types of landforms presentation

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Landforms are natural features that shape the Earth’s surface. They are the result of various geological processes and can be found across the planet, encompassing a wide range of shapes, sizes, and formations. Landforms provide valuable insights into the Earth’s history and are crucial in understanding the dynamic processes that have shaped our planet over millions of years.

Factors influencing landform development

Types of landforms, mountains formation and characteristics, characteristics, examples of famous mountain ranges:, plateaus formation and characteristics, notable examples of plateaus, plains formation and characteristics, types of plains, famous plains around the world, valleys formation and characteristics, well-known valleys worldwide, deserts formation and characteristics, types of deserts, prominent deserts across different continents.

• Rivers and Water Bodies Formation and characteristics

Formation and Characteristics: Rivers

Water bodies, types of rivers, major rivers and water bodies worldwide, coastlines formation and characteristics, formation and characteristics, types of coastlines, notable coastlines and coastal features, caves and karst landforms, characteristics of caves:, characteristics of karst landforms:, types of caves and karst features:, famous cave systems and karst landscapes:.

The development of landforms is influenced by a variety of factors, including geological, tectonic, climatic, and erosional processes. Here are some of the key factors that shape landforms:

• Tectonic Activity: Landforms are significantly influenced by tectonic forces, which result from the movement and interaction of Earth’s tectonic plates. Tectonic processes like plate collisions, subduction zones, and faulting can give rise to landforms such as mountains, rift valleys, and volcanic features.
• Geological Composition: The underlying geological composition of an area plays a crucial role in landform development. Different types of rocks and minerals have varying resistance to erosion, which can lead to the formation of distinct landforms. For example, resistant rocks like granite may form rugged mountain ranges, while softer rocks like sandstone are more prone to erosion and can create unique formations such as arches or hoodoos.
• Erosion and Weathering : Erosion and weathering processes shape landforms over time. Water, wind, ice, and gravity contribute to the erosion and transportation of rocks and sediments. Rivers can carve out valleys and canyons, glaciers can sculpt mountains and valleys, wind can shape sand dunes, and coastal erosion can create cliffs and beaches. Weathering, which involves the breakdown of rocks and minerals, can also contribute to the formation of specific landforms.
• Climate and Weather: Climate and weather patterns influence landforms by affecting erosion rates, sediment transport , and deposition. For example, areas with high rainfall may experience more significant erosion and the formation of deep river valleys. Arid regions may be characterized by the accumulation of windblown sand dunes. Additionally, freeze-thaw cycles in cold climates can contribute to the formation of features like frost wedging and talus slopes.
• Time: Landforms develop and evolve over long periods of time. The gradual processes of erosion, deposition, and tectonic activity can result in substantial changes to the Earth’s surface. Landforms can persist for millions of years or change relatively quickly in response to geologic events such as earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.
• Human Influence: Human activities can also impact landforms. Human-induced factors such as mining, deforestation, urbanization, and the construction of dams can alter the natural landscape, leading to the creation of artificial landforms or modifying existing ones.

It’s important to note that these factors often interact and influence each other, leading to complex and interconnected processes that shape landforms. The study of these factors and their interactions helps us understand the diverse range of landforms found on Earth.

Landforms can be classified into various types based on their characteristics, geological processes involved in their formation, and their location. Here are some of the major types of landforms:

• Mountains : Mountains are large landforms characterized by significant elevation and steep slopes. They are typically formed through tectonic processes such as the collision of tectonic plates or volcanic activity. Examples include the Himalayas, the Andes, and the Alps.
• Plateaus : Plateaus are elevated flat areas with steep sides. They can be formed by volcanic activity, tectonic uplift, or erosion. Plateaus often result from the remnants of ancient mountain ranges or can be associated with tectonic processes. The Colorado Plateau in the United States and the Deccan Plateau in India are notable examples.
• Plains : Plains are vast, low-lying areas characterized by relatively flat or gently rolling landscapes. They are typically formed through the deposition of sediments by rivers, wind, or glaciers over long periods. Plains are common in river valleys, coastal regions, and areas of glaciation. The Great Plains in North America and the Indo-Gangetic Plain in South Asia are well-known examples.
• Valleys : Valleys are low-lying areas between mountains or hills, often carved by rivers or glaciers. They can vary in size, shape, and depth. Valleys are typically characterized by a U-shape or V-shape, depending on whether they are formed by glacial or fluvial processes. The Grand Canyon in the United States and the Nile Valley in Egypt are prominent examples.
• Deserts : Deserts are arid regions characterized by sparse vegetation and low precipitation. They can be sandy (such as the Sahara Desert), rocky (like the Atacama Desert), or a combination of both. Deserts often feature sand dunes, rock formations, and vast expanses of barren land.
• Coastal Landforms : Coastal landforms are shaped by the interaction of land and sea. They include beaches, cliffs, bays, estuaries, and deltas. Coastal landforms are influenced by processes such as erosion, sediment deposition , wave action, and sea-level changes. Examples include the Great Barrier Reef in Australia and the Cliffs of Moher in Ireland.
• Karst Landscapes : Karst landscapes are characterized by unique features formed by the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone or dolomite . They include sinkholes , caves, underground rivers, and limestone pavements. Karst landscapes are often found in regions with abundant rainfall and soluble rock formations. The karst region in Slovenia and the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico are well-known examples.
• Glacial Landforms : Glacial landforms are formed by the movement and erosion of glaciers. They include features like U-shaped valleys, cirques, moraines, and fjords. Glacial landforms are commonly found in regions that have experienced past glaciation, such as the Alps, the Canadian Rockies, and Antarctica.

These are just a few examples of the diverse landforms that exist on Earth. Each type of landform provides valuable insights into the geological processes that have shaped our planet over millions of years.

Mountains are large landforms that rise prominently above the surrounding landscape. They are typically characterized by their considerable height, steep slopes, and rugged terrain. Mountains can be formed through various geological processes and can exhibit different characteristics based on their formation.

• Folded Mountains: Folded mountains are formed when tectonic forces compress and squeeze the Earth’s crust, causing the rocks to fold and buckle. These mountains often have long ridges and valleys and are associated with convergent plate boundaries. The Appalachian Mountains in North America and the Alps in Europe are examples of folded mountains.
• Fault-Block Mountains: Fault-block mountains are created when large blocks of the Earth’s crust are uplifted or dropped along faults . The uplifted blocks form mountain ranges, while the down-dropped blocks create valleys. The Sierra Nevada in the United States and the Tetons in Wyoming are examples of fault-block mountains.
• Volcanic Mountains: Volcanic mountains form when molten rock (magma) rises to the surface through volcanic activity. As the magma solidifies, it builds up layers of volcanic material, including lava, ash, and pyroclastic deposits . Over time, repeated eruptions can build towering volcanic mountains. Examples of volcanic mountains include Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, Mount Fuji in Japan, and Mount St. Helens in the United States.
• Height and Prominence: Mountains are defined by their significant height above the surrounding terrain. The height of mountains varies widely, from several hundred meters to several kilometers. The prominence of a mountain refers to its vertical rise above the surrounding land.
• Slopes and Peaks: Mountains often have steep slopes, which become steeper toward the summit. The peaks of mountains can be pointed, jagged, or rounded, depending on factors such as erosion and the type of rock that makes up the mountain.
• Rugged Terrain: Mountains are characterized by rugged and challenging terrain. They can feature deep valleys, narrow ridges, sharp cliffs, and rock formations. Glacial activity can carve out U-shaped valleys and leave behind features like cirques and hanging valleys.
• Himalayas: The Himalayas, located in Asia, are the highest and most famous mountain range in the world. They span several countries, including India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet. Mount Everest, the tallest peak in the world, is part of the Himalayas.
• Andes: The Andes, running along the western coast of South America, is the longest mountain range in the world. It spans several countries, including Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Colombia. The Andes are known for their high peaks, deep valleys, and diverse ecosystems.
• Rockies: The Rocky Mountains, or the Rockies, stretch across western North America, primarily in the United States and Canada. They are renowned for their stunning landscapes, including majestic peaks, alpine lakes, and dense forests.
• Alps: The Alps are a famous mountain range in Europe, spanning several countries, including France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, and Germany. They are known for their picturesque beauty, winter sports, and iconic peaks like the Matterhorn .
• Atlas Mountains: The Atlas Mountains stretch across Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia in North Africa. They are known for their rugged beauty, diverse flora and fauna, and as a habitat for endangered species like the Barbary macaque.

These are just a few examples of famous mountain ranges, but there are numerous other mountain ranges around the world, each with its own unique characteristics and significance.

Plateaus are elevated flat areas with steep sides. They are distinct landforms that can be formed through various geological processes and exhibit different characteristics based on their formation.

