing Interest and Participation, Yet Many Underserved Communities Are Largely Left Out | View Press Release
What the Latest Yoga Statistics Reveal About Us | Read Story in Yoga Journal
Where Are the Black Yoga Studio Owners? | Read Story in Yoga Journal

For the Media

Click here for media assets.
For media and press inquiries contact: Toni Carey, Head of Strategic Communications [email protected] .

Our Research Partners

Sensis, a full-service, cross-cultural marketing agency, fielded the global research study. Strategy is at the core of Sensis’ work, leveraging research and data to create targeted, informed, and creative approaches to reaching unique audiences.

Ebony Marketing Services is a certified minority, woman-owned marketing research and management consulting firm that provides a full array of quantitative and qualitative research services.

Global Yoga Insights: Unveiling 'Yoga in the World' Research Study Findings

Examine top-level findings from our first-of-its-kind global study. This special event is hosted by Toni Carey, Head of Strategic Communications at Yoga Alliance. Attendees will receive a guided overview of the most compelling research insights, with specific focus on the motivations and perceptions of yoga practitioners worldwide.

This event is currently open to active Yoga Alliance members only.

Yoga Beyond the Studio: Exploring Black Identity, Community & Collective Care

For Black communities across the United States, yoga has and continues to play a unique role beyond the conventional studio setting. Join us for a unique panel discussion expanding on the recent Yoga Journal article by Tamika Caston-Miller, " Where Are the Black Yoga Studio Owners? " while examining the intersections of yoga, identity, community, and collective care.

Moderated by Sharon Cyrus, Director of Strategic Projects at Yoga Alliance.

Have questions? Email [email protected] with subject line “YITW Research Study”

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Virginia Tech researchers work to make yoga accessible to everyone

The project, a collaboration between the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Virginia Cooperative Extension, and the University Libraries, aims to reach historically underrepresented populations in yoga.

Max Esterhuizen
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Therese Osborn and Mary Frazier do a yoga pose in front of a fountain in the Corporate Research Center in Blacksburg, Virginia. Photo by Max Esterhuizen for Virginia Tech.

Two young women do a yoga pose in front of a fountain

From the downward dog to the reverse warrior, yoga’s popularity has blossomed recently, partly because of its accessibility to a wide range of people at a variety of skill levels.

With benefits ranging from physical to mental to social and spiritual, yoga offers an approach to holistic well-being. Virginia Tech researchers are working on ways to broaden its appeal even further.

“The historical underrepresentation in yoga makes this the perfect thing to study in regard to equitable translation of health evidence,” said Mary Frazier, who is pursuing her Ph.D. in the Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health Graduate Program and is the graduate student lead on the project. “So many people think yoga isn’t for them and that’s largely because of how it’s often portrayed. We want to find ways to reach the groups that don’t think yoga is for them – because it could be.”

The underrepresentation of people from rural areas in yoga practices highlights significant accessibility and awareness issues, often due to a lack of local resources and classes that could introduce and nurture an inclusive yoga culture, the researchers said.

Additionally, according to the research team, prevailing narratives around body image within the yoga community can deter many from participating, as the physical component of yoga is easier to capture ‘on screen’ (e.g., photo or video), but the imagery often lacks representation of the diversity of human bodies.

“These challenges underscore the need for a more inclusive approach to yoga, one that embraces and promotes diversity in all forms, from geographical background to body shape, ensuring that the benefits of yoga are accessible to all,” said Samantha Harden, an associate professor in the Department of Human Nutrition, Foods, and Exercise and a Virginia Cooperative Extension specialist.

To help bridge this gap, the research team made up of Harden; Frazier; Brad Frick, a master’s degree student in the School of Communication ; and Therese Osborn, an undergraduate student in public health , as well as Rachel Kaplan, Cassidy Powers, and Kayla Markley, all students in human nutrition, foods, and exercise, created a messaging survey to identify terms and tactics that resonate with the historically underrepresented groups.

The development of a survey aimed at identifying effective tactics and messaging to engage historically underrepresented groups in yoga represents a strategic approach to fostering inclusivity within the practice. Through a collaboration with University Libraries, this research project can leverage advanced data visualization tools and expertise, transforming raw survey data into compelling, easy-to-understand insights that highlight opportunities for outreach and community engagement.

“This partnership not only amplifies the survey's impact through sophisticated analysis but also ensures that the findings are accessible and actionable for stakeholders aiming to create a more inclusive yoga community,” said Harden, who is also affiliated with the Fralin Biomedical Institute.

“It’s going to be interesting to see and transform the raw survey data into insightful and meaningful visualizations," said Michael Stamper, a University Libraries data visualization designer. "Once we can see the stories within that data, we can begin to take notice of and address them.”

The research project also gave Frazier valuable experience as a graduate student.

“This project has been instrumental in advancing my Ph.D. journey, providing a solid foundation for my dissertation on the importance of inclusivity in wellness spaces and highlighting the transformative potential of yoga when it truly embraces diversity in all its forms,” Frazier said. “The research into the underrepresentation of individuals from rural areas in yoga practices has illuminated critical gaps in accessibility and awareness, underscoring the urgent need for community-based interventions and inclusive programming.”

Osborn, a sophomore, was “nervous” when she first joined the lab — it’s the same nervousness that keeps people out of studios: the unknown. She now acknowledges that the experience has equipped her with valuable skills, preparing her for the workforce.

“Dr. Harden, Frazier, Megan Pullin, and the rest of the lab have been so welcoming and encouraging,” Osborn said. “Not only has the lab allowed me to apply what I have learned in my classes, but it has also taught me new things entirely, that help me to feel prepared for the future. This project has taught me how to build a successful survey and analyze qualitative data.”

Tom Soladay

540-232-2501

College of Agriculture and Life Sciences
College of Liberal Arts and Human Sciences
Human Nutrition, Foods, and Exercise
Public Health
School of Communication
Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health
University Libraries
Virginia Cooperative Extension
Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine

Research on Yoga Calm

Since 2005 over 20,000 educators, therapists and related service providers have been trained in Yoga Calm techniques benefiting over 250,000 youth. Assessments and research from their implementation of Yoga Calm’s integrated approach to yoga, mindfulness and social/emotional learning have indicated the following results.

Stress Reduction, Attention & Behavior Support

A 2014 Wayne State University study of the Yoga Calm program at a low-SES Detroit-area elementary school reported significant improvements in the intervention group in the following areas:

Decrease in stress
Improvement in student attention and on-task behavior
Improvement in students’ behavior both in the classroom and outside of school
72% of students reported enjoyment of yoga and unprompted use of Yoga Calm techniques at home to deal with anger, aggression and the need to regulate

The classroom teacher of the intervention group also had the following report:

“Yoga in my classroom creates a sense of community. They are more of a unified group. Something about yoga brings the students together, almost like team building.”

The 10-week study of a third grade sample (n=40) used a mixed methodological approach to gather data, a comparison group and pre-tests to help strengthen the study. Academic achievement also increased, but was not significant relative to the comparison group.

Improved Self Regulation & Time on Task

A 2007 Action Based Research project from Minneapolis Public Schools implementation of Yoga Calm reported:

Increased time on task/self‐regulation
Decreased behavioral referrals
Improved feelings of community
Improved auditory comprehension
Smoother transitions
Improved reflection in writing

Additional Research on Yoga Calm

As of summer, 2016, Yoga Calm has IRB approval with the University of Minnesota and is currently conducting two new controlled studies in Minnesota, at Public School and in an adolescent dual diagnosis unit at the Masonic Children’s Hospital. We are excited about the preliminary results and are looking forward to contributing the the evidence base supporting this important work.

Research on Yoga and Mindfulness for Child & Adolescent Health

In addition to Yoga Calm’s research, numerous other studies have examined the effects of contemplative practices such as yoga and mindfulness for youth. These studies suggest that yoga and mindfulness have a number of benefits for psychological and physical health.

Click here for a summary of the largest and most rigorous meta-analyses and literature reviews on yoga and mindfulness for child and adolescent health. These initial findings have led to a surge of interest in studying yoga and mindfulness in educational settings. Below we highlight current research on yoga and mindfulness in schools.