• Uplifted Plateaus: Uplifted plateaus are formed by tectonic forces that uplift large sections of the Earth’s crust. These plateaus are often associated with the collision of tectonic plates or the gradual uplift of a region over time. The Colorado Plateau in the United States, which includes the Grand Canyon, is an example of an uplifted plateau.
• Volcanic Plateaus: Volcanic plateaus are created through volcanic activity where extensive lava flows cover large areas, resulting in a flat or gently undulating surface. These plateaus are formed by the accumulation of volcanic materials, such as basaltic lava, over time. The Columbia Plateau in the northwestern United States is an example of a volcanic plateau.
• Dissected Plateaus: Dissected plateaus are formed when plateaus are eroded by various agents such as rivers and glaciers. Erosion carves deep valleys, canyons, and gorges into the plateau, creating a highly dissected landscape. The Deccan Plateau in India, which is known for its extensive lava flows and deeply incised valleys, is an example of a dissected plateau.
• Flat or Gently Undulating Surface: Plateaus are characterized by their relatively flat or gently rolling surface on top. While the plateau surface itself is mostly flat, the edges often have steep cliffs or escarpments.
• Steep Sides: Plateaus are bounded by steep slopes or cliffs, which can be the result of tectonic forces or erosion processes that have cut into the plateau edges.
• Extensive Area: Plateaus can cover vast areas, ranging from several square kilometers to thousands of square kilometers.
• Varied Vegetation: Plateaus can support a diverse range of vegetation due to variations in elevation, climate, and soil conditions. Different types of plant communities, such as grasslands, forests, or shrublands, can be found on plateaus.
• Colorado Plateau: Located in the southwestern United States, the Colorado Plateau is a vast uplifted plateau that covers parts of Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. It is renowned for its dramatic canyons, towering cliffs, and iconic landmarks like the Grand Canyon and Monument Valley.
• Deccan Plateau: Situated in India, the Deccan Plateau is a large volcanic plateau formed by extensive lava flows. It covers a significant portion of southern India and is known for its unique rock formations, ancient cave temples, and rich cultural heritage.
• Tibetan Plateau: Referred to as the “Roof of the World,” the Tibetan Plateau is the highest and largest plateau in the world. Located in Central Asia, it spans Tibet, parts of China, India, Nepal, and Bhutan. The Tibetan Plateau is renowned for its high altitude, vast grasslands, and unique wildlife.
• Altiplano: The Altiplano is a high plateau situated in the Andes Mountains of South America, spanning parts of Bolivia, Peru, Chile, and Argentina. It is one of the highest inhabited plateaus globally, known for its stunning landscapes, salt flats (such as the Uyuni Salt Flat), and traditional cultures.

These are just a few notable examples of plateaus, but there are many other plateaus worldwide that exhibit diverse features and geological histories.

Plains are vast, low-lying areas characterized by relatively flat or gently rolling landscapes. They are formed through various geological processes and can exhibit different characteristics based on their formation.

• Coastal Plains: Coastal plains are formed along coastlines through the accumulation of sediments deposited by rivers, ocean currents, and waves. Over time, these sediments build up, creating flat or gently sloping plains. Coastal plains can vary in width and are often found adjacent to the sea. The Atlantic Coastal Plain in the United States and the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta in Bangladesh and India are examples of coastal plains.
• Alluvial Plains: Alluvial plains are formed by the deposition of sediments carried by rivers. These sediments, consisting of eroded materials like sand, silt, and clay, settle and accumulate in the floodplains and deltas of rivers. Alluvial plains are typically fertile and ideal for agriculture. The Indo-Gangetic Plain in South Asia and the Nile Delta in Egypt are examples of alluvial plains.
• Glacial Plains: Glacial plains are formed by the action of glaciers as they move and erode the landscape. When glaciers retreat, they leave behind flat or gently undulating areas covered with glacial deposits, including till, clay, sand, and gravel. Glacial plains are often marked by features such as drumlins, eskers, and moraines. The Great Plains in North America and the North German Plain are examples of glacial plains.
• Flat or Gently Rolling Terrain: Plains are characterized by their relatively flat or gently undulating topography. They lack significant variations in elevation compared to mountains or plateaus.
• Low Relief: Plains have low relief, meaning the difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points is minimal. The slopes of plains are generally gentle.
• Fertile Soils: Plains often have fertile soils due to the accumulation of sediments brought by rivers or glacial activity. These fertile soils make plains suitable for agriculture, supporting extensive agricultural practices.
• Water Availability: Plains are often well-watered due to the presence of rivers and lakes. They are conducive to the development of river valleys, floodplains, and wetlands.
• Coastal Plains: Formed by the deposition of sediments along coastlines.
• Alluvial Plains: Created by the deposition of sediments carried by rivers.
• Glacial Plains: Resulting from the deposition of glacial sediments by retreating glaciers.
• Indo-Gangetic Plain: Located in South Asia, the Indo-Gangetic Plain is one of the most extensive and fertile alluvial plains in the world. It covers a significant part of northern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh and is known for its intensive agricultural practices and densely populated cities.
• Great Plains: The Great Plains of North America span several countries, including the United States and Canada. This vast region is characterized by grasslands, agricultural activities, and unique features like the Badlands National Park and the Black Hills.
• Pampas: The Pampas is a fertile plain located in South America, primarily in Argentina and Uruguay. It is known for its expansive grasslands, agricultural production (especially cattle ranching), and unique flora and fauna.
• Siberian Plain: The Siberian Plain is a massive plain that covers a significant portion of Russia. It is one of the largest flat regions in the world and features a variety of landscapes, including tundra, forests, and wetlands.

Valleys are low-lying areas located between mountains or hills. They are often formed through the erosive action of rivers, glaciers, or tectonic processes. Valleys can exhibit different characteristics based on their formation and the processes involved.

• Fluvial Valleys: Fluvial valleys are formed by the erosive action of rivers over time. Rivers carve through the land, cutting deep channels and creating valleys. The flow of water erodes the rock and sediment, shaping the valley’s characteristic features. Fluvial valleys are commonly found in mountainous regions and are often characterized by V-shaped profiles. The Grand Canyon in the United States and the Yarlung Tsangpo Valley in Tibet are examples of fluvial valleys.
• Glacial Valleys: Glacial valleys are formed by the movement and erosion of glaciers. As glaciers advance and retreat, they carve out U-shaped valleys. Glacial erosion is characterized by the removal of large amounts of material, resulting in broad and flat valley floors with steep sides. Examples of glacial valleys include Yosemite Valley in the United States and Lauterbrunnen Valley in Switzerland.
• Rift Valleys: Rift valleys are created by tectonic processes, particularly the stretching and splitting of the Earth’s crust. As the crust pulls apart, it creates a depression that forms a long, narrow valley. Rift valleys can be found along divergent plate boundaries and are characterized by steep walls and flat bottoms. The East African Rift Valley, including the Great Rift Valley, is one of the most well-known examples of rift valleys.
• Shape: Valleys can have different shapes depending on the processes involved in their formation. V-shaped valleys have steep sides and a narrow bottom, while U-shaped valleys have a broader and flatter floor with steep sides. Rift valleys are long and narrow with steep walls.
• Drainage: Valleys often serve as channels for water drainage, with rivers or streams flowing through them. They collect water from surrounding areas and may contain rivers, creeks, or lakes.
• Steepness: Valleys can have varying degrees of slope steepness, ranging from gentle slopes to steep cliffs, depending on the erosional forces involved.
• Napa Valley: Located in California, United States, Napa Valley is renowned for its vineyards and wineries. It is a picturesque valley known for its scenic beauty, rolling hills, and wine production.
• Kathmandu Valley: Situated in Nepal, the Kathmandu Valley is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the cultural heart of the country. It is home to the capital city of Kathmandu and encompasses a series of historic towns, ancient temples, and picturesque landscapes.
• Cappadocia Valleys: Located in Turkey, the Cappadocia region is famous for its unique rock formations, known as fairy chimneys. The valleys in Cappadocia, such as the Love Valley and Rose Valley, offer stunning landscapes with bizarre rock formations and ancient cave dwellings.
• Wadi Rum: Located in Jordan, Wadi Rum is a desert valley known for its dramatic sandstone and granite rock formations. It is a popular destination for adventure tourism and offers breathtaking desert scenery.
• Yosemite Valley: Situated in Yosemite National Park in California, United States, Yosemite Valley is renowned for its awe-inspiring granite cliffs, towering waterfalls, and lush meadows. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and attracts millions of visitors each year.

These are just a few examples of well-known valleys worldwide. Valleys can be found in various countries and regions, each with its own unique features and significance.

Deserts are vast, arid regions characterized by minimal precipitation and sparse vegetation. They cover a significant portion of the Earth’s surface and can be found across different continents. Deserts are formed through various geological and climatic processes and can exhibit different characteristics based on their formation and location.