Research on Yoga in Schools

Research on school-based yoga interventions has increased rapidly over the past several years. As a whole, these studies suggest that school-based yoga may have a number of positive effects on outcomes such as student mental health, behavior, and performance.

Click here for a summary of the largest and most rigorous meta-analyses and literature reviews on yoga in schools.

Research on Mindfulness in Schools

Similar to research on school-based yoga, studies of school-based mindfulness interventions have also increased over the past several years. As a whole, these studies suggest that school-based mindfulness may have a number of positive effects on students, such as improving mental health and increasing student well-being.

Click here for a summary of the largest and most rigorous meta-analyses and literature reviews on mindfulness in schools.

Research on Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)

A growing body of research suggests that schools should focus not only on students’ cognitive development, but on their social and emotional development as well. The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) defines social emotional learning (SEL) as comprising five core competencies: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision making.

Click here for a summary of the largest and most rigorous meta-analyses and literature reviews on social-emotional learning.

More About Yoga Calm

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Yoga Research and Projects

This page explores how yoga is reaching far beyond studios and retreats, into underserved communities to alleviate suffering and give people the tools to turn their lives around. This is a place for you to get a background into what is going on in the world of service and find out how you can get involved to make a difference.

As decades of research accumulate, yoga and meditation continue to gain recognition as the prevailing prescription for transforming mental and physical pain. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder is occurring all over the world as a result of personal trauma as well as larger scale events affecting communities and nations. PTSD is inextricably linked to subsequent mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety and panic disorders, which in turn may lead to chronic physical illnesses , addiction, and incarceration, causing further trauma.

These realities affect millions of people worldwide and become a perpetual cycle for many. Yoga has the powerful ability to go against this current and help people to heal. As human beings, we are blessed with powerful minds and tremendously resilient bodies; however, when there is disunion and they are not working in synchronicity, the affects can impede our ability to experience our full potential.

Internationally, yoga teachers and healers are working to end this cycle and are providing these communities with the invaluable opportunity to develop the tools to repair wounds, rebuild strength and restore hope.

Yoga means union, or “to yoke,” the practice of which re-establishes and nurtures the connection between the mind, body and spirit. It is the practice of looking inward and diving down, little by little, through our many layers to reach the core essence of our being: boundless and everlasting bliss. It is the discovery that the power for transformation already exists within us.

“Yoga is not about self improvement or making ourselves better. It is a process of deconstructing all the barriers we may have erected that prevent us from having an authentic connection with ourselves and with the world.” –Donna Farhi

PTSD, Depression, Anxiety and Panic Disorders

Trauma appears in many forms and affects people in different ways, manifesting both physically and mentally. Whether in veterans of war, civil service units, refugees of acts of terrorism or natural disasters, survivors of mass violence, victims of sexual assault or child abuse, people are suffering from PTSD and accompanying mental illnesses.

Psychology and mental health are slowly becoming less stigmatized in society just as the transformative capacity of yoga is rapidly being recognized. As the shame that was associated with mental illness dissolves, there is a growing understanding and openness to the causes of disorders such as anxiety and depression and the direct connection they have to trauma.

Traumatized people are often frightened by sensations they experience in their bodies and yoga helps them to regain a sense of safety in their own body. Time stops in people with PTSD, making it very hard to take pleasure in the present because the body keeps replaying the past.

This creates a duality between mind and body and that is where yoga comes in. Yoga helps to reintegrate and synchronize the mind-body connection, which is an essential part of healing PTSD.”

Research on yoga therapy has been a rapidly growing field since the 1970s. Studies consistently proving successful trials, in which yoga has a significant positive affect on those recovering from trauma and suffering from mental illnesses, have finally convinced the world that yoga is not only a legitimate form of therapy but truly preeminent.

It is such a ripe and precious time because this current acceptance can connect to the ancient wisdom of yoga, which has been there waiting all along. Mental health has been kept in the dark but with yoga we are bringing it into the light.

In addition to Van der Kolk’s insight in the above interview, into the storage of trauma in the body, we must bring our focus to the role the mind plays in PTSD, anxiety, depression and associated disorders. Patanjali states in the Yoga Sutras: yogah citta vrtti nirodhah (1:2), which translates to ‘yoga is the stilling of the fluctuations of the mind,’ or otherwise translated, ‘yoga is the mastery of the activities of the mind-field.’

Then the seer rests in its true and fundamental Self: tada drastuh svarupe-vasthanam (1:3). This is the central goal of yoga, for the veil of illusion to be lifted and false identity dissolved, to allow the true and perfect Self to shine through.

The ability of yogic practices to treat mental illness is explored in a 2016 article in the International Journal of Yoga , which acknowledges that researchers today are discovering that contemporary interventions in psychology may not actually be modern concepts but in fact have roots in ancient yogic psychological wisdom. “Their rich insights can help deepen our understanding of mental health, and the practical psychological guidelines, described centuries ago, may enhance positive mental health and stabilize us in happiness.”

A 2012 study published by Elsevier, entitled “Effects of Yoga on the Autonomic Nervous System, Gamma-aminobutyric-acid, and Allostasis in Epilepsy, Depression, and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder,” hypothesized that stress induces:

“(1) Imbalance of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) with decreased parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) increased sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity,

(2) Under-activity of the inhibitory neurotransmitter, gamma ami- no-butyric acid (GABA) and

(3) Increased allostatic load. It is further hypothesized that yoga practices

(4) Correct under activity of the PNS and GABA system in part through stimulation of the vagal nerves and

(5) Reduce allostatic load resulting in symptom relief.”

Prison Yoga Projects

Yoga, meditation and mindfulness in prisons.

These are not suggestions, they are instructions. If we follow them we will thrive, if not we will suffer. The socially sanctioned hatred and rage, which we express toward criminals in modern times, violates these timeless instructions.

We are breaking a fundamental spiritual law, and the price we are paying for it is increased crime, violence, depravity, hopelessness, and of course, more hatred and rage.” – Bo Lozoff

The deeper I delve into my journey on the yogic path, the more passionately I feel about the power of yoga to heal. We read in scriptures, in libraries and on websites that yoga means union, which begs the question, “union of and with what?” We can intellectually grasp that it means union of the mind, body and soul, which leads to oneness with our true Self and Universal Love.

But it is so much more than that. Being a yogi means we have the ability to unite all aspects of what it means to be human – yes, union of the different parts of our being, including accepting the parts of our self that are harder to embrace, but also finding acceptance and compassion for all people, despite any differences that may appear on the surface.

In the previous entry, an exploration of yoga’s role in PTSD and mental illness led us to a compilation of research on veterans of war and victims of physical and sexual assault, natural disasters and terrorism, and the discovery that yoga is a beautiful healing path to help survivors mend what was broken.

Whether someone has lived through a deeply traumatic and horrifying experience, or is just trying to navigate this world as a sensitive being, we all need help to breathe through the pain stored in our bodies, control our minds and be reminded what and who we are at our essence.

Interview with James Fox

When space for healing is not held, the fragmentation of mind, body and spirit grows and one’s purpose for being recedes into the shadow self. Exposure to trauma creates a complexity of emotions and samskaras (a record of our past in the form of mental impressions that make up our personality) and can lead to high-risk behaviour, substance abuse and criminal activity. As we explored in the research on PTSD, Bessel van der Kolk emphasizes the crucial benefit yoga has on the nervous system by regulating physical movement. This helps those suffering from mental illnesses by improving the sense of connectedness between mind and body, which gives rise to enhanced control and understanding of one’s inner sensations and state of being.

“A man who is unconscious of himself acts in a blind, instinctive way and is in addition fooled by all the illusions that arise when he sees everything that he is not conscious of in himself coming to meet him from outside as projections upon his neighbour.” –Carl Jung

Incarceration is the direct result of the collective unconscious and lack of integration, with high percentages of prison populations coming from backgrounds of trauma or suffering from psychological disorders.

Many prisoners suffer from attention deficit disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADD/ADHD), which further heightens this sense of lack of control over one’s actions and experiences. Even without these added difficulties, prison would be an extremely frightening and traumatic place to be.

Inmates are confined within six foot cells in a high-stress environment, left to cope with fears of the unknown, thoughts around the circumstances that got them there, loss of freedom, minimal contact with loved ones, and lack of safety and privacy.