• Rain Shadow Deserts: Rain shadow deserts are formed when moist air from an ocean or large body of water rises over a mountain range, causing precipitation on the windward side. As the air descends on the leeward side, it becomes drier and creates arid conditions, resulting in the formation of a desert. Examples include the Mojave Desert in the United States and the Atacama Desert in Chile.
• Subtropical Deserts: Subtropical deserts are located in the vicinity of the tropics, typically between 15 to 30 degrees latitude. They are formed by the global atmospheric circulation patterns that create high-pressure zones, resulting in stable, dry air and limited rainfall. The Sahara Desert in Africa and the Arabian Desert in the Middle East are examples of subtropical deserts.
• Coastal Deserts: Coastal deserts are situated along the western coastlines of continents, where cold ocean currents cause cool, dry air to prevail. These deserts are influenced by the cool oceanic conditions, which inhibit the formation of clouds and result in limited rainfall. The Namib Desert in Namibia and the Atacama Desert in Chile are examples of coastal deserts.
• Aridity: Deserts are characterized by extremely low precipitation, often receiving less than 250 millimeters (10 inches) of rainfall annually. This arid environment creates dry and barren landscapes.
• Sparse Vegetation: Due to the scarcity of water, deserts typically have sparse vegetation, consisting mainly of drought-resistant plants such as cacti, succulents, and shrubs. Some desert regions may have areas of sand dunes or rocky terrain.
• Temperature Extremes: Deserts often experience temperature extremes, with scorching hot days and cool nights. During the day, desert temperatures can reach extremely high levels, while at night, heat rapidly dissipates, causing significant drops in temperature.
• Hot Deserts: Hot deserts, such as the Sahara Desert, are characterized by high temperatures throughout the year. They often have a subtropical or tropical climate and limited vegetation cover.
• Cold Deserts: Cold deserts, such as the Gobi Desert in Mongolia, experience extremely cold temperatures in winter and relatively cool temperatures in summer. These deserts are usually found at higher latitudes or at high elevations.
• Coastal Deserts: Coastal deserts, such as the Namib Desert, are influenced by cool oceanic conditions. They experience cool to mild temperatures and have a unique blend of coastal and desert landscapes.
• Sahara Desert: Located in North Africa, the Sahara Desert is the largest hot desert in the world, covering an area of about 9.2 million square kilometers (3.6 million square miles).
• Gobi Desert: Situated in East Asia, the Gobi Desert spans parts of northern China and southern Mongolia. It is the largest cold desert in the world and is known for its vast stretches of arid and barren landscapes.
• Atacama Desert: Found in South America along the western coast of Chile and parts of Peru, the Atacama Desert is known as the driest non-polar desert on Earth. It is a coastal desert characterized by its aridity and unique geological features.

Rivers and Water Bodies Formation and characteristic s

Rivers and water bodies play a crucial role in shaping the Earth’s landscape and supporting various ecosystems. They are formed through the accumulation of water from various sources and exhibit different characteristics based on their formation and the processes involved.

• River Formation: Rivers are formed by the accumulation of water from various sources such as rainfall, melting snow and ice, and underground springs. These water sources gather and flow downhill, carving channels and creating river systems.
• Channel Characteristics: Rivers typically have a main channel that meanders through the landscape, with tributaries joining along the way. They vary in size, width, and depth, influenced by factors such as the volume of water, gradient, and sediment load. Rivers are dynamic and constantly shape their channels through erosion and deposition processes.
• Erosion and Deposition: Rivers play a vital role in eroding and transporting sediments. They carry rocks, sand, silt, and clay downstream, gradually reshaping the land. The erosive power of rivers can carve valleys and canyons over time. When rivers slow down and deposit their sediment load, they can form deltas, floodplains, and alluvial fans.
• Lakes: Lakes are large bodies of water that are often formed through various geological processes, including tectonic activity, glacial action, volcanic activity, and river damming. Lakes can vary in size, depth, and water chemistry. They serve as important habitats for aquatic plants and animals.
• Oceans: Oceans are vast bodies of saltwater that cover about 71% of the Earth’s surface. They are formed due to tectonic plate movements, where large areas of the Earth’s crust are submerged. Oceans have significant influence on climate, weather patterns, and the distribution of life forms. The Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean are the major oceans of the world.
• Meandering Rivers: Meandering rivers have a sinuous, winding pattern. They often occur in flatter terrain and exhibit gentle curves called meanders. Meandering rivers erode the outer banks of the bends and deposit sediment on the inner banks.
• Braided Rivers: Braided rivers have multiple interconnected channels that split and rejoin, creating a braided appearance. They typically occur in areas with a high sediment load and variable flow rates, such as glacial regions or arid environments.
• Delta Rivers: Delta rivers are characterized by their wide, fan-shaped mouths where the river meets a body of water, such as a sea or lake. Deltas are formed when rivers carry sediment that is deposited as the flow slows down, creating landforms with rich soils.
• Amazon River: The Amazon River in South America is the largest river in terms of discharge and one of the longest rivers in the world. It flows through several countries, including Peru, Colombia, and Brazil, and is known for its vast rainforest, diverse ecosystems, and biodiversity.
• Nile River: The Nile River is the longest river globally, flowing through eleven countries in northeastern Africa. It is culturally and historically significant, providing water for agriculture and supporting ancient civilizations such as Ancient Egypt.
• Yangtze River: The Yangtze River in China is the longest river in Asia and the third longest in the world. It plays a crucial role in China’s economy and culture, supporting agriculture, hydropower generation, and transportation.
• Mississippi River: The Mississippi River is one of the major rivers in North America, flowing through the United States. It is an important transportation route and has a significant impact on the country’s economy and ecology.
• Lake Baikal: Lake Baikal in Siberia, Russia, is the deepest and oldest freshwater lake in the world. It is known for its exceptional biodiversity and is considered a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Great Barrier Reef: The Great Barrier Reef in Australia is the world’s largest coral reef system, stretching over 2,300 kilometers (1,400 miles). It is home to a wide range of marine species and is a popular tourist destination.

These are just a few examples of major rivers and water bodies worldwide. Rivers and water bodies can be found on every continent, contributing to the beauty, ecological balance, and human activities on our planet.

Coastlines refer to the boundary between land and the ocean or sea. They are dynamic and diverse environments shaped by various geological processes, including erosion, deposition, and tectonic activity. Coastlines can exhibit different characteristics based on their formation, geological composition, and interaction with water and weather.

• Erosional Processes: Coastlines are subjected to erosional forces such as waves, tides, and currents. These processes can erode the land, shaping the coastline and creating distinct features such as cliffs, sea caves, and sea stacks.
• Depositional Processes: Sediments carried by rivers, waves, and currents are deposited along coastlines, forming beaches, sandbars, and barrier islands. Depositional processes also contribute to the formation of estuaries and deltas.
• Tides and Waves: Tides, caused by gravitational forces between the Earth, moon, and sun, play a significant role in shaping coastlines. Waves generated by wind energy continuously reshape and modify coastlines, eroding some areas and depositing sediment in others.
• Rocky Coastlines: Rocky coastlines are characterized by rugged cliffs, rocky shores, and sea stacks. These coastlines often occur in areas with hard rock formations that are resistant to erosion. Rocky coastlines can be found in regions with high wave energy, such as along exposed shorelines.
• Sandy Coastlines: Sandy coastlines are characterized by extensive stretches of sandy beaches. They are formed through the accumulation of sand and other sediments, often carried by rivers and deposited along the coast. Sandy coastlines are more common in areas with low wave energy and abundant sediment supply.
• Estuaries: Estuaries are partially enclosed coastal bodies of water where rivers meet the sea. They are characterized by brackish water, influenced by both freshwater and saltwater. Estuaries are important ecological habitats and serve as nurseries for many marine species.
• The Great Ocean Road, Australia: The Great Ocean Road in Australia is famous for its stunning coastal scenery, including the Twelve Apostles rock formations. This iconic stretch of coastline showcases rugged cliffs, picturesque beaches, and unique geological formations.
• The Amalfi Coast, Italy: The Amalfi Coast in Italy is renowned for its dramatic and picturesque coastline along the Mediterranean Sea. It features colorful cliffside villages, terraced vineyards, and steep limestone cliffs.
• The Big Sur Coastline, California, USA: The Big Sur coastline in California offers breathtaking views of the Pacific Ocean. It is known for its rugged cliffs, pristine beaches, and scenic coastal drive along the Pacific Coast Highway.
• The Norwegian Fjords: The Norwegian coastline is famous for its fjords, deep and narrow coastal inlets carved by glaciers. These fjords, such as Geirangerfjord and Nærøyfjord, offer majestic landscapes with steep cliffs, cascading waterfalls, and crystal-clear waters.
• The Halong Bay, Vietnam: Halong Bay is a UNESCO World Heritage Site known for its unique limestone karsts and islands rising from the emerald waters of the Gulf of Tonkin. It is a popular tourist destination, showcasing a spectacular coastal landscape.

These are just a few examples of notable coastlines and coastal features around the world. Coastlines offer diverse natural beauty, recreational opportunities, and support unique ecosystems that are important for both human and marine life.

Caves and karst landforms are unique geological features that are formed in soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum . They are characterized by underground cavities and intricate formations created through various erosional processes. Let’s explore their formation, characteristics, types of features, and some famous examples.

Formation and Characteristics : Caves and karst landforms are typically formed through the process of karstification, which involves the dissolution of soluble rocks by water. The dissolution occurs when water, often acidic, reacts with the minerals in the rock, gradually creating underground cavities and passages.