Mike Huggins, founder of the Transformation Yoga Project and a former inmate himself, explains that beyond the sentence there is another significant piece: shame, self-judgement and feelings of unworthiness, which gets masked by anger and violence.

Rather than receiving help, which they desperately need in order to understand and manage the root of their suffering, they are rejected from a society standing in judgement, which is ultimately fighting the same demons within itself.

Instead of breaking the cycle of detachment and violence, prison culture reinforces it, with approximately two thirds of those released from prisons in the United States re-incarcerated within three years. Once released, many are too traumatized to rebuild their lives and either reoffend or fall into homelessness and mental illness.

It is essential that there be an effective form of emotional and spiritual assistance for inmates in order for this cycle to be broken and for rehabilitation to occur. Imprisonment provides a great deal of time for self-reflection, which creates immense potential for healing and growth; however, reaching this potential is very hard when immersed in an environment in which the more negative you are, the more validated you are.

There needs to be support and guidance in a way that the inmates feel seen – universally, human beings simply want validation that they matter.

Yoga helps us to bring breath, and with that life-force, into the blocked areas of our bodies that hold trauma and to slowly begin to trust that being in our body is the safest place to be. Meditation provides invaluable tools to guide practitioners into the seat of awareness, creating space between one’s essence and thoughts and emotions. Yoga and meditation work together in supporting the exploration of the mind-body-spirit-emotion connection and the balancing of all of these aspects of one’s being.

These practices can guide inmates in using their sentence in a self-reflective and rehabilitative way. It helps them to gain control over their experience behind bars and ultimately deepen their relationship with themselves. Yoga also has great value in improving general fitness and helping with physical ailments, which is an important benefit for prisoners due to the sedentary lifestyle, as well as lack of access to nutritious food and healthcare.

Prisoners have lost their personal freedom but with yoga they are able to gain mental, emotional and spiritual freedom. The reasons as to why we, as human beings, are drawn to yoga are the same for everybody. We are all trying to find out who we are, at our core: who we really are beneath the layers of wounds and disconnection, beneath how we experience ourselves and how we are perceived by the world and regardless of anything we have done or has been done to us. It comes down to forgiveness: forgiveness of self and forgiveness of others.

“There have been times when each and every one of us has needed to forgive. There have also been times when each and every one of us has needed to be forgiven. And there will be many times again. In our own ways, we are all broken. Out of that brokenness, we hurt others. Forgiveness is the journey we take toward healing the broken parts. It is how we become whole again.” Desmond Tutu, The Book of Forgiving

In the studies and organizations detailed below, there is a heavier emphasis on incarcerated populations in the United States, primarily because although the U.S. is only home to 5% of the world’s population, it currently has 2.2 million people incarcerated in correctional facilities, which represents 25% of the world’s prison population. I have however extended my research beyond the U.S. to reflect the impact of prison yoga projects across the globe.

Research Studies

Former Inmates Perceptions of the Prison Yoga Project: This case study from a student at the University of Colorado examines perceived impacts of the Prison Yoga Project and its prison-based yoga intervention, among released inmates. It includes interviews with former prisoners who participated in the PYP program for at least 18 months prior to their release. The results are categorized in the following areas: Effects of Non-Physical Practices, Impact on Aggression, Physical Health/Medical Impact, Social and Community Impact, Psychological Impact and Lifestyle/Continued Effects.

Low Re-incarceration Rate Associated with Ananda Marga Yoga and Meditation: This is a five-year study of 190 inmates at Wake Correctional Center in Raleigh, North Carolina. It was found that of those who attended more than four voluntary Ananda Marga Yoga classes, only 8.5% were re-incarcerated, while 25.2% of those who attended fewer than four classes were re-incarcerated during the same period. To provide a sense of how significant these numbers are, re-incarceration rates in the United States are often 40-70%.

Yoga in Prisons: Can downward-facing dog really change the lives of the incarcerated? This article covers a 10 week study conducted by the University of Oxford, in conjunction with the Prison Phoenix Trust involving 170 prisoners in seven prisons across the U.K. The participants were from all age groups and different categories of inmates, including young offenders and women prisoners. They were randomly assigned either 10 weekly two hour sessions or to a control group with no yoga. The results were significant, such as improved sleep, reduced depression or anxiety, less anger, positive mood, decreased stress and better attention.

A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Yoga and Mindfulness Meditation in Prison: Effects on Psychological Well-Being and Behavioural Function This article examines whether prison yoga and meditation programs are significantly related to psychological well-being and improvements in the behavioural functioning of prisoners. It identifies the fact that although yoga and other mindfulness-meditation techniques are widely recognized as having positive effects, it is not yet known exactly how these effects are had and further research is needed to understand the specific effects of yoga in the prison setting. This analysis aims to build on recent research and narrative reviews on yoga and meditation programs.

Effect of Iyengar Yoga on Mental Health of Incarcerated Women: Many imprisoned women live with mental illness due to social, environmental and behavioural circumstances before their incarceration, such as limited education, poverty, homelessness and lack of access to healthcare. The primary aim of this investigation, on the basis of the gender-responsive framework, was to test the feasibility of introducing a 12-week Iyengar yoga intervention in a women’s correctional institution and to find out the affects of Iyengar yoga on mental health. Those who completed the course reported a significant reduction in levels of depression symptoms and marginally significant reductions in levels of anxiety symptoms.

Benefits of Yoga on Female Prisoner Population: Female inmates have historically been a minority population in prisons, but are currently outpacing men as the fastest growing prison population. This research explores the particular circumstances that surround female inmates, such as emotional, physical and/or sexual abuse both prior to incarceration and within the prison system. This study uncovers psychological benefits of Prison Yoga Project trauma-focused yoga intervention on the female prisoner populations at two correctional facilities in South Carolina. To create control and experiment groups, inmates were selected from those who applied to participate in the yoga program and assigned to be either in the 10 week class or placed on a waitlist. Inmates in the yoga group reported a significant decrease in depression and stress and improved self-awareness.

Gender-Specific Programming for Female Offenders: What is it and Why is it important? In the context of the above studies, here is some information regarding women involved in the criminal justice system and more specifically female offenders in programs in community correctional settings. The focus is finding out who these women are and how they differ from their male counterparts (for example: non-violent property offenses, single motherhood and physical and sexual abuse) so that effective programs for women and girls can be developed.

Outcomes of a Recreation Therapy Yoga Meditation Intervention on Prison Inmates’ Spiritual Well-Being The purpose of this research was to analyze a recreation therapy yoga meditation intervention, the Sanatana Yoga Prison Project (SYPP), at a California state prison. The SYPP had three interventions: pranayama (breathing techniques), asana (physical postures), and dhyana (meditation). Two overarching categories emerged with four themes each: (a) concrete outcomes with themes of physical benefits, escape, quieting the mind, and reflection, and (b) psycho spiritual development outcomes with themes of epiphany, connection to self and others, psychological and behavioural change, and coping skills.

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction in Massachusetts Correctional Facilities: Here you can find an overview of the results from the mindfulness-based-stress-reduction courses offered in drug units in six Massachusetts Department of Corrections prisons. 1,350 inmates completed the 113 courses and highly significant pre- to post-course positive changes were found, specifically in terms of hostility, self-esteem, and mood disturbance. Inmates included women and men in both minimum and medium-security facilities.

Participation in a 10-week course of yoga improves behavioural control and decreases psychological distress in a prison population: Participants in this study were recruited from 7 British prisons and randomly allocated to either a 10 week yoga programme or a control group. Measures of mood, stress and psychological distress were recorded before and after the intervention period. The participants of the yoga group showed increased self-reported positive affect and reduced stress and psychological distress, as well as better performance in the cognitive-behavioural task given at the end of the study, compared to participants of the control group.

Mindfulness and Rehabilitation: Teaching Yoga and Meditation to Young Men in an Alternative to Incarceration Program This study used participant/observation and open-ended interviews to understand how male participants (age 18-24 years) benefited from yoga and mindfulness training within an Alternative to Incarceration (ATI) program. Findings suggest that the male participants (age 18-24 years) benefited from the intervention through reductions in stress and improvements in emotion regulation. Several participants noted the importance of the development of an embodied practice for assisting them in managing anger and impulse control. The young men’s narratives suggest that mindfulness-based interventions can contribute positively to rehabilitative outcomes within alternative to incarcerations settings, providing complementary benefit to existing ATI programs, especially for clients amenable to mindfulness training.

Effect of Yoga and Meditation on Stress Management of Female Prisoners in Delhi: This paper traces the positive and encouraging changes in health of female prisoners in Delhi reported after practicing meditation, yoga and such techniques aiding stress management. The research it draws on helps in establishing how yoga can boost the quality of imprisonment by improving mood, reducing stress and helping to manage anger, aggression and anti-social behaviour. Its aim is also to show how yoga shall enable prisoners to return back to normal social life post imprisonment.

There is constantly a growing number of charities and non-profit foundations supporting incarcerated populations through mindfulness, meditation and yoga. Enjoy a selection below:

Great Yoga in Prisons Projects

Mike Huggins: Transformation Yoga Project

The Transformation Yoga Project Mike Huggins spent nine months in incarceration during which he found yoga to be instrumental in helping him find comfort, process his mental, physical and emotional challenges and ultimately return to his core, to his true Self. He started a grassroots effort, which evolved into a comprehensive yoga program within the prison and, upon his release, founded the Transformational Yoga Project. It focuses on “Healing Through Empowerment” and serves people impacted by trauma, addiction and incarceration through trauma-sensitive, mindfulness-based yoga. They have active programs running throughout the greater Philadelphia area with each one being tailored to the specific needs of the participants and staffed by instructors trained to teach trauma-sensitive yoga.

“The intensity of the environment that you’re in seems to have a direct relationship to the intensity of the breakthrough – you can literally see their eyes open and stress leaving their body.” –Mike Huggins, Founder at Transformation Yoga Project

Ananda Marga Prison Yoga Program For almost ten years, Ananda Marga volunteer Steven Landau has run a weekly yoga program at Wake Correctional Center in Raleigh, North Carolina. The program involves yoga philosophy, teaching inmates about yamas and niyamas, codes of conduct, relationships, meditation and mantra, as well as opening discussion to anything the inmates wish to talk about. The students are also introduced to kirtan (devotion), asana, self-massage and relaxation. Joined by Stephen Ordog (a.k.a. Shiva) and a growing number of volunteers, the program has expanded to six jails and prisons for both men and women across the state of North Carolina, with plans to expand even further and reach inmates at every correctional facility in the state.

Prison Phoenix Trust

The Prison Phoenix Trust Founded in 1988, is an Oxford based charity offering 150 weekly yoga classes in 90 prisons across the U.K. The organisation responds to letter requests by sending books and CDs to inmates. Through teaching, workshops, correspondence, books and newsletters, they help prisoners in the development of their spiritual welfare as well as cultivating tools to lead positive, crime free lives once they are released.

The Human Kindness Foundation was founded in 1987 by Bo and Sita Lozoff to operate the Prison-Ashram Project, which developed in 1973 when Ram Dass was sending his spiritual book Be Here Now into prisons and receiving countless letters back. People wrote about their personal transformations and also asked their tough spiritual questions. At this time, Bo and Sita teamed up with Ram Dass to help him reply to mail from inmates. The Human Kindness Foundation now serves 40,000 people a year with books, notes and newsletters. It is led by Sita, the Spiritual Director and Catherine Dumas, the Executive Director. Bo passed away in 2012, but his book, “We’re All Doing Time,” along with his three other spiritual books, are still requested by hundreds of inmates on a weekly basis and continues to have a profound impact on people’s lives.

Prison Freedom Project The Prison Freedom Project is part of SevaUnite and has been running since 2010. Starting initially with one yoga and mindfulness class at the admissions centre of Pollsmoor Maximum Facility in Cape Town, it has expanded to include classes in the admissions centre, male juvenile section and the women’s unit and now operates in 15 prisons across South Africa, with over 350 inmates enrolled. The Prison Freedom Project includes volunteer-lead yoga classes, distributing yoga manuals and course materials and mentoring inmates through letter writing. They also partner with The Human Kindness Foundation in the USA (see above) and distribute their book, “We Are All Doing Time” to inmates all over Africa. Follow the link to their website to watch a wonderful Inside Short Documentary!

“Through yoga, one’s whole life perspective is miraculously changed. You start to see prison as a blessing and not as a curse.” –Prison Freedom Project participant

Check out founder, Brian Bergman, on the Tedx Stage talking about the Prison Freedom Project and SevaUnite.

The Prison Dharma Network (Prison Mindfulness Institute) works to provide prisoners, prison staff and prison volunteers, with the most effective, evidence-based tools for rehabilitation, self-transformation, and personal & professional development. In particular, they provide and promote the use of proven effective mindfulness-based interventions (MBI’s). The dual focus is on transforming individual lives as well as transforming the corrections system as a whole in order to mitigate its extremely destructive impact on families, communities and the overall social capital of our society.

Sivananda Prison Outreach Program The Sivananda Prison Outreach Program was initiated in 1996 when an inmate read Swami Vishnudevananda’s Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga and expressed his appreciation in the magazine Prison Life. Shortly after, hundreds of prisoners started writing to the Sivananda organizations expressing their interest and requesting books on yoga. For the last two decades, through fundraising and donations, the Sivananda Ashram Yoga Ranch in New York has been sending books on yoga to inmates across the United States, responding to letters received on a weekly basis. The program also brings weekly yoga classes to inmates in the local maximum and minimum-security prisons and in 2015 the Ranch launched a Yoga Teacher Training Course free of charge in FCI Otisville.

Sahaja Yoga Meditation in Prisons was started by Shri Mataji who founded the Sahaja Yoga meditation technique. The course has expanded and is now practised in 22 countries all over the world, including Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Columbia, New Zealand, Italy and Russia. The inmates follow the courses on a free will, led by organizers who are all volunteers. Sahaja Yoga meditation helps prisoners to reduce the stress of lack of freedom, find peace and positive feeling inside and heal from addictions.

Freeing the Human Spirit is a non-profit organisation of the John Howard Society that aims to promote and advance the physical, mental, and spiritual development of inmates in Canada through the practice of meditation and yoga. They also train, develop, and support meditation and yoga teachers who offer classes in correctional facilities, as well as develop and deliver a program of volunteer correspondents who will reply to letters from inmates to support them in their practice.

Vipassana Meditation Courses for Correctional Facilities Vipassana meditation as taught by S.N. Goenka has been successfully offered over the last 25 years within prisons located in India, Israel, Mongolia, New Zealand, Taiwan, Thailand, U.K., Myanmar and the United States and Canada. Since all courses are 10-days in length and residential in nature, they are held within the walls of a corrections institution with the teachers and the volunteers who are managing the courses living with the prisoners for the duration of the course. Vipassana, which means to see things as they really are, is one of India’s most ancient techniques of meditation. It was taught in India more than 2500 years ago as a universal remedy for universal ills.

Yoga Outreach Yoga Outreach is a Canadian charity, founded in 1996, based in British Columbia. They partner with volunteer yoga instructors, community organizations, social service agencies, and correctional facilities to provide mindfulness-based yoga programming to often overlooked adults and at-risk youth. Yoga Outreach programs are strengths-based and trauma-sensitive serving men, women, and youth facing challenges with mental health, addiction, poverty, violence, trauma, and imprisonment. Yoga Outreach currently has programs in 2 prison locations in the Lower Mainland area – Alouette Correctional Centre for Women (classes in both medium & maximum secure areas); and Burnaby Youth Custody Services.

Liberation Prison Yoga Liberation Prison Yoga is a 501 (c)3 non-profit organization based in New York City that serves prisons and jails, bringing trauma-conscious yoga programs to incarcerated women, men, LGBTQ, youth, staff, and those whose lives are affected by incarceration; to train yoga instructors to work inside the prison system; and to educate the public about trauma-conscious yoga. Their mission is to “bring yoga and meditation to US prisons, moving towards integration instead of isolation, healing instead of punishment, and peace amid unrest – inside ourselves and inside the prisons.”