• Caverns: Caves are underground voids and chambers that can range in size from small, narrow passages to vast caverns. They often feature unique geological formations and are usually accessed through openings on the surface.
• Stalactites and Stalagmites: Stalactites and stalagmites are common cave formations. Stalactites hang from the cave ceiling and are formed by the gradual deposition of minerals carried by water dripping from above. Stalagmites rise from the cave floor as a result of minerals precipitating out of water dripping onto the ground. Over time, these formations can grow and meet, creating columns.
• Speleothems: Speleothems are various mineral deposits that form within caves, including flowstones, draperies, and helictites. These formations add to the unique beauty of caves and can take on diverse shapes and colors.
• Sinkholes: Sinkholes are depressions or holes that form when the roof of an underground cave collapses, revealing a surface opening. Sinkholes can vary in size from small to large and can be hazardous to human settlements.
• Karst Springs: Karst springs are where underground water emerges onto the surface, often forming picturesque streams or pools. These springs are an important source of water in karst regions.
• Poljes: Poljes are large, flat-bottomed depressions found in karst landscapes. They are typically formed by the collapse of underground caverns or the dissolution of soluble rock layers.
• Solutional Caves: Solutional caves are formed primarily through the dissolution of soluble rock. These caves are often characterized by complex networks of passages and can contain stunning formations.
• Lava Tubes: Lava tubes are caves that form when flowing lava solidifies on the surface, leaving behind a hollow tube. These caves are commonly found in volcanic regions and can have unique geological features.
• Sea Caves: Sea caves are formed through wave erosion along coastlines. They often have entrances facing the sea and can extend deep into cliffs or headlands.
• Mammoth Cave System, Kentucky, USA: Mammoth Cave is the longest known cave system in the world, with over 650 kilometers (400 miles) of explored passages. It features a diverse range of speleothems and is a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Škocjan Caves, Slovenia: The Škocjan Caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the largest underground canyons in the world. The cave system features stunning underground chambers, a river, and a unique natural bridge.
• Hang Son Doong, Vietnam: Hang Son Doong is the largest known cave in the world, located in Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park. It boasts massive caverns, towering stalagmites, and an underground river.
• Waitomo Glowworm Caves, New Zealand: The Waitomo Glowworm Caves are famous for their unique glowworm species, Arachnocampa luminosa. These bioluminescent creatures light up the dark caves, creating a magical spectacle.
• The Puerto Princesa Subterranean River, Philippines: The Puerto Princesa Subterranean River is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the longest navigable underground rivers in the world. It flows through a dramatic limestone cave system, surrounded by lush vegetation.

These are just a few examples of famous cave systems and karst landscapes. Caves and karst landforms offer captivating geological formations and provide valuable insights into the Earth’s history and underground ecosystems.

What are landforms? Landforms are natural features that make up the Earth’s surface. They include mountains, valleys, plains, plateaus, deserts, rivers, lakes, and coastlines.

How are landforms formed? Landforms are formed through various geological processes, including erosion, deposition, tectonic activity, volcanic activity, weathering, and the actions of water, wind, and ice.

What is the difference between a mountain and a hill? Mountains are taller and steeper landforms compared to hills. They often have rugged terrain, higher elevations, and are formed through tectonic forces or volcanic activity. Hills, on the other hand, are smaller and have gentler slopes.

What are the main types of rivers? The main types of rivers include meandering rivers (with sinuous curves), braided rivers (with interconnected channels), and delta rivers (which deposit sediment at their mouths).

How are plateaus formed? Plateaus are elevated flat or gently rolling landforms. They can be formed through processes like uplift, volcanic activity, or erosion, where surrounding areas erode faster, leaving behind a relatively flat elevated surface.

What are coastal features? Coastal features refer to the various landforms found along coastlines, such as cliffs, beaches, sea stacks, sand dunes, estuaries, and coral reefs. These features are shaped by the interaction of land, sea, and geological processes.

How are caves formed? Caves are formed through the dissolution of soluble rocks (like limestone) by water over long periods. Water seeps into cracks and joints, slowly enlarging them to create underground cavities.

What is karst topography? Karst topography refers to landscapes formed by the dissolution of soluble rocks, such as limestone or dolomite. It is characterized by features like sinkholes, caves, disappearing streams, and underground drainage systems.

How are deserts formed? Deserts are formed in regions where there is limited rainfall and high rates of evaporation, resulting in arid conditions. They can be classified as hot deserts (like the Sahara) or cold deserts (like the Gobi), depending on their geographical location.

What are the main types of plains? The main types of plains include coastal plains (formed by sediment deposition along coastlines), alluvial plains (formed by rivers and floodplains), and glacial plains (formed by glacial action and deposition of sediment).

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Landforms and Topographic Maps

Science, grade 6, presentation.

Table Of Contents: Landforms and Topographic Maps

1. types of landforms, 2. what is a topographic map, 3. topographic map contour lines, 4. topographic map rules, newpath learning, shop by product, shop by grade, shop by subject.

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

A plain is a broad area of relatively flat land

Biology, Earth Science, Geology, Geography, Physical Geography

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A plain is a broad area of relatively flat land. Plains are one of the major landforms , or types of land, on Earth. They cover more than one-third of the world’s land area. Plains exist on every continent . Grasslands Many plains , such as the Great Plains that stretch across much of central North America, are grasslands . A grassland is a region where grass is the main type of vegetation . In North America, temperate grasslands —those in places with warm summers and cold winters—are often called prairies . In areas with little rain and snow , short grasses grow. In areas that receive more rain and snow , tall grasses can grow 1.5 meters (5 feet) high. However, most tallgrass prairies have been plowed under and are now farmland or pasture . The Great Plains have supported a wide variety of cultures for thou sands of years. The so-called “ Plains Indians ” are actually more than two dozen tribes. Communities include Blackfoot , native to the Canadian province of Alberta; Arapaho , whose center today is in the U.S. state of Wyoming; and Kickapoo , many of whom live today in the Mexican state of Coahuila. In Asia and eastern Europe, temperate grasslands are called steppes . Steppes usually do not receive enough rain for tall grasses and trees to grow. Tropical grasslands are called savannas . Savannas exist in places that are warm throughout the year. They often have scattered trees. Savannas such as the Serengeti plains stretch across much of central Africa. They are also found in Australia, South America, and southern North America. Not all plains are grasslands . Some, such as Mexico’s Tabasco Plain , are forested . Forested plains have different types of trees, shrubs, and other vegetation . Deserts can also be plains . Parts of the Sahara, a great desert in North Africa, are plains . In the Arctic , where the ground is frozen, plains are called tundra . Despite the cold, many plants survive here, including shrubs and moss .

Plain Formation Plains form in many different ways. Some plains form as ice and water erodes , or wears away, the dirt and rock on higher land. Water and ice carry the bits of dirt, rock , and other material, called sediment , down hillsides to be deposited elsewhere. As layer upon layer of this sediment is laid down, plains form. Volcanic activity can also form plains . Lava plains form when lava pushes up from below ground and flows across the land. The earth in a lava plain is often much darker than the surrounding soil . The dark earth is a result of the lava , mostly a dark-colored mineral called basalt , broken down into tiny particles over millions of years. The movement of rivers sometimes forms plains . Many rivers run through valleys . As rivers move from side to side, they gradually erode the valley , creating broad plains . As a river floods, it overflows its bank . The flood carries mud , sand , and other sediment out over the land. After the water withdraws, the sediment remains. If a river floods repeatedly, over time this sediment will build up into a flood plain . Flood plains are often rich in nutrients and create fertile farmland . The flood plain surrounding Africa’s Nile River has helped Egyptian civilization thrive for thou sands of years. Alluvial plains form at the base of mountains . Water carrying sediment flows downhill until it hits flat land. There, it spreads out, depositing the sediment in the shape of a fan. The Huang He River in China has created an alluvial plain that covers about 409,500 square kilometers (158,000 square miles). Because much of the sediment the Huang He carries is yellowish in color, it is also called the Yellow River. Many rivers deposit their sediment in the ocean. As the sediment builds up, it might eventually rise above sea level , forming a coastal plain . The Atlantic Coastal Plain stretches along much of the eastern coast of North America. These broad underwater plains slope gently down beneath the water. Abyssal plains are found at the bottom of the ocean. These plains are 5,000 to 7,000 meters (16,400 to 23,000 feet) below sea level , so scientists have a hard time studying them. But scientists say abyssal plains are among the flattest, smoothest places on Earth.

Plains on Other Planets Plains can be found on other planets. Mercury has large stretches of plains, and scientists have landed several probes on the boulder-covered plains of Mars.

Thundering Hooves The Great Plains of North America once supported about 50 million bison, which are sometimes called buffalo. The bison roamed in vast herds, feeding on the prairie grasses. They were hunted to near-extinction in the 1800s.

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Your Ultimate Guide to the Great Outdoors

Types of Landforms: From the Top of the Globe to the Depths of the Sea

The earth is a fascinating place with all kinds of variation and geographical interest. Have you ever seen an unlabeled picture come up as a screensaver and been able to guess where it’s at based on the types of landforms in the picture?

The reason you could is that all over the world, wild and wondrous things have happened. These occurrences have created a series of landforms throughout Earth’s lifespan that make each many areas unique.

Need to know about the highest mountains in the world? Want to know what a mid-ocean ridge is and where they are at on the globe? You have come to the right place. In this article, we dig into the incredible face of our planet. You will learn about what landforms are and the wide variety of them arranged across the globe.

What is a Landform?

As defined by National Geographic, a landform is a “feature on the Earth’s surface that is part of the terrain.” The terrain of the land includes all of its topographic features. Whether a formation sticks out of the ground or sinks into it, it has topographic significance. 