Recovery Yoga Inc. is a 501 (c)(3) service organization dedicated to healing and personal empowerment through yoga programs in South-western Connecticut and Rhode Island. Recovery Yoga’s misson is to establish, develop and maintain yoga programs in residential, rehabilitative and other facilities, primarily for women and teens working to recover from substance, physical or other abuse, or who are at risk or otherwise in need. Recovery Yoga programs increase yoga practitioners’ feelings of self-worth, harmony and empowerment, as well as health and well-being, thus allowing and empowering them to become calm, centred and grounded, so they can move forward with hope, strength and a positive outlook.

Prison Yoga and Meditation Foundation

Prison Yoga and Meditation is an organization whose aim is to bring yoga and meditation to prisoners to promote healing and rehabilitation. They teach women, men, gay men, transgender individuals and juveniles who are serving few days in jail up to life sentences in facilities spread out over the greater Los Angeles area.

Shanthi Project Founded in Easton, Pa., in 2010, Shanthi Project teaches more than 1,000 therapeutic yoga classes throughout the Lehigh Valley each year to hundreds of at risk-youth and trauma survivors, including children in the foster care system, veterans and the incarcerated. Through controlled movement, breathing and meditation, students learn valuable coping and life skills that cultivate self-awareness, enhance self-esteem and promote positive emotions, helping them establish healthy and productive relationships with themselves, their families and their communities. The Shanthi Project facilitates twice weekly yoga and twice weekly mindfulness programs for both men and women in Northampton County Prison.

Yoga Impact is a not-for-profit 501(c)(3) organization, based in both Colorado and New Jersey, which brings the science and art of a yoga lifestyle to a variety of demographics. The components of a yoga lifestyle include yoga postures, breath work, relaxation techniques, nutrition and positive mindfulness. Since 2010, Yoga Impact has been running programs in Morris County Jail, NJ, and Boulder County Jail, CO, as well as homeless shelters, rehab centers, at-risk youth, transitional facilities and beyond.

Further Interesting Reading: Interviews with some of the key players

Rob Schware, founder of the Give Back Yoga Foundation has published an interview series on Huffington Post, highlighting some truly special people who are doing incredible work bringing yoga into prisons and beyond. Follow the links below to find the full interviews:

Josefin Wikstrom – Yoga and Dance programs for incarcerated women and refugees in Sweden “This is an interview with Josefin Wikstrom, who has been practicing yoga for the past 24 years. She has been dancing since she was a teenager, and teaching yoga the past 10 years in Sweden and internationally. She is studying dance and creative movement therapy with Tripura Kashyap in India, and has been a part of the Swedish Prison Yoga Team since 2010. Currently, she is developing a collaboration between the Swedish Prison Yoga Project and the one established in San Quentin State Prison in CA by James Fox. She has spent part of the each past nine years supporting dance and yoga programs in Mumbai for underprivileged children, youth, and women, where she works with Indian dance therapists and yoga teachers. Last year Sweden took in over 160,000 asylum seekers, the most per capita in Europe. Josefin is also working with some of the refugees fleeing increasing conflict and deprivation in the Middle East, Africa and Asia.”

Michael Lear – Expanding the Practice of Yoga and Mindfulness to Prisons “This is an interview with Michael Lear, whom I met at the Yoga Service Conference at the Omega Institute last May. I learned that we both had former lives in international development. Shortly after graduating from college with a degree in finance, Michael had some serious health issues, and discovered The Trager Approach, which had a dramatic impact on both his approach to life and to back pain. Eventually Trager led him to biofeedback, floatation tank therapy, yoga, and Vipassana meditation. He has been a certified Trager Practitioner (therapeutic movement education and mindfulness practitioner/bodyworker) for 24 years, a yoga practitioner for 23 years and a yoga teacher for 15 years, with a primary focus of Ashtanga Yoga, Mysore style. In addition, Michael is active with Shanthi Project, a Pennsylvania-based nonprofit which offers trauma-informed yoga and mindfulness classes to many underserved and at-risk populations suffering from trauma, as well as classes at area schools. Michael works primarily in the Northampton County Prison and Juvenile Justice Center in Easton, PA.”

Jill Weiss Ippolito – Yoga: How we serve Incarcerated Youth “This is an interview with Jill Weiss Ippolito, who is the founder/director of UpRising Yoga in Los Angeles, a nonprofit program that brings yoga to incarcerated youth and communities that can benefit from yoga. Her organization holds weekly yoga classes for boys and girls incarcerated in Central Juvenile Hall, as well as group homes, mental health facilities, and schools across Los Angeles County. Jill is helping to change policy and culture by bringing UpRising Yoga Life Skills training to probation staff, mental health, and social workers, teachers, and the general public. Like others interviewed for this series, Jill says, “Yoga saved my life from a past of jails and institutions, addiction and medications, depression and hopelessness.””

Elizabeth Carling – Why Teach Yoga and Mindfulness in Prisons “This is an interview with Elizabeth Carling, who offers a free community-based yoga program with the support of her employer, Patricia McKeen, owner of A New Awakening counseling agency in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Elizabeth started a free class at A New Awakening as a way to offer the mindfulness-based tools of yoga to clients who struggle with the challenges of addiction, mental health imbalances, domestic violence, and reintegration following incarceration.”

Perri van Rossem – Bringing Yoga and Meditation to a Canadian Prison “This is an interview with Perri van Rossem, who began teaching yoga as a volunteer in 2005 at Collins Bay Medium Security Institution in Kingston, Ontario; she has been teaching there ever since. In addition, she coordinates yoga programs being offered in three other institutions. Says Perri, “I am trying to build a greater profile for this work in our community of yoga teachers. It is not an easy sell, I don’t mind telling you.”

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v.4(2); Jul-Dec 2011

Exploring the therapeutic effects of yoga and its ability to increase quality of life

Catherine woodyard.

Department of Health, Exercise Science and Recreation Management, The University of Mississippi, The Center for Health Behavior Research, 215 Turner Center, University, MS, USA

The objective of this study is to assess the findings of selected articles regarding the therapeutic effects of yoga and to provide a comprehensive review of the benefits of regular yoga practice. As participation rates in mind-body fitness programs such as yoga continue to increase, it is important for health care professionals to be informed about the nature of yoga and the evidence of its many therapeutic effects. Thus, this manuscript provides information regarding the therapeutic effects of yoga as it has been studied in various populations concerning a multitude of different ailments and conditions. Therapeutic yoga is defined as the application of yoga postures and practice to the treatment of health conditions and involves instruction in yogic practices and teachings to prevent reduce or alleviate structural, physiological, emotional and spiritual pain, suffering or limitations. Results from this study show that yogic practices enhance muscular strength and body flexibility, promote and improve respiratory and cardiovascular function, promote recovery from and treatment of addiction, reduce stress, anxiety, depression, and chronic pain, improve sleep patterns, and enhance overall well-being and quality of life.

INTRODUCTION

A 3,000 year old tradition, yoga, is now regarded in the Western world as a holistic approach to health and is classified by the National Institutes of Health as a form of Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM).[ 1 ] The word “yoga” comes from a Sanskrit root “yuj” which means union, or yoke, to join, and to direct and concentrate one's attention.[ 2 , 3 ] Regular practice of yoga promotes strength, endurance, flexibility and facilitates characteristics of friendliness, compassion, and greater self-control, while cultivating a sense of calmness and well-being.[ 4 , 5 ] Sustained practice also leads to important outcomes such as changes in life perspective, self-awareness and an improved sense of energy to live life fully and with genuine enjoyment.[ 6 – 8 ] The practice of yoga produces a physiological state opposite to that of the flight-or-fight stress response and with that interruption in the stress response, a sense of balance and union between the mind and body can be achieved.[ 9 ]

Yoga is a form of mind-body fitness that involves a combination of muscular activity and an internally directed mindful focus on awareness of the self, the breath, and energy.[ 4 ] Four basic principles underlie the teachings and practices of yoga's healing system.[ 6 ] The first principle is the human body is a holistic entity comprised of various interrelated dimensions inseparable from one another and the health or illness of any one dimension affects the other dimensions. The second principle is individuals and their needs are unique and therefore must be approached in a way that acknowledges this individuality and their practice must be tailored accordingly. The third principle is yoga is self-empowering; the student is his or her own healer. Yoga engages the student in the healing process; by playing an active role in their journey toward health, the healing comes from within, instead of from an outside source and a greater sense of autonomy is achieved. The fourth principle is that the quality and state of an individuals mind is crucial to healing. When the individual has a positive mind-state healing happens more quickly, whereas if the mind-state is negative, healing may be prolonged.