Have you ever looked out of your window or driven past the same countryside in your home town and thought there wasn’t anything special about it? After this article, you will want to think again.

Land is like a history book of the earth. When you know how to read it well, it tells you all kinds of stories about its past. Knowing how to read it takes time, just like any other language. When you learn, it opens your eyes to the significance and brilliance of all those formations around you.

There are four major types of landforms, although we added one more to the section below. There are four that are accepted throughout the scientific community. These include mountains , plateaus, hills, and plains. Everything else can fall into these broad and general categories.

There are hundreds of minor landform typologies. Some of them are well known, like valleys. Others you have probably never heard of since they only belong to particular geographic regions.

For example, an “uvala” is a type of elongated terrain and more extensive than most types of sinkholes. An uvala is only found in Croatia, Bosnia, Slovenia, Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia.

Before we look at some of these lesser-known but just as interesting types of landforms, let’s dig deeper into the most significant landforms.

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1. Significant Types of Landforms

Mountains, hills, plateaus and plains are the four recognized significant types of landforms. They are known by almost everyone, whether you have an interest in geography or not. The reason for this is their commonality. You can find them all over the world in many different biomes.

There are plenty of minor landforms that you can find on, in, or nearby these five. However, these embody vast swaths of land. 

Whether or not you need to know a lot about geography, it’s good to understand these five landforms. Let’s take a quick trip around the world to find examples of all of these landforms.

1.1 Mountains

Mountains are easily recognized as a landform because of their size and range. Mountains are often people’s favorite kind of landform because of their stunning beauty, whether looking at them or down from them.

What classifies a mountain? Mountains have steep slopes that lead up to a summit, a landform we discuss later in the article. For most geologists, a mountain is any landform that rises 1,000 feet (300 meters) or more above the surrounding area.

There are other factors, like its slope and sea level height, that geologists also have to consider to classify a mountain. Those are the main factors before it starts to get much more scientific.

Mountains are not only found in ranges that reach the sky. You can also find them on the ocean floor. Some of the tallest mountains rise from the depths of the ocean.

These exist because of the way that mountains get formed. Tectonic plates are the leading players in the formation of mountains. The entire surface of the earth’s crust is tectonic plates. These plates are solid land that we all live on that slowly move over the asthenosphere. The asthenosphere is the lava that is underneath the land.

These plates move very slow. Even though it’s slow, they cause significant disturbances on the earth’s surface as they move. Sometimes they caused natural disasters , like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and flooding. Other times, they are barely noticeable.

The vast mountain ranges we have today formed millions of years ago. When tectonic plates pushed hard against each other, they shoved land upwards. They formed many of the significant mountain ranges we have today.

Not every single mountain formed this way, but many of them do stick to that formation story.

Examples of Mountains and Ranges Throughout the World

Let’s start with the ranges of mountains and then break out some of the well-known examples of mountains globally. The major mountain ranges we have today include:

• Rocky Mountains
• Appalachian Mountains
• Ural Mountains
• Sierra Nevada
• Atlas Mountains

As you become more familiar with mountain ranges, you will find yourself able to identify them in photos. Each mountain range occurred on its own and has different kinds of mountains and geological deposits.

Our following list includes the most famous or tallest mountain from each one of these ranges.

• Mount Everest (29,032’ / 8,848 m)
• Aconcagua (22,842’ / 6,962 m)
• Mount Elbert (14,429’ / 4,297 m)
• Mont Blanc (15,777’ / 4,808 m)
• Mount Mitchell (6,684’ / 2,037 m)
• Mount Narodnaya (6,217’ / 1,894 m)
• K2 (28,251’ / 8,611 m)
• Mount Whitney (14,505’ / 4,421 m)
• Toubkal (13,671’ / 4,167 m)
• Aneto (11,168’ / 3,405 m)
• Marmolada (10,968’ / 3,343 m)

There are other famous mountains throughout the world as well. These include examples like Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Fuji, Denali and the Matterhorn. The interesting thing about several of these is their standalone nature. Each of these rises out from low ground around it, barring the Matterhorn .

Another reason that mountains can be famous is their cultural significance. Mountains are often part of folklore in the surrounding region, and their snowy tops hold a lot of mystique for many of those living in their shadows.

In a way, hills are like tiny mountains. They share many of their characteristics with mountains. For example, hills have to have a higher elevation than the land around them. They can also form through tectonic activity. However, erosion is another player in the formation of hills more than mountains.

Hills are smaller than mountains and are also not as steep. Although the heights of some hills might be close to some small mountains, their gently sloping nature prevents them from being a mountain.

Areas that have rolling hills are pretty popular regions of the world. They are beautiful without being arduous. For example, parts of California are filled with gently rolling hills and are widely popular.

Some of the more famous hills in the world include:

• Chocolate Hills (Philippines)
• Ananthagiri Hills (India)
• Tuscany Hills (Italy)
• Glastonbury Tor (England)

Individual hills that are famous, like Glastonbury Tor, have more to do with their history than their geographical interest. The Tor was where Richard Whiting, or the last Abbot of Glastonbury Abbey, was killed with two monks. 

There are myths surrounding the hill and its terraced sides that date back to King Arthur and fascinating sections of Celtic mythology. Many of the historical remains on and in the hill remain unexplained to this day.

Plains are kind of the opposite of mountains and hills. They are flat expanses of land with very little topographical change. There are high and low plains, depending on how and where they are formed.

Plains might not seem as attractive as the variation found in hills and mountains. However, they are incredibly vast expanses that take up a large portion of the land above sea level. In total, plains cover over 19 million square miles of land.

There are many ways that plains can form. They might be there because of the erosion of hills or mountains. They could also be present because of a lava flow that dried and became fertile millennia later.

You can find examples of plains from large to small all over the world. Some of the more common examples of plains include:

• Great Plains (US) – 1,100,000 square miles
• Canterbury Plains (New Zealand) – 195 square miles
• Australian Plains – 2,966,200 square miles
• Serengeti Plains – 11,583 square miles
• European Plain – 2,000,000 square miles
• West Siberian Plain (Russia) – 1,200,000 square miles
• Indus Valley Plain (Pakistan) – 200,000 square miles

Plains are valuable because of the biodiversity they support. They are typically the home for large herds of animals such as buffalo, zebra, and wild horses, depending on where they are.

1.4 Plateaus

Plateaus used to be considered elevated plains but are now distinctive enough in their classification and number that they are different. A plateau is an elevated and primarily flat area of land with a border on at least one side with lower-lying land.

One of the theories on the formation of plateaus is that they are ancient mountains whose top levels and summits eroded down over time. They now span hundreds of thousands of miles across certain parts of the earth. Typical formations you might see on them include buttes, mesas, and canyons.

Some of the more extensive plateaus on the globe include:

• Mongolian Plateau – 1,000,000 square miles
• Colorado Plateau – 240,000 square miles
• Tibetan Plateau – 970,000 square miles
• Mexican Plateau – 232,488 square miles

There are many hundreds of smaller plateaus scattered throughout the world. Since they are often caused by erosion, their sizes change each year, some more noticeably than others.

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2. Different Types of Minor Landforms

Beyond the four major landforms, there are hundreds of minor landforms spread across the globe. These were formed in all kinds of wondrous ways, whether through processes of wind and water erosion, ocean currents, or volcanic eruptions. 

Some of them are in specific biomes, and some kinds have less to do with their shape and more to do with the kind of material they include.

We have produced a list of the major types of landforms underneath the category of “minor landform.” These are in the same group according to how they formed and the biome in which it happened.

From examples of desert landforms to volcanic landforms, we have got it all. Under each subheading, we include features of three to nine examples of landforms. These are the types we deemed most exciting or most necessary to know within the category. We also include a list of the other types of landforms that exist in the subcategory. 

2.1 Aeolian or Desert Landforms

Deserts aren’t landforms so much as they are a biome. They do include plenty of unique landforms, though. Most of these have formed through the erosive force of the wind. That is where we get the name “ Aeolian .” Aeolus is the Greek god of wind. An apt name for desert landforms if you ask us.

Featured Aeolian Landforms

2.1.1 dry lake.

Another name for a dry lake is a “playa.” A dry lake is a depression or basin-like formation in the earth that had previously contained a standing surface body of water . When it becomes a dry lake, it means the water has all disappeared.

A dry lake forms because evaporation exceeds the process of recharge, either from ground reservoirs below or precipitation . It typically denotes a change in the biome around it. There could have been desertification of a lush area at one point in history.

Examples of a dry lake include Namak Lake in Iran and the Sailing stone in Racetrack Playa. There are quite a few sprinkled throughout the deserts of the world. If the bottom of the lake bed is covered in alkalines, you might also call it an “alkali flat.”

2.1.2 Yardang

A yardang isn’t only a funny word; it’s a visually fascinating landform. Yardangs form because of excessive amounts of wind wearing away bedrock in one direction and consolidating materials on top of each other. It’s this dual-action process that forms towers of stone that lean in one direction.

A yardang doesn’t have a particular shape, but they are typically a pillar of rock that seems to lean and “point” in the direction the wind blows.

There are mega-yardangs in the central Sahara desert near the Tibesti Mountains. There are quite a few notable land formations throughout Arizona that are also yardangs.