Yoga philosophy and practice were first described by Patanjali in the classic text, Yoga Sutras , which is widely acknowledged as the authoritative text on yoga.[ 2 , 6 ] Today, many people identify yoga only with asana, the physical practice of yoga, but asana is just one of the many tools used for healing the individual; only three of the 196 sutras mention asana and the remainder of the text discusses the other components of yoga including conscious breathing, meditation, lifestyle and diet changes, visualization and the use of sound, among many others.[ 6 ] In Yoga Sutras , Patanjali outlines an eightfold path to awareness and enlightenment called ashtanga , which literally means “eight limbs”.[ 2 , 10 ]

The eight limbs are comprised of ethical principles for living a meaningful and purposeful life; serving as a prescription for moral and ethical conduct and self-discipline, they direct attention towards one's health while acknowledging the spiritual aspects of one's nature. Any of the eight limbs may be used separately, but within yoga philosophy the physical postures and breathing exercises prepare the mind and body for meditation and spiritual development.[ 4 , 10 ] Based on Patanjali's eight limbs, many different yogic disciplines have been developed. Each has its own technique for preventing and treating disease.[ 1 ] In the Western world, the most common aspects of yoga practiced are the physical postures and breathing practices of Hatha yoga and meditation.[ 4 ] Hatha yoga enhances the capacity of the physical body through the use of a series of body postures, movements (asanas), and breathing techniques (pranayama). The breathing techniques of Hatha yoga focus on conscious prolongation of inhalation, breath retention, and exhalation. It is through the unification of the physical body, breath, and concentration, while performing the postures and movements that blockages in the energy channels of the body are cleared and the body energy system becomes more balanced. Although numerous styles of Hatha yoga exist, the majority of studies included in this manuscript utilized the Iyengar style of yoga. The Iyengar method of Hatha yoga is based on the teachings of the yoga master B.K.S. Iyengar.[ 1 ] Iyengar yoga places an emphasis on standing poses to develop strength, stability, stamina, concentration and body alignment. Props are utilized to facilitate learning and to adjust poses and instruction is given on how to use yoga to ease various ailments and stressors.

Yoga is recognized as a form of mind-body medicine that integrates an individual's physical, mental and spiritual components to improve aspects of health, particularly stress related illnesses.[ 8 ] Evidence shows that stress contributes to the etiology of heart disease, cancer, and stroke as well as other chronic conditions and diseases.[ 11 ] Due to the fact that stress is implicated in numerous diseases, it is a priority to include a focus on stress management and reduction of negative emotional states in order to reduce the burden of disease. Viewed as a holistic stress management technique, yoga is a form of CAM that produces a physiological sequence of events in the body reducing the stress response. The scientific study of yoga has increased substantially in recent years and many clinical trials have been designed to assess its therapeutic effects and benefits.

As participation rates in mind-body fitness programs such as yoga continue to increase, it is important for health care professionals to be informed about the nature of yoga and the evidence of its many therapeutic effects. Thus, this review of the literature is timely and important and provides information regarding the therapeutic effects of yoga in various populations concerning a multitude of different ailments and conditions. Therapeutic yoga is defined as the application of yoga postures and practice to the treatment of health conditions.[ 4 ] Yoga therapy involves instruction in yogic practices and teachings to prevent reduce or alleviate structural, physiological, emotional and spiritual pain, suffering or limitations. Yogic practices enhance muscular strength and body flexibility, promote and improve respiratory and cardiovascular function, promote recovery from and treatment of addiction, reduce stress, anxiety, depression, and chronic pain, improve sleep patterns, and enhance overall well-being and quality of life.[ 4 , 6 , 12 – 17 ]

In order to locate research studies and interventions that examined the therapeutic effects of yoga, databases were searched through Google Scholar via a universities web browser. Initially, the following key words were entered into the database via the advanced search option: “yoga,” and “therapeutic effects.” This search was conducted to obtain general information regarding yoga's therapeutic effects in the existing literature. Subsequently, a second search was conducted using the following key words or exact phrases, “hatha yoga,” “therapeutic effects of yoga,” “stress,” “anxiety, “depression,” “pain,” and “chronic disease.” The following criteria were used for including studies in this review: (1) the article had to be peer reviewed, (2) published between the years 1990 and 2009, (3) the intervention had to incorporate some form of yoga and/ or meditation, and (4) effects of yoga on some outcome were measured.

In order to select the articles included in this manuscript, several steps were taken. First, the title was read. If the article appeared appropriate to the examination of the therapeutic effects of yoga, it was saved to a folder. The articles describing interventions that utilized yoga as a means to achieve some health outcome were chosen for further review. Each of the articles chosen were then thoroughly read and reviewed. The articles chosen include a broad spectrum of the benefits, application, and therapeutic effects of yoga.

Mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, stress, and insomnia are among the most common reasons for individuals to seek treatment with complementary therapies such as yoga.[ 18 ] Yoga encourages one to relax, slow the breath and focus on the present, shifting the balance from the sympathetic nervous system and the flight-or-fight response to the parasympathetic system and the relaxation response.[ 5 ] The latter is calming and restorative; it lowers breathing and heart rate, decreases blood pressure, lowers cortisol levels, and increases blood flow to the intestines and vital organs.

One of the main goals of yoga is to achieve tranquility of the mind and create a sense of well-being, feelings of relaxation, improved self-confidence, improved efficiency, increased attentiveness, lowered irritability, and an optimistic outlook on life.[ 9 ] The practice of yoga generates balanced energy which is vital to the function of the immune system.[ 9 ] Yoga leads to an inhibition of the posterior or sympathetic area of the hypothalamus. This inhibition optimizes the body's sympathetic responses to stressful stimuli and restores autonomic regulatory reflex mechanisms associated with stress. Yogic practices inhibit the areas responsible for fear, aggressiveness and rage, and stimulate the rewarding pleasure centers in the median forebrain and other areas leading to a state of bliss and pleasure. This inhibition results in lower anxiety, heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, and cardiac output in students practicing yoga and meditation.[ 6 , 13 , 19 , 20 ]

Consistent yoga practice improves depression and can lead to significant increases in serotonin levels coupled with decreases in the levels of monamine oxidase, an enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters and cortisol.[ 5 ] A range of therapeutic approaches is available for the management of depressive disorders, but many patients turn to complementary therapies due to the adverse effects of medication, lack of response or simply preference for the complementary approach. A number of studies demonstrate the potential beneficial effects of yoga interventions on depression, stress, and anxiety.[ 18 , 21 , 22 ]

Improved flexibility is one of the first and most obvious benefits of yoga.[ 5 ] With continued practice comes a gradual loosening of the muscles and connective tissues surrounding the bones and joints; this is thought to be one reason that yoga is associated with reduced aches and pains. Yoga helps to build muscle mass and/ or maintain muscle strength, which protects from conditions such as arthritis, osteoporosis and back pain.[ 6 ] During a yoga session, the joints are taken through their full range of motion, squeezing and soaking areas of cartilage not often used and bringing fresh nutrients, oxygen and blood to the area, which helps to prevent conditions like arthritis and chronic pain.[ 5 ] Without proper sustenance, neglected areas of cartilage will eventually wear out and expose the underlying bone. Numerous studies have shown that asana, meditation or a combination of the two reduced pain in people with arthritis, Carpel Tunnel syndrome, back pain and other chronic conditions.[ 5 , 6 , 17 , 23 – 25 ] Yoga also increases proprioception and improves balance.[ 5 ]

Yoga increases blood flow and levels of hemoglobin and red blood cells which allows for more oxygen to reach the body cells, enhancing their function.[ 5 ] Yoga also thins the blood which can decrease the risk of heart attack and stroke, as they are often caused by blood clots. Twisting poses wring out venous blood from internal organs and allow oxygenated blood to flow in when the twist is released. Inverted poses encourage venous blood flow from the legs and pelvis back to the heart and then pumped through the lungs where it becomes freshly oxygenated. Many studies show yoga lowers the resting heart rate, increases endurance, and can improve the maximum uptake and utilization of oxygen during exercise.[ 13 , 20 , 26 ] Consistently getting the heart rate into aerobic range lowers the risk of heart attack.[ 5 ] While not all yoga is aerobic, even yoga exercises that do not increase heart rate into the aerobic range can improve cardiovascular functioning.