2.1.3 Barchan

A barchan or barkhan is a specific type of dune. They are again formed by the wind in a specific way to give them visual interest. Russian naturalist Alexander von Middendorf first used the term “barchan.” He was describing the dunes he found throughout Turkestan.

A barchan is a crescent-shaped dune. They appear to be convex from certain angles but are concave on the leeward side. They form when there isn’t as much loose sand on the surface, and the wind blows in a single direction until the sands stockpile. The sand ends up avalanching down the unstable slip face to form the crescent shape.

2.1.4 Other Types of Aeolian Landforms

• Desert Pavement
• Desert Varnish

2.2 Coastal Landforms

Most of us already know what coast is, the land found at the edge of the ocean. There are different kinds of coasts all over the world. They include white sand beaches, steep cliffsides, and rocky shorelines.

A coastal landform has a lot to do with the currents of the ocean. Certain materials get pushed up until the shoreline to form some of the landforms. The ocean water eats away at some shorelines, and wind erosion still plays a big part in them. 

There is quite a bit of our coastline that we can credit to tectonic plate activity. Underwater volcanoes form some landforms. We have featured some of all different kinds below and included an extensive list of the rest underneath that.

Featured Coastal Landforms

Coastal arches, or sea arches, are formed when tall stone formations stick out from an elevated portion of the coastline. They are at least partially in the water, which means the ocean goes to work on it. 

As the ocean waters bite away at the stone, portions that are weaker erode. Eventually, they can form a large arch in the rock, forming a channel through which the water passes.

These arches can be rather large and majestic. You have probably seen one of them on the screensavers we mentioned at the beginning. Some of the most incredible sea arches worldwide include the one at Kleftiko Beach, Great Pollet Arch, Hopewell Rocks, Honopu Arch, and Pigeon Rocks.

2.2.2 Archipelago

An archipelago is a fascinating coastal landform and a good one to know if you study geography. An archipelago is a group of islands that are close enough to all be considered one unit.

Archipelagos form when the ocean’s current transports sediment on top of a coral reef until it stacks up large enough to stack up out of the water. Many times, it takes the help of a tectonic movement to push the islands far enough above sea level to make them livable.

Some of the most famous archipelagos include the Florida Keys, the Indonesian Archipelago, the Maldives, the Bahamas, and the Azores. In other words, they are great places to vacation.

Some are in colder areas. Due to a lack of coral reefs in cold waters, these often form more like mountains pushed out of the water or sinking of the lower land. These include the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and the British Isles.

2.2.3 Beach

A beach is a narrow strip of land that separates a water body from inland regions. You will typically find beaches next to every body of water, even if only a couple of inches. There are beaches for rivers, lakes, and oceans.

Beaches are formed by water movement, slowly stripping the land of topsoil until it has a gentle slope. The current then deposits all kinds of materials. “Nice” beaches are often deposits of sand. Others will have pebbles and seashell fragments.

Most of the beaches that are considered the best in the world are close to the equator. These include Pigeon Point in Trinidad and Long Beach in Vietnam.

A cape is often a more prominent coastal landform, although it doesn’t have to be. It’s a high strip of land that extends out into a water body like a lake or ocean. Some capes connect to the main landmass in the region. Others are a part of an island that sticks away from the more massive island body.

A formation similar to a cape is a peninsula. One of the primary differences is that a peninsula makes up a large portion of a mainland unit. Florida is a peninsula since it’s so large and connected solidly to the larger body of the mainland United States. Cape Hatteras in North Carolina is smaller and a part of islands in contrast.

2.2.5 Fjord

Most of us know the word fjord from Norwegian culture. Norway and Iceland do have a landscape full of them, but you can also find them in Canada and Russia.

A fjord is a narrow, deep, long inlet between the sea and high cliffs. A fjord forms when a glaciated valley becomes submerged. After the glacier carves its way into part of the coastline, the sea, ocean, or other water bodies fill in behind it.

Fjords are typically stunning. There are famous fjords in Patagonia, Chile, the Misty Fjords in Alaska, the Westfjords in Iceland, and the Sognefjord in Norway.

2.2.6 Island

Islands are pieces of land surrounded by water. They can range from small blips with a couple of trees on top to massive pieces of land, like England and Ireland. 

Islands form in all kinds of ways. They might have been coral reefs at one point pushed out of the water. There are also underwater volcanoes that form islands when they erupt, and the lava cools towards the surface.

Hawaii has a series of famous islands. There are also islands off Japan and Korea, and Indonesia is mostly islands for the most part.

2.2.7 Isthmus

An isthmus is a narrow strip of land that has water on either side of it. They connect two pieces of land that are typically much larger, although they can also connect small islands.

An isthmus forms by a portion of land either sinking or rising from the ocean.

The two most famous isthmuses include the Isthmus of Panama and the Isthmus of Suez. The Isthmus of Panama serves to connect North and South America. The Isthmus of Suez connects Africa to Asia. Both of these are of vital importance geographically and historically.

2.2.8 Sea Cliff

In contrast to a beach, you can also have sea cliffs running along a coastline. Sea cliffs are steep faces of soil and rock formed and eroded by waves. They crash against the cliffside until the lower layers fall away and a notch forms. 

Inevitably, the rest of the ground becomes unstable. It will end up collapsing, and then the ocean has access to all new layers of the cliff. Sea cliffs continue to retreat until they reach harder rock or eventually reach the lower ground. 

You want to be very careful at the end of a sea cliff for this reason. Although you might be standing far above the ocean, that doesn’t mean you are safe from it. Examples of famous sea cliffs include the cliffs of Moher in Ireland, the Kalaupapa Cliffs in Hawaii and Preikestolen in Norway.

2.2.9 Other Types of Coastal Landforms

• Barrier bar/barrier island
• Beach cusps
• Beach ridge
• Cuspate foreland
• Dune system
• Marine terrace
• Suge channel
• Wave cut platform

3.1 Oceanic Landforms

Beyond the incredible landforms found at the edge of the ocean, there are plenty that reside in the ocean itself. The ocean is an effector of enormous change on the planet. Approximately 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered in water, with the oceans holding about 96.5% of this water.

Ocean currents are powerful and highly repetitive acts. They serve to hack away at and build up all kinds of landforms. Water always runs to the oceans as well, causing all kinds of landforms to form so water can get there. Other factors in oceanic landforms include tectonic movement, like always, and volcanic activity.

Featured Oceanic Landforms

3.1.1 coral reef.

A coral reef is an underwater structure composed of millions of skeletons of colonial marine invertebrates. Each piece of coral is a polyp. Polyps live on the calcium carbonate concentration in the exoskeletons of the generations that came before them.

A coral reef is one of the few landforms made up of colonies of living creatures. They are the building blocks of so many other kinds of landforms as well. As reefs form and die, so do islands, beaches, and sand bars.

The most famous coral reef is the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia. There are also beautiful coral reefs in the waters of the Northern Hawaiin Islands. 

3.1.2 Lagoon

A lagoon is a smaller body of water that has been separated from the large water body by a sandbank or a coral reef. They can be both freshwater and saltwater, depending on what their mother water body was.

Lagoons are formed in dozens of different ways by a variety of natural phenomena. Some of the most famous ones include the Nanuya Levu in Fiji and the Blue Lagoon in Iceland. Both of these are trendy tourist destinations for their beauty.

3.1.3 Mid-ocean Ridge

A mid-ocean ridge is a ridge system that rises from the ocean basin at random. They are typically formed by seismically active tectonic plates causing an incredible push up from the ocean’s depths or a division between two plates, causing a deep canyon.

The most famous mid-ocean ridge is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. This ridge because of the spreading action of the two tectonic plates that meet in the Atlantic Ocean. They spread further apart each year. Thus, this rift is known as a “spreading center.”

3.1.4 Oceanic Trench

An oceanic trench is a deep, steep depression that occurs in the deepest part of the ocean. They are enormous and relatively unexplored. Many theorize there could be all kinds of unknown species that live at these depths of the ocean.

Oceanic trenches form when one tectonic plate pushes into and underneath another plate. One side rises while the other pushes down lower and lower. They eventually form volcanoes all along the seafloor and vast oceanic mountain ranges.

Some oceanic trenches include the Tonga Trench, the South Sandwich Trench, the Mariana, and the Philippine Trench.

3.1.5 River Delta

Let’s cast our gaze outside of the depths of the ocean for a minute. Water that falls on land and into lakes and rivers always moves back towards the ocean. Sometimes, as it gets closer to these large bodies of water, it forms a river delta.

A river delta is a landform that is a deposition of sediment. The river carries this sediment and leaves it at the mouth of an area of slower-moving or even stagnant water. It forms a sort of triangular shape with all kinds of rivulets running through it.

Famous examples of a river delta include the Amazon Delta, the Euphrates Delta, the Godavari Delta, and the Indus River Delta. Although you can’t tell much on elevation with the delta, from above, they are incredible and intricate landforms.

3.1.6 Other Types of Oceanic Landforms

• Abyssal fan
• Abyssal plain
• Continental shelf
• Oceanic basin
• Oceanic plateau
• Submarine canyon

4.1 Cryogenic Landforms

The word “cryogenic” is often used concerning something that is very, very cold. In a cryogenic landform, it’s a mass of land or topographical development in a very cold biome. You will find most of these only located in the Antarctic and the Arctic.

Most cryogenic landforms are formed because of the weather and the cycles of deep cold and melt these areas experience.

Featured Cryogenic Landforms

4.1.1 lithalsa.

A lithalsa is a frost-induced piece of raised land that develops in permafrost areas that have mineral-rich soil. They occur where a perennial ice lens develops in the soil.

A lithalsa is often almost a perfect circle in the landscape. There are not many of them, and they change around due to the weather and soil content. That means there aren’t any that you can go and find since they are a weather-dependent landform.

4.1.2 Nivation hollow

Nivation hollows typically occur on the side of a mountain. They are shallow depressions in the mountain slope that is either permanently or intermittently filled with snow in a bank or a patch. 

Nivation occurs because of erosion that happens under and to the side of a snowbank. Typically, nivation happens because of alternate freezing and thawing. Nivation hollows are not very permanent features and can typically be found on tall, snowy mountain sides.

4.1.3 Pingo

A pingo is a mound of soil in a dome shape covered by a core of ice. It typically happens in permafrost areas. The most remarkable examples of pingos are in Central Asia. Here, there are pingos at the highest elevations in the world. The Tibetan Plateau contains pingos at 13,000’ (4,000 m) above sea level.

4.1.4 Rock glacier

There are two examples of a rock glacier. One is a periglacial glacier, and another is a glacial rock glacier. They are both primarily made of masses of rock, snow, mud, and ice. They end up slowly moving down a mountain because of gravity. A rock glacier might also be a mass of rock with interstitial ice.

Rock glaciers usually form when ice and snow melt over a talus slope. They end up melting into the rocks and freeze deep below the surface. They result in a massive amount of rocks all frozen together.

You can find examples of rock glaciers in Utah, the Timpanogos Glacier. There are quite a few others, but they are so large that they can be hard to identify as separate from a mountain face. Fun fact: there have been some potentially identified on Mars by the Mars Orbiter spacecraft.

4.1.5 Other Types of Cryogenic Landforms

• Cryoplanation terrace
• Earth hummocks
• Permafrost plateau
• Solifluction lobes and sheets
• Thermokarst

5.1 Impact Landforms

Speaking of Mars and all things extraterrestrial, impact landforms form via extraterrestrial impact. When part of an asteroid or meteor makes contact with the earth’s surface, it has quite a significant effect. 

Featured Impact Landforms

5.1.1 complex crater.

A complex crater is a type of impact crater that is quite large with multiple uplifted centers. When the impact first happened, its force and the underlying layers of the earth’s crust weren’t able to take on all of the force of the impact in one area. The result was the caving in and rising of several places throughout the site of impact.

5.1.2 Impact crater lake

Impact crater lakes are much more common than many of the other varieties of impact landforms. Asteroids first created them, but then the processes on the earth’s surface took care of the rest.

Typically, when an asteroid hits the earth, it’s so hot that it quickly burns up and disappears or breaks apart. The initial impact typically forms a circle since wherever it hit will be covered extensively in the form of the blow. At the edges of the impact area, the land will form ridges forming the crater.

Examples of crater lakes include the Clearwater Lakes in Quebec, Canada, Lake Acraman in Australia, and the Kaali Meteorite Crater Field in Estonia.

5.1.3 Other Types of Impact Landforms

• Central peak
• Cratered landscape
• Impact crater
• Simple crater

6.1 Karst Landforms

A Karst landform might also be known as a type of landscape. It occurs when there is a field of dissolving bedrock close to the top layer of soil. This dissolving layer of rock eventually forms landforms like sinkholes, caves, and sinking streams. Soluble rocks are typical to a Karst, such as marble, limestone and gypsum.

Featured Karst Landforms

6.1.1 cenote.

A cenote is a type of sinkhole typical of a Karst landscape. It’s a natural pit that results because of the collapse of limestone. It exposes groundwater below it. There might be a large cavern underneath the collapsed rock, or it might only be a small indention.

Some examples of famous cenotes occur in Mexico. These include the Dos Ojos in the Yucatan Peninsula and the Ik-Kil Cenote in Chichen Itza. Cenotes provide stable environments for species that need controlled temperatures and water movement. 

Swimming in a cenote is a touristy activity, but it isn’t recommended. For one, since a cenote is a hole in the topsoil leading into a large cavern, it can be tough to get in and out of. What’s more, you will destroy the biology of the place if you swim with any creams or excess oils on your skin since all types of plants and animals require a pure and balanced environment.

6.1.2 Sinkhole

A sinkhole is a depression in the ground caused by the collapse of minerals and rocks underneath them. They are caused by water on the surface eroding it, and dissolution of the rock from the groundwater below it.

In certain areas where sinkholes are common, they can be pretty dangerous. If they haven’t collapsed yet, there is no way you can know you are walking over one until you fall inside. Many people have died or gotten seriously injured by falling into sinkholes.

Famous examples of sinkholes worldwide include the Blue Hole in Dahab, Egypt, the Boesmansgat in South Africa, and Lake Kashiba in Zambia. Florida’s lagoons and forests are often littered with sinkholes that are only just forming and require caution.

6.1.3 Turlough

A turlough is a unique landform to Ireland, with one exemption located in England. These landforms are low-lying areas on top of limestone that get repeatedly flooded during wet weather. They well up with groundwater and form a temporary lake or pond.

Turloughs are part of Celtic mythology. They were pretty mysterious for many years since they would randomly appear and disappear. Sometimes the areas are quite large. Imagine one day walking over a hill to a glittering lake and the next coming back to find only a valley among the hills.

6.1.4 Other Types of Karst Landforms

• Karst fenster

7.1 Mountain and Glacial Landforms

Other than the larger mountains and glaciers, there are many landforms that happen because of their movement and formation. Beyond the big picture of the mountain, you will find all kinds of unique landforms, sometimes around every bend when you dig into it.

Featured Mountain and Glacial Landforms

7.1.1 canyon.

A canyon is a deep gorge between two larger rock formations. Normally, there is a river flowing through it, which also plays a part in how canyons are formed. 

A canyon is sometimes formed, at least in part, by moving glaciers cutting between the stone. Rivers come into it by eroding the canyons down even further.

An excellent example of a notable canyon is the Grand Canyon. There are many smaller ones scattered in all kinds of mountainous regions of the world or those that once had glaciers moving through them.

7.1.2 Cirque

A cirque is another landmass formed by glacial erosion. It takes the shape of an amphitheater with a valley formed in between a semi-circle of high mountain sloops. Sometimes it’s gentle slopes and not extremely obvious, and other times these are enormous and incredibly steep natural amphitheaters.

There are large and small cirques in almost every mountain range in the world. If you have to hike in a partial circle to get from one summit to the next with a steep valley below you, then you are likely hiking around the ridge of a cirque.

7.1.3 Hoodoo

A hoodoo is a column of weathered rock. Many times, hoodoos are formed by a combination of rainwater running over them and wind rushing between them. 

The word “hoodoo” comes from Hausa, a language originally from West Africa that means “to arouse resentment”. Because of the rising nature of the hoodoo and the eerie way it does it, it looked to settlers like the land was rising for retribution. Hoodoos can also be called “fairy chimneys.”

Bryce Canyon National Park is one of the most well-known places on earth for its hoodoo formations. An entire valley is filled with them. There are also many hoodoos scattered throughout Mexico and Arizona as well as in certain parts of Africa.

A mesa comes from the Spanish word for “table.” It describes a mountain or a hill with a distinct flat top. On top, they are quite wide with steep sides leading up to their increased elevation, similar to a table.

The name “mesa” was given to these landforms by Spanish explorers entering the American Southwest, where many of these landforms are. Throughout Arizona and New Mexico, they are scattered all over the parched landscape.

One good example of a mesa is Mount Conner or those landforms found throughout Canyonlands National Park.

7.1.5 Summit

A summit of a mountain or elevated place is the highest point in elevation. Every mountain has a summit. Some of them are more gradual while others are distinct and offer a goal for mountain climbers.

It is difficult for us to give you examples of famous summits since any famous mountain is likely to have a famous summit.

7.1.6 Valley

A valley is a low area that dips below mountains or hills. They often have streams flowing through them. All the water from the higher elevations will flow down into the valley to its lowest point.

Valleys are formed as mountains are formed since not every piece of land can get pushed up to the heights. To create balance, some of it sinks lower while other parts go up. Many times, valleys quietly stand by while you look at the beauty of the mountains ahead. 

There are some valleys that are breathtakingly beautiful and deserve a second look. Some of these include the Great Appalachian Valley, Death Valley, Yosemite Valley and Imperial Valley.

7.1.7 Other Types of Mountain and Glacial Landforms

• Hanging valley
• Mountain pass
• Rock shelter

8.1 Volcanic Landforms

Volcanic landforms are those formed from a volcanic eruption. These can happen underwater or above land in a brilliant display of lava and ash. Typically, these devastating occurrences result in all kinds of destruction, but they also give rise to new landforms and sometimes entirely new islands where people live.

Featured Volcanic Landforms

8.1.1 caldera.

A caldera is a crater that forms when land collapses after a volcanic eruption. It might even be the mouth of the volcano that collapses. 