While yoga is not a cure for a cancer, nor a definitive way of preventing it, yoga increases physical, emotional and spiritual wellness, and brings about a certain peace, of which many cancer patients desire.[ 27 ] Yoga, breathing exercises, and meditation can reduce stress, promote healing, and enhance quality of life for patients with cancer.[ 28 , 29 ] The growth of tumors and other cancer indicators are exacerbated by stress, thus it is especially important for people with cancer to reduce and manage stress effectively.[ 27 ] Several premises exist as rationale for applying yoga-based interventions with cancer patients. Research suggests that yoga can produce an invigorating effect on mental and physical energy that improves fitness and reduces fatigue.[ 28 ] Additionally, when practicing yoga, a fundamental emphasis is placed on accepting one's moment-to-moment experiences creating mindfulness and not forcing the body past its comfortable limits. Having this healthy sense of acceptance is especially important for individuals dealing with life-threatening illness as it decreases the stress one experiences from unpleasant symptomology. Initially, cancer patients likely benefit from the poses themselves which are designed to exercise each and every muscle, nerve and gland throughout the body.[ 27 ] The postures precisely address the tension, holding, and blockage of energy in any particular joint or organ. As this tension is released, energy flows more readily throughout the body and allows patients to experience a sense of increased well-being and strength as well as a balance of mind, body and spirit.

While stimulation is good, too much taxes the nervous system and yoga provides relief from excess stimulation and the stressors and hectic nature of modern life.[ 5 ] Restorative postures, savasana, pranayama, and meditation encourage pratyahara, a turning inward of the senses which enables downtime for the nervous system, the byproduct often being improved sleep. Pharmacological treatment of insomnia is often associated with hazardous side effects such as states of confusion, psychomotor performance deficits, nocturnal falls, dysphoric mood, impaired intellectual functioning and daytime sleepiness, especially in older adults.[ 30 ] Therefore, alternative forms of therapy for improving sleep are becoming utilized more frequently. These alternative therapeutic approaches can be generally classified into three categories: behavioral based educative methods (e.g. avoiding caffeine or other stimulants before bedtime), relaxation techniques (e.g. progressive muscular relaxation, yoga, and meditation) and formal psychotherapy. Because of its ability to increase relaxation and induce a balanced mental state, yoga has been studied to evaluate its possible effects on sleep and insomnia.[ 16 , 30 ]

In summary, stress has a negative impact on the immune system and prolonged exposure increases susceptibility to disease and leads to physical and mental health problems such as anxiety and depression.[ 9 , 19 ] Practicing yoga and meditation as a means to manage and relieve both acute and chronic stress helps individuals overcome other co-morbidities associated with diseases and leads to increased quality of life.[ 14 , 31 ] As a non-pharmacological form of treatment, yoga based interventions are an alternative option for the treatment of mood disorders. Further investigation of yoga as a therapeutic intervention in depressive disorders is needed and future studies should seek to identify which of the yoga-based interventions is most effective and what levels of severity of depression are more likely to respond to this approach.

In addition to the effects of yoga on mood disorders and stress reduction, yogic practices are shown to improve cardiorespiratory performance, psychological profile, and plasma melatonin levels and also significantly reduced systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, mean arterial pressure, and orthostatic tolerance.[ 16 , 26 ] Furthermore, yoga helps to improve the cardiovascular efficiency and homeostatic control of the body and results in improvements in autonomic balance, respiratory performance, and overall well-being. Yoga based lifestyle modifications were also shown to aid in regression of coronary lesions as well as to improve myocardial perfusion in patients with CAD.[ 32 ] Inevitably, cardiovascular parameters alter as one ages, but these age-related deteriorations in cardiovascular functions are slower in persons who practice yoga regularly as yoga practitioners had lower heart rate as well as lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure than matched controls.[ 13 ]

Numerous studies show that asana, meditation or a combination of the two can reduce pain and disability while improving flexibility and functional mobility in people with a number of conditions causing chronic pain.[ 5 , 6 , 17 , 23 – 25 ] Additionally, in some cases use of pain medication was reduced or eliminated completely. Yoga was also shown to improve gait function and reduce age-related changes in gait among a group of healthy, non-obese elders.[ 33 ]

Regarding yoga's effects for cancer patients, results show a decrease in post-chemotherapy-induced nausea frequency, nausea intensity, intensity of anticipatory nausea, and anticipatory vomiting.[ 29 ] Additionally, yoga subjects reported decreased anxiety, depression, and distressful symptoms and also showed significantly reduced toxicity scores compared to the controls. Results from another study showed patients experienced significantly lower levels of pain and fatigue, and higher levels of invigoration, acceptance and relaxation following participation in a yoga intervention.[ 28 ] Yoga, breathing exercises, and meditation can reduce stress, promote healing, increase energy, decrease adverse treatment effects, and enhance quality-of-life for patients with cancer.[ 28 , 29 ]

Yoga's ability to increase relaxation and induce a balanced mental state was studied to evaluate its effect on sleep quality and improving insomnia. Regular practice of yoga resulted in a significant decrease in the time taken to fall asleep, an increase in the total number of hours slept, and in the feeling of being rested in the morning.[ 30 ] Additionally, yoga had a positive influence on sleep patterns in individuals with lymphoma.[ 16 ] Furthermore, participation in yoga classes improved self-reported quality-of-life as well as measures of physical function among an elderly population.[ 14 ]

According to Buddhist philosophy the roots of addiction are in the mind and the practice of mindful meditation encourages addicts to accept the basic impermanence of human experience and helps them to develop a detached awareness of thoughts.[ 12 ] Yoga and meditation practices exert positive influence on addictive behaviors. Through the practice of yoga, addicts shift from self-inflicted harm and disrespect toward their bodies to more respectful, caring, and loving behaviors. Eating disorders are a specific type of addiction and yoga appears to be beneficial in improving body image disturbances and useful in the recovery from eating disorders.[ 34 ] One study found that female yoga practitioners attribute their positive feelings and sense of well-being to yoga practice and report less self-objectification, greater satisfaction with physical appearance and fewer disordered eating attitudes compared to non-yoga practitioners.[ 35 ]

The findings of the aforementioned studies examining the psychological and physical outcomes of yoga prove difficult to summarize and draw concrete conclusions due to variation in the research designs, differences in the duration and frequency of yoga classes, and differences in the specific yoga programs and populations being studied. Nonetheless, results for the included studies demonstrate many of the numerous therapeutic effects, benefits and profound healing power of yoga.

Rapidly emerging in the Western world as a discipline for integrating the mind and body into union and harmony, when adopted as a way of life, yoga improves physical, mental, intellectual and spiritual health. Yoga offers an effective method of managing and reducing stress, anxiety and depression and numerous studies demonstrate the efficacy of yoga on mood related disorders.

Currently, treatment for anxiety and depression involves mostly psychological and pharmacological interventions; however, mind-body interventions are becoming increasingly popular as a means to reduce stress in individuals. Yoga, a form of mind-body exercise, has become an increasingly widespread therapy used to maintain wellness, and alleviate a range of health problems and ailments. Yoga should be considered as a complementary therapy or alternative method for medical therapy in the treatment of stress, anxiety, depression, and other mood disorders as it has been shown to create a greater sense of well-being, increase feelings of relaxation, improve self-confidence and body image, improve efficiency, better interpersonal relationships, increase attentiveness, lower irritability, and encourage an optimistic outlook on life.

Researchers are only beginning to understand how disciplines such as yoga promote personal growth, health and well-being. By acknowledging the unity of mind, body and spirit, mind-body fitness programs (i.e. yoga) can assist people in their pursuit of peace, calmness, and greater wholeness and integration in their lives. Health care professionals, health educators and the like, need to be aware of the potential of yoga as an important component of a personal wellness plan.

While no concrete guidelines exist regarding the frequency of practice, the more you practice the more you benefit. Yoga is a personalized practice and as such, frequency and duration are personal questions with individual answers. Practice should happen with wisdom and should be modified to meet individual needs and goals. Individuals should practice as often as possible, especially in the beginning. The length of the induction phase will vary depending on an individual's initial level of fitness and health status; the more difficult yoga is for someone in the beginning the more their body needs it.

While modern medicine has the ability in many cases to heal physical diseases and alleviate psychological disorders, it is argued that a purely medical approach is far less effective in healing the emotional, intellectual, and personality layers of the human entity. The discipline of yoga offers individuals a timeless and holistic model of health and healing and although it may not result in the complete elimination of physical diseases and/ or adverse conditions from the body it offers a holistic path of healing. There exists an indisputable connection between a person's overall physical and mental health and the inner peace and well-being yoga is designed to achieve. Yoga suspends the fluctuations of the mind and by acting consciously, we live better and suffer less.

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Many pieces of scientific research published in the past few years have
Yoga: Modern research shows a variety of benefits to both body and mind
How to Get Started With Yoga?
YOGA
Assessing and Evaluating the Quality of Yoga Research
(PDF) Evidence-Based Perspectives on the Psychophysiology of Yoga and

COMMENTS

Scientific Research on Yoga
At Yoga Alliance, we curate the latest and most relevant research on yoga's applications in health, wellness, and disease. We have filtered it in a digestible manner for our Registered Yoga Schools and Registered Yoga Teachers as well as for the broader yoga community. This evidence-based research not only reveals the science of yoga, it also ...
Impact of a Yoga and Meditation Intervention on Students' Stress and
Consistent with the research project, yoga is offered within the college once weekly for the six weeks preceding finals. Pharmacy schools may be limited in offering mindfulness practices because of a lack of trained practitioners and space; however, both may be overcome by including faculty support for training and potentially holding sessions ...
A century of 'The science of yoga' (1921-2021): Revival, renewal and
The latter demands a panoramic overview of tireless endeavor of great masters, beyond any commercial interests, in exploration of "The Science of Yoga.". Sincere and meticulous enquiry into the physiological and psychological effects of yoga began, a century ago, in a quiet hamlet in Amalner, Maharashtra. Keywords: Yoga-research ...
Research Trends in the Application of Yoga to Human Health: A Data
Abstract. Yoga is an integrative mind-body system of wellbeing developed in India since at least three millennia. Yoga has gained considerable attention in recent decades, partly driven by recent research and evidence about its effectiveness. In this work, we extracted research trends on the effects of Yoga on human health from the US National ...
A Comprehensive Review of Yoga Research in 2020
Conclusions: Yoga has been studied under a wide variety of clinicopathological conditions in the year 2020. This landscape review intends to provide an idea of the role of yoga in various clinical conditions and its future therapeutic implications. Keywords: clinical research; meditation; trials; yoga.
Evidence on yoga for health: A bibliometric analysis of systematic
This reflects the research agenda on yoga as a treatment, in contrast with the population use of yoga for general wellness. 10, 18 The growing view of yoga used for health reasons as 'therapeutic yoga' rather than simply 'yoga', and the refinement of distinctions between therapeutic yoga and yoga therapy, reflects the increasing focus ...
Full article: The effects of yoga on student mental health: a
There is a growing amount of research on yoga, but few RCTs have included a student population. One recent meta-analysis assessing the effects of yoga, meditation, or mindfulness on student distress showed moderate effects post-intervention, but most of the 24 included studies were of poor quality (Breedvelt et al., Citation 2019). Eight of the ...
The Role of Yoga in Enhancing Student Well-being and Academic
This review will offer insightful information about the beneficial effects of yoga on pupils by looking at numerous studies and research articles. Discover the world's research 25+ million members
Research Trends in the Application of Yoga to Human Health: A Data
Research timeline shows that Yoga-related research largely expanded only after the 2000s. There was a specific uptick after 2004. Similar trends are seen if we look at just clinical trials or randomized control trials (RCTs) or systematic reviews. The percentage of trials (Clinical and RCT) among published literature is around 10-15 % This is ...
(PDF) Scientific benefits of Yoga: A Review
improve physical fitness, relieve stress, and enhance quality of life. In addition, they may be. addressing specific health conditions, such as back pain, neck pain, arthritis, and anxiety ...
Benefits, barriers and determinants of practicing yoga: A cross
A growing body of research evidence supports the belief that practicing yoga improves individuals' physical and mental health. In a study in Thailand, authors reported the effectiveness of a yoga program in terms of reducing stress level, blood pressure, heart rate, and body mass index among a group of hypertensive patients [8].
Yoga in the World
The Yoga in the World study is a first-of-its-kind research effort, examining various aspects of the practice and profession. The study aims not only to provide an updated panorama of the global yoga community but also to uncover existing perceptions, key demographic data, and shed light on societal and economic barriers limiting access to the practice.
Global research trend on yoga intervention in educational sy... : Yoga
nt study is simply aimed at fully identifying the function of yoga intervention on students in academic institutions, as well as evaluating the available research data in this sector. A search query of relevant keywords was strategized and optimized to extract the information of research articles published from 1992 to 2021 from the "Dimention.ai" database. The obtained dataset was ...
847 PDFs
Jagadisha Thirthalli. Ravichandran Shanmugam. Jun 2023. Madhava Chandran. Anjana Kj. Explore the latest full-text research PDFs, articles, conference papers, preprints and more on YOGA RESEARCH ...
Interdisciplinary Science and Yoga: The Challenges Ahead
Thus, interdisciplinary science has a strategic role to play in reshaping fundamental research on yoga. Even if we consider yoga as an applied field of research, the quality of papers originating from India has not reached the top world journals. A quick search of the word "yoga" in Web of Science (WoS) from 1955 to 2018 yielded only 3805 ...
Effects of Yoga Asana Practice Approach on Types of Benefits
Most clinical yoga research to date has evaluated the effects of short-term yoga treatments on beginner practitioners, for example, Yadav et al., ... which detailed the intent of the project and contained a link to the survey. In addition, that information was E-mailed to members of the United States-based yoga teacher registry, Yoga Alliance ...
Virginia Tech researchers work to make yoga accessible to everyone
The research project also gave Frazier valuable experience as a graduate student. "This project has been instrumental in advancing my Ph.D. journey, providing a solid foundation for my dissertation on the importance of inclusivity in wellness spaces and highlighting the transformative potential of yoga when it truly embraces diversity in all ...
School Yoga Research
Research on Yoga Calm. Since 2005 over 20,000 educators, therapists and related service providers have been trained in Yoga Calm techniques benefiting over 250,000 youth. Assessments and research from their implementation of Yoga Calm's integrated approach to yoga, mindfulness and social/emotional learning have indicated the following results.
(PDF) The Study of Yoga Effects on Health
SUMMARY. The study measured the effecti veness of Yoga on Quality of lif e domains on normal healthy volunteers. compared to control group. The study showed a significant improvement in yoga group ...
Yoga Research and Projects
The Transformation Yoga Project Mike Huggins spent nine months in incarceration during which he found yoga to be instrumental in helping him find comfort, process his mental, physical and emotional challenges and ultimately return to his core, to his true Self. He started a grassroots effort, which evolved into a comprehensive yoga program within the prison and, upon his release, founded the ...
Exploring the therapeutic effects of yoga and its ability to increase
INTRODUCTION. A 3,000 year old tradition, yoga, is now regarded in the Western world as a holistic approach to health and is classified by the National Institutes of Health as a form of Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM).[] The word "yoga" comes from a Sanskrit root "yuj" which means union, or yoke, to join, and to direct and concentrate one's attention.[2,3] Regular practice ...
Yoga Anatomy Research Project- Assessing the Impacts of Asana Practice
Our project began with the distribution of a questionnaire to practitioners of all yoga styles in order to gather information and create context for understanding both the positive and negative outcomes of yoga asana practice. The survey was designed to collect information regarding these main areas:
(PDF) IMPORTANCE OF YOGA IN DAILY LIFE
Yoga in Daily Life is a system of practice consisting of eight levels of de velopment in the areas. of physical, mental, social and spiritual health.When the body is physically healthy, the mind ...