A great example of a caldera is Crater Lake in Oregon. When the stratovolcano, Mt. Mazama, exploded quite violently, it changed the entire landscape. The volcano’s mouth collapsed to form the caldera that is now a picturesque lake in the middle of a beloved National Park.

8.1.2 Geyser

Geysers are incredible landforms that can be pretty active. They are eruptions of water that come out of a deep hole in the ground. At certain intervals, water and steam will shoot through the hole into the air. 

Sometimes, the eruption is only a couple of inches of bubbling water. Other times, the geyser will shoot the water dozens of feet up into the air to the amazement of onlookers. Most of the time, these larger and more consistent geysers are tourist attractions.

Some examples of geysers that are well worth a visit include the Beehive Geyser in Wyoming, Old Faithful in Yosemite National Park, the Bolshoi Geyser in Russia, and the Diamond Geyser in New Zealand. Wyoming is littered with geysers because of the underlying volcanic activity that still goes on today.

8.1.3 Lava plain

A lava plain, or a lava field, is a large area nearly flat and filled with lava flows. It’s almost entirely highly fluid basalt lava. They can go on for tens and up to hundreds of miles.

Lava plains typically exist in an area with active volcanic activity near the earth’s crust but without as much pressure building up to cause it to explode. There are a surprising number of lava plains around the world. For example, there is the Boring Lava Field in the US and the Reykjanes Peninsula in Iceland, mostly a wasteland of lava fields.

8.1.4 Volcano

Speaking of volcanic landforms wouldn’t be complete without talking about the volcano itself. There are all kinds of volcanoes and many more that are dormant mountains instead of the belching beasts they once were.

There are submarine volcanoes that regularly explode without us knowing much about it. They might slowly build up islands as they continue to expel lava. Some supervolcanoes can wreak havoc over a massive swath of the world. 

These supervolcanoes could cover half the world in ash and a wide swath of land around them in molten lava. Yellowstone is a supervolcano that has been getting gradually closer to explosion for years. 

There are currently six known active supervolcanoes in the world. Some explosions in the past from supervolcanoes have devastated entire populations of people. An example of this is Mount Vesuvius’s explosion in AD 79.

8.1.5 Other Types of Volcanic Landforms

• Complex volcano
• Crater lake
• Cryovolcano
• Mud volcano
• Rootless cone
• Sand volcano
• Shield volcano
• Stratovolcano
• Subglacial mound
• Submarine volcano
• Volcanic arc
• Volcanic dam
• Volcanic field
• Volcanic island
• Volcanic plateau
• Volcanic plug

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Interesting Facts about Landforms

1|Technically, water bodies are considered landforms.

The word “land” in landform would give most people the idea that it has to be on land to be a landform. That isn’t always true. Technically, oceans, rivers, and lakes all qualify as landforms. They might be water bodies, but the land shapes them.

2|Landforms play an influential role in weather conditions.

A landform isn’t just there to look pretty or interesting. They play a prominent role in the way that our climate is in each part of the world. Mountain ranges and water bodies affect the most change. Mountain ranges act as walls against winds and storms that travel around the planet. That is why it’s normal to see lush greenery on one side of a range and a desert on the other.

3|Landforms are only temporary.

Although a landform might have been around and looked the same for thousands of years, they are all only temporary. Millenia ago, our world looked very different. As volcanoes explode and tectonic plates continue to shift, our world will likely continue to change. Some day, the mountains might even fall back into the earth.

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About Amanda Readman

Amanda is a writer, avid climber, and outdoor enthusiast. She has traveled extensively, around the U.S., throughout Asia, Europe, and Latin America. Everywhere she treks, she takes time to enjoy the outdoors. She works through writing and leadership to educate people on the link between the outdoors to mental and global stability.

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The Different Types of Landforms

What Are the 4 Main Types of Landforms?

Many different types of landforms make up Earth’s topography. Several major categories of landform define that smaller portion of the planet not covered by water, including mountains, plains, plateaus and valleys. These can be formed by a variety of natural forces, including erosion from water and wind, plate movement, folding and faulting, and volcanic activity.

The Mountain Landform

The most common type of mountains arise where the Earth’s crust experienced folding or faulting, such as the Canadian Rockies and the Alps. Fault-block mountains, such as California’s Sierra Nevada, are formed when Earth’s crust cracked and was pushed upward. Volcanic mountains form when hot magma from deep in Earth’s interior breaks through the crust and builds up on the surface, whether quietly or explosively. Volcanism can form islands, such as Hawaii, built on a series of broad basaltic shield volcanoes. Volcanoes on continents can also appear isolated and almost island-like given their prominence, a prime example being Washington State’s Mount Rainier.

The Flats: Plains

Most of the Earth's surface consists of low and high plains, defined by a mostly level profile that ranges from gently rolling to completely flat. Such landforms are common in areas of extensive sediment accumulation, as in the “floodplains” and deltas of large rivers and the Atlantic-Gulf Coastal Plain of the United States. While those examples are low-lying, higher-elevation plains such as the Great Plains of central North America – built by sediment washed out of the Rocky Mountains and accumulated in long-ago seaways – also exist. Keep in mind that plains describe mostly level topography, though people sometimes incorrectly use “plain” as a synonym for grassland ecosystems (prairies and steppes). You can easily have a forested plain.

High Expanses: Plateaus

Plateaus can be thought of as elevated plains – that is, elevated flattish areas – bordered on at least one side by lower-lying land and often edged by fairly abrupt scarps. These terrain features may derive from very old mountains eroded down over time, while others form by block-faulting. Earth’s largest plateau is the Tibetan Plateau of Central and East Asia. In arid climates, plateaus can be heavily sculpted by water and wind erosion into mesas, buttes and canyons with extensive bare rock, as in the Colorado Plateau of the American Southwest.

Valleys, Canyons and Caves

The erosion of rivers and the moving ice bodies called glaciers help sculpt valleys, often in combination with faulting. Glaciers flowing down drainages tend to sculpt U-shaped valleys; such glacially carved troughs often come to support lakes, as in the Finger Lakes of New York State. Running water, by contrast, tends to carve out V-shaped valleys. Mountain valleys tend to have steep walls and narrow channels – such features may be called canyons or gorges – while valleys on plains tend to have shallow slopes and wider channels. Caves form in karsts, where limestone, dolomite, or gypsum rocks are slowly dissolved by groundwater. Others are formed by waves pounding cliffs on the coastlines, or where molten rock drains out the inside of a lava tube of a volcano.

The Landforms of Deserts

The ecological landscapes known as deserts, defined by very arid conditions of low precipitation and high evaporation, include plentiful mountains, plains, plateaus and canyons that include distinctive sub-varieties of desert landforms. These include gravel plains, sand dunes and dry lakebeds. Many natural factors are responsible for the creation of deserts, particularly current and past climatic conditions. The Mojave Desert in California consists of 1.6 million acres of landscapes that changed over millions of years, including mountains, canyons, volcanic fields and dry lake basins. The region is within a great inland drainage basin where ancient lakes overflowed into adjacent valleys and eventually spilled into Death Valley. After the region dried up, it left dry lakebeds exposed to erosion by the wind.

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• Encyclopedia of Earth: Physiography of the Earth's Terrestrial Surface
• USGS: Mojave Desert
• National Geographic: Surface of the Earth
• USGS: A Tapestry of Time and Terrain

About the Author

David Barber has been a print and radio journalist since 1979. He received a 1981 Los Angeles Press Club Award and was co-author of the 1998 "Insider’s Guide to Tucson." He holds a Bachelor of Science in biology from State University of New York.

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Landforms. Chapter 6, Section 1. Landforms. 3 basic types. Plains Plateaus Mountains. Plains. Plains. Large flat areas 2 types: Coastal plains Interior plains . Plains. Coastal Plains. Exposed region of the continental shelf.

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• interior plains
• fertile soil
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Presentation Transcript

Landforms Chapter 6, Section 1

Landforms • 3 basic types • Plains • Plateaus • Mountains

Plains • Plains • Large flat areas • 2 types: • Coastal plains • Interior plains

Plains • Coastal Plains • Exposed region of the continental shelf. • The continental shelf is the part of the continent that extends into the ocean. • Size varies over time with changes in sea level. • Characterized by low hills, swamps, and marshes.

Plains • Interior Plains • Found in the interior of continents. • Thick, fertile soil.

Plateaus • Plateaus • Flat, raised areas of land with steep sides. • Consist of horizontal layers of rock that have been slowly uplifted. • Often cut by canyons formed by rivers.

Mountains • 4 Types: • Folded • Upwarped • Fault-Block • Volcanic

Mountains • Folded Mountains • http://howard.nebrwesleyan.edu/hhmi/fellows/gbrand/mtbld.htm • Consist of folded rock layers. • Formed by horizontal forces (rocks are squeezed together) • Examples, • Alps, Himalayas

Mountains • Upwarped Mountains • Formed when blocks of crust are pushed up. • Examples: • Black Hills, Adirondacks

Mountains • Fault-Block Mountains • Huge tilted blocks of rocks with faults on the side. • Examples: Grand Teton, Sierra Nevada

Mountains • Volcanic Mountains • Formed by volcanism. • Examples: Hawaii, Mount Shasta

